Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review on utilization of wood biomass as a sustainable precursor for T

activated carbon production and application
⁎
Mohammed Danisha, , Tanweer Ahmadb
a
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Chemical and Bio-Engineering and Technology, Lot 1988, Taboh Naning, Alor Gajah 78000, Melaka, Malayasia
b
Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Science, Madda Walabu University, Bale, Robe, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Activated carbon has been an ideal material for the separation of a variety of chemical pollutants. Its extensive
Activated carbon use is limited due to the cost of production, which has triggered the researches on the viable option for the non-
Wood biomass conventional and cost-effective production. The application of biomass waste has been widely explored as an
Adsorbent alternative to expensive methods of activated carbon production from coal. In this study, detailed list of pro-
Adsorption
duction methods of activated carbon from wood biomass is presented systematically. The attempt has also been
Pollutant
made to review the physical properties, such as ultimate and proximate analyses of wood biomass material.
Further, the chemical compositions of wood, such as hemicelluloses, cellulose, and lignin are also dealt with.
Finally, this review incorporates the existing research papers on wood-derived activated carbons to understand
the influence of pyrolysis temperature, activation temperature, and effect of various physical and chemical
activation conditions on the production, surface characteristics and adsorption behavior of activated carbons.
The outcome of this study revealed that the activated carbons from wood biomass exhibit promising char-
acteristics in terms of surface area, pore size and pore volume, surface functional groups, and surface entrapment
behavior against various water soluble chemical toxicants.

1. Introduction water contamination caused by the high concentration of noxious

Water is an essential constituent of the planet earth, which plays a
very important role in the proper performance of the earth's ecosystem.
Getting potable and pristine water is now a challenging task in different
parts of the world. The geometrical growth of world population, house
hold and agricultural activities, burgeoning industrialization, modern
technocratic civilization, and other geological, environmental and
global changes, causes a gradual increase in water pollution. Recently,
various toxic chemicals such as micro-pollutants, endocrine disrupting
phthalates compounds, personal care products, pesticides, and in-
organic anions have been found at dangerous levels in drinking waters
throughout the world. Therefore, various types of health issues in
human beings are reported owing to water pollution [1]. Contaminated
water is one of the most challenging issues because it is a huge threat to
both human health and the existence of symbiotic relationship between
human and environment [2]. Keeping in view the seriousness of the
compounds. There is an urgent need for developing a robust, econom-
ically viable and environmentally friendly treatment to eliminate them
from water. To safeguard the human health and restore the environ-
mental symbiosis.
It is necessary to purify water and keep our environment clean,
which requires an innovative new technique for the creation of highly
effective adsorbents and efficient filtration media [3,4]. On an in-
dustrial scale, water and wastewater treatment technologies have been
evolved in the past years for the removal of diverse aquatic pollutants.
The water purification concepts discovered thus far, include filtration,
ultra-filtration and dialysis [5], reverse osmosis, solvent extraction [6],
advance oxidation [7], evaporation, coagulation, flocculation [8],
aerobic and anaerobic treatment, activated sludge, microbial reduction
[9], adsorption [10], ion exchange, and magnetic separation [11].
Adsorption is a familiar separation technique known since the earlier
history of science and considers as an efficient and user-friendly method

Abbreviations: BET, Brunner Emmet and Teller; AC, Activated Carbon; IUPAC, International Unions of Pure and Applied Chemistry; FTIR, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy; XPS,
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy; pHzpc, pH at zero point charge; FESEM, Field Emission Electron Microscopy; EDX/EDS, Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy; CHNS, Carbon hydrogen
nitrogen and sulfur analysis; PET, Polyethylene Terephthalate; SAC, Steam Activated Carbon; CSAC, Chemical followed by Steam Activated Carbon; CC, Commercial activated Carbon;
CAC, Chemically Activated Carbon; EDTA, Ethylene diamine tetraacetica acid; SDAC, Saw Dust Activated Carbon; COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand; SMX, Sulfamethoxazole; D-R,
Dubinin-Raduskevich
⁎
Correspondence to: Malaysian Institute of Chemical and Bioengineering Technology (MICET), Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Lot 1988, Alor Gajah 78000, Melaka, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: mdanish@unikl.edu.my, mdanishchem@gmail.com (M. Danish).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.02.003
Received 4 April 2017; Received in revised form 28 October 2017; Accepted 6 February 2018
Available online 12 February 2018
1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

for the elimination of a wide range of toxic pollutants from wastewater Table 1
[12–14]. It has been found to be a better method than others for was- List of precursor materials from different agricultural source for the production of low-
cost activated carbon.
tewater treatment in terms of simplicity of design, initial cost, ease of
operation, and sensitivity towards noxious pollutants. Adsorbents References
Activated carbon is a term used to express carbon-rich materials
which contain well-built internal pore structure. The high surface area, Cassava peel [20]
Jatropha curcas fruit shell [21]
well-organized macro, meso, and micro-pores, and a wide range of
Spent coffee ground [22]
chemical functional groups present on the surface of activated carbon Olive seeds [23–25]
make it a versatile material which has numerous applications. Activated Rice husk [26]
carbons have been globally recognized as the oldest, widely used and Corn cob [27]
most popular adsorbent in water and wastewater treatment industries Coconut shell [28,29]
Pecan shell [30,31]
[15]. It has been used as a versatile adsorbent against a wide range of
Rice straw [32,33]
water-soluble and gaseous pollutants. Their extensive use as an ad- Macadamia nutshell [34]
sorbent encompasses removal of undesirable taste, odor, color, and Fruit stones & nutshell (hazelnut shells, peanut hulls) [35]
other inorganic and organic impurities from industrial and municipal Apricot stones [36]
Almond shell [37,38]
wastewater, solvent recovery, and air pollution control from inhabited
Grain of sorgum [39]
places. They are increasingly used in the field of the pharmaceutical Cedar wood [40,41]
industry for the removal of color from syrups; for the removal of in- Date stone [12,13,42]
gested toxins from the human body; for the bacterial infections in Acacia mangium wood [43]
certain ailments; for the recovery of gold, silver, and other metals in Pomegranate seeds [44]
Neem leaves [45]
hydrometallurgy industries; and as catalysts and catalyst supports. They
Palm oil shell waste [46,47]
are also renowned for their applications in the gas mask filter manu- Wheat straw [48]
facturing industry, food processing industries, chemical industries, and Rice husk ash [49]
automobile pollution control devices [16]. Coconut coir dust [50]
Natural condensed tannin [51]
Despite its enormous industrial applications, the biggest hurdle in
Vetiver roots [52]
the frequent use of activated carbons in the industries is the cost of
production and vague methods associated with production and re-
generation processes [17]. At the beginning of the development of ac- 1.1. Wood as a sustainable biomass and its chemical composition
tivated carbons, coal was believed to be an affluent source of carbon;
therefore, it was considered as the best precursor material for the Wood biomass can be produced in short rotation, and it can be
conversion of activated carbon with large surface area. Coal mines are utilized as a sustainable precursor for the production of activates
limited and non-renewable. Therefore, the paradigm shifted towards carbon. Conversion of wood biomass into activated carbon not only
renewable resources, such as biomass or any carbon-rich waste for ac- makes it a more versatile material for industrial application but also
tivated carbon production. All natural resources that can be grown curb the formation of CO2 and methane (form due to aerobic and
through the agricultural activities in short rotation of cultivation period anaerobic digestions), which are a major greenhouse gas.
considered as the renewable resources. And most of the agricultural Lignocellulosic chemicals are the primary constituents of the wood
waste biomasses contain chemical constituents that have a high carbon biomass. The well-structured fibrous constituents of wood have a sig-
content, which make them suitable precursor for activated carbon nificant contribution in the preparation of granular activated carbons.
production. Cellulose contains partially crystalline linear polysaccharide units that
Utilization of biomass to produce activated carbon is a wise ap- have around 3000 glucose units in a chain. Cellulose and hemicellulose
proach in pollution control strategy in two ways. First, it can fix the units are quite similar to each other, but the only difference is in the
carbon of biomass that prevents the production of CO2 or CH4; and quantity of saccharide units. Hemicellulose consists of a smaller number
second, it produces activated carbon which is industrially useful and of saccharide units compared to cellulose. The average elemental per-
environmentally benign materials that can go into the soil and enter centage in hemicellulose are as follows: carbon, 44.4 wt%, oxygen,
natural carbon cycle process. Conversion of wood wastes into valuable 49.4 wt%, and hydrogen, 6.2 wt%. The lignin part of wood biomass has
carbon material can also resolve environmental issues like an accu- very complex molecular arrangements. The 3-D polymeric arrangement
mulation of agricultural waste, which causes air and water pollution of phenylpropane units in lignin are linked together by C–O–C or C–C
during natural degradation process [18]. Availability of low-cost by- bonds. These kinds of chemical bonding in lignin gives higher carbon
products from biomass production and processing industry has proven percent (62 wt%) and lower oxygen percent (32 wt%) in the molecules.
to be a potential raw material for the synthesis of activated carbons The C–O–C and C–C bonds not only connect to the phenylpropane units
[19]. Some attempts have been made to identify cost-effective methods but also associate with the hemicellulose and cellulose units. Thus,
and precursors to produce activated carbon. The list of precursor ma- lignin unit of the wood serves as a binding material for the lig-
terials from agricultural biomass sources to produce low-cost activated nocellulosic structure [53]. The major chemical constituents of wood
carbon is presented in Table 1. biomass are hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin; and minor chemical
This review presents the discussion on the utility of different wood components are protein and oil. On an average, the quantitative pro-
species biomass as a precursor to produce activated carbon. The specific portion of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin in wood biomass are
objectives of this review article is as follows: (1) identify the chemical observed in the range of 20–35, 40–50, and 15–35%, respectively.
and elemental composition of wood species, (2) discuss the preparation During pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass, the decomposition of
methods for wood-derived activated carbons, (3) address the effects of hemicelluloses is reported in the temperature range of 200–260 °C,
activating agents, concentration, time and temperature on different followed by the decomposition of cellulose in the temperature range of
wood species-derived activated carbons, (4) discuss the changes ob- 240–350 °C, and lignin degraded in the temperature range of
served in physical and chemical properties of the wood-derived acti- 280–500 °C. The loss of mass in the temperature range of 240–400 °C is
vated carbons as a result of different activation conditions, (5) sum- primarily owing to chain scission and mineralization of lignin and
marize the contemporary research development in potential cellulosic units by breaking C-C and C-O bonds within glycopyranose
applications of the wood-derived activated carbons as an adsorbent for ring with the evaporation of water, CO, and CO2 molecules [54]. The
the removal of various organic and inorganic pollutants.

2
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Table 2 diagram as shown in Scheme 1. In Table 4 we summarize the various

Chemical composition of different wood based biomass. activation conditions of the different species of wood biomass-derived
activated carbons.
Types of wood Chemical composition% Reference
Physical activation is normally conducted in two steps. In the first
Cellulose Hemi lignin Extractive step, carbonization takes place to eliminate the volatile matters at low
cellulose temperatures from the raw material. Whereas in the second step, the
activation of the obtained carbonized (carbon-rich intermediate) sub-
Eucalyptus wood 57.3 16.8 25.9 – [55]
Jatropha wood 48.03 24.70 24.28 2.99 [56] stance takes place at much-elevated temperature. The uses of inert
Douglas fir wood 43.2 17.0 29.9 5.2 [57] gasses during carbonization and activation process are optional. The
Douglas fir bark 18.2 8.8 43.4 19.5 [57] burning of fibrous carbon of biomass can be prevented in the presence
Wattle wood 62.0 12.6 25.4 – [58] of gas, such as steam, N2, CO2, Ar, or their mixtures. Usually, N2 is most
Acacia mangium 46.5 16.03 27.64 9.83 [59]
commonly used as gaseous atmosphere during the activation process,
wood
Almond tree pruning 33.7 20.1 25.0 – [60] because it can repel the gaseous oxygen from the pyrolysis chamber.
Consequently, burning of the biomass can be avoided. Nitrogen gas is
clean, easy to handle, and available at low-cost. Furthermore, it helps to
chemical constituents of various cultivars of wood species are presented control the activation process at working temperatures. During carbo-
in Table 2. nization, the wood precursor is pyrolyzed at relatively low temperature
to eliminate low molecular weight and volatile organic residues. In the
2. Preparation methods of wood activated carbon next step, activation takes place at temperature ranges from 700 °C to
1100 °C in the presence of supporting gases that can prevent CO2 for-
Activated carbons are amorphous in nature that is prepared to show mation and generate pores of diverse sizes in the activated carbon
a range of porosity and extended surface area. It is a result of an acti- during activation process [146,147]. Optimization of yield and surface
vation process of the carbon-rich material. The wood having high area of wood-derived activated carbons was done through the selection
carbon content (50–90%) will be a suitable precursor to produce acti- of a logical range of values of preparation parameters. The preparation
vated carbons. The activation is initiated with the carbonization of the parameters of activated carbon are the carbonization time, activation
precursor to achieve high carbon content material [61]. An activated temperature, and gas (steam, CO2, N2) flow rate.
carbon with large surface area and high mesoporous volume can serve Chemical activation methods involve the impregnation of the
as an outstanding adsorbent. The large surface area and mesoporous starting material with a dehydrating chemical agent before or after
activated carbons are useful for an extensive application in separation, carbonization step. It is used to dehydrate the precursor and remove the
decoloration, deodorization, purification, and filtration operations tar from biomass materials. A variety of chemical activating agents such
[62]. The chemical composition, as well as the methods and the process as sulphuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, zinc chloride, potassium
conditions used during activation of the wood biomass, play an im- hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, etc., can be used.
portant role in the formation of pores, pore volume, and surface area. Chemically impregnated biomass subjected to heat treatment under an
Consequently, adsorption properties of the activated carbon vary from inert atmosphere to get the porous-structure with extended surface area
one wood species source to another [63]. Various wood species biomass activated carbons. The chemical agents facilitate to develop the pores in
that has been utilized in activated carbon production and their ultimate the activated carbon using degradation, dehydration, and complexation
and proximate analyses are presented in Table 3. with organic carbon molecules of precursor materials. The chemically
The activation of wood biomass is performed to synthesize activated treated wood biomass heated at various ranges of temperatures to check
carbons with high carbon content, large surface area, and pore volume. its effect on yield, surface area, and pores formed in the activated
The physical and chemical properties of obtained activated carbons are carbon. The chemical activation carried out at a lower temperature
affected by the degree of activation. The method of biomass activation compared to a physical activation. Because the chemical interaction
process is divided into two: physical activation method, in which steam, between precursor chemical residue and activating agents compensate
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide are used for mild reduction of the car- this temperature gap.
bonaceous matter. While, in chemical activation method, a chemical Chemical activation has numerous benefits compared to physical
dehydrating agent is applied to activate the biomass. The detailed ac- activation. In chemical activation, the carbonization and activation
tivation process of wood biomass can be represented by the flow

Table 3
Proximate and ultimate analysis of different wood biomass.

Types of wood Ultimate analysis (%) Proximate analysis (%) References

C H O N Ash Volatiles Fixed carbon

Eucalyptus wood 47.1 5.9 46.6 0.1 0.3 85.7 14.0 [55]
Jatropha wood 42.20 6.30 51.18a 0.32 3.83 77.30 18.31a [56]
Pine Saw dust 46.41 6.27 47.23 0.06 0.46 72.23 21.30 [64]
Paulownia wood 45.83 6.29 47.48 0.40 1.05 76.54 18.91 [65]
Douglas fir wood 48.49 4.85 39.25 0.63 6.73 72.28 20.99 [66]
Meranti Sawdust 42.38 5.27 42.41 0.14 1.49 76.23 14.04 [67]
China fir 52.68 7.04 39.97 – 0.3 – – [68]
Coniferous tree 46.3 7.1 45.2 1.4 0.5 – – [69]
Eucalyptus wood 48.2 6.2 44.1 0.5 4.8 80.48 14.65 [70]
Douglas fir wood 72.4 3.9 21.4 0.2 2.0 – – [57]
Douglas fir bark 64.6 1.6 15.5 0.3 17.6 – – [57]
Almond tree pruning 51.30 6.50 41.36 0.80 1.20 72.20 – [60]
Woody Birch 48.4 5.6 45.8 0.2 0.2 81.2 – [71]
Chinese fir sawdust 48.95 6.54 53.74 0.11 0.32 79.92 – [72]

a
By difference.

