UNIT CHEMICAL BONDING

1 LESSON 1: QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

Mt. Carmel School of Siargao, Inc.

At the end of the week, I hope you can say …

 I can Explain how the Quantum Mechanical Model of the atom describes the
energies and positions of the electrons
LET’S EXPLORE
Striking display of fireworks is done all over the world during New Year’s
Eve. Have you observed the different colors of light emitted by these fireworks?
Do you know what is responsible for this array of colors? Would you believe that
this is due to the arrangement of electrons within the atoms? Excited to discover
more about the atom? Let’s go

Firework effects are produced by the combustion of explosive materials

present in fireworks. These explosive materials are also called metal salts.
Metal salts emit characteristic color of light when heated as shown in the Table
1.
Metal salts Element giving color Color of flame
Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) Sodium (Na) Yellow
Barium Chloride (BaCl2) Barium (Ba) green
Barium Nitrate (Na2NO3) Barium (Ba) green
Calcium Chloride (Ca2Cl) Calcium (Ca) Orange
Copper Chloride (CuCl) Copper (Cu) Blue
Lithium Carbonate (Li2CO3) Lithium (Li) red
Table 1. Color emitted of some metal salts and its element responsible for its color. Analyze the
information given in the table 1 and answer Q1 and Q2.
Q1. What can you conclude about the elements and the color of flame produced?
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Q2. If sodium nitrate is change to another salt of sodium, ex. Sodium chloride (table
salt), do you think the color of the flame would be the same or different? Why?
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FIRM UP 1
Your goal in this section is to learn and understand the key concepts of Quantum
Mechanical Model of atoms. You will learn new concepts and skills that are necessary
in order for you to understand the succeeding lessons. It is advised that for every new
term that you encounter, be sure to define it in your own words aside from the
definitions presented to you

Each color of light has a specific wavelength.

Among the visible light, red light has the longest
wavelength and has the lowest energy. Violet light has
the shortest wavelength and has the highest energy.
When compounds of different elements are heated
over a flame, it comes to a point where the hot gaseous
atom begins to emit light of a definite color. Analysis of
light given off by the vapors of elements can be done
more precisely with an instrument called spectroscope.
With the use of spectroscope, one can detect a series of
narrow lines or line spectrum on the light given off by an
element. The spectral lines suggest different energy
levels in an Atomic
atom. emission spectra
Photo illustrated by: Donnie Ray Obina

How did Niels Bohr explain the spectral lines of an element shown in the spectroscope? Each
line in the atomic spectra of elements suggest definite energy transformations within the atom. Bohr
stated that electrons are moving around the nucleus in circular path or orbit at definite
distances from the nucleus. This is similar to the planets revolving around the sun. Electrons in
each orbit have definite energy. This energy increases as the distance of the orbit from the nucleus
increases. These orbits are also known as “shells” or “energy levels” and are assigned each a
number: n=1, n=2, n=3, etc. or letters (K, L, M, N, O, etc. ). As long as the electron stays in its given
orbit, there is no absorption or emission of energy. If the electron received extra energy, it can jump
into a higher energy level, this is also called excited state. The electron in the excited state can
return to its original lower energy level or ground state by releasing discreet amount of energy in the
form of light.
Bohr’s atomic model can only describe atomic
spectrum of an atom having only one electron like that of
hydrogen. An Austrian physicist, Erwin Schrodinger
together with Werner Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie
made a refinement of Bohr’s atomic model. Schrödinger
used mathematical equations to describe the possibility
of finding an electron in a certain location this model is
known as the quantum mechanical model of the atom.
Based on the quantum mechanical model, it would be impossible to plot a definite path
or orbit for the moving electrons. At least, we can only guess the most probable location of
the electron in a given instant to be within a certain volume or region of space surrounding
the nucleus. An atomic orbital is the region around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to
be found. The atomic orbital serves as the “house” of the electron. It can accommodate a maximum
of 2 electrons.
Aside from the main energy levels and atomic orbitals, there are also energy sublevels as
shown by the finer lines in the atomic emission spectra of elements.
This atomic model presented by Bohr is comparable to a staircase as
shown on the figure on the. When you walk up or down the stairs your feet
must hit the steps not on the empty space between each step, otherwise you
will be in trouble until you hit another step. The higher you climb the stairs; the
more energy you need. Similarly, the electrons can only stay in a definite
energy level and not on the space between energy levels. The further the
energy level from the nucleus the higher the energy.
Main Energy Number and kind of Number of kind of atomic Maximum
Levels (n) sublevels atomic orbitals number of
orbitals electrons)
1st energy
1 (s) 1 1s 2
level (K)

