HISTORY OF

ARCHITECTURE 3
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WEEK 3

Chapter 3: ARCHITECTURE OF CHINA

I. Introduction

China is vast in size and has the largest population of any country on earth. We tend to regard it as
ancient culture because, even though historic civilization developed there slightly later than in
Mesopotamia or Egypt, China holds the distinction among civilizations of having maintained the highest
degree of cultural continuity across the 4000 years of its existence. (2)

II. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Chapter, you should be able to:

1. Understand the Chinese philosophies with great influence to Chinese architecture.
2. Determine the architectural characters of Chinese buildings.
3. Evaluate layout of a Chinese architectural example according to China’s traditional standards.
4. Identify the features and elements of a Chinese structure.

III. Influences

Figure 21. Map of China

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A. Geography

China is the largest country in Asia. As shown in Figure 21, it is bordered by Mongolia, Russia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos,
Vietnam, North and South Korea.

Figure 22. Great Rivers in China

Three great river systems:

1. Yellow River (Huang He) - 2,109 mi (5,464 km) long;
2. Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) - the third-longest river in the world at 2,432 mi (6,300km)
3. Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) - 848 mi (2,197 km) long.

Northern China is dominated by the alluvial plain along the Yellow River, mostly flat and the soil is well-
suited to agriculture. South China region is drained by the Yangtze (Yangzi) River and is predominantly
hillier than north China.

Tibetan Plateau in Southwest China occupies about 1⁄4 of the land area of the PRC, with mountains and
massive highlands, averaging between 4,000 and 5,000 meters (13,000 to
15,000 feet) above the sea level. Mount Everest, known in Chinese as Mount Zhumulangma, has the
highest point along the Tibetan Plateau and considered as the highest mountain in the world. It is
located on the Sino-Nepalese border and rises 8,848 meters (29,028 feet) above sea level.

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B. Climate
Heavy rainfall leads to building with typical sloping roofs.

C. Religion and Philosophy

Chinese philosophy received its clearest articulation in the fifth century BCE through the lives and
writings of two sages, Laotzu and Confucius.

Laotzu’s philosophy, Taoism, was mystical in approach, seeking harmony of human action and the
world through the study of nature. Aspects of Taoism may be found particularly in the Chinese
approach to garden design, where carefully contrived views and experiences are based on the
model provided by nature itself.

In contrast, the philosophy expounded by Confucius relied on respect for authority as established
by the state. Chinese city planning and traditional house design embodied Confucianism in their
layouts and axial alignments of buildings. (2)

Buddhism would become the most widespread organized religion in China. Architectural ideas
accompanied Buddhist teachings, resulting in Chinese buildings that have roots in Indian practice.

D. Historical Background
China is a country with a long history of over 5000 years. Peking Man lived about 500000 years
ago – discovery of fossils of human bones of ancient man named SINANTHROPUS during the
prehistoric period.

Chinese history is divided into DYNASTIES and flourished under the reign of various able
emperors.

MYTHS and LEGENDS profoundly influenced China’s history. A famous myth was the story of
Primordial giant, PAN KU– universe being enormous egg and Pan Ku splits the egg from which
emerged human being and tribes. The tribal heads were five original emperors (Fuhsi, Shen Nung,
Hunag Ti, Tai Tsung).

Then came series of dynasties, the most important were the HAN and TANG DYNASTIES.

IV. Architectural Character

A. Standard Units of Spatial Organization

A modular unit called the jian (with variable dimensions) was defined as the basic unit for wooden
construction, as shown in Figure 23. Wood was the primary material of early Chinese architecture, and it
was used most often in post-and-beam construction. (2)

B. Axial Planning

The Chinese placed all main buildings and courtyards along a longitudinal axis or path in a strictly
orthogonal fashion (Figure 24). Main buildings were separated from each other by a courtyard which

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functioned not only as an area of traffic between buildings, but also as a place for outdoor activities. The
courtyard was a major compositional space where many (important) rituals took place. (9)

Figure 23. Diagram of a typical Chinese house (StudyBlue)

C. Orientation- Feng Shui

Architectural Feng Shui is the soul of China’s ancient architectural theories. It enjoys a high status in
China’s architecture history.

One of the important Feng Shui principles used in architecture is ‘leaning against mountains and facing
waters’. Buildings are oriented towards south to protect from severe north wind.

Curves are also preferred during construction activities for it symbols vitality in FengShui. (10)

V. Construction Techniques and Standards

Chinese builders developed sophisticated systems of timber construction. Below are the general
construction techniques of these builders.