3
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
Scheme 1. Flow diagram for activation process of wood-derived activated carbon.
processes are combined in one step that saves the heat energy during
synthesis. Moreover, chemical activation conducted at a lower tem-
perature compared to physical activation; thus, it also saves energy. The
other major benefits of using chemical activation process are higher
yield, less activation time, incorporation of suitable functional groups,
and larger surface area of the activated carbon. The major drawback of
the chemical activation process is the cost of chemicals, and it required
to carry out an additional step of flushing activated carbon with hot and
cold water to eliminate the surplus unreacted chemicals and chemical
by-products [148]. The chemical activation process also has some en-
vironmental concern among the researchers over using the chemical
agents during the activation process. For this uncertainty of the en-
vironmentalist, the environmental friendly chemical dehydrating agent
should be used. And after cautious treatment of the raw material with
chemicals, part of the added chemicals should be recovered. On the
other hand, some researcher also reported activation via a two-step
process, which is a combined method of physical and chemical process
for effective activation of biomass [32].
Chemical activation of biomass can produce granular as well as
powdered activated carbons. The finely divided precursor material
ensures the homogeneity of the activating agent and wood precursor
mixture. However, granular activated carbon can be produced from
wood by mixing coarser wood particles with appropriate concentration
of suitable activating agents. In case of the coarser precursor, the im-
pregnation step must conduct with special attention to ensure the
complete mixing of precursor and the reagent. Between the particle size
of wood precursor and activating agents, the choice of activating agent
is more important to produce granular activated carbon. Because of
some wood species precursor agglomerates in the presence of certain
chemical activating agent and form flakes like activated carbon. For
example, Acacia mangium wood activated with KOH forming highly
fragile flakes of carbon that can be easily converted into a fine powder.
Whereas, the same wood with similar particle size activated with
phosphoric acid produce the granular activated carbon of almost same
4
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
shape and size of the precursor wood particle [123,130].
For better results through chemical activation, the complete mixing
of activating agent and wood precursor must be assured before setting
for the activation process. Majority of reported work
[35,52,53,74,84,85,113,149,150] shows that the reagents are diluted
with water, then uniformly mixed with the precursor. The well-mixed
sample is kept at a different predetermined temperature that varies
from one researcher to other. Thus, the interaction of activating agents
with wood precursor is conducted in a much simpler way. The water-
soluble activating agents imbibe into the interior channels of the fibrous
structure allows for an improved access of the activating agent to the
cell wall of the wood precursor particles. Furthermore, partial eva-
poration of the water molecules should thrust the reactant into the
interior cell wall of the wood precursor. Once the wood precursor
completely soaked with activating agents, the impregnation steps
completed. The activation conducted under a uniform flow of nitrogen
or any other inert gas to run the process in the absence of oxygen. Some
researcher reported activation in the presence of self-burn gases, and
the obtained activated carbon should wash with hot and cold water to
remove the chemical by-products formed during chemical activation.
During phosphoric acid activation of Acacia mangium wood, phosphorus
pentaoxide was formed as by-products on the surface of activated
carbon [130].
2.1. Activating agents for wood biomass
Chemical activation process comprises of the impregnation of wood
precursor biomass in the dehydrating agent solution at various con-
centrations. Commonly used dehydrating chemical agents are H3PO4,
ZnCl2, KOH, NaOH, H2SO4, and CaO, etc. Among the various dehy-
drating agents used in chemical activation, phosphoric acid has been
the most ideal for wood biomass, because it is highly effective in acti-
vation of wood, economic, and environmentally safe [151].
Yorgun and Yıldız [65] reported large surface area activated
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Table 4
Carbonization and activation condition for different species of woods for the production of activated carbons.

Raw material Carbonization condition Activation condition Chemical treatment Additional information Reference
(°C/h) (°C/h)

Pinewood 550 °C/4 h 900 °C/0.5–4 h – Steam flow rate 5 cm3/min. [73]
Chestnut wood 450 °C/4 h – H3PO4 Impregnated with 36 and 85 wt% [74]
Cedar wood 450 °C/4 h – H3PO4 Impregnated with 36 and 85 wt% [74]
Walnut wood 450 °C/4 h – H3PO4 Impregnated with 36 and 85 wt% [74]
Oak wood waste 450 °C 700 °C/1 h and CO2 Physical activation [75]
800 °C/2 h
Oak wood – 700 °C/1 h CO2 Physical activation [75]
Mahogany sawdust 500 °C/1 h 800 °C/1 h Steam – [76]
Peltogyne wood 580–750 °C 700 °C CO2 – [77]
Tectona grandis sawdust 500 °C/1 h – ZnCl2 chemical ratio (activating agent/precursor) of 200% [78]
Pine sawdust – 500 °C ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 1:1 [79]
Fir wood 450 °C/1.5 h 900 °C/7 h steam activation – [80]
Fir wood 450 °C/1.5 h 780 °C/1 h KOH Water/KOH/char weight ratio of 2/1/2, 2/1/1, 3/4/ [80]
1, and 3/6/1, respectively.
Rubber wood (CAC) 400 °C/1 h – H3PO4 The char was impregnated with phosphoric acid of [81]
0.45 IR (g phosphorous: g precursor).
Rubber wood (SAC) – 750 °C/1 h Steam The char was activated in a fluidized bed reactor. [81]
Rubber wood (CSAC) – 800 °C/1 h Chemical followed by The char was impregnated with phosphoric acid [81]
steam (0.45) IR and activated in a fluidized bed.
Fir wood 300 °C/1 h 700 °C/2 h KOH Impregnation ratio of 0.75 g of KOH/1 g of initial [82]
char.
Teak sawdust 600 °C/1 h 750–900 °C/1 h Steam activation vacuum pyrolysis char [83]
Walnut wood 300–800 °C/ 2 h 350–550 °C/2 h Air Activated in air [84]
Chest nut wood – 600 °C/4 h H3PO4 Impregnation ratio 1:3 [85]
Fir wood 550 °C/3 h 900 °C/5 h Steam – [86]
Fir wood 550 °C/3 h 780 °C/1 h KOH – [86]
Cedar wood 600, 700 and 800 °C/2 h 600, 700 and 800 °C/ CO2 Impregnated with 5, 7 and 10 M H2SO4 [41]
2 h and 4 h
Woody Birch 600 °C/1 h 600 °C/1 h Steam/H3PO4 Impregnated samples were heated in N2 flow, then to [71]
steam flow
Woody Birch – 700 °C/2 h Steam/H3PO4 Impregnated samples were directly pyrolyzed in flow [71]
of steam
Cedar wood 600,700 and 800 °C/2 h 700, 800 and 900 °C/ CO2 Impregnated with H2O2 [40]
4h
Eucalyptus wood 400 °C/1 h 900 °C/1 h CO2 Physical activation by CO2 [58]
Wattle wood 400 °C/1 h 800 °C/5 h CO2 Physical activation by CO2 [58]
Fir wood 450 °C/1.5 h 780 °C/1 h KOH etching and CO2 Soaked in a KOH solution KOH/char ratio of 1 [87]
gasification
Uruguayan Eucalyptus wood 450 °C 825 °C CO2 Physical activation [88]
Oil palm wood 390 °C/4 h 806 °C/3.5 h – – [89]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn 500 °C/1 h – H3PO4 Impregnated with 85% by wt. H3PO4 (1:1) [90]
bark
Oak wood 480 °C/1 h H3PO4 – [91]
Oak wood 450 °C/2 h – H3PO4 60% H3PO4 [92]
Ailanthus altissima wood 400 and 800 °C – – Impregnated with 0.5 M KOH solution [93]
Prosopis ruscifolia wood 450 °C/0.5 h – H3PO4 (acid/precursor ratio = 2, 450 ◦C, 0.5 h) [94]
China fir (Cunninghamia – 475 °C/1.5 h H3PO4 Impregnated with 50% H3PO4 solution [68]
lanceolata) wood
Birch wood 480 °C/1 h – H3PO4 – [95]
Chinese fir sawdust 400–600 °C/1 h ZnCl2 Activation under vacuum [95]
Paulownia wood 400–700 °C/1 h – ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio was varied between 0.5 and 4. [96]
Spruce (Picea abies) wood 700 °C/1 h 900 °C/1.5 h Steam activation – [97]
Beech (Fagus silvatica) wood 700 °C/1 h 900 °C/1.5 h Steam activation – [97]
Oak (Quercus robur) 700 °C/1 h 900 °C/1.5 h Steam activation – [97]
Almond tree pruning 600 °C/1 h 850 °C/30 min steam – [60]
Tamarind wood 439 °C/40 min – ZnCl2 Chemical ratio of (296%) [98]
Euphorbia antiquorum L. wood 400 °C/10 min 800 °C/10 min H3PO4 10% H3PO4 [99]
Euphorbia antiquorum L. 400 °C/ 20 min 800 °C/10 min H3PO4 10% H3PO4 [100]
wood
Tamarind wood 439 °C/40 min – ZnCl2 Chemical ratio of (296%) [101]
Sal wood (Shorea robusta) 650 °C – H2SO4 Physical and chemically activated. Impregnation [102]
ratio (0.25, 0.5 and 0.75)
Outer rind of wood apple – 160 °C/6 h H2SO4 Impregnated with 1:1 H2SO4 [103]
Shear butter wood 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h H3PO4 – [104]
Shear butter wood 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h Ferric chloride – [104]
Shear butter wood 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h Potassium carbonate – [104]
Shear butter wood 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h Trioxonitrate (v) acid – [104]
Shear butter wood 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h HCl – [104]
Shear butter bark 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h H3PO4 – [104]
Shear butter bark 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h Ferric chloride – [104]
Shear butter bark 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h Potassium carbonate – [104]
Shear butter bark 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h Trioxonitrate (v) acid – [104]
Shear butter bark 300 °C/2 h 200 °C/2 h HCl – [104]
(continued on next page)

5
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Table 4 (continued)

Raw material Carbonization condition Activation condition Chemical treatment Additional information Reference
(°C/h) (°C/h)

Balsamodendron caudatum 400 °C/1 h 800 °C/1 h H3PO4 Impregnated with 10% H3PO4 [105]
wood
China fir 200 °C/1 h 475 °C/30 min H3PO4 one-step (i.e., a steady heating rate was [106]
appliedwithout any intermediate isothermal
treatment) or two-step
Pine sawdust – 800 °C/2 h CO2 Physical activation [107]
Apple wood shell 110 °C/24 h 300 °C/1 h H2SO4 Impregnation ratio 1:2 [108]
Poplar wood 900 °C/1 h – Na2CO3 Impregnation ratio 1:3 [109]
Poplar wood 900 °C/1 h – K2CO3 Impregnation ratio 1:3 [109]
Eucalyptus wood 500 °C/ 2hr 880 °C/105 min H2SO4 and CS2 – [110]
Neem husk 200–500 °C/10 min – H3PO4 One-step carbonization-activation, optimum at [111]
500 °C
Neem husk 200–500 °C/10 min – KOH One-step carbonization-activation, optimum at [111]
350 °C
Neem husk 200–500 °C/10 min – ZnCl2 One-step carbonization-activation, optimum at [111]
400 °C
Moringa oleifera wood 110 °C/1.5 h 400 °C/ 1 h – Washing with 10% NaHCO3 [112]
Tamarind wood 200–700 °C/2 h – ZnCl2 Chemical ratio (100–400%) [113]
Poplar wood 700–900 °C /1 h – H3PO4 – [114]
Tamarindus indica wood 350–550 °C – ZnCl2 – [115]
Algarroba wood 200–900 °C 800 °C/1 h CO2 One-step procedure by two different ways, physical [116]
activation under CO2 flow and by pyrolysis under
inert N2 flow
Euphorbia antiquorum L. wood 400 °C 800 °C/10 min H3PO4 10% H3PO4 [117]
Wood apple shell – – H3PO4 Impregnation 1:1and activated in commercial [118]
microwave oven
Oak wood char 400–450 °C – – fast pyrolysis in an auger reactor [119]
Oak bark char 400–450 °C – – fast pyrolysis in an auger reactor [119]
Olive-tree wood 350 and 550 °C/1 h – H3PO4 Impregnation 3.5:1 [120]
Olive-tree wood 600 °C/2 h 400 °C/0.5–3 h Air Physical activation with air [121]
Jatropha husk 800 °C/1 h – ZnCl2 Chemical activation [122]
Acacia mangium wood – 773 K/2 h CaO Impregnation ratio 2:1(w/w) [123]
Acacia mangium wood – 773 K/2 h KOH Impregnation ratio 2:1(w/w) [123]
Acacia mangium wood 300 °C/30 min 500 °C/2 h – Physical activation by N2 [124]
Obeche wood 250–750 °C/1 h 500–900 °C/15 min K2CO3 Impregnation ratio 1:1 [125]
Lawsonia inermis wood 400 °C/1 h 850 °C/2 h – Physical activation [126]
Wood apple shell – 600 °C/2 h H2SO4 – [127]
Grey alder wood 300–700 °C 850 °C/90 min Steam Treated hydrothermally [128]
Acacia mangium wood – 500 °C/2 h CO2 Physical activation by CO2 [129]
Acacia mangium wood 500 °C/2 h – ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 0.5 [130]
Acacia mangium wood 500 °C/2 h – H3PO4 Impregnation ratio 0.5 [130]
Derris indica wood 600 °C/1 h – – Physical activation [131]
Wood based – – H3PO4 Chemical activation [132]
Acacia mangium wood – 900 °C/45 min H3PO4 – [133]
Walnut wood 900 °C/2 h – H3PO4 Impregnated with (35%, v/v) H3PO4 [134]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 450 °C/1 h – H3PO4 Impregnation ratio1.5:1 [70]
wood (H1.5)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 450 °C/1 h – H3PO4 Impregnation ratio 2:1 [70]
wood (H2)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 450 °C/1 h – H3PO4 Impregnation ratio 2.5:1 [70]
wood (H2.5)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 900 °C/1 h – KOH Impregnation ratio 3.5:1 [70]
wood (HK)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 500 °C/2 h – ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 0.75:1 [70]
wood(Z0.75)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 500 °C/2 h – ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 1.5:1 [70]
wood (Z1.5)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 500 °C/2 h – ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 2.5:1 [70]
wood (Z2.5)
Astragalus bisulcatus tree 500 °C/1 h – – In argon atmosphere [135]
Peanut sticks wood 400 °C/2 h – – Physical activation [136]
Pine saw dust 300–800 °C/1 h – ZnCl2 ZnCl2 impregnated ratio 1.5 followed by one step [64]
chemical activation
Jatropha wood 400 °C/2 h and 700 °C/ – H3PO4 and KOH Heating rate 2 °C/min and10 °C/min [56]
2h
Hybrid Eucalyptus wood 600 °C/1 h – – – [137]
Pomegranate wood 650 °C/2 h – – Physical activation [138]
Oak wood – – HNO3 Activated by direct mixing with 150 mL of 5 mol/L of [139]
HNO3 and then was refluxed for 8 h
Coniferous wood (S4A6) 400 °C/1 h 600 °C/1 h CO2 Physical activation [69]
Coniferous wood (S4A7) 400 °C/1 h 700 °C/1 h CO2 Physical activation [69]
Coniferous wood (SA6) – 600 °C/1 h CO2 Direct physical activation [69]
Walnut wod – – HNO3 Chemical activation [140]
Rubber wood sawdust – 500 °C/1 h ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 1:1 [141]
(continued on next page)