2nd energy 1s
2 (s and p) 4 8
level (L) 3p
1s
3rd energy
3 (s, p, and d) 9 3p 18
level (M)
5d
1s
4th energy 3p
4 (s, p, d, and f) 16 32
level (N) 5d
7f

1s
3p
5th energy
5 (s, p, d, f, and g) 25 5d 50
level (O)
7f
9g
 END OF FIRM UP 1: CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING
Let’s check how much you have learned in this lesson by doing the following activities.

ACTIVITY 1: IDENTIFICATION
Direction: identify the following using the words inside the box.
Bohr’s Atomic Model Niels Bohr Schrödinger
Excited state Quantum Mechanical Model
_______________1. Based on this model it would be impossible to plot a definite path or orbit for
the moving electrons.
_______________2. This is the term used if the electron received extra energy, it can jump into a
Higher Energy level
_______________3. A model that can only describe atomic spectrum of an atom having only one
electron like that of hydrogen
_______________4. He stated that electrons are moving around the nucleus in circular path or orbit
at
definite distances from the nucleus
_______________5. He used mathematical equations to describe the possibility of finding an
electron
In a certain location

ACTIVITY 2: SIMPLE RESPONSE

Direction: answer the following questions briefly and concisely.

1. How Niels Bohr explained the movement of electrons?

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2. How does the quantum mechanical model explain the behavior of electrons within atom?
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UNIT CHEMICAL BONDING
1 LESSON 2: TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
Mt. Carmel School of Siargao, Inc.

At the end of the week, I hope you can say …

 I can Recognize different types of compounds (ionic or covalent) based on
their properties such as melting point, hardness, polarity, and electrical and
thermal conductivity. S9MT-IIb-14
 Explain how ions are formed S9MT-IIe-f-16

EXPLORE: SELF ACTIVITY

Let’s begin by observing the two pictures below.

(b) Sugardistinct
(a) Salts produced melts when heated
odor and color when
heated

During chemical
reactions elements combine, rearrange, or break apart with others to form new substance. New
substances are created when chemical bonds are broken or created.

We usually encountered thousands of compounds in our day - to - day activities. Others look
different and others look the same. But do not be fooled by their physical appearance. If you consider
chemical and other physical characteristics, they are different substances. Consider sugar and salt as
our example. If you throw or accidentally dropped few grains of sugar into a flame or hot surfaces, it
just melts with a distinct odor, turned brown and eventually turned into a black substance.

On the other hand, if this happened to a few grains of salt, the salt produced somewhat a
cracking sound and you could even see it jumping on the hot surface or above the flame and give a
distinct odor and color.

This could be best explained by looking at how the particles of these substances are linked
together. The nature of how the component elements is bonded together will give support to the
observations mentioned previously. These characteristics will be discussed separately.

FIRM UP 2
Your goal in this section is to learn and understand the key concepts of the formation
and its properties of compounds, and how ions are formed. You will learn new concepts
and skills that are necessary in order for you to understand the succeeding lessons. It is
advised that for every new term that you encounter, be sure to define it in your own
words aside from the definitions presented to you
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS AND COVALENTMOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
Compounds are formed between the chemical combinations of two or more elements. To
distinguish between the types of compounds, one should first take note of the type of elements that
are chemically combined.
HOW IONS ARE FORMED?
Ionic bonds are a class of chemical
bonds that result from the exchange of one or
more valence electrons from one atom, typically
a metal, to another, typically a nonmetal. This
electron exchange results in an electrostatic
attraction between the two atoms called an ionic
bond. An atom that loses one or more valence
electrons to become a positively charged ion is
known as a cation, while an atom that gains
electrons and becomes negatively charged is
known as an anion.
This exchange of valence electrons allows
ions to achieve electron configurations that mimic
those of the noble gases, satisfying the octet
rule. The octet rule states that an atom is most
stable when there are eight electrons in its
valence shell. Atoms with less than eight electrons tend to satisfy the duet rule, having two electrons
in their valence shell. By satisfying the duet rule or the octet rule, ions are more stable.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND

COVALENT MOLECULAR
COMPOUNDS
When sugar and table salt
placed side by side, it may appear
the same because they are both
white crystalline solids. From the
self-activity performed, you have
notice that table salt is salty and
sugar is sweet. These properties
suggest that they are very
different substances

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1.) Formation of Crystals
The ionic bond formed between the cation
and anions is very strong. The ions are
arranged in a regular, geometric structure
called crystal lattice. Different ionic
compounds have different crystal forms.
Naturally occurring ionic crystals are found
in rocks and minerals; they are mixed with
transition metal elements to give rise to
brilliant colors.
2.) They Have High Melting Points and
High Boiling Points
Ionic compounds have very high melting and
boiling points. The ions in a crystal lattice
are closely packed together creating a
strong electrostatic force of attraction
between them. The more ions there are in a
crystal structure the stronger the ionic
bonds. Therefore, a large amount of energy
is required to overcome these bonds.

3.) They are hard and brittle

Because of the strong electrostatic attraction
between ions’ ionic compounds, therefore,
they are hard and difficult to separate. But
ionic compounds can be also considered as
brittle. For instance, when pressure or a
mechanical force is being applied like
striking a hammer on the crystal, it will
cause charges to move closer. This result in
electrostatic repulsion which will be
enough to split the crystals.

4.) They conduct electricity when

dissolved in water
When ionic compounds are dissolved in
water to form an aqueous solution, the
cations and anions are dissociated or
separated and are free to conduct electricity
through the solution. These ionic substances
that conduct electricity are referred as
electrolytes. Floodwaters contain many
dissolved ionic compounds. One should
be careful in case live wires come into
contact with floodwaters. You can get
electrocuted.
5.) They are non-conductors of electricity
in solid form
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct
electricity, instead, these are good
insulators. This is because the ions are
locked into its crystal lattice and ions cannot
move out, so the solid cannot conduct
electricity. Only ionic compounds in liquid
(molten) form or aqueous solutions are good
electrical conductors.

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1.) They have generally low melting
points and boiling points
The covalent bonds between atoms are
quite strong, but the intermolecular forces,
the attraction between molecules can be
relatively weak. The addition of a small
amount of energy separates these
molecules easily. Therefore, they have low
 melting and boiling points.

2.) Most Covalent Compounds are soft

and flexible
This is because covalent bonds are
relatively flexible and easy to break, which
causes molecular compounds to form
gasses, liquids, and soft solids at room
temperature. However, there are exceptions,
primarily when molecular compounds
assume crystalline form.

3.) They are flammable

Covalent compounds tend to be more
flammable than ionic compounds.
Combustion is a reaction that releases
energy when the compound reacts with
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2) and
water. Many of these molecular compounds
that undergo combustion contain hydrogen
and carbon atoms.

4.) They are not conductors of electricity

Ionic compounds dissociate into ions when
dissolving in water, ions are needed to
conduct electricity. When dissolved in
water, covalent compounds separate into
molecules rather than ions so, it is
typically don’t conduct electricity.

5.) They can be classified as Polar and

Nonpolar Molecules
Covalent Molecular Compounds can be
polar or nonpolar. The polarity of molecules
results from the differences in the
electronegativity of the bonded atoms.

Electronegativity (EN)is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons toward
it. The figure shows the electronegativity values of the elements in the periodic table.
 The greater the electronegativity of an atom the stronger is its ability to attract shared electrons
towards itself and away from the less electronegative atom. The electrons are not shared equally and
part of the molecule carries a partial positive charge(δ+) and the
other part carries a slight negative charge(δ-) creating dipole.
For instance, the covalent bonding between Hydrogen (H)
and Fluorine(F). Fluorine has an EN = 4.0 while Hydrogen has an
EN = 2.1, thus fluorine is more electronegative than hydrogen and
so the shared electrons spend more time around the fluorine atom
creating a partial negative charge. The arrow points to the slightly
negative side of the molecule. This kind of bonds is polar covalent
bond.

When two identical atoms covalently bonded with each

other like diatomic Hydrogen (H2), there would be equal sharing of
electrons between the Hydrogen atoms. This type of bond is a
Equal Sharing of electrons Between H and H
nonpolar covalent bond form nonpolar molecule.