1. Construction mainly in wood – abundance, light in weight,

easy to work with, easy transportation and standardization –
limited use of stone and brick.
2. Made use of NANMU wood from the Nanmu tree, which
could grow up to 35 meters.
3. Opposite to conventional method of construction- the
framework of roof is designed first and then the position of
columns is located.

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4. Columns were without capitals but with brackets (simply carved and painted moldings). Columns rest
on stone foundation, as shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24. Columns on stone foundation

5. The roofs are sloping with gracious concave curve overhangs – eaves turned upward roofs often in
multilayer along with use of glazed decorative roof tiles. Figure 25
6. Glass not used but translucent paper fixed to panels of openings. Figure 26
7. Walls act merely as screens.

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Figure 25. Sloping roofs with deep overhanging eaves

Figure 26. Chinese traditional paper panels for openings. Figure 27. Wall screens

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8. During the Western Zhou Dynasty (1027-770BC),

Duogong, the system of brackets inserted on top of a
column and a crossbeam was developed.

9. Chinese building methods developed rapidly during the Tang and Song Dynasties (6118-1279). The
Song Dynasty functionaries codified related practices in the Yingzao-fashi, a book of building standards.
Listed below are some of the important architectural standards of the book.

9.1 Timber Hall should have four parts:

a. Platform- a raised platform, like the ancient Greek stylobate, that announced the
building’s importance.
b. Columns
c. Bracket Sets- interlocking supports that both allowed the roof to overhang for protection
of the wooden construction from the weather and exhibited the sophisticated Chinese
joinery that transcended construction and even decoration to become art.
d. Roof- with its covering of glazed tiles in a variety of colors. (2)

Figure 28. Longitudinal section through main hall of Nanchan Monastery (Buildings Across Time)

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9.2 Prescribed color schemes and the character of ornamental painting, with most remaining
examples dating from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). The three Qing painting styles are:

a. Hexi- golden dragons in various stylized postures represented the highest level of
nobility. Other motifs include a chevron-like W-pattern, phoenixes, grass, and painted
elevations of bracket sets. Artists used “powder dribbling” to make raised lines that
received gold leaf. Paint colors became vivid and included the well-known Chinese red, dark
blue, and leaf green.

b. Xuanzi- painting features so-called whirling flowers as well as dragons and brocades and
a hierarchical ordering of color from gold and jadelike blue-green down to blue, green,
black, and white.

c. Suzhou- less stylized, featuring images of houses, pavilions, garden buildings, and linear
spaces, as well as fruits and flowers, animals, insects, and celestial beings. Colors again
descend in importance down from gold, the most prestigious. (2)

Figure 29. Bright colors on wooden building

Chinese painted wooden buildings with bright colors to prevent weathering and insect infestation.
They employ colors appropriate for the nature of the building or the elements on which it was
used, as shown in Figure 29. In palaces and temples, walls, pillars, doors and window frames were

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painted red while roof was yellow. Cool colors, often blue and green, were applied under the
eaves.

10. Among the earliest manuscripts to have survived in China is a treatise on city planning. Known as the
Kao Gong Ji, or The Artificer’s Record, it was composed in the fifth century CE as a guide for establishing
a city based on Confucian teachings. According to the book, a capital city should be:

Figure 30. Plan of Chang’an (modern Xian)

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a. oriented to the cardinal directions

b. have a square plan roughly 4000 feet on each side
c. In the wall that surrounds the city, there should be three gates in each side, and roads
projecting out from these establish the grid of the city’s plan
d. The central road on the south is the entrance for the major thoroughfare, nine cart lanes wide,
which runs north to the palace complex.
e. The palace itself is walled off from the rest of the city, preceded by an impressive courtyard and
flanked by places of worship: the ancestral temple (to the east) and an altar to the earth (to the
west).
f. The city’s marketplace is to the north of the palace compound.
g. Walls and a moat around the city provide protection from external enemies,.
h. Walls around the palace and residential blocks establish barriers that clarify the internal social
hierarchy.

The basic features of the ancient Chinese capital in Figure 30 conform to the book. The Confucian
ideal of hierarchy is clearly embodied in this plan.

VI. Architectural Examples

A. Palaces and Villas

1. Most of the luxurious palaces of the emperors of China were destroyed when the dynasties fell.
The only palace preserved intact is the Forbidden City in Beijing. The city is an excellent three-
dimensional realization of classical Chinese city-planning principles.

Visitors arriving in Beijing for an audience with the imperial court passed through the sequence of
walls: the Outer City, the Inner City, the Imperial City, and finally the Forbidden City. The ROYAL
PALACE was divided into an OUTER and an INNER COURT (See Figure 31).