6
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
Table 4 (continued)
Raw material Carbonization condition Activation condition
(°C/h) (°C/h)
Rubber wood sawdust – 500 °C/1 h
Rubber wood sawdust – 500 °C/1 h
Paulownia wood 400 °C/1 h – H3PO4
Eucalyptus grandis sawdust – –
Indian wood shrub 550 °C/1 h 800 °C/2 h
Walnut wood – 900 °C/2 h
Poplar wood – 900 °C/2 h
Pistacia atlantica wood 550 °C/1 h – –
carbons that were obtained by chemical activation of Paulownia
(Paulownia elongata) wood using H3PO4 as a dehydrating agent. The use
of H3PO4 during activation process promotes the de-polymerization,
dehydration, and redistribution of constituent biopolymers. It also fa-
vors the conversion of aliphatic to aromatic compounds, thus increasing
the yield of activated carbon. The H3PO4 has two significant functions:
(i) it promotes the pyrolytic decomposition of the initial material and
(ii) promotes the formation of the cross-linked structure [71]. However,
H3PO4 helps in the formation of both micropores and mesopores in
activated carbon. Heidari et al. [70] reported chemical activation
method for preparation of activated carbon from Eucalyptus camaldu-
lensis wood using ZnCl2, H3PO4, and KOH. It was observed that the
types of activating agent and its concentration guide the surface area
and pore volume in the eucalyptus wood activated carbon. The Bru-
nauer-Emmitt-Teller (BET) surface area and porosity increased in the
subsequent order: KOH > H3PO4 > ZnCl2. The best activating agent for
preparing activated carbon from Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood in terms
of large BET surface area and a high percentage of micropore volume
was KOH. The porosity is created by chemical compounds remaining
intercalated in the internal structure of lignocellulosic materials, hin-
dering their shrinkage. In the case of H3PO4 activation, the acid and its
derivates (polyphosphoric acid) interact with the functional organic
component of the wood. To form a phosphate linkage such as phosphate
and polyphosphate esters that connect and cross-link in biopolymers.
The pores are generated due to the formation of these linkages which
expand the biomass structure. The polyphosphate compounds are larger
as compared to ZnCl2, which fills a wide range of pore sizes and leads to
the creation of larger sized mesopores. However, ZnCl2 and its hydrates
mostly cause the small and uniform size of the micropores. The ob-
tained maximum BET surface area is attributed to the decline of O2, H2,
and N2 contents of the biomass during each activation phase, forming a
nano-porous carbon adsorbent with large surface area and high porosity
for gas phase adsorption.
Danish et al. [133] reported the optimized parameters such as ac-
tivating agent (H3PO4) concentration, activation time, and temperature
to produce large surface area and well-enhanced pore volume activated
carbons from Acacia mangium wood. The suitable concentration of
H3PO4 function as an effective dehydrating agent, which can penetrate
the fibrous structure of wood and enlarges it. At the same time, it re-
moves organic molecules like flavanols and phenols from the wood
biomass structure. Because of it, the activated carbons have a large
surface area with high density of mesopores. Danish et al. [130] re-
ported that acidic activating agents (H3PO4 and ZnCl2) have a nearly
similar effect on Acacia mangium wood derived activated carbon when
comparing pore volume, pore diameter, surface area, and iodine ad-
sorption. Though the surface functional groups and surface charge
distributions were found different in H3PO4 and ZnCl2 treated Acacia
mangium wood activated carbons. The H3PO4 activation gives cationic
surface charge with high charge density compared to ZnCl2 treated
Acacia mangium wood activated carbons. The crystalline peaks found in
ZnCl2 treated Acacia mangium wood activated carbon was due to the
formation of zinc oxide during activation at elevated temperatures.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
Chemical treatment Additional information Reference
ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 1.5:1 [141]
ZnCl2 Impregnation ratio 2:1 [141]
Impregnation ratio 4:1 [65]
ZnCl2 Microwave-assisted carbonization and activation for [142]
28 min
– – [143]
H3PO4 H3PO4 (85% v/v) [144]
H3PO4 H3PO4 (85% v/v) [144]
Argon atmosphere [145]
Whereas phosphoric acid does not form any crystalline compound, ra-
ther it forms P2O5 during the activation process, which is a non-crys-
talline solid.
Gueye et al. [56] reported the efficiency of jatropha wood activated
carbons (synthesized by chemical activation) against hexavalent chro-
mium adsorption from wastewater. The activation of wood by H3PO4
acts in two ways. First, as an acid catalyst that promotes de-poly-
merization of the macromolecules making up the biomass (cellulose,
hemicelluloses, and lignin). While encouraging the formation of cross-
linking through dehydration, cyclization and condensation reactions.
Second, H3PO4 is known to promote the formation of polyphosphate
and phosphate linkages that connect and cross-link the fragments de-
rived from the macromolecules making up the biomass. The insertion of
phosphate and polyphosphate leads to a dilation, after the release of the
oxygen-containing compounds from the matrix. It leaves a well-devel-
oped porous structure with an accessible range of pore size. During
activation with high concentration KOH solutions, the presence of nu-
cleophilic hydroxyl ions leads to lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose
fragmentation and solubilization reactions. During pyrolysis, the in-
sertion of potassium atoms, arising from the reduction of oxide or hy-
droxide, is the initial phase of the activation. The progress of this
process produces stress inside the solidified carbon network that forms
during pyrolysis. However, it is necessary to prolong heat to extract the
metal atoms from the intercalated carbon network structure, with the
strength of that process decides the porosity of the final carbonaceous
residue.
It should be noted that a fundamental understanding of the acti-
vation mechanisms is critical for optimization of the preparation of
activated carbon through chemical activation method. However, it re-
mains difficult to predict the porous texture of biomass for a given
activating agent, even though some general tendencies can be expected
depending on the biomass composition and structure. Some tests need
to be conducted with different activating agents for each biomass, to
identify the one that leads to activated carbon characteristics that are
adapted to the targeted application.
2.2. Effect of chemical impregnation ratio on wood-derived activated
carbon
The impregnation ratio is one of the significant parameters that
influence the creation of porosity and enlargement of surface area in
activated carbon. Yorgun and Yıldız [65] reported large surface area
activated carbons from Paulownia (Paulownia elongata) wood. The ac-
tivated carbon prepared through chemical activation route using H3PO4
at different impregnation ratios (varies from 1:1–4:1). The BET surface
area and the total pore volumes of the activated carbon enhanced many
folds by increasing the activating agent to raw materials ratio from
1:1–2:1. The effect of activating agent to raw material ratio on the BET
surface area and total pore volume was observed stronger at an acti-
vation temperature of 400 °C. At this temperature, as the impregnation
ratio is increased from 1:1–4:1, the surface areas (BET, micropore) and
pore volumes (total and micropore) of the activated carbons increased
7
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
remarkably. However, at a higher temperature of activation
(500–600 °C), the increase in the impregnation ratio from 3:1–4:1, did
not have any significant effect on BET surface area and total pore vo-
lume of activated carbon. It was observed that the activating agent to
raw material ratio had a significant effect on the BET surface area,
micropore surface area, and micropore volume at the low activation
temperature.
Açıkyıldız et al. [64] studied single step chemical activation method
using zinc chloride as an activating agent to obtain activated carbon
from pine sawdust, corn seed, and rose seed at different chemical im-
pregnation (ZnCl2/PW) ratio. The authors reported that methylene blue
adsorption index and surface area of the prepared activated carbon
increased significantly with the increase of chemical impregnation ratio
from 1:2–1:1 at 400 °C activation temperature. However, a further rise
in chemical impregnation ratio (1:1–2:1) did not have any noticeable
effect on the surface area and methylene blue adsorption capacity. The
effect of chemical impregnation ratio on yield and surface area showed
that it increases from 1:2–1:1 then decreased till 2:1 for pine sawdust,
corn seed, and rose seed. While methylene blue adsorption index reg-
ularly increased from impregnation ratio 1:2–1:1, after that it attained a
constant value during the further rise in the impregnation ratio from
3:2–2:1. This constant adsorption behavior can be attributed to the
limited formation of new micropores and conversion of existing mi-
cropores into mesopores. This study shows that ZnCl2 develops not only
new pores up to certain concentration level but also converts existing
micropores into mesopores after saturation of activating agent con-
centration.
Heidari et al. [70] varied impregnation ratio of chemical activation
agent (H3PO4 and ZnCl2) to Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood powder
during the activation process. The authors reported the effect of acti-
vating agent concentration on the physical and chemical properties of
the activated carbon. As the impregnation ratio of ZnCl2 and H3PO4 was
raised, the nitrogen adsorption curve showing a gradual increase in
adsorption volume and the adsorption-desorption isotherms exhibited
hysteresis loops. This characteristic of the nitrogen adsorption-deso-
rption curve can be attributed to the formation of a larger fraction of
mesoporosity in the Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood activated carbon. It
was reported that increase in impregnation ratio of H3PO4 and Eu-
calyptus camaldulensis wood, increased the BET surface area and me-
soporosity in the activated carbon. Furthermore, the BET surface area
and mesoporosity of the activated carbon prepared with ZnCl2 de-
creased with a rising impregnation ratio due to the transformation of
the micropores into macropores.
2.3. Effect of activation temperature and time on wood-derived activated
carbon
Activation time and temperature have a remarkable effect on sur-
face morphology, surface area, and pore size. Tseng et al. [73] reported
the influence of activation time on surface areas and pore diameter of
pine wood activated carbon. The effect of variation of activation time at
fixed activation temperature was observed on pore diameter and sur-
face area. The pore diameter noticeably increased from 28.3 to 33.3 Ǻ,
and surface area increased nearly double (426 m2/g to 902 m2/g) with
the increment of time of activation from 0.5 to 4.0 h at a fixed activa-
tion temperature of 900 °C. This research study shows that time of ac-
tivation has significant contribution in eliminating the considerable
amount of loosely bonded substance to open the pores. Consequently,
increase in the surface area and enlargement of pore diameter was
observed. Cuerda-Corea et al. [41] reported the influence of time and
temperature on the pore size and surface area of cedar wood activated
carbon. In the presence of nitrogen flow rate at 100 mL/min, the car-
bonization temperatures were selected 600, 700 and 800 °C. Then
carbonized samples in the presence of CO2 with flow rate at 100 mL/
min were activated at temperatures of 600, 700, and 800 °C for 2 and
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
4 h. The authors compared surface areas of cedar wood activated
carbon and carbonized cedar wood samples. Activation of cedar wood
into activated carbon in the presence of CO2 gas, activating agents, and
gaseous carbon atoms start with the formation of the surface com-
plexes. The surface complexes formed demonstrate sufficient stability
up to 800 °C, but started degradation of the complex at 900 °C, in the
form of carbon monoxide [158].
Physical activation of oak wood was conducted at different tem-
peratures and time of activation by Zhang et al. [75]. Results have
shown that the longer activation time will give higher adsorption ca-
pacity to the activated carbons, and vice-versa. It apparently showed
that time of activation did not influence the surface characteristics of
oak wood activated carbons at 700 °C substantially. Whereas at 800 °C
activation temperature for 1 h and 2 h activation time have a significant
difference in pore diameter, total pore volume, and the surface areas.
The activated carbon obtained from 1 h of activation time was found to
have much less pore diameter, total pore volume, and the surface areas
compared to 2 h of activation time. It is apparent from the study that
the pore structure and surface area of the oak wood activated carbons
changes significantly during a change of activation time at 800 °C ac-
tivation temperature. The experimental results revealed that different
origin of the precursor materials behaves differently under these con-
ditions.
The wood precursors treated with different chemical agents contain
functional groups of the chemical agents in the final product (activated
carbon). For example, the wood precursors that have been activated
with sulphuric acid contain sulfur atoms in the surface complexes of the
activated carbon [103]. The activated carbons with these kinds of
functional complexes are relatively stable at low temperatures and may
retain the active sites. As a result, the occlusion of the pores in an ac-
tivated carbon may occur. Therefore, an elevated temperature is ne-
cessary to facilitate the activation reaction and remove the chemical
complexes. The activation time and temperature data show that with
the increase of activation time and temperature at fixed activating
agent dosage, the micro-, meso-, and macro-pore volume as well as
surface area increases [103].
A sizeable amount of volatile matter was released gradually from
the biomass during pyrolysis when the pyrolysis temperature was raised
from 700 °C to 900 °C. Consequently, the development of new pores
leads to a gradual increase in the surface areas. Further increase in
temperature with activation time up to 4 h, increased the surface area
of the activated carbon. Longer activation time is required to enlarge
porosity as well as to open choked-up pore entrances and eliminate
complexes. Birch and oak wood were activated under steam atmo-
sphere with a different concentration of phosphoric acid [91]. It was
established that escalating the phosphoric acid dosage during activation
gives rise to micro-pores domination over mesopores (pore size
2–50 nm) in the activated carbon. The activating agent contact time
with wood biomass played a significant role in the formation of me-
sopores. At activating agent contact time between 10 and 20 min, the
formed activated carbon largely contains smaller mesopores (pore size
2–5 nm), accounting for 83% of total volume. While prolonging soaking
of precursor with activating agents enhance the formation of larger
mesopores (with pore size 10–20 nm). The biopolymer constituent in
wood precursor was having a noticeable influence on the properties of
activated carbon. Under similar activation condition, oak wood gave
less proportion of larger size mesopore (pore size 10–50 nm) volume
and a larger contribution of smaller size mesopores (pore size 2–5 nm).
Properties of the activated carbons prepared from oak wood and birch
wood were compared under similar conditions. It was reported that
birch wood activation with phosphoric acid in the presence of steam
atmosphere facilitates the development of highly mesoporous carbon
than that of oak wood [91]. The surface area of the wood-derived ac-
tivated carbon is significantly influenced by the concentration of
phosphoric acid used during activation. The maximum surface area
(2054 m2/g) was achieved at 30% (XP = 0.52) phosphoric acid
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
concentration; further increase in phosphoric acid concentration (50%
~ XP= 0.99) decreased the surface area to 1867 m2/g. A similar effect
of phosphoric acid concentration was observed for pore volume of the
activated carbon. At 30% (XP= 0.52) phosphoric acid concentration the
maximum value of pore volume (0.773 cm3/g) was achieved for birch
wood activated carbon.
The heating rates at different activation temperature and particle
size of wood precursor seem to have no significant effects on the surface
area, pore size, and pore volume of the wood-derived activated carbons.
Nevertheless, time, temperature, and atmosphere of activation had a
remarkable effect on the surface area, pore size, and pore volume of the
wood-derived activated carbons. Klijanienko et al. [91] reported that
comparative study of birch and oak wood chemical activation (H3PO4)
under nitrogen and steam atmosphere. The effect of nitrogen and steam
atmosphere had a different impact on the surface area, pore size, and
pore volume of oak and birch wood activated carbon. The oak wood
chemical activation under N2 atmosphere produces larger surface area
(2553 m2/g) and pore volume (1.61 cm3/g). Whereas, activation under
steam atmosphere produced comparatively small surface area
(2199 m2/g) and low pore volume (1.47 cm3/g) in the oak wood acti-
vated carbon. Birch wood shows opposite results for pore volume and
surface area in the presence of steam and nitrogen atmosphere. It was
observed that steam atmosphere was favorable for the production of
large surface area and high pore volume activated carbons from phos-
phoric acid activation of birch wood. A significant improvement in the
mesoporous volume (1.106 cm3/g), as well as total volume (1.818 cm3/
g) of birch wood, activated carbon was recorded in the presence of a
steam atmosphere. Whereas, in the presence of nitrogen atmosphere the
mesopore volume and total volume were observed to be 0.788 cm3/g
and 1.46 cm3/g, respectively for birch wood activated carbon [91].
Sawdust obtained from China fir wood was converted into activated
carbon by chemical activation with zinc chloride at fixed impregnation
ratio (1:1) and a range of temperature from 400°C. to 600 °C. The pore
size, pore volume, and surface area of activated carbons were compared
when prepared in the presence of vacuum, air, and nitrogen atmosphere
[95]. China fir wood activated carbon prepared in a nitrogen atmo-
sphere was found to be a favorable atmosphere for large surface area,
high mesopore volume, and high total pore volume compared to air,
and vacuum atmosphere. The difference between the vacuum activa-
tion and a nitrogen atmosphere was trivial as compared to air atmo-
sphere during the activation process. The air atmosphere contains
oxygen gas that can damage the micropore structure at elevated tem-
perature. The presence of nitrogen or vacuum will remove the oxygen
during the activation process, that helps in forming pores. Another in-
teresting observation was macropore volume, which was almost un-
affected in all three activation atmospheres [95].
3. Characterizations of wood-derived activated carbons
3.1. Surface area and pore volume of wood-derived activated carbons
Surface texture properties of activated carbons such as pore size
distribution, pore volume, and surface area, are essential characteristics
of activated carbon. The pore size distribution in activated carbon is an
essential attribute to its property that is used to categorize it into micro,
meso, and macro porous. It also designates the activated carbons
structural heterogeneity and a model of solid internal structure [159].
The pore size distribution defines the degree of heterogeneity in the
activated carbon structure. The pore structure and pore size of activated
carbon are most often guided by the nature of the precursor material,
activation conditions, and synthesis method [153].
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
adopted pore size distribution of the activated carbon as unique prop-
erty to classify it into three types: macropores (> 50 nm pore dia-
meter), mesopores (2–50 nm pore diameter), and micropores ( < 2 nm
pore diameter). Since the gaseous pollutant molecules are found in the
9
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
range of 0.4–0.9 nm. Therefore, the size of pores in the activated carbon
became more important to trap gaseous molecules in the suitable size of
pores. The micropore dominated activated carbon can be used for gas
molecules adsorption. However, for liquid molecules adsorption, the
activated carbons should have appreciably mesopores dominated sur-
face so that larger size of hydrated liquid molecules (> 27 nm) can be
fit into its pore. The macroporous activated carbons were found in-
effective for adsorption of either gas or liquid phase solutes.
The surface charge density on the activated carbon largely guided
whether it will absorb the polar or neutral pollutant molecules [152]. A
series of activated carbon production data from the different origin of
precursor material having a different percentage of lignin and cellulose
were analyzed. And it was found that the precursor having a higher
percentage of lignin can produce activated carbons with macropore
domination. Whereas, the precursor having a larger proportion of cel-
lulose yielded activated carbon with high micropore density [153].
Normally, increase in micropores, and mesopores density increased the
surface area of activated carbons, and larger the surface area higher will
be the adsorption capacity. The gas flow rate, activation temperature,
and time had a considerable influence on the micropore and mesopores
formation and consequently the surface area [75]. Zuo et al. [68] re-
ported two types of activated carbons obtained from China fir wood.
The cylindrical activation compartment was used for phosphoric acid
impregnated wood particles in open and closed manner. Highly de-
veloped mesoporous structured activated carbon was obtained when
activation conducted in the closed cylindrical compartment or using the
highly compact mass of wood precursor in an open activation com-
partment. This observation was interpreted as the mesoporous activated
carbon can prepare from the carbonized volatiles and the carbonization
of volatile pyrolytic products. The surface areas of various wood species
based activated carbons are presented in Table 5.
3.2. Surface functional groups and elemental composition of wood-derived
activated carbons
On activation of wood, the volatile groups at the surface evaporate,
and some groups remained stable. Many authors reported these func-
tional group studies through different methods like FTIR (Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy), XPS (x-ray photoelectron spectro-
scopy), CHNS, EDX/EDS, Boehm titration, pHzpc, and elemental ana-
lyses. The chemical nature of the produced wood activated carbons,
solely depends upon the kind of heteroatoms, such as oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur, etc. present at the surface. These hetero atoms or groups accu-
mulated at the surface comes either from the starting material itself or
incorporated during the chemical activation process. The functional
group formed from these heteroatoms and the delocalized electron of
the carbon network structure determine the basic or acidic nature of the
wood-derived activated carbons.
Smith et al. [57] analyzed a surface functional group of douglas fir
wood activated carbon after oxidation with ozone under different
treatment conditions using XPS technique. It was reported that the
chemical functional groups at the surface of douglas fir wood activated
carbons mostly composed of oxygen like -C˭O, -O-C˭O, -O-C- and the
carbon to oxygen ratio was found to be 2:1, 1:1 and 1:2. Likewise,
Danish et al. [124,130] characterized the functional groups at the
surface of the Acacia mangium wood activated carbons prepared under
physical and chemical activation. It was found that under physical ac-
tivation the Acacia mangium wood activated carbons have only carbon
oxygen-based functional groups at the surface. Whereas, phosphoric
acid activated carbons have phosphate (-P-O-C-) groups incorporated at
the surface. Similarly, KOH, CaO, and ZnCl2 activation also brought up
metal ions linked with carbon and oxygen at the carbon surface. Car-
boxylic acid and carbonyl functional groups are more frequently found
in wood activated carbons. Almost all authors reported -C˭O functional
groups at the surface of wood activated carbons.
The elemental composition of wood-derived activated carbons was
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Table 5
Comparison of surface area, micropore surface area, total pore volume, micropore, mesopore volume of the activated carbon formed from wood based biomass.