To determine if the type of bond is polar or

nonpolar, one has to consider the electronegativity
difference between the bonded atoms. The greater the
difference, the more polar is the bond.

If the difference in electronegativity is greater than or equal to 2.0, the electrons are completely
transferred instead of being shared. And an ionic bond would result rather than a covalent bond.

END OF FIRM UP 2: CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

Let’s check how much you have learned in this lesson by doing the following activities.

ACTIVITY 3. RECOGNIZE ME!

The following statements are the properties of ionic and covalent molecular compounds. Color
the circle RED if the property is an ionic compound, and BLUE if the property is a covalent molecular
compound
ACTIVITY 4: GUIDED PRACTICE
Direction: Calculate the electronegativity difference and give the kind of bond that exists
between the atoms in each pair.

Atoms EN Difference Type of Bond (Ionic/Polar

(Higher EN – Lower EN) Covalent/Nonpolar Covalent)
Example
Na and Cl Na = 0.9
Cl = 3.0 Ionic bond
= 3.0 – 0.9
= 2.1
1. Ca and O

2. Si and H

3. O and F

ACTIVITY 5: SIMPLE RESPONSE

Direction: answer the following questions briefly and concisely.

1. How new substances are formed?

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2. How ions are formed?

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 3. Differentiate Ionic and Covalent Compounds? Cite at least two (2) examples based on their
properties.
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UNIT CHEMICAL BONDING

1 LESSON 3: CARBON COMPOUNDS
Mt. Carmel School of Siargao, Inc.
At the end of the week, I hope you can say …
 I can Explain how the structure of the carbon atom affects the type of bonds it
forms; S9MT-IIg-17
 Recognize the general classes and uses of organic compounds; S9MT-IIh-18
LET’S EXPLORE: FACTS
Carbon is not a difficult element to spot in your daily life. For instance, if
you have used a pencil, you have seen carbon in its graphite form. Similarly, the
charcoal briquettes on your barbeque are made out of carbon, and even the
diamonds in a ring or necklace are a form of carbon (in this case, one that has
been exposed to high temperature and pressure). What you may not realize,
though, is that, about 18% of your body (by weight) is also made of carbon. In
fact, carbon atoms make up the backbone of many important molecules in your
body, including proteins, DNA, RNA, sugars, and fats.

Pencil Charcoal Diamond

FIRM UP 3
Your goal in this lesson is to know; how unique the carbon atom is. This lesson will
answer particularly how the structure of the carbon atom affects the types of bonds it
forms: single bond (C-C), double bond (C=C), and triple bond (C≡C). The structural
formulas of carbon and other atoms will show you the exact way of connecting them
using a short, straight line, known as a bond.

CARBON COMPOUNDS: Inorganic Compounds and Hydrocarbons

Carbon is a very common "ingredient" of matter. The reason? Carbon can combine with itself
and with many other elements to form a great diversity of compounds. The compounds can also
range in size from just a few atoms to thousands. The compounds which contain carbon forms with
H, N, O, and few other elements are usually called organic compounds. All these are obtained
from plants and animals and their changed remains like coal and petroleum. Sugars, starches,
oils, and proteins are examples of carbon compounds obtained from plants and animals.
While hydrocarbons, such as hexane and benzene, are examples of carbon compound
obtained from coal and petroleum
 Organic compounds have low thermal stability and usually decompose, easily char, and burn
when heated. Thus, organic compounds have lower melting points and boiling points due to its
weaker bonds -which is the covalent bond.

Lewis Structure of Carbons and Hydrogens

The only distinguishable characteristic of organic compounds is that all contain the element
carbon. Carbon is the most common element present in all biodegradable materials. Carbon has a
unique ability to bond together, may form a long chains and rings.
The ground-state electron configuration (lowest-energy arrangement) of an atom is a
description of the orbitals that the atom’s electrons occupy. The Carbon ( 6C12) atom with electron
configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p2 has four (4) electrons on its valence shell (outer shell). While hydrogen
(1H) with electron configuration of 1s1has one (1) valence electron.
G.N. Lewis in 1916 proposed a shared-electron bond and now called a Covalent Bond. The
carbon bonded to other atoms, not by losing nor gaining, instead, by sharing its electrons.
The four (4) valence electrons of carbon represent the
4 dots of carbon in its Lewis structure:
So, with one dot for hydrogen atom:
A stable molecule results when a valence octet of electrons (Octet Rule) has
been achieved for all atoms in a molecule, as shown below:

Carbon has 4 valence electrons that can form a

maximum of four covalent bonds. Bonds are usually represented by a short, straight line connecting
the atoms, with each bond representing a shared pair of electrons.