A. Meridian Gate
B. Gate of Divine Might
C. West Glorious Gate
D. East Glorious Gate
E. Corner towers
F. Gate of Supreme Harmony
G. Hall of Supreme Harmony
H. Hall of Military Eminence
J. Hall of Literary Glory
K. Southern Three Places
L. Palace of Heavenly Purity
M. Imperial garden
N. Hall of Mental Cultivation
O. Palace of Tranquil Longevity

This whole axial approach was consciously designed to provide a suitably impressive setting for
emperors who considered themselves the mightiest rulers on earth. The layout of the Forbidden

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City may be interpreted as a supreme expression of Confucian teachings regarding hierarchy and
deference to authority.

Figure 31. Plan of the Forbidden City in Beijing

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Outer Court encompasses the:

a. Taihedian
(Hall of Supreme Harmony)
- the largest hall within the
Forbidden City
- the location where the
emperors of the Ming and
Quing dynasties hosted their
enthronement and wedding
ceremonies.

b. Zhonghedian
(Hall of Central Harmony)
- used by the Emperor to
prepare and rest before and
during ceremonies.

c. Baohedian
(Hall of Preserved Harmony)
-Rectangular in plan, the Hall
of Preserving Harmony is
similar to, but smaller in scale
than, the Hall of Supreme
Harmony.
- It was used for rehearsing
ceremonies, and was also the
site of the final stage of
the Imperial examination.

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d. Wenhuadian
(Hall of Literary Glory)
-served as the study for the
crown prince.

e. Wuyingdian
(Hall of Martial Valour)
- a place for the emperor to
receive his ministers.

In the Inner Court were the:

a. Qianginggong
(Hall of Celestial Purity)

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b. Jaotaidian
(Hall of Celestial and
Terrestrial Unity)
-One significance of the name
is the desire that the emperor
(celestial) and the empress
(terrestrial) have a good
marriage.
-Usually, empresses would
receive formal birthday
greetings here.

c. Kunninggong
(Hall of Terrestrial Tranquility)
- which contained the
emperor’s and empress’s
bedchambers

d. Xiliugong
(Six Western Courtyards) - inhabited by maids and concubines.

e. Dongliugong
(Six Eastern Courtyards) - inhabited by maids and concubines.

2. The emperors also built country villas and set them in landscaped parts. The most famous is the
SUMMER PALACE on the nortwestern outskirts of Beijing.

B. Shrines
Shrines were used in ancient China for making sacrifices to ancestors and famous historical personages,
as well as to the gods.

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1. TIANTIAN SHRINE- most famous shrine located in the southern district of Beijing, see Figure
32. It has two groups of buildings: Huanqiutan, for the worship of heaven and Qiniandian, for
prayers for good harvest.

The architecture and layout of the Temple of Heaven is based on ELABORATE SYMBOLISM and
NUMEROLOGY. Buildings in the Temple of Heaven are ROUND, like Heaven, while the
foundations and axes of the complex are SQUARE (or flat), like the earth .

Figure 32. Tiantian Shrine

The symbolism at the Temple of Heaven was necessary because it served as the place where the
emperor, as the 'Son of Heaven', directly beseeched Heaven to provide a bountiful harvest
throughout the land. This was of great importance because during the imperial period
AGRICULTURE was the FOUNDATION OF CHINA’S WEALTH.

C. Mausolea
Elaborate funerals and lavish tombs were provided for the rulers of ancient China. Imperial tombs were
of two kinds: UNDERGROUND – chambers to house emperors’ coffins, first wood-framed later built of
stone or brick, and ABOVE GROUND – or combined with underground chambers with commemorative
buildings.

1. SHISANLING TOMBS IN CHANGPING 2. UNDERGROUND PALACE OF THE DING-LING

MAUSOLEUM

D. Buddhist Temples
Rooted in Indian practice, Buddhist teachings accompanied the architectural ideas to Chinese temples.
There are two types of Buddhist temples:

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1. COMBINATION OF A TALL, SYMBOLIC FEATURE (STUPA or PAGODA) WITH A TEMPLE-HALL

-Earliest examples were TEMPLES WITH STUPAS introduced from India.
-Stupas usually stood in the centre of the group of temple buildings; were said to contain
Buddha’s remains and were objects of homage for his disciples.
-By the Northern Wei Dynasty, TEMPLE-HALLS were combined with PAGODAS. This type was
passed to Japan through Korea.
-Under the Jin Dynasty a style evolved in which TWO PAGODAS were placed symmetrically in the
courtyard of the temple.
-Tang Dynasty – there were independent courtyards for pagodas.
-Song Dynasty onwards – pagodas were placed behind the temples.