Raw material BET surfaceArea Micro. Surface Micropore volume Mesopore Volume Total pore volume Porosity (%) Reference
(m2/g) area (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g)

Pine-wood 426 and 902 – 0.218 and 0.316 – – 28.3 and 42.0 [73]
Chestnut wood 777 and 584 – 0.278 and 0.207 0.180 and 0.150 – – [74]
Cedar wood 812 and 374 – 0.323 and 0.141 0.150 and 0.110 – – [74]
Walnut wood 769 and 265 – 0.278 and 0.102 0.090 and 0.070 – – [74]
Oak wood (700 °C) 642(1 h) and – 0.2704 and 0.2450 – 0.4113 and – [75]
644(2 h) 0.4040
Oak wood (800 °C) 945(1 h) and – 0.3212 and 0.3792 – 0.6011 and – [75]
985(2 h) 0.6403
Pine sawdust 1390 544 0.30 – 0.77 – [79]
Fir wood 1131 – 0.48 – 0.87 – [80]
Fir wood 2794 – 0.76 – 1.54 – [80]
Rubber wood (CAC) 822 – – – – – [81]
Rubber wood (SAC) 1092 – – – – – [81]
Rubber wood (CSAC) 954 – – – – – [81]
Fir wood 1255 – – – 0.596 – [82]
Teak sawdust 1150 1047 0.43 – – – [83]
Walnut wood 1033 411 0.634 0.052 0.686 – [84]
Chest nut wood 783 – 0.431 0.009 0.44 – [85]
Fir wood (Steam) 1016 – – – 0.75 – [86]
Fir wood (KOH) 1064 – – – 0.61 – [86]
Tectona grandis sawdust 585 – – – 0.442 – [78]
Peltogyne wood 800 – – – – – [77]
Eucalyptus wood 1491 – 0.66 – 0.80 – [58]
Wattle wood 1032 – 0.46 – 0.56 – [58]
Fir wood 2821 – 0.80 – 1.73 – [87]
Cedar wood 1705 – 0.764 0.112 – – [40]
Cedar wood 1492 – 0.633 0.087 – – [41]
Uruguayan Eucalyptus wood 990 – – – 0.40 – [88]
Oil palm wood 1084 931.6 – – – – [89]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn bark 1239 – 0.981 0.127 1.109 – [90]
Oak wood 2553 – 0.944 0.667 1.611 – [91]
Birch wood 1826 – 0.673 0.788 1.461 – [92]
Oak wood 1723 – 0.631 0.439 – – [93]
Tamarind wood 612 – – – 0.508 – [154]
Sal wood (Shorea robusta)(PAC) 980 – – – – – [102]
Sal wood (Shorea robusta)(CAC) 2279 (IR=0.75) – – – – – [102]
Prosopis ruscifolia wood (self- 2281 – 1.159 0.571 1.73 – [94]
generated atmosphere)
Prosopis ruscifolia wood (flowing air) 1638 – 0.908 0.371 1.28 – [94]
Ailanthus altissima wood 337.16 and 387.28 – – – 0.110 and 0.120 [93]
China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) 1910 – 0.582 1.544 2.126 – [68]
wood
Chinese fir sawdust 1079 – 0.497 0.058 0.566 – [95]
Paulownia wood 2736 1727 0.69 0.697 1.387 – [96]
Almond tree pruning 1080 – 0.57 – 0.95 – [60]
Tamarindus indica wood 540 – – – 0.42 – [115]
China fir 2518 – 0.778 1.601 – – [106]
Pine sawdust 352 342 0.178 – 0.194 – [107]
Poplar wood (Na2CO3) 1579 1158 0.485 – 0.856 – [109]
Poplar wood (K2CO3) 1596 1465 0.632 – 0.880 – [109]
Eucalyptus wood (H2SO4) 979 – 0.350 0.370 0.720 – [110]
Eucalyptus wood (CS2) 582 – 0.210 0.210 0.420 – [110]
Moringa oleifera wood 787.34 – – – 0.760 – [112]
Tamarind wood 1322 – – – 1.042 – [113]
Acacia mangium wood (CaO) 65.53 – – – 0.090 – [123]
Acacia mangium wood (KOH) 5.253 – – – 0.015 – [123]
Algarroba wood 1167 1003 0.462 0.076 0.538 – [116]
Wood apple outer shell 794 196 – – – 90.3 [155]
Euphorbia antiquorum L. wood 918 – 0.236 0.178 0.414 – [156]
Oak wood char 2.73 – 0.0009 0.0016 0.41 – [119]
Oak bark char 1.88 – 0.0007 0.0029 1.06 – [119]
Olive-tree wood 904 – 0.328 0.679 1.198 – [120]
Olive-tree wood 481 – 0.226 0.046 – – [121]
Euphorbia antiquorum L. wood 1099.66 – 0.178 0.236 0.414 – [156]
Grey alder wood 1338 – 0.40 0.48 0.88 – [128]
Acacia mangium wood 377.18 – – – – – [124]
Acacia mangium wood 395.9 317.2 0.126 – 0.176 – [129]
Acacia mangium wood (H3PO4) 1038.77 – 0.337 0.1824 0.555 – [130]
Acacia mangium wood (ZnCl2) 957.47 – 0.357 0.0349 0.422 – [130]
Acacia mangium wood 1767 – – – 1.59 – [133]
Walnut wood 387 m2/g – – – – – [134]
Oak wood 68.52 – – – – – [139]
Astragalus bisulcatus tree 27.79 – – – – – [135]
(continued on next page)

10
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Table 5 (continued)

Raw material BET surfaceArea Micro. Surface Micropore volume Mesopore Volume Total pore volume Porosity (%) Reference
(m2/g) area (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g)

Peanut sticks wood 218.88 – – – 0.0811 – [136]

Pine wood sawdust 1825 – – – – – [64]
Wood based 786 – – – 0.5536 – [132]
Coniferous wood (S4A6) 387 370 0.20 – 0.24 – [69]
Coniferous wood (S4A7) 426 408 0.22 – 0.27 – [69]
Coniferous wood (SA6) 367 352 0.19 – 0.23 – [69]
Walnut wood 31.91 – – – 0.029 – [140]
Rubber wood sawdust 920 – 0.37 – – – [141]
Rubber wood sawdust 1301 – 0.54 – – – [141]
Rubber wood sawdust 606 – 0.25 – – – [141]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood 1875 – 0.949 0.027 0.976 97 [70]
(H1.5)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood(H2) 1889 – 1.063 0.114 1.178 90 [70]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood 2117 – 1.088 0.469 1.557 69 [70]
(H2.5)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood(HK) 2595 – 1.236 0.039 1.275 98.7 [70]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood 1275 – 0.568 0.000 0.553 100 [70]
(Z0.75)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood(Z1.5) 2108 – 1.046 0.013 1.059 98 [70]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood(Z2.5) 1794 – 1.109 0.075 1.184 93 [70]
Paulownia wood 2806 2300 1.196 – 1.746 – [65]
Lawsonia inermis wood 584 483 0.245 – 0.441 – [126]
Jatropha wood 1305 – 0.551 – 0.577 [56]
Wood apple shell 12.07 – – – – – [157]
Eucalyptus grandis sawdust 1429 – 0.0084 – 1.105 – [142]
Indian Shrub wood 1024 – – – 0.572 – [143]

Table 6
Elemental compositions of wood-derived activated carbons.

Activated carbon sample C (%) O (%) H (%) N (%) Other elements (%) Ref.

Ailanthus altissima wooda 86.97 9.010 – – K (2.21) [93]

Acacia mangium wood(KOH-activated)a 83.00 16.42 – – K (0.03) [124]
Oak woodb 85.54 8.32 2.78 0.32 S(0.02) [119,176]
Pine woodb 85.78 8.48 3.07 0.28 S(0.03) [176]
Pine wood (physical activation)b 95.50 3.10 1.00 0.40 S(0.00) [107]
Apple wood (Limonia acidissima)b 65.10 – 4.60 0.04 S(2.35) [108]
Eucalyptus wood (steam activation)b 88.90 9.43 1.62 0.05 S(0.00) [110]
Eucalyptus wood (physical activation)b 68.30 27.10 2.00 0.00 S(0.00) [162]
China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata)b 83.52 10.41 3.02 – P(.75) [68]
Oak wood charb 70.84 13.22 3.16 – – [75]
Acacia mangium wood(physical-activated)a 84.37 151.63 – – – [129]
Acacia mangium wood (H3PO4-activated)a 76.22 17.80 – – P(5.98) [130]
Acacia mangium wood (ZnCl2-activated)a 76.64 14.91 – – Zn(7.08) [130]

a
analyzed through EDX.
b
analyzed through CHNS analysis.

studied through EDX/EDS and CHNS analysis methods by most of the
researchers. The summary of some of the selected wood-derived acti-
vated carbons elemental compositions are reported in Table 6.
3.3. Surface morphology study of wood-derived activated carbons
The porous surface of wood activated carbon can be imaged through
field emission electron microscopy (FESEM). Comparison of paulownia
and Acacia mangium wood activated carbon surfaces are shown in
Figs. 1 and 2. Wood activated carbons become highly porous and attain
honeycomb-like framework after activation under a suitable condition.
Danish et al. [129,130,133] studied the surface morphology of Acacia
mangium wood activated carbon in detail as shown in Fig. 1. The raw
Acacia mangium wood surface (Fig. 1[A]) is shown with partially
opened small pores and flat surface that generated during wood drying.
After physical activation at low activation temperature (500 °C) for 2 h
formed a surface with layered morphology and less pore openings
(Fig. 1[B]). Further rise in temperature of activation till 900 °C for 2 h,
the pores of activated carbons further widen and taken spherical shape
(Fig. 1[C]). Surface morphology of activated carbon prepared from
chemical activation of Acacia mangium wood in the presence of phos-
phoric acid, potassium hydroxide, calcium oxide, and zinc chloride was
compared and shown in the figure (Fig. 1). Among these chemical ac-
tivating agents, phosphoric acid successfully interacted with the Acacia
mangium wood and produced highly porous surface (Fig. 1[D] & [E]). It
was found that when the concentration of phosphoric acid fixed, and
activation temperature increased the pores on the surface increased (as
shown in Fig. 1 [E]). In case of potassium hydroxide activation, keeping
the temperature fixed, the concentration of activating agent was in-
creased. It was observed that at low concentration of KOH, layered ir-
regular shaped pores formed (Fig. 1[F]). Whereas, at higher con-
centration shallow pores with much wider boundaries and some
micropores were found on the surface (as shown in Fig. 1[G]). Calcium
oxide formed channel structured surface with some of them stick to the
surface (Fig. 1[H]). The zinc chloride activated carbon surface of Acacia
mangium wood has pores intermediate between highly porous
(Fig. 1[I]) and low porous. Yorgun and Yildiz [65] reported surface
morphology study for paulownia wood at different activation tem-
perature and activating agent (H3PO4) concentration. It was observed
that the concentration and activation temperature have a greater

11
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
impact on the surface morphology of the activated carbon. The surface
morphology of the paulownia wood derived activated carbons under
different conditions are shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen from the figure,
with the rise of concentration from 1:1–4:1 (H3PO4 to dry wood powder
mass ratio) at a fixed activation temperature of 400 °C. It gives rise
porous surface with the widening of pores at each concentration in-
crement (as shown in Fig. 2 [A-D]). When the concentration of H3PO4
was fixed at 4:1 and temperature increased from 300° to 600°C with the
interval of 100 °C, the pores started widening. At maximum activation
temperature of 600 °C (as shown in Fig. 2[E-H]), pores got collapse, and
heat shrinkage occurred.
Fig. 2. Scanning electron micrograph of paulownia wood activated carbons prepared at different impregnation ratios (mass of activating agent to mass of wood powder) [A] 1:1 [B] 2:1
[C] 3:1 [D] 4:1 (carbonization temperature 400 ᵒC). And at different temperatures [E] 300 ᵒC [F] 400 ᵒC [G] 500 ᵒC and [H] 600 ᵒC (at fixed impregnation ratio 4:1) [65].
12
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
Fig. 1. FESEM images of [A] raw Acacia mangium
wood [B] physically activated Acacia mangium wood
carbon at 500 ᵒC for 2 h [C] physically activated
Acacia mangium wood carbon at 900 ᵒC for 2 h, [D]
H3PO4 activated Acacia mangium wood carbon at 500
ᵒC for 2 h [E] H3PO4 activated Acacia mangium wood
carbon at 900 ᵒC for 2 h [F] KOH activated Acacia
mangium wood carbon (impregnation ratio 1:2, KOH
to wood powder weight ratio) at 500 ᵒC for 2 h [G]
KOH activated Acacia mangium wood carbon (im-
pregnation ratio 1:6, KOH to wood powder weight
ratio) at 500 ᵒC for 2 h [H] CaO activated Acacia
mangium wood carbon (impregnation ratio 1:2 CaO
to wood powder weight ratio) at 500 ᵒC for 2 h [I]
ZnCl2 activated Acacia mangium wood carbon (im-
pregnation ratio 1:2 ZnCl2 to wood powder weight
ratio) at 500 ᵒC for 2 h [129,130,133].
4. Applications of wood-derived activated carbons in adsorption
study
Porous activated carbon is a unique and versatile material which
can be used as an excellent adsorbent against various toxicants. It can
be used extensively for the removal of inorganic and organic water-
soluble chemical pollutants from municipal and industrial (food pro-
cessing, chemical manufacturing, pharmaceutical, paper, and cosmetic
industries) wastewater. It can also be used in air pollution control, such
as mercury vapor in coal-based power plants, Pb suspension from in-
dustrial and automobile exhausts, and in a variety of other gas-phase
applications. Highly porous activated carbons are being increasingly
applied in the field of hydrometallurgy for precious metals recovery, it
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Table 7
Comparison of adsorption capacities and removal efficiency of the activated carbon prepared from various wood based biomass against various toxicants.

Adsorbents Adsorbate Adsorption capacity Concentration range Contact Time Temp. (°C) pH Reference
(mg/g) (mg/L) (min.)

Pinewood phenol 240 94110 7200 30 6.4 [73]

Pinewood 3-chlorophenol 415 128560 7200 30 6.4 [73]
Pinewood o-cresol 349 108130 7200 30 6.4 [73]
Pinewood Astrazon Blue FRR 1119 400 7200 30 5.4 [73]
Pinewood Telon Blue AFN 1176 400 7200 30 6.5 [73]
Pinewood Methylene blue 556 200 7200 30 6.6 [73]
Mahogany sawdust Direct Blue 2B 518 – 150 30 3.0 [76]
Mahogany sawdust Direct Green B 327.9 – 150 30 3.0 [76]
Eucalyptus wood phenol [162]
Tectona grandis sawdust Phenol 13.45 10–100 350 25 3.5 [78]
Rubber wood Cu(II) 5.72 40 240 30 6.0 [163]
Pine sawdust Malachite Green 370.37 50–2000 180 26 – [79]
Rubber wood (CAC) Bismark Brown dye 164 100–1200 420 – 4.5 [81]
Rubber wood (SAC) Bismark Brown dye 2000 100–1200 420 – 4.5 [81]
Rubber wood (CSAC) Bismark Brown dye 1111 100–1200 420 – 4.5 [81]
Rubber wood Cr (VI) 44.05 200 300 30 2.0 [164]
Fir wood Cr (VI) 180.3 5–200 25 3.0 [82]
Fir wood p-chlorophenol 416.7 200 4320 30 – [87]
Fir wood p-nitrophenol 539.0 200 4320 30 – [87]
Fir wood Methylene blue 580.1 200 4320 30 – [87]
Fir wood Basic brown 1 1476.3 200 4320 30 – [87]
Fir wood Acid blue 74 359.1 200 4320 30 – [87]
Fir wood Phenol 274.8 200 4320 30 – [87]
Fir wood p-Cresol 333.3 200 4320 30 – [87]
Woody Birch Hg(II) [71]
Oil palm wood Methylene Blue 90.9 10–250 – 30 – [89]
Oak wood Zn(II) 255.0 13.64 300 25 – [92]
Tamarind wood Pb(II) 134.22 40 – 25 6.5 [154]
Sal wood Endosulfan 1.774 5–50 360 30 5.8–6.6 [165]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn bark Methylene blue 427 – – – – [90]
Prosopis ruscifolia wood Cu(II) 27.94 50 1440 28 6.0 [94]
Ailanthus altissima wood Acid blue 1 0.453 11.33 225 10–45 – [93]
China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) Methylene blue 600 800–2700 120 25 – [68]
wood
China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) Vitamin B12 500 550–1550 1440 25 – [68]
wood
Euphorbia antiquorum L. wood Basic Red 29 166.67 25–100 90 30 – [99]
Euphorbia antiquorum L. wood Acid Blue 92 95.92 25–100 100 50 8.05 [100]
Tamarind wood Pb(II) 43.85 10–50 30 30 5.68 [101]
Sal wood (Shorea robusta) Pb(II) 8.5 10 – 30 4.0 [102]
Rubber wood sawdust Cu(II) 5.6 25 208 30 6.5 [166]
Outer rind of wood apple Crystal violet 19.8 10–100 – – – [103]
Outer rind of wood apple Methylene blue 40.1 10–100 – – – [103]
Shear butter wood(Ferric chloride) Phenol 0.0120 0.1–2 – – 2.6 [104]
Shear butter wood (orthophosphoric Phenol 0.0821 0.1–2 – – 3.3 [104]
acid)
Shear butter wood (Trioxonitrate (v) Phenol 0.0890 0.1–2 – – 3.4 [104]
acid)
Shear butter wood (HCl) Phenol 0.02884 0.1–2 – – – [104]
Shear butter bark (Ferric chloride) Phenol 0.0436 0.1–2 – – 2.1 [104]
Shear butter bark (orthophosphoric Phenol 0.0482 0.1–2 – – 2.7 [104]
acid)
Shear butter bark(Trioxonitrate (v) Phenol 0.0494 0.1–2 – – 3.6 [104]
acid)
Shear butter bark (HCl) Phenol 0.1084 0.1–2 – – – [104]
Balsamodendron caudatum wood Direct Red 81 98.2 20–60 240 30, 45 and 60 6.5 [105]
Apple wood shell Cr (IV) 13.74 90–200 – 26 2.0 [108]
Rubber wood sawdust EDTA 45.04 93.05 – 186.1 240 30 5.0 [167]
Eucalyptus wood Hg (II) 64.67 40 – 25 7.0 [110]
Moringa oleifera wood Ni (II) 19.084 100 240 30 6.0 [112]
Moringa oleifera wood Cu (II) 11.534 100 240 30 6.0 [112]
Moringa oleifera wood Zn (II) 17.668 100 240 30 6.0 [112]
Tamarind wood Malachite green oxalate 291.73 100–300 1440 30 – [113]
Poplar wood Acid Red 18 3.91 25–100 60 – 7.0 [114]
Tamarind wood Cr(VI) 3.39 10–50 – 10–50 2.0–10.0 [98]
Wood apple outer shell Methylene blue 35.1 10–60 420 – 6.5 [155]
Euphorbia antiquorum L. wood Direct Blue 53 145.45 25–100 120 30, 40 and 50 8.22 [156]
Wood apple shell Methylene blue 48.31 100 120 299.4 7.0 [118]
Jatropha husk phenol 49 20–100 – – 6.8 [122]
Oak wood char Cr(VI) 3.03, 4.08, 4.93 1–100 2880 25, 35 and 45 2.0 [119]
Oak bark char Cr(VI) 4.61, 7.43, 7.51 1–100 2880 25, 35 and 45 2.0 [119]
Acacia mangium wood Cr(VI) 37.16 60 120 313.15 K 2.0 [124]
Acacia mangium wood Methyl orange 7.54 – 48 h 25 – [129]
(continued on next page)

13
M. Danish, T. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21

Table 7 (continued)

Adsorbents Adsorbate Adsorption capacity Concentration range Contact Time Temp. (°C) pH Reference
(mg/g) (mg/L) (min.)