Bonding of Carbon Compounds

Bonds are usually represented by a short, straight line connecting the atoms, with each bond
representing a shared pair of electrons. Each carbon atom in the following compounds forms four
bonds:
 Electron sharing occurs when two atoms approach and their atomic orbitals overlap. Bonds
that have circular cross-section and are formed by head-on overlap of atomic orbitals are called
sigma(α) bonds. Bonds form by sideways overlap of p-orbitals are called pi(π) bonds.

Two (2) carbon atoms can form a covalent bond by sharing a pair of electrons, which will either
form into a structure of saturated hydrocarbon and unsaturated hydrocarbon. A detailed discussion on
Hydrocarbons will follow in the next lesson

END OF FIRM UP 3: CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

Let’s check how much you have learned in this lesson by doing the following activities.

ACTIVITY 6: GUIDED PRACTICE

Illustrate the Lewis and Kekule (Line) structure of the following molecules. The first one
has been done for you.

ACTIVITY 7: GUIDED PRACTICE

Show a possible structural formula of molecules by connecting each atom. The first one has
been done for you.
Illustrate the Lewis and Kekule (Line) structure of the following molecules. The first one has
been done for you
UNIT CHEMICAL BONDING
1 LESSON 4: SATURATED AND UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Mt. Carmel School of Siargao, Inc.
At the end of the week, I hope you can say …
 I can Explain how the structure of the carbon atom affects the type of bonds it
forms; S9MT-IIg-17
Recognize the general classes and uses of organic compounds; S9MT-IIh-1

LET’S REVIEW and EXPLORE

As you learned from Lesson 3, a carbon atom is unique that it has four valence electrons,
which enables it to form four covalent bonds with atoms of other elements and other carbon atoms.
Since there are numerous compounds of carbon, these are convenient to organize them into
groups according to their structural similarities. The simplest and most commonly encountered class
of organic compounds is the hydrocarbons.
Moreover, the structures of hydrocarbons affect their properties, such as physical state and
boiling point. Below are the common hydrocarbon products.

ACTIVITY 8: NAME IT!

From the picture above, name at least five hydrocarbon products you usually encountered or
used in daily life.
1.______________________
2.______________________
3.______________________
4.______________________
5.______________________

FIRM UP 4
In your everyday activities, you may have come across articles or items that you
find very useful and make daily living comfortable. In this lesson, hydrocarbons will be
further discussed and it is hoped that appreciation will be one of the end realizations
elicited from you.

SATURATED HYDROCARBONS: Alkanes

Alkanes, whose general formula is
CnH2n+2, also called paraffin (meaning, ‘low
affinity’), are hydrocarbons that contain only single
bonds. They are classified as saturated hydrocarbons (with all carbon atoms linked by single bonds).
Therefore, for an alkane with five (5) carbon atoms, the formula would be C 5H12. The simplest alkane
is methane, CH4, a major component of natural gas and is used for some heating in cold countries.

UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS: Alkenes and Alkynes

Alkenes, also called olefins, are
unsaturated hydrocarbons containing one or more
double bonds (C=C). As a result, it contains less
hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon atoms and
follows the general formula: C nH2nin an alkene, the
formula of a three-carbon atom with one double
bond then would be C3H6. Ethene is the simplest
alkene with the chemical formula, C2H4 a plant
hormone that plays important roles in seed
germination and ripening of fruits.
Some uses of Alkenes

Alkynes, containing one or more triple bonds, (C≡C) have the general formula of C nH2n-2.
The simplest alkyne, a highly reactive molecule used in oxyacetylene torches is acetylene or ethyne,
C2H2.

ethyne propyne
Figure 2. Samples of Alkynes

Some uses of Alkynes

An oxyacetylene flame is used for

Ethyl alcohol Buna N rubbers
cutting and welding of metals
Vinyl Plastics Orlon fibers