2. BUILDINGS ARRANGED AROUND COURTYARDS

- These buildings usually had a number of courtyards, and this was adopted to new buildings.
-After the Yuan Dynasty, Buddhist temples were planned symmetrically along a main axis.

PAGODA
It is the PAGODA which characterizes the Buddhist temple in China. Pagodas can be classified into
six types:

a. PAGODAS WITH Earliest remaining example is the oldest pagoda of the SONGYUE
CLOSELY LAYERED EAVES TEMPLE.(below)

LESSER WILD GOOSE PAGODA AT XI’AN is an example of a pagoda

with a square plan. (below right)

The PAGODA OF TIANNING (HAVEN OF PEACE) was built to imitate

timber-framed building style. It is octagonal plan was preferred and
the eaves were no longer parabolic in shape. (below left)

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b. THE STOREYED PAGODA
-The Chinese storeyed
pagoda combined the
pagoda form with that of
the Indian stupa.
-Earliest forms were
square in plan but the
more popular are
octagonal.
THE GREATER WILD GOOSE PAGODA was square in plan.(below
left)
THE TEMPLE OF KAIYUAN was octagonal in plan, built of stone but
resembled earlier wood-framed pagodas. (below center)
THE BAO’EN TEMPLE PAGODA, SUZHOU is a brick pagoda. This
kind of pagoda was popular for more than 1000 years. (below right)

c. VASE-SHAPED PAGODA The WHITE PAGODA IN THE TEMPLE OF MIAOYING was built with
-evolved directly from the guidance of a Nepalese craftsman.
stupas.
-These were usually built in
groups, sometimes 5 or
more in a line or arranged
symmetrically around a
major building.
-The surface of the
pagodas are faced in
glazed brickwork.

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d.GROUPS OF PAGODAS ZIN GANG BAO ZUO PAGODA IN THE ZHENG-JUE TEMPLE, BEIJING
HONOURING BUDDHA’S
WARRIOR ATTENDANTS
-Five pagodas were usually
placed along the diagonals
of a square terrace
decorated with carved
statues.
-Each was a closely-layered
eaves pagoda and
pyramidal in shape.
e. SINGLE-STOREY SHAOLING TEMPLE, HENAN (below left)
PAGODAS
-Were built as tombs for LINGYAN TEMPLE, SHANDONG (below right)
monks and nuns.
-They may be SQUARE,
OCTAGONAL, CIRCULAR, or
HEXAGONAL.
-Often found in groups or
lines adjacent to temples.

f. WOODEN TOWER SHIJIA PAGODA in the Buddhist Palace Temple, Shanxi Province,
PAGODAS built in 1056, is the only surviving building of this kind in China.

Figure 33. Different Types of Pagoda

E. Monastery

F. Grottoes
The development of grottoes in China is proof of historical merging of Chinese and foreign cultural ideas.

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FIRST STAGE: grottoes carved on natural clliffs which are LARGE AND WITHOUT DECORATION. Example
is the MOGAO GROTTOES in Dunhuang shown in Figure 34.

Figure 34. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang

SECOND STAGE: SQUARE CAVES WITH CENTRAL COLUMNS. Niches for statues of the Buddha were
carved on some of the central columns. Example is the MOGAO GROTTOES in Dunhuang shown in
Figure 35.

Figure 35. Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang

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G. Houses and Gardens

Traditional Chinese house design placed great emphasis on family privacy (Figure 36). Residential streets
were typically lined by high walls fronting each house, relieved only by entrance gates, which were often
identified by family crests and perhaps a touch of colorful decoration.

Figure 36. Plan of typical Chinese house

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Garden design became an art form rooted in the imitation of the scenic values of natural forms,
exploiting properties inherent in the site.

1. LIUYUAN LINGERING GARDEN

H. Bridges
China has a long history of bridge building, tens of thousands still exist to this day. Most of the surviving
bridges are made of stone, demonstrating a high level of bridge-building skill.

I. Pai-Lous
-PAI-LOUS are ceremonial gateways
-Look like Buddhist Toranas
-Erected in memory of distinguished
person
-Built in wood or stone with one or
three openings
-Horizontal rails with carved
inscription placed on vertical posts
-Roof projection are covered with
colored tiles with angles turned
upwards

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VII. Activity 3.1

VIII.Quiz 3.1

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