Derris indica wood Cr (III) 84.50% 10–80 mg/l 15 – 3.37 [131]

Acacia mangium wood Methyl orange 181 – 24 h 55 – [168]
Walnut wood RB5 19.34 20–60 405 24 5.0 [134]
Oak wood Malachite green 4.34 7.5–25 93 25 – [139]
Oak wood Cd(II) 3.13 6–20 93 25 – [139]
Astragalus bisulcatus tree Bromophenol blue 51.21 8–20 50 27 1.0 [135]
Peanut sticks wood Methylene blue 2.57 7–20 45 27 5.0 [136]
Pine sawdust Methylene blue 300 – – – – [64]
Pine wood Sulfamethoxazole 131 – 120 25 7.0 [169]
Lawsonia inermis wood Bentazon 169.49 20–80 90 20 3.5 [126]
Wood apple shell Cr(VI) 151.51 75–200 120 27 1.0 [127]
Jatropha wood Cr(VI) 140.84 10–100 360 40 2.0 [56]
Wood apple shell Cd(II) 27.64 100–420 mg/dm3 240 27 6.5 [157]
Hybrid Eucalyptus wood Cd(II) – – 30 22 – [137]
Eucalyptus grandis sawdust Cr(VI) 6.29 10–80 120 30 2.0 [142]
Indian shrub wood Methylene blue 257.73 50–300 85 60 10 [143]
Walnut wood Acid Red 18 30.3 100 90 25 5.0 [144]
Poplar wood Acid Red 18 3.91 100 90 25 5.0 [144]
Pistacia atlantica wood Methyl orange 125 5–25 60 – 2.0 [145]

can also function as catalysts and catalyst supports. Application of large
surface area activated carbons in medicine for the remediation of toxins
and bacterial infections in certain ailments are well known. Activated
carbons are extensively used because of their adsorptive properties
arising due to the largest available surface area and suitable pores
present in their extensive honeycomb-like network structure. The ac-
tivated carbon surface can readily modify their surface chemistry in the
presence of suitable chemicals [27]. High porosity, large surface area,
and various functional groups in the activated carbons are directly
linked with the precursor as well as the method of activation. The
physical and chemical properties of activated carbons considerably
influence its adsorptive properties. The applications of wood activated
carbons in adsorption are summarized in Table 7.
4.1. Dyes removal through wood-derived activated carbons
The dye molecular structure consists of chromophores that are re-
sponsible for colors in the visible light range. The auxochromes groups
provide the affinity towards the oppositely charged surface and water
solubility nature of the dye molecules. The applications of natural as
well as synthetic dyes are common in food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical,
rubber, textiles, plastics, paper, and leather industries. Wastewater ef-
fluent from these mentioned industries contains dye residues. The
presence of small quantity of dyes in the wastewater is visible and toxic
to many aquatic plants and animals [172]. Dye concentration in ponds
and lakes water adversely affect photosynthesis phenomena for aquatic
plants as it reduces light penetration in water [173,174]. Dye effluents
exposure to human and animal may cause immediate life-threatening
effects, such as jaundice, quadriplegia, increased heart rate, vomiting,
shock, tissue necrosis, and cyanosis. Low concentration of dye exposure
through water or food to human and animal for a long time may cause a
chronic problem, as some synthetic dyes are extremely carcinogen and
toxic [175]. Hence, it is essential to reduce the dye concentration in
water and wastewater to the minimum possible level as accepted by the
health and environmental laws of the various countries. Activated
carbons derived from wood biomass have been studied by the various
researchers and research groups for the exclusion of different types of
water-soluble dyes.
Danish et al. [168] studied the efficiency of Acacia mangium wood-
derived activated carbon against methyl orange dye. The batch ex-
periments were carried out using face-centered central composite de-
sign approach of response surface methodology to optimize the ad-
sorbent dosage, temperature, and contact time for maximum adsorption
capacity and percentage removal efficiency of methyl orange dye. The
design experiment data showed that the optimum conditions for the
maximum adsorption capacity and percent removal were 0.515 g/L,
55.0 °C, and 24 h for activated carbon dose, temperature, and contact
time, respectively. At optimum operating variables, the maximum ad-
sorption capacity and percentage removal were recorded to be 181 mg/
g and 90.5%, respectively. Thermodynamics and kinetics of methyl
orange dye removal under optimum values of operating variables were
studied. It was found that it followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic
rate model with endothermic and spontaneous.
Pinewood activated carbon was used for the removal three synthetic
dyes methylene blue, astrazon blue, and telon blue [73]. Results re-
vealed that there is the deep impact of duration of activation on the
adsorption of dyes because of increase in surface area and pore volume
of the activated carbon. Activated carbon from Mahogany sawdust was
prepared and applied as an adsorbent for the removal of direct dye from
textile effluents [76]. The sawdust derived activated carbon was
showing effective removal efficiency for direct Blue 2B and direct green
B dyes. The adsorption data against time followed the pseudo-second
kinetic model. The Langmuir model was verified through isotherm data,
and the maximum adsorption capacity of Mahogany sawdust activated
carbon at pH 3.0 was found to be 518 mg/g. Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) and pine sawdust-derived activated carbon removal efficiency
compared against malachite green dye [79]. The removal efficiency of
the activated carbons was found to be enhanced in the pH range of
6.0–10.0 of the malachite green dye solution. The PET-derived acti-
vated carbon has low dye adsorption capacity compared to pinewood
activated carbon, though it attained fast equilibrium time. The ad-
sorption data of malachite green dye against time showed that both
activated carbons followed pseudo-second-order kinetics model.
Kumar et al. [81] used rubber wood sawdust to develop three dif-
ferent activated carbons that were used against Bismark brown dye
(mostly used in leather industry). The result shows the following trend
of adsorption capacities against the dye: steam activated rubber wood
carbon (SAC) > chemically (H3PO4) followed by steam-activated
rubber wood carbon (CSAC) > commercial activated carbon (CC) >
chemically (H3PO4) activated rubber wood carbon (CAC). Commercial
activated carbon (CC) was taken for comparison purpose. The rubber
wood-derived activated carbons, as well as commercial activated
carbon, followed the Langmuir isotherm for Bismark brown dye re-
moval. However, steam activated rubber wood carbon (SAC) was found
to have maximum adsorption capacity (2000 mg/g) against bismark
brown dye in batch adsorption experiment. The authors also verified
adsorption capacity of SAC through fixed bed column experiment and
reported adsorption capacity 1125 mg/g for 200 mg/L bismark brown

14
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
dye solution with a flow rate 10 mL/min. Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
etching and CO2 gasification of fir wood during activation can produce
very large surface area (2821 m2/g) and high pore volume (1.73 cm3/g)
activated carbon [87]. The activated carbon so obtained from fir wood
was used against basic brown 1 (adsorption capacity 1476.3 mg/g),
acid blue 74 dyes (adsorption capacity 359.1 mg/g), and methylene
blue (adsorption capacity 580.1 mg/g) for efficient removal. The ad-
sorption of these dyes on to fir wood activated carbon was monolayered
and followed Elovich equation.
Sivakumar and Palanisamy [117] explored the adsorption pro-
spective of chemically activated carbon prepared from Euphorbia An-
tiquotum L wood by using phosphoric acid. The direct blue 53 dye
solution was treated with the prepared activated carbon. It was ob-
served that the adsorption was dependent on the solution pH, adsorbate
concentration, and temperature of the solution. At pH 2.0, the max-
imum adsorption capacity (58.4 mg/g) was observed, increased in pH
of the solution decreased the adsorption capacity. The kinetic data was
found to follow the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Thermo-
dynamic studies confirmed endothermic and spontaneous nature of the
adsorption of direct blue 53 dye. The desorption of the dye at pH 10.0
was evaluated with maximum recovery of 19.29%.
4.2. Metal ions removal through wood-derived activated carbons
Heavy metals have been considered as a serious environmental and
human health hazard. Unlike the aqueous and non-aqueous solution of
the organic pollutants, which are often mineralized into harmless
constituents. The metal ions do not degrade into harmless end products,
only for some metal ions change of oxidation states takes place. Hence,
elimination of toxic metals from water stream is one of the most chal-
lenging environmental problems.
Toxic metals in untreated industrial solid waste and effluent re-
leased into the sewage and water channels that carry it to the rivers and
part of it percolate into underground aquifers. The metal ions con-
centration in ponds, river, and seawater, get accumulated to the bodies
of aquatic creatures and finally entering the food chain. Through food,
it can accumulate in animal and human body above tolerance limit that
will be responsible for poisoning, cancer, and brain damage. Wood
biomass-derived activated carbon has been systematically explored as
adsorbents for the separation of different metal ions from water.
Danish et al. [124] studied the sorption properties of Acacia man-
gium wood-derived activated carbon for Cr(VI) removal. Sorption of Cr
(VI) ions primarily depends on pH of the adsorbate-adsorbent solution,
maximum removal of Cr(VI) was reported at pH 2.0. Mostly, metal ions
removal is favorable in the pH range 4–6, but the presence of HCr2O7−
ions in the solution make Cr(VI) adsorption at exceptional low pH
value. The adsorption data against time followed the pseudo-second-
order kinetic model. The Cr(VI) sorption on to physically activated
carbon of Acacia mangium wood followed multi-layer adsorption model
(Freundlich isotherm). The thermodynamic parameters predicted
spontaneous and endothermic nature of Cr(VI) adsorption.
Eucalyptus wood derived activated carbon, and it's chemically
(sulphuric acid) modified activated carbon had been successfully uti-
lized for the separation of Hg (II) from aqueous solution, at different pH
and temperatures [110]. The adsorption results at pH 3.0, 7.0, and 10.0
showed that the sulphuric acid modified activated carbon was more
efficient for the removal of Hg (II) at pH 3.0. But a variation of tem-
perature has not any significant effect on the adsorption behavior of the
sulphuric acid modified activated carbon of Eucalyptus wood. These
results can be explained based on the net charge on the surface of
modified activated carbon of Eucalyptus wood and the Hg (II) ions. The
pHzpc of the sulphuric acid modified activated carbon of Eucalyptus
wood was reported to be 6.0. Hence, at solution pH 3.0 the net positive
charge generated on the activated carbon surface. The experimental
results revealed that at pH 3.0, the Hg (II) should be in the form of
(HgCl2)(HgCl3)ˉ. Therefore, the force of electrostatic attraction between
15
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
the mercury and sulphuric acid modified activated carbon of Eu-
calyptus wood surfaces have significant contribution in enhancing ad-
sorption percentage (~95%).
Wood and bark of Oak and pine species of wood was converted into
activated carbons and applied against an aqueous solution of Cd(II), Pb
(II), and As(III) ions [176]. The optimum pH of the adsorbate-adsorbent
solution was identified in this experiment for maximizing metal ions
uptake by the activated carbon. It was found that for Cd(II) and Pb(II)
ions the minimum uptake by the wood-derived activated carbon was at
pH ~2.0 and increase to 90–95% with an increase in pH (~5). Further
increase in pH (pH ≥ 8.0) of adsorbate solution cause the removal of
metal ions not only through sorption but also by the precipitation of
metal ions due to the formation of metal salts with OHˉ ions. The low
sorption of Cd(II) and Pb(II) ions at pH(~2) was owing to the compe-
tition between the fast-moving positively charged low molecular weight
ions like H+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, etc., with the heavy metal ions to
occupy the opposite charge sites on the surface of activated carbon. At
low pH of the adsorbate solution, plenty of hydrogen ions will be
available in the solution. Therefore, the negative charge sites of the
adsorbent covered by the freely moving H+ ions. Hence, Cd(II) and Pb
(II) were not accommodated effectively on the surface of activated
carbon. The optimized pH of the adsorbate solution was reported to be
5.0 to overcome H+ ion interference during adsorption for the effective
uptake of Cd(II) and Pb(II). The As(III) adsorption behavior onto pine
and oak wood-derived activated carbon was different from those of Cd
(II) and Pb(II) at pH variation experiments. At pH ≤ 2.0, only oak bark
activated carbon was found to be effective to remove As(III) ions from
solution. Whereas, other adsorbents from pine and oak wood derived
activated carbons had almost negligible adsorption. Commercial acti-
vated carbon (F-400) was also tried against As(III) ions; the results
revealed that the removal increased with increasing pH from 2 to 4,
then become almost constant in the pH range 4–10. Further, rise in pH
from 4.0 to 5.0 was unfavorable for adsorption and at pH ≥ 5.0, the
adsorption reduced and approached almost zero. Finally, the study
concluded that pH 3.5 was the optimized value for effective removal of
As(III).
Rubber wood-derived activated carbon was used for Cr(VI) ions
removal in batch adsorption experiments [164]. It was reported that Cr
(VI) removal was pH dependent phenomena and favored at low pH
values (pH~2.0). The kinetics of the Cr(VI) removal from aqueous so-
lution followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. To identify the
adsorption mechanism of Cr(VI) onto rubberwood activated carbon,
intraparticle diffusion model at different temperatures were applied. It
was observed that the removal followed diffusion process. Álvarez et al.
[177] synthesized activated carbon in acidic and basic medium and
used it as an adsorbent for the removal of Cr(VI) ions from industrial
sewage wastewater as well as synthetic wastewater. The activated
carbons were prepared from Scandinavian pine wood at temperatures
450 and 650 °C in the presence of acidic (AlCl3, HCl, H3PO4, and
H2SO4) and basic (NaOH) activating agents. Chemically treated Scan-
dinavian pine wood activated carbon was evaluated for surface area
and Cr(VI) removal efficiency. Result revealed that H3PO4 activation
produces activated carbon with a high surface area and high efficiency
for Cr(VI) removal at short equilibrium time. Whereas, NaOH treated
activated carbon gives very low surface area with very low adsorption
of Cr(VI) at longer equilibrium time. Recovery of Cr(VI) from the spent
activated carbons were also performed through the diluted sulphuric
acid solution. Except H3PO4 treated Scandinavian pine wood activated
carbon, all other activated carbons got exhausted after the third cycle of
recovery. The recovered activated carbons were found to have ~19%
adsorption efficiency against Cr(VI) ions. Whereas, 95% Cr(VI) removal
efficiency was observed for H3PO4 treated Scandinavian pine wood
activated carbon, after three cycles of recovery.
Acar and Eren [178] synthesized sulphuric acid treated poplar wood
sawdust-derived activated carbons. The adsorption capacities were
compared between the raw poplar wood sawdust and the chemically
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
treated poplar wood sawdust-derived activated carbons for Cu(II) re-
moval from aqueous solution in batch mode experiment. It was re-
ported that the maximum removal efficiency of poplar wood sawdust
activated carbon against Cu(II) was 92.38% at pH 5.0, whereas, for raw
poplar wood sawdust was 47.05% at pH 4.0. The adsorption data were
correlated with a zeta potential of the surface of the adsorbent. It was
reported that the values of zeta potential followed the adsorption effi-
ciency. Higher zeta potential at the adsorbent surface causes higher
adsorption percentage and vice versa. At pH 5.0 the zeta potential was
recorded − 74.5 mV for sulphuric acid treated poplar wood sawdust
activated carbon, and zeta potential − 48.4 mV was recorded for raw
poplar wood sawdust at pH 4.0 for maximum Cu(II) removal.
Adsorption of Pb2+ ions and Pb2+-citric acid complex from aqueous
solution through rubber wood derived activated carbon was reported
[179]. The mechanism of adsorption was explored through variation in
pH of the adsorbate solution as well as adsorption time. The adsorption
percentage was reported to be maximum at pH 5.0, for both Pb2+ and
Pb2+-citric acid complex adsorbates. The solution pH, pHzpc of ad-
sorbent, and distribution of the species of Pb2+ and Pb2+-citric acid
complex in the solution had a significant role during the adsorption.
The kinetic studies suggested that the equilibrium of the adsorption
reaction was achieved after 4 h of commencement of contact time and
followed pseudo-first-order kinetic model. The adsorption isotherm
data suggested the monolayer adsorption (Langmuir model), and the
sorption was pore diffusion controlled.
4.3. Pesticides and herbicides removal through wood-derived activated
carbons
Agricultural practices create major polluting agents that are under
the category of pesticides and herbicides. During the past two decades,
environmental concern has arisen due to pesticides contamination in
the vegetables and irrigational wastewater. The major threat they pose
to grazing animals and vegetarian population. The presence of pesti-
cides and herbicides in water, as well as in soil, pose a serious threat to
the ecosystem. Globally pesticides and herbicides are produced in a
large amount and frequently used in agricultural practices [7]. Different
variety of pesticides have been tested in an extensive research for
mutagenicity assays covering gene mutation, DNA damage, and chro-
mosomal alteration. Therefore, the removal of pesticides from potable
water, irrigational water, vegetables, and cereals are the major chal-
lenge for the contemporary researchers. Wood-derived activated carbon
has been explored as an adsorbent for the separation of various pesti-
cides from water and wastewater.
Omri et al. [126] reported the adsorption capacities of Lawsonia
inermis wood activated carbon against bentazon aqueous solution. The
repercussions of different adsorption variables, such as the contact
time, initial bentazon concentration, activated carbon dosage, stirring
rate, pH, and temperature on removal efficiency of Lawsonia inermis
wood-derived activated carbon was observed in a batch experiment.
Spontaneous and exothermic nature of bentazone adsorption was ver-
ified through thermodynamic parameters such as a change in Gibbs free
energy and change in enthalpy during adsorption. The adsorption iso-
therm data were analyzed through various isotherm models such as
Freundlich, Langmuir, and Temkin models. Among the tested model,
Langmuir model provided the best fit line to the experimental isotherm
data. The maximum adsorption capacity (169.49 mg/g) at 20 °C was
calculated through Langmuir model. The adsorption system was fol-
lowed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The adsorption of ben-
tazone followed complex mechanism; the intra-particle diffusion was
found not to be solely rate-controlling mechanism during adsorption.
Mishra and Patel [165] reported the adsorption efficiency of low-cost
charcoal derived from sal wood (Shorea robusta, family—Diptero car-
paceae) for endosulfan removal from contaminated water. The en-
dosulfan adsorption isotherm data were applied to linearized isotherm
models like Langmuir, Brunner Emmet and Teller (BET), and
16
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
Freundlich model to determine the maximum adsorption capacity of sal
wood charcoal. The adsorption efficiency of sal wood-derived charcoal
increased significantly compared to raw sal wood sawdust. The kinetics
of the adsorption reaction was studied by changing various parameters
such as sal wood charcoal dosages, initial endosulfan concentrations,
and particle size of charcoal. The experimental data analyses revealed
that the rate of endosulfan removal was found to be increased with
increasing initial concentration of endosulfan in the range of 5–15 mg/l
and percent removal increased with the decrease of wood charcoal
particle size. The first order reversible kinetic model was established for
endosulfan removal. The removal efficiency of sal wood charcoal
against the pesticide (endosulfan) was found to be 94%. After the first
adsorption of endosulfan, the sal wood charcoal was regenerated with
dilute HNO3 and HCl. The regenerated sal wood charcoal was found to
have a moderate removal efficiency of 87% in second-time use. The Sal
wood charcoal was found to be efficient and cost-effective adsorbent for
pesticide removal. This adsorbent can be widely used in rural areas
because of its simple preparation method and abundantly available raw
material (sal wood).
4.4. Phenols removal through wood-derived activated carbons
Presence of phenols cause unpleasant odor and taste to potable
water and can affect adversely on biochemical processes inside living
organism. Phenol and phenolic derivative compounds are widely used
as a precursor in the synthesis of colors, plastics, insecticides, herbi-
cides, pesticides, and fungicides. The disintegration of these commonly
used chemicals leads to the formation of phenol and its derivatives that
contaminate the water, air, and soil [180].
Ramakrishna and Namasivayam [122] prepared ZnCl2 treated ja-
tropha husk activated carbon for the removal of phenols. The removal
capacity of Jatropha husk activated carbon against phenol was reported
to be 49 mg/g at pH 6.8. Adsorption kinetics of phenol removal was
followed pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The experimental iso-
therm data were better fitted with linear Freundlich model compared to
the D–R and Langmuir models. Adsorption mechanism was explained
through ion exchange methods and intra-particle/pore diffusion as data
verified by Bangham's model. Mohanty et al. [78] reported the removal
of phenol from aqueous solutions using Tectona grandis wood sawdust
derived activated carbon. The prepared activated carbon has the pro-
mising capability to remove phenol from hydrated solutions. The ex-
perimental data were applied to the Lagergren, pseudo-second-order,
and intraparticle diffusion models to identify the kinetics and me-
chanism of adsorption. It was verified through mathematical modeling
that the experimental data followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic
model with chemisorption mechanism. The solution pH had a sig-
nificant role during the sorption of phenol. The maximum phenol re-
moval capacity of Tectona grandis wood activated carbon was found to
be 2.82 mg/g at pH 3.5. The experimental data of phenol removal ki-
netics may be helpful in designing a treatment plant with precise con-
tact time for phenol loaded wastewaters.
4.5. Miscellaneous pollutants removal through wood-derived activated
carbons
Zou et al. [68] synthesized activated carbon from China fir wood
through chemical activation (phosphoric acid) route under two dif-
ferent conditions. The chemically impregnated wood kept inside the
cylindrical reactor in open and closed manner. In the closed cylindrical
reactor, the activated carbon formed had more mesopores compared to
open cylindrical reactor activation. The high density of mesopores in
activated carbons, noticeably enhanced the adsorption capacity of
China fir wood activated carbon against vitamin B12. The maximum
adsorption capacity of China fir wood activated carbon for vitamin B12
was reported to be 500 mg/g. Krishnan et al. [167] studied the ad-
sorption properties of chemically treated (K2CO3) steam pyrolyzed
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
rubber wood sawdust activated carbon (SDAC). The adsorption beha-
vior of SDAC was compared with commercial activated carbon (CAC)
against a chelating agent (EDTA) from aqueous solutions. The EDTA
adsorption experiment was conducted in batches to monitor and opti-
mize the removal efficiency of SDAC. The adsorption parameters, such
as solution pH, equilibrium time, initial EDTA concentration, and
rubber wood-derived activated carbon dosage were optimized for the
effective removal of EDTA. The maximum adsorption capacity of SDAC
(0.526 mmol/g) against EDTA was observed at pH of 5.0 with equili-
brium time of 4 h, initial EDTA concentration of 0.50 mmol/L, and
SDAC dosage of 2.0 g/L. To identify the kinetics of adsorption of EDTA,
the experimental data were fitted to various kinetic models. The
pseudo-first-order was established to be an appropriate kinetic model.
The adsorption isotherm data were also applied to many theoretical
isotherm models. The Langmuir isotherm model was found to be a
suitable model to explain the monolayer adsorption behavior of EDTA
onto SDAC. The comparison of the adsorption behavior of SDAC with
commercial activated carbon (CAC) was conducted over the selected
range of pH (2.0–8.0). It was reported that maximum adsorption of
EDTA onto SDAC took place in the pH range of 4.0–6.0. Whereas for
CAC the pH range was 5.0–5.5. This result shows that SDAC was more
effective for removal of EDTA in acidic solutions. The adsorption ca-
pacity of SDAC against EDTA was found to be 0.526 mmol/g that was
higher than the commercial and other activated carbons, which is re-
ported in the range of 0.193–0.439 mmol/g. Farhan et al. [181] studied
the usefulness of activated carbons prepared through chemical activa-
tion (using H3PO4, H2SO4, and BaCl2) of sawdust of Dalbergia sissoo,
Cedrus deodara, and Eucalyptus spp. The prepared activated carbon was
evaluated against COD and color of wastewater effluent of the local
paper industry. The experiment was conducted in batch-mode to ex-
plore the effect of operating parameters such as contact time, activated
carbon dosage, wastewater concentration, and solution pH. The Cedrus
deodara wood-derived activated carbon was found to be most effective
against COD and color. The results showed that 93% COD reduction
with 100% color removal could be achieved with Cedrus deodara wood-
derived activated carbon. The Dalbergia sissoo wood-derived activated
carbon was found to have maximum percent reduction of COD by 80%
and color by 91%. While Eucalyptus spp. wood derived activated carbon
was having only 74% and 85% removal efficiency of COD and color of
wastewater sample, respectively. The adsorption efficiency of activated
carbons derived from sawdust of different wood species against COD
and color of industrial wastewater was found in the following order:
Cedrus deodara wood > Dalbergia sissoo wood > Eucalyptus spp.
wood. The quality of wastewater after activated carbon filtration was
checked and found to be suitable for direct discharge into water
channels or can be used for irrigation. A useful application of activated
carbons derived from locally available wood biomass by-product was
successfully demonstrated by the researcher against the paper industry
wastewater. Heidari et al. [70] reported the adsorption of CO2 gas onto
the activated carbon derived from Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood
through chemical activation method. Activated carbon is identified as
being an appropriate adsorbent for CO2 adsorption due to its large
surface area and highly microporous structure. The adsorption capacity
of eucalyptus wood-derived activated carbon against CO2 gas at the
different pressures and temperatures were reported. The Langmuir and
Freundlich isotherm models were applied to explore the adsorption
behavior of CO2 gas onto eucalyptus wood activated carbon. The ad-
sorption results revealed that the low temperature and high micropore
volume enhanced the capturing of CO2 gas. The adsorption capacity of
KOH treated eucalyptus wood activated carbon against CO2 gas was
found to be 4.1 mmol/g, which is much higher compared to commercial
activated carbons (1.5 mmol/g) at applied gas pressure 1 bar and tem-
perature 303 K. Tonucci et al. [169] reported the sulfamethoxazole
(SMX) adsorption from water samples using activated carbon derived
from Pinus wood. The activated carbon exhibited favorable SMX re-
moval with maximum adsorption capacity of 131 mg/g at 25 °C. The
17
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
monolayer adsorption of SMX onto pinus wood activated carbon ver-
ified the Langmuir isotherm model. Exothermic and spontaneous nature
of the heterogeneous adsorption reaction was confirmed through
thermodynamic parameters. The adsorption data against time was ap-
plied to various kinetic models, and the pseudo-second-order model
was found to be the best fit to the adsorption data.
4.6. Possible mechanism of adsorption study
Mathematical models can be applied to explore the adsorption
mechanism of different adsorbent. The knowledge of migration me-
chanism of the solute molecules from solution to the solid surface of
adsorbent is necessary to formulate the effective adsorption mechanism
of certain pollutants. The adsorption of solute molecules consisted of
various oppositely charged ionic interaction mechanism, such as dipole-
dipole, dipole-induced dipole and induced dipole-induced dipole, che-
mical bonding, hydrogen bonding, and ion exchange. The surface
functional groups of the adsorbent and its effect on the removal process
are studied to explain the adsorbate-adsorbent interaction.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is most commonly
used technique for the identification of the adsorbent surface functional
group and thus helps in the investigation of the interaction between
adsorbate-adsorbent. Surface characterization parameters of activated
carbons, such as proton binding capacity, surface functional groups,
pores size, and pHzpc play significant role in exploring the adsorption
mechanisms. Some researchers used photoelectron spectroscopy tech-
nique to identify the binding properties of the adsorbate and adsorbent
[182].
Most of the functional groups participated in the wood binding
process are present in cell walls. The cell wall of wood is made up of
cellulose molecules, organized in microfibrils and surrounded by
hemicellulosic materials (xylans, mannans, glucomannans, galactans,
arabogalactans), lignin, and pectin along with some protein. On acti-
vation of biomass into activated carbon, the cell wall molecules are
converted into carbon with some oxygen bonded functional groups
retain during the activation process. A significant proportion of surface
area in activated carbon is created due to loss of volatile organic mat-
ters from the cell wall. Surface area, pore size, and surface functional
groups play an important role in the adsorption processes [160,161].
Activated carbons are commonly applied to the liquid-phase and
gas-phase adsorption processes. From scientific literature, it was found
that around 80% of the total production of activated carbon consumed
in liquid-phase adsorption processes [170]. Activated carbon bed is
frequently used as a primary treatment tool in wastewater industries,
proceeding to other purification techniques [171].
5. Conclusion
Wood biomass as a precursor for activated carbons preparation has
been reviewed based on a significant number of relevant articles pub-
lished so far. Wood-derived activated carbons are efficient adsorbents
that can separate a wide range of organic and inorganic pollutants.
Numerous low-cost adsorbents from biomass waste have been synthe-
sized and characterized in recent past. However, activated carbons are
known to have much better performances in treating industrial con-
taminations as well as small-scale household effluents. As the precursor
materials obtained from wood wastes and sawdust are freely accessible
and abundant, so the cost of production of activated carbons should be
lower than the coal-based activated carbons. Hence, it can provide a
potentially inexpensive replacement of existing commercial coal-based
activated carbons. Conversion of abundant wood biomass into activated
carbon can have several applications such as manufacturing of gas mask
filter, drinking water filter bed, municipal wastewater treatment plant,
treatment of dyes and metal-ions containing industrial effluent. It
would add value to wood waste and help the wood farmers with an
additional market for their wood by-products and solve waste
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
management issue. It can also offer a solution to carbon fixing and
greenhouse gas problems, and help to decrease the cost of waste dis-
posal.
6. Prospects of wood-derived activated carbons and future
challenges
At this juncture, we would like to underline some important points
which might assist the future researchers. The cost factor for activated
carbon production must be taken into consideration. Research on cost
evaluation of the activated carbon production from wood biomass
needs to be conducted. As low synthesis cost of activated carbon with
large surface area and high mesopore density will be much-preferred
adsorbent. It is one of the vital criteria to decide whether the choice of
wood species is suitable to produce activated carbon at large-scale.
Regeneration of spent activated carbon study needs to be done in detail,
as it will boost the economic feasibility. Based on contemporary lit-
erature survey, not many recoveries of pollutant and activated carbon
studies had been reported. Research should not only be limited to lab
scale or batch adsorption studies; there must be some column study and
industrial bed type adsorption study should be conducted.
Implementation of the wood-derived activated carbons on an industrial
scale is the need of the hour; preliminary study reported encouraging
results on the practical use of wood-derived activated carbons. This
review summarized the different species of wood-derived activated
carbons with their surface area and adsorption capacities; this in-
formation can be used to identify the most suitable species of wood to
produce activated carbon at industrial scale to use it in wastewater
treatment. Unlike laboratory solutions, industrial effluents contain a
range of pollutants. In future investigations, researchers need to run a
pilot study on the real industrial wastewater treatment through re-
ported activated carbons. The investigations of simultaneous removal of
many co-existing pollutants are required to be performed. Despite
several drawbacks and challenges that presently exist, an extensive and
great progress in this field can be expected in the future. Overall, wood-
derived activated carbon can be recommended over presently available
costly commercially activated carbons for water and air pollution
control. Also, conversion of wood into activated carbon can contribute
to an overall waste minimization strategy.
Acknowledgement
We thanked editors of Journal of analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,
Bioresources, and Journal of Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers for
permitting us to reproduce the FESEM images of wood-derived acti-
vated carbons.
References
[1] Bhatnagar A, Sillanpää M, Witek-Krowiak A. Agricultural waste peels as versatile
biomass for water purification – A review. Chem Eng J 2015;270:244–71.
[2] Lata S, Samadder SR. Removal of arsenic from water using nano adsorbents and
challenges: a review. J Environ Manag 2016;166:387–406.
[3] Klose W, Rincon S. Adsorption and reaction of NO on activated carbon in the
presence of oxygen and water vapour. Fuel 2007;86:203–9.
[4] Lua AC, Lau FY, Guo J. Influence of pyrolysis conditions on pore development of
oil-palm-shell activated carbons. J Anal Appl Pyrol 2006;76:96–102.
[5] Kumar S, Guria C, Mandal A. Synthesis, characterization and performance studies
of polysulfone/bentonite nanoparticles mixed-matrix ultra-filtration membranes
using oil field produced water. Sep Purif Technol 2015;150:145–58.
[6] Zhang G, Ji S, Xi B. Feasibility study of treatment of amoxillin wastewater with a
combination of extraction, Fenton oxidation and reverse osmosis. Desalination
2006;196(1):32–42.
[7] Matilainen A, Sillanpää M. Removal of natural organic matter from drinking water
by advanced oxidation processes. Chemosphere 2010;80(4):351–65.
[8] Aguilar MI, Sáez J, Lloréns M, Soler A, Ortuño JF. Nutrient removal and sludge
production in the coagulation–flocculation process. Water Res
2002;36(11):2910–9.
[9] Quijano G, Arcila JS, Buitrón G. Microalgal-bacterial aggregates: applications and
perspectives for wastewater treatment. Biotechnol Adv 2017;35(6):772–81.
[10] Ahmad T, Rafatullah M, Ghazali A, Sulaiman O, Danish M, Hashim R. The use of
18
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
date palm as a potential adsorbent for wastewater treatment: a review. Environ Sci
Poll Res 2012;19:1464–84.
[11] Comstock SEH, Boyer TH. Combined magnetic ion exchange and cation exchange
for removal of DOC and hardness. Chem Eng J 2014;241:366–75.
[12] Danish M, Sulaiman O, Rafatullah M, Hashim R, Ahmad A. Kinetics for the re-
moval of paraquat dichloride from aqueous solution by activated date (Phoenix
dactylifera) stone carbon. J Disp. Sci Technol 2010;31:248–59.
[13] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Rafatullah M, Sulaiman O, Ahmad T,
Shamsuzzoha M, Ahmad A. Sorption of copper (II) and nickel (II) ions from aqu-
eous solutions using calcium oxide activated date stone: equilibrium, kinetic and
thermodynamic studies. J Chem Eng Data 2011;56:3607–19.
[14] Danish M, Ahmad T, Hashim R, Hafiz MR, Ghazali A, Sulaiman O, Hiziroglu S.
Characterization and Adsorption Kinetic Study of Surfactant Treated Oil Palm
(Elaeis guineensis) Empty Fruit Bunches. Desalin Water Treat
2016;57(20):9474–87.
[15] Bhatnagar A, Hogland W, Marques M, Sillanpää M. An overview of the mod-
ification methods of activated carbon for its water treatment applications. Chem
Eng J 2013;219:499–511.
[16] Danish M, Rafatullah M, Sulaiman O, Hashim R, Ahmad T. in Advances
inChemistry Research, ed. James C. Taylor, chapter 3: Activated Carbons:
Preparations and Characterizations, vol. 11, p-38; 2011.
[17] Lata H, Garg VK, Gupta RK. Adsorptive removal of basic dye by chemically acti-
vated Parthenium biomass: equilibrium and kinetic modeling. Desalination
2008;219:250–61.
[18] Nor NM, Chung LL, Teong LK, Mohamed AR. Synthesis of activated carbon from
lignocellulosic biomass and its applications in air pollution control—a review. J
Environ Chem Eng 2013;1:658–66.
[19] Zhou HF, Haynes RJ. Sorption of heavy metals by inorganic and organic compo-
nents of solid wastes: significance to use of wastes as low-cost adsorbents and
immobilizing agents. Cri Rev Environ Sci Technol 2010;40:909–77.
[20] Moreno-Piraján JC, Giraldo L. Adsorption of copper from aqueous solution by
activated carbons obtained by pyrolysis of cassava peel. J Anal Appl Pyrol
2010;87(2):188–93.
[21] Tongpoothorn W, Sriuttha M, Homchan P, Chanthai S, Ruangviriyachai C.
Preparation of activated carbon derived from Jatropha curcas fruit shell by simple
thermo-chemical activation and characterization of their physico-chemical prop-
erties. Chem Eng Res Des 2011;89(3):335–40.
[22] Castro CS, Guerreiro MC, Oliveira LCA, Gonçalves M, Anastácio AS, Nazzarro M.
Iron oxide dispersed over activated carbon: support influence on the oxidation of
the model molecule methylene blue. Appl. Catal A: Gen 2009;367(1–2):53–8.
[23] Michailof C, Stavropoulos GG, Panayiotou C. Enhanced adsorption of phenolic
compounds, commonly encountered in olive mill wastewaters, on olive husk de-
rived activated carbons. Bioresour Technol 2008;99(14):6400–8.
[24] Al-Khalid TT, Haimour NM, Sayed SA, Akash BA. Activation of olive-seed waste
residue using CO2 in a fluidized-bed reactor. Fuel Process Technol
1998;57(1):55–64.
[25] Hourieh MA, Alaya MN, El-Sejariah F, Youssef AM. Chemically activated carbons
from olive stones - peculiarities of pore structure and interpretation of nitrogen
adsorption data. Adsorp Sci Technol 2000;18(7):651–64.
[26] Rahman IA, Saad B, Shaidan S, Sya Rizal ES. Adsorption characteristics of mala-
chite green on activated carbon derived from rice husks produced by chemi-
cal–thermal process. Bioresour Technol 2005;96(14):1578–83.
[27] El-Hendawy ANA, Samra SE, Girgis BS. Adsorption characteristics of activated
carbons obtained from corncobs. Colloids Surf A: Physicochem Eng Asp
2001;180(3):209–21.
[28] Tsamba AJ, Yang W, Blasiak W. Pyrolysis characteristics and global kinetics of
coconut and cashew nut shells. Fuel Process Technol 2006;87(6):523–30.
[29] Li W, Yang K, Peng J, Zhang L, Guo S, Xia H. Effects of carbonization temperatures
on characteristics of porosity in coconut shell chars and activated carbons derived
from carbonized coconut shell chars. Ind Crops Prod 2008;28(2):190–8.
[30] Cheng HN, Wartelle LH, Klasson KT, Edwards JC. Solid-state NMR and ESR studies
of activated carbons produced from pecan shells. Carbon 2010;48(9):2455–69.
[31] Shawabkeh RA, Rockstraw DA, Bhada RK. Copper and strontium adsorption by a
novel carbon material manufactured from pecan shells. Carbon 2002;40(5):781–6.
[32] Oh GH, Park CR. Preparation and characteristics of rice-straw-based porous car-
bons with high adsorption capacity. Fuel 2002;81(3):327–36.
[33] Basta AH, Fierro V, El-Saied H, Celzard A. 2-Steps KOH activation of rice straw: an
efficient method for preparing high-performance activated carbons. Bioresour
Technol 2009;100(17):3941–7.
[34] Conesa JA, Sakurai M, Antal Jr MJ. Synthesis of a high-yield activated carbon by
oxygen gasification of macadamia nut shell charcoal in hot, liquid water. Carbon
2000;38(6):839–48.
[35] Aygün A, Yenisoy-Karakaş S, Duman I. Production of granular activated carbon
from fruit stones and nutshells and evaluation of their physical, chemical and
adsorption properties. Micro Meso Mater 2003;66(2–3):189–95.
[36] Youssef AM, Radwan NRE, Abdel-Gawad I, Singer GAA. Textural properties of
activated carbons from apricot stones. Colloids Surf A: Physicochem Eng Asp
2005;252(2–3):143–51.
[37] Marcilla A. Garcı́a-Garcı́a S, Asensio M, Conesa JA. Influence of thermal treatment
regime on the density and reactivity of activated carbons from almond shells.
Carbon 2000;38(3):429–40.
[38] Toles CA, Marshall WE, Wartelle LH, McAloon A. Steam- or carbon dioxide-acti-
vated carbons from almond shells: physical, chemical and adsorptive properties
and estimated cost of production. Bioresour Technol 2000;75(3):197–203.
[39] Diao Y, Walawender WP, Fan LT. Activated carbons prepared from phosphoric
acid activation of grain sorghum. Bioresour Technol 2002;81(1):45–52.
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
[40] López de Letona Sánchez M, Macías-García A, Díaz-Díez MA, Cuerda-Correa EM,
Gañán-Gómez J, Nadal-Gisbert A. Preparation of activated carbons previously
treated with hydrogen peroxide: study of their porous texture. Appl Surf Sci
2006;252(17):5984–7.
[41] Cuerda-Correa EM, Díaz-Díez MA, Macías-García A, Gañán-Gómez J. Preparation
of activated carbons previously treated with sulfuric acid: a study of their ad-
sorption capacity in solution. Appl Surf Sci 2006;252(17):6042–5.
[42] Danish M, Hashim R, Rafatullah M, Sulaiman O, Ahmad A. Govind. Adsorption of
Pb(II) ions from aqueous solutions by date bead carbon activated with ZnCl2.
Clean: Soil Air Water 2011;39:392–9.
[43] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Sulaiman O. Response surface methodology
approach for methyl orange dye removal using optimized Acacia mangium wood
activated carbon. Wood Sci Technol 2014;48(5):1085–105.
[44] Uçar S, Erdem M, Tay T, Karagöz S. Preparation and characterization of activated
carbon produced from pomegranate seeds by ZnCl2 activation. Appl Surf Sci
2009;255(21):8890–6.
[45] Babu B, Gupta S. Adsorption of Cr(VI) using activated neem leaves: kinetic studies.
Adsorption 2008;14(1):85–92.
[46] Foo KY, Hameed BH. Value-added utilization of oil palm ash: a superior recycling
of the industrial agricultural waste. J Hazard Mater 2009;172(2–3):523–31.
[47] Hamad BK, Noor AM, Afida AR, Mohd Asri MN. High removal of 4-chloroguaiacol
by high surface area of oil palm shell-activated carbon activated with NaOH from
aqueous solution. Desalination 2010;257(1–3):1–7.
[48] Dang VBH, Doan HD, Dang-Vu T, Lohi A. Equilibrium and kinetics of biosorption
of cadmium(II) and copper(II) ions by wheat straw. Bioresour Technol
2009;100(1):211–9.
[49] Naiya TK, Bhattacharya AK, Mandal S, Das SK. The sorption of lead(II) ions on rice
husk ash. J Hazard Mater 2009;163(2–3):1254–64.
[50] Macedo JDS, da Costa Júnior NB, Almeida LE. Vieira EFDS, Cestari AR, Gimenez
IDF, et al. Kinetic and calorimetric study of the adsorption of dyes on mesoporous
activated carbon prepared from coconut coir dust. J Colloid Interface Sci
2006;298(2):515–22.
[51] Zhan XM, Zhao X. Mechanism of lead adsorption from aqueous solutions using an
adsorbent synthesized from natural condensed tannin. Water Res
2003;37(16):3905–12.
[52] Altenor S, Carene B, Emmanuel E, Lambert J, Ehrhardt JJ, Gaspard S. Adsorption
studies of methylene blue and phenol onto vetiver roots activated carbon prepared
by chemical activation. J Hazard Mater 2009;165(1–3):1029–39.
[53] Jibril B, Houache O, Al-Maamari R, Al-Rashidi B. Effects of H3PO4 and KOH in
carbonization of lignocellulosic material. J Anal Appl Pyrol 2008;83(2):151–6.
[54] Macedo JS, Otubo L, Ferreira OP, Gimenez IDF, Mazali IO, Barreto LS. Biomorphic
activated porous carbons with complex microstructures from lignocellulosic re-
sidues. Micro Meso Mater 2008;107(3):276–85.
[55] Demirba A. Relationships between lignin contents and fixed carbon contents of
biomass samples. Energy Convers Manag 2003;44:1481–6.
[56] Gueye M, Richardson Y, Kafack FT, Blin J. High efficiency activated carbons from
African biomass residues for the removal of chromium(VI) from wastewater. J
Environ Chem Eng 2014;2:273–81.
[57] Smith M, Ha S, Amonette JE, Dallmeyer I, Garcia-Perez M. Enhancing cation ex-
change capacity of chars through ozonation. Biomass- Bioenergy 2015;81:304–14.
[58] Ngernyen Y, Tangsathitkulchai C, Tangsathitkulchai M. Porous properties of ac-
tivated carbon produced from Eucalyptus and Wattle wood by carbon dioxide
activation. Korean J Chem Eng 2006;23(6):1046–54.
[59] Pinto PC, Evtuguin DV, Neto CP. Chemical composition and structural features of
the macromolecular components of plantation acacia mangium wood. J Agric
Food Chem 2005;53:7856–62.
[60] Gonzalez JF, Roman S, Encinar JM, Martinez G. Pyrolysis of various biomass re-
sidues and char utilization for the production of activated carbons. J Anal Appl
Pyrol 2009;85:134–41.
[61] Daza L, Mendioroz S, Pajares JA. Preparation of Rh/active carbon catalysts by
adsorption in organic media. Carbon 1986;24(1):33–41.
[62] Bansal RC, Goyal M. First ed Activated Carbon Adsorption 1. Boca Raton, London,
New York, Singapore: CRC press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2005.
[63] Bota A, Laszlo K, Nagy LG, Schlimper H. Active carbon from apricot pits. Magy
Kem F 1997;103(9):470–9.
[64] Açıkyıldız M, Gürses A, Karaca S. Preparation and characterization of activated
carbon from plant wastes with chemical activation. Micro Meso Mater
2014;198:45–9.
[65] Yorgun S, Yıldız D. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from
Paulownia wood by chemical activation with H3PO4. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng
2015;53:122–31.
[66] Link S, Arvelakis S, Hupa M, Yrjas P, K€ulaots I, Paist A. Reactivity of the biomass
chars originating from reed, douglas fir, and pine. Energy Fuels 2010;24:6533–9.
[67] Miskam A, Zainal ZA, Yusof IM. Characterization of sawdust residues for cyclone
gasifier. J Appl Sci 2009;9(12):2294–300.
[68] Zuo S, Yang J, Liu J, Cai X. Significance of the carbonization of volatile pyrolytic
products on the properties of activated carbons from phosphoric acid activation of
lignocellulosic material. Fuel Process Technol 2009;90:994–1001.
[69] Kazmierczak-Razna J, Gralak-Podemska B, Nowicki P, Pietrzak R. The use of mi-
crowave radiation for obtaining activated carbons from sawdust and their poten-
tial application in removal of NO2 and H2S. Chem Eng J 2015;269:352–8.
[70] Heidari A, Younesi H, Rashidi A, Ghoreyshi AA. Adsorptive removal of CO2 on
highly microporous activated carbons prepared from Eucalyptus camaldulensis
wood: effect of chemical activation. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2014;45:579–88.
[71] Budinova T, Ekinci E, Yardım F, Grimm A, Björnborn E, Minkova V, et al.
Characterization and application of activated carbon produced by H3PO4 and
19
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
water vapor activation. Fuel Process Technol 2006;87:899–905.
[72] Ke-qiang Q, Su-wen Y, Juan Y. Characteristics of activated carbon prepared from
Chinese fir sawdust by zinc chloride activation under vacuum condition. J Cent S
Univ Technol 2009;16:385–91.
[73] Tseng RL, Wu FC, Juang RS. Liquid-phase adsorption of dyes and phenols using
pinewood-based activated carbons. Carbon 2003;41(3):487–95.
[74] Dı́az-Dı́ez MA, Gómez-Serrano V, Fernández González C, Cuerda-Correa EM.
Macı́as-Garcı́a A. Porous texture of activated carbons prepared by phosphoric acid
activation of woods. Appl Surf Sci 2004;238(1–4):309–13.
[75] Zhang T, Walawender WP, Fan LT, Fan M, Daugaard D, Brown RC. Preparation of
activated carbon from forest and agricultural residues through CO2 activation.
Chem Eng J 2004;105(1–2):53–9.
[76] Malik PK. Dye removal from wastewater using activated carbon developed from
sawdust: adsorption equilibrium and kinetics. J Hazard Mater
2004;113(1–3):81–8.
[77] Vartapetyan RS, Voloshchuk AM, Buryak AK, Artamonova CD, Belford RL, Ceroke
PJ, et al. Water vapour adsorption on chars and active carbons–oxygen sensors
prepared from a tropical tree wood. Carbon 2005;43(10):2152–9.
[78] Mohanty K, Das D, Biswas MN. Adsorption of phenol from aqueous solutions using
activated carbons prepared from Tectona grandis sawdust by ZnCl2 activation.
Chem Eng J 2005;115(1–2):121–31.
[79] Akmil-Başar C, Önal Y, Kılıçer T, Eren D. Adsorptions of high concentration ma-
lachite green by two activated carbons having different porous structures. J
Hazard Mater 2005;127(1–3):73–80.
[80] Wu FC, Tseng RL, Juang RS. Preparation of highly microporous carbons from fir
wood by KOH activation for adsorption of dyes and phenols from water. Sep Purif
Technol 2005;47(1–2):10–9.
[81] Kumar BGP, Miranda LR, Velan M. Adsorption of Bismark Brown dye on activated
carbons prepared from rubberwood sawdust (Hevea brasiliensis) using different
activation methods. J Hazard Mater 2005;126(1–3):63–70.
[82] Khezami L, Capart R. Removal of chromium (VI) from aqueous solution by acti-
vated carbons: kinetic and equilibrium studies. J Hazard Mater
2005;123(1–3):223–31.
[83] Ismadji S, Sudaryanto Y, Hartono SB, Setiawan LEK, Ayucitra A. Activated carbon
from char obtained from vacuum pyrolysis of teak sawdust: pore structure de-
velopment and characterization. Bioresour Technol 2005;96(12):1364–9.
[84] Gómez-Serrano V, Cuerda-Correa EM, Carmen Fernández-González M, Alexandre-
Franco MF, Macías-García A. Preparation of activated carbons from walnut wood:
a study of microporosity and fractal dimension. Smart Mater Struct
2005;14(2):363–8.
[85] Gómez-Serrano V, Cuerda-Correa EM, Fernández-González MC, Alexandre-Franco
MF, Macías-García A. Preparation of activated carbons from chestnut wood by
phosphoric acid-chemical activation: study of microporosity and fractal dimen-
sion. Mater Lett 2005;59(7):846–53.
[86] Wu FC, Tseng RL, Juang RS. Comparisons of porous and adsorption properties of
carbons activated by steam and KOH. J Colloid Interface Sci 2005b
2005;283(1):49–56.
[87] Wu FC, Tseng RL. Preparation of highly porous carbon from fir wood by KOH
etching and CO2 gasification for adsorption of dyes and phenols from water. J
Colloid Interface Sci 2006 2006;294(1):21–30.
[88] Amaya A, Píriz J, Tancredi N, Cordero T. Activated carbon pellets from eucalyptus
char and tar TG studies. J Therm Anal Calorim 2007 2007;89(3):987–91.
[89] Ahmad AL, Loh MM, Aziz JA. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon
from oil palm wood and its evaluation on Methylene blue adsorption. Dyes
Pigments 2007;75(2):263–72.
[90] Patnukao P, Pavasant P. Activated carbon from Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn
bark using phosphoric acid activation. Bioresour Technol 2008;99(17):8540–3.
[91] Klijanienko A, Lorenc-Grabowska E, Gryglewicz G. Development of mesoporosity
during phosphoric acid activation of wood in steam atmosphere. Bioresour
Technol 2008;99(15):7208–14.
[92] del Mar Gómez-Tamayo M, Macías-García A, Díaz Díez MA, Cuerda-Correa EM.
Adsorption of Zn(II) in aqueous solution by activated carbons prepared from
evergreen oak (Quercus rotundifolia L.). J Hazard Mater 2008;153(1–2):28–36.
[93] Bangash FK, Alam S. Adsorption of acid blue 1 on activated carbon produced from
the wood of Ailanthus altissima. Braz J Chem Eng 2009 2009;26(2):275–85.
[94] de Celis J, Amadeo NE, Cukierman AL. In situ modification of activated carbons
developed from a native invasive wood on removal of trace toxic metals from
wastewater. J Hazard Mater 2009;161(1):217–23.
[95] Yang J, Qiu KQ. Preparation of activated carbon by chemical activation under
vacuum. Environ Sci Technol 2009;43(9):3385–90.
[96] Yorgun S, Vural N, Demiral H. Preparation of high-surface area activated carbons
from Paulownia wood by ZnCl2 activation. Micro Meso Mater
2009;122(1–3):189–94.
[97] Onyestyák G, Bóta A. Sorption dynamics of N2 and O2 in carbon monoliths from
spruce, beech and oak affected by activation. Micro Mesor Mater
2009;120(1–2):84–90.
[98] Sahu JN, Acharya J, Meikap BC. Response surface modeling and optimization of
chromium(VI) removal from aqueous solution using Tamarind wood activated
carbon in batch process. J Hazard Mater 2009 2009;172(2–3):818–25.
[99] Sivakumar P, Palanisamy PN. Adsorption studies of Basic Red 29 by a non-con-
ventional activated carbon prepared from Euphorbia antiquorum L. Int J Chem
Tech Res 2009;1(3):502–10.
[100] Palanisamy PN, Sivakumar P. Kinetic and isotherm studies of the adsorption of
Acid Blue 92 using a low-cost non-conventional activated carbon. Desalination
2009;249(1):388–97.
[101] Acharya J, Sahu JN, Mohanty CR, Meikap BC. Removal of lead(II) from
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
wastewater by activated carbon developed from Tamarind wood by zinc chloride
activation. Chem Eng J 2009;149(1–3):249–62.
[102] Kennedy OJ, Murthy ZVP. Removal of Pb(II) from aqueous solutions by carbons
prepared from Sal wood. Eur J Wood Wood Prod 2009;67(2):197–206.
[103] Malarvizhi R, Ho YS. The influence of pH and the structure of the dye molecules on
adsorption isotherm modeling using activated carbon. Desalination
2010;264(1–2):97–101.
[104] Adegoke HI, Adekola FA. Removal of phenol from aqueous solution by activated
carbon prepared from some agricultural materials. Adv Nat Appl Sci
2010;4(3):293–8.
[105] Sivakumar B, Karthikeyan S, Kannan C. Film and pore diffusion modeling for the
adsorption of direct red 81 on activated carbon prepared from Balsamodendron
caudatum wood waste. Dig J Nanomater Biostructures 2010;5(3):657–65.
[106] Zuo S, Yang J, Liu J. Effects of the heating history of impregnated lignocellulosic
material on pore development during phosphoric acid activation. Carbon
2010;48(11):3293–5.
[107] Nowicki P, Pietrzak R. Carbonaceous adsorbents prepared by physical activation
of pine sawdust and their application for removal of NO2 in dry and wet condi-
tions. Bioresour Technol 2010;101(15):5802–7.
[108] Sartape A, Raut P, Kolekar S. Efficient adsorption of chromium(VI) ions from
aqueous solution onto a low-cost adsorbent developed from Limonia acidissima
(wood apple) shell. Adsorp. Sci Technol 2010;28(6):547–60.
[109] Demiral H, Uzun I. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from
poplar wood (Populus L.). Surf Interface Anal 2010;42(6–7):1338–41.
[110] Silva HS, Ruiz SV, Granados DL, Santángelo JM. Adsorption of mercury (II) from
liquid solutions using modified activated carbons. Mater Res 2010;13(2):129–34.
[111] Alau KK, Gimba CE, Kagbu JA, Nale BY. Preparation of activated carbon from
neem (Azadirachtaindica) husk by chemical activation with H3PO4, KOH and
ZnCl2. Arch Appl Sci Res 2010;2(5):451–5.
[112] Kalavathy MH, Miranda LR. Moringa oleifera—a solid phase extractant for the
removal of copper, nickel and zinc from aqueous solutions. Chem Eng J
2010;158(2):188–99.
[113] Sahu JN, Acharya J, Meikap BC. Optimization of production conditions for acti-
vated carbons from Tamarind wood by zinc chloride using response surface
methodology. Bioresour Technol 2010;101(6):1974–82.
[114] Shokoohi R, Vatanpoor V, Zarrabi M, Vatani A. Adsorption of acid red 18 (AR18)
by activated carbon from poplar wood-a kinetic and equilibrium study. E-J Chem
2010;7(1):65–72.
[115] Kumar S, Rajmohan B, Mohanty K, Meikap BC. Characterization of activated
carbon prepared from tamarind wood for wastewater treatment. Int J Environ Eng
2010;2(1/2/3):290–302.
[116] Matos J, Nahas C, Rojas L, Rosales M. Synthesis and characterization of activated
carbon from sawdust of Algarroba wood. 1. Physical activation and pyrolysis. J
Hazard Mater 2011;196:360–9.
[117] Sivakumar P, Palanisamy PN. Non-conventional low-cost adsorbent from
Euphorbia antiquorum L for the removal of Direct Blue 53 from its aqueous so-
lution. Ind J Chem Technol 2011;18(3):188. [-86].
[118] Khan EM, Doke KM, Thombal KB. Kinetic and isotherm studies of methylene blue
removal from aqueous solution by adsorption on activated charcoal prepared from
wood apple fruit shell, an agricultural waste. Der Pharma Chem
2011;3(1):306–17.
[119] Mohan D, Rajput S, Singh VK, Steele PH, Pittman Jr CU. Modeling and evaluation
of chromium remediation from water using low cost bio-char, a green adsorbent. J
Hazard Mater 2011;188(1–3):319–33.
[120] Ould-Idriss A, Stitou M, Cuerda-Correa EM, Fernández-González C, Macías-García
A, Alexandre-Franco MF, et al. Preparation of activated carbons from olive-tree
wood revisited. I. Chemical activation with H3PO4. Fuel Process Technol 2011a
2011;92(2):261–5.
[121] Ould-Idriss A, Stitou M, Cuerda-Correa EM, Fernández-González C, Macías-García
A, Alexandre-Franco MF, et al. Preparation of activated carbons from olive-tree
wood revisited. II. Phys Act air Fuel Process Technol 2011;92(2):266–70.
[122] Ramakrishnan K, Namasivayam C. Zinc chloride-activated jatropha husk carbon
for removal of phenol from water by adsorption: equilibrium and kinetic studies.
Toxicol Environ Chem 2011;93(6):1111–22.
[123] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Rafatullah M, Ahmad T, Sulaiman O.
Characterization of Acacia mangium wood based activated carbons prepared in the
presence of basic activating agents. Bioresources 2011;6(3):3019–33.
[124] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Rafatullah M, Sulaiman O. Surface char-
acterization and comparative adsorption properties of Cr(VI) on pyrolysed ad-
sorbents of Acacia mangium wood and Phoenix dactylifera L. stone carbon. J Anal
Appl Pyrol 2012;97:19–28.
[125] Olowoyo DN, Orere EE. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon
made from palm-kernel shell, coconut shell, groundnut shell and obeche wood
(investigation of apparent density, total ash content, moisture content, particle
size distribution parameters). Int J Res Chem Environ 2012;2(3):32–5.
[126] Omri A, Wali A, Benzina M. Adsorption of bentazon on activated carbon prepared
from Lawsonia inermis wood: equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies.
[Article in press.:http://dx.doi.org]. Arab J Chem2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.arabjc.2012.04.047.
[127] Doke Kailas M, Khan Ejazuddin M. Equilibrium, kinetic and diffusion mechanism
of Cr(VI) adsorption onto activated carbon derived from wood apple shell. [Article
in Press: http://dx.doi.org]. Arab J Chem2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
arabjc.2012.07.031.
[128] Rizhikovs J, Zandersons J, Spince B, Dobele G, Jakab E. Preparation of granular
activated carbon from hydrothermally treated and pelletized deciduous wood. J
Anal Appl Pyrol 2012;93:68–76.
20
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
[129] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Sulaiman O. Characterization of physically
activated Acacia mangium wood-based carbon for the removal of methyl orange
dye. Bioresources 2013;8(3):4323–39.
[130] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Sulaiman O. Effect of acidic activating agents
on surface area and surface functional groups of activated carbons produced from
Acacia mangium wood. J Anal Appl Pyrol 2013;104:418–25.
[131] Ulaganathan S, Govindan V. Removal of chromium from aqueous solutions using
derris indica wood based activated carbon: adsorption batch studies. Environ Prot
Eng 2013;39(3):21–9.
[132] Aguayo-Villarreal IA, Hernández-Montoya V, Bonilla-Petriciolet A, Tovar-Gómez
R, Ramírez-López EM, Montes-Morán MA. Role of acid blue 25 dye as active site
for the adsorption of Cd(II) and Zn(II) using activated carbons. Dyes Pigments
2013;96:459–66.
[133] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Sulaiman O. Optimization study for pre-
paration of activated carbon from Acacia mangium wood using phosphoric acid.
Wood Sci Technol 2014;48:1069–83.
[134] Heibati B, Rodriguez-Couto S, Amrane A, Rafatullah M, Hawari A, Al-Ghouti MA.
Uptake of Reactive Black 5 by pumice and walnut activated carbon: chemistry and
adsorption mechanisms. J Ind Eng Chem 2014;20:2939–47.
[135] Ghaedi M, Ghaedi AM, Negintaji E, Ansari A, Vafaei A, Rajabi M. Random forest
model for removal of bromophenol blue using activated carbon obtained from
Astragalus bisulcatus tree. J Ind Eng Chem 2014;20:1793–803.
[136] Ghaedi M, Golestani Nasab A, Khodadoust S, Rajabi M, Azizian S. Application of
activated carbon as adsorbents for efficient removal of methylene blue: kinetics
and equilibrium study. J Ind Eng Chem 2014;20:2317–24.
[137] Venkatesan G, Senthilnathan U, Rajam S. Cadmium removal from aqueous solu-
tions using hybrid eucalyptus wood based activated carbon: adsorption batch
studies. Clean Technol Environ Policy 2014;16:195–200.
[138] Ghaedi AM, Ghaedi M, Vafaei A, Iravani N, Keshavarz M, Rad M, Tyagi I, Agarwal
S, Gupta VK. Adsorption of copper (II) usingmodified activated carbon prepared
from Pomegranate wood: optimization by bee algorithm and response surface
methodology. J Mol Liq 2015;206:195. [–06].
[139] Hajati S, Ghaedi M, Yaghoubi S. Local, cheep and nontoxic activated carbon as
efficient adsorbent for the simultaneous removal of cadmium ions and malachite
green: optimization by surface response methodology. J Ind Eng Chem
2015;21:760–7.
[140] Ghaedi M, Mazaheri H, Khodadoust S, Hajati S, Purkait MK. Application of central
composite design for simultaneous removal of methylene blue and Pb2+ ions by
walnut wood activated carbon. Spectrochim Acta Part A: Mol Biomol Spectro
2015;135:479–90.
[141] Shaaban A, Se SM, Ibrahim IM, Ahsan Q. Preparation of rubber wood sawdust-
based activated carbon and its use as a filler of polyurethane matrix composites for
microwave absorption. New Carbon Mater 2015;30(2):167. [–5].
[142] Chen C, Zhao P, Li Z, Tong Z. Adsorption behavior of chromium(VI) on activated
carbon from eucalyptus sawdust prepared by microwave-assisted activation with
ZnCl2. Desalin Water Treat 2015;57(27):12572–84.
[143] Pirsaheb M, Rezai Z, Mansouri AM, Rastegar A, Alahabadi A, Sani AR, Sharafi K.
Preparation of the activated carbon from India shrub wood and their application
for methylene blue removal: modeling and optimization. Desalin Water Treat
2015;57(13):5888–902.
[144] Heibati B, Rodriguez-Couto S, Al-Ghouti MA, Asif M, Tyagi I, Agarwal S, Gupta
VK. Kinetics and thermodynamics of enhanced adsorption of the dye AR 18 using
activated carbons prepared from walnut and poplar woods. J Mol Liq
2015;208:99. [–5].
[145] Ghaedi M, Rahimi MR, Ghaedi AM, Tyagi I, Agarwal S, Gupta VK. Application of
least squares support vector regression and linear multiple regression for modeling
removal of methyl orange onto tin oxide nanoparticles loaded on activated carbon
and activated carbon prepared from Pistacia atlantica wood. J Colloid Interface Sci
2016;461:425–34.
[146] Bansal RC, Donnet JB, Stoeckli F. Active Carbon. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc;
1988.
[147] Rodríguez-Reinoso F, Molina-Sabio M. Activated carbons from lignocellulosic
materials by chemical and/or physical activation: an overview. Carbon
1992;30(7):1111–8.
[148] Maciá-Agulló JA, Moore BC, Cazorla-Amorós D, Linares-Solano A. Activation of
coal tar pitch carbon fibres: physical activation vs. chemical activation. Carbon
2004;42(7):1367–70.
[149] Girgis BS, El-Hendawy ANA. Porosity development in activated carbons obtained
from date pits under chemical activation with phosphoric acid. Micro Meso Mater
2002;52(2):105–17.
[150] Phan NH, Rio S, Faur C, Le Coq L, Le Cloirec P, Nguyen TH. Production of fibrous
activated carbons from natural cellulose (jute, coconut) fibers for water treatment
applications. Carbon 2006;44(12):2569–77.
[151] Yahya MA, Al-Qodah Z, Zanariah Ngah CW. Agricultural bio-waste materials as
potential sustainable precursors used for activated carbon production: a review.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;46:218–35.
[152] Ahmedna M, Marshall WE, Husseiny AA, Rao RM, Goktepe I. The use of nutshell
carbons in drinking water filters for removal of trace metals. Water Res
2004;38(4):1062–8.
[153] Savova D, Apak E, Ekinci E, Yardim F, Petrov N, Budinova T, et al. Biomass
conversion to carbon adsorbents and gas. Biomass- Bioenergy
2001;21(2):133. [-2].
[154] Singh CK, Sahu JN, Mahalik KK, Mohanty CR, Mohan BR, Meikap BC. Studies on
the removal of Pb(II) from wastewater by activated carbon developed from
Tamarind wood activated with sulphuric acid. J Hazard Mater
2008;153(1–2):221–8.
M. Danish, T. Ahmad
[155] Bhadusha N, Ananthabaskaran T. Adsorptive removal of methylene blue onto
ZnCl2 activated carbon from wood apple outer shell: kinetics and equilibrium
studies. E-J Chem 2011;8(4):1696–707.
[156] Sivakumar P, Palanisamy PN, Hameed BH, Radha K. Novel non-conventional ac-
tivated carbon for the remediation of dyeing industry effluent. Proceedings of
World Academy of Science, Eng Technol; 73: 45-50; 2011.
[157] Sartape AS, Mandhare AM, Salvi PP, Pawar DK, Sanjay Kolekar SS. Kinetic and
equilibrium studies of the adsorption of Cd(II) from aqueous solutions by wood
apple shell activated carbon. Desalin Water Treat 2013;2013(51):4638–50.
[158] Smisek M, Cerny S. Active Carbon. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing; 1970.
[159] Ismadji S, Bhatia SK. A modified pore-filling isotherm for liquid-phase adsorption
in activated carbon. Langmuir 2001;17(5):1488–98.
[160] Al-Ghouti MA, Li J, Salamh Y, Al-Laqtah N, Walker G, Ahmad MNM. Adsorption
mechanisms of removing heavy metals and dyes from aqueous solution using date
pits solid adsorbent. J Hazard Mater 2010;176(1–3):510–20.
[161] Demirbas E, Dizge N, Sulak MT, Kobya M. Adsorption kinetics and equilibrium of
copper from aqueous solutions using hazelnut shell activated carbon. Chem Eng J
2009;148(2–3):480–7.
[162] Tancredi N, Medero N, Moller F, Piriz J, Plada C, Cordero T. Phenol adsorption
onto powdered and granular activated carbon, prepared from Eucalyptus wood. J
Colloid Interface Sci 2004;279:357–63.
[163] Kalavathy MH, Karthikeyan T, Rajgopal S, Miranda LR. Kinetic and isotherm
studies of Cu(II) adsorption onto H3PO4-activated rubber wood sawdust. J Colloid
Interface Sci 2005;292(2):354–62.
[164] Karthikeyan T, Rajgopal S, Miranda LR. Chromium(VI) adsorption from aqueous
solution by Hevea Brasilinesis sawdust activated carbon. J Hazard Mater
2005;124(1–3):192–9.
[165] Mishra PC, Patel RK. Removal of endosulfan by sal wood charcoal. J Hazard Mater
2008;152(2):730–6.
[166] Kalavathy MH, Regupathi I, Pillai MG, Miranda LR. Modelling, analysis and op-
timization of adsorption parameters for H3PO4 activated rubber wood sawdust
using response surface methodology (RSM). Colloids Surf B: Biointerfaces
2009;70(1):35–45.
[167] Krishnan A, Sreejalakshmi K, Varghese KG, Anirudhan TS. Removal of edta from
aqueous solutions using activated carbon prepared from rubber wood sawdust:
kinetic and equilibrium modeling. Clean - Soil, Air, Water 2010;38(4):361–9.
[168] Danish M, Hashim R, Ibrahim MNM, Othman Sulaiman O. Response surface
methodology approach for methyl orange dye removal using optimized Acacia
mangium wood activated carbon. Wood Sci Technol 2014;48:1085–105.
[169] Tonucci MC, LVAG Gurgel, de Aquino. SF. Activated carbons from agricultural
21
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 87 (2018) 1–21
byproducts (pine tree and coconut shell), coal, and carbon nanotubes as ad-
sorbents for removal of sulfamethoxazole from spiked aqueous solutions: kinetic
and thermodynamic studies. Ind Crops Prod 2015;74:111–21.
[170] Moreno-Castilla C. Adsorption of organic molecules from aqueous solutions on
carbon materials. Carbon 2004;42(1):83–94.
[171] Dias JM, Alvim-Ferraz MCM, Almeida MF, Rivera-Utrilla J, Sánchez-Polo M. Waste
materials for activated carbon preparation and its use in aqueous-phase treatment:
a review. J Environ Manag 2007;85(4):833–46.
[172] Nigam P, Armour G, Banat IM, Singh D, Marchant R. Physical removal of textile
dyes from effluents and solid-state fermentation of dye-adsorbed agricultural re-
sidues. Bioresour Technol 2000;72(3):219–26.
[173] Ramakrishna KR, Viraraghavan T. Dye removal using low cost adsorbents. Water
Sci Technol 1997;36(2–3):189–96.
[174] Garg VK, Kumar R, Gupta R. Removal of malachite green dye from aqueous so-
lution by adsorption using agro-industry waste: a case study of Prosopis cineraria.
Dyes Pigments 2004;62(1):1–10.
[175] Papic S, Koprivanac N, Metes A. Optimizing Polymer-Induced Flocculation Process
to Remove Reactive Dyes from Wastewater. Environ Technol 2000;21(1):97–105.
[176] Mohan D, Pittman CU, Bricka M, Smith F, Yancey B, Mohammad J, Steele PH,
Alexandre-Franco MF, Gómez-Serrano V, Gong H. Sorption of arsenic, cadmium,
and lead by chars produced from fast pyrolysis of wood and bark during bio-oil
production. J Colloid Interface Sci 2007;310:57–73.
[177] Álvarez P, Blanco C, Granda M. The adsorption of chromium (VI) from industrial
wastewater by acid and base-activated lignocellulosic residues. J Hazard Mater
2007;144(1–2):400–5.
[178] Acar FN, Eren Z. Removal of Cu(II) ions by activated poplar sawdust (Samsun
Clone) from aqueous solutions. J Hazard Mater 2006;137(2):909–14.
[179] Sreejalekshmi KG, Krishnan KA, Anirudhan TS. Adsorption of Pb(II) and Pb(II)-
citric acid on sawdust activated carbon: kinetic and equilibrium isotherm studies.
J Hazard Mater 2009;161(2–3):1506–13.
[180] Dąbrowski A, Podkościelny P, Hubicki Z, Barczak M. Adsorption of phenolic
compounds by activated carbon-a critical review. Chemosphere
2005;58(8):1049–70.
[181] Farhan M, Wahid A, Kanwal A, Bell JNB. Synthesis of activated carbon from tree
sawdust and its usage for diminution of color and COD of paper-mill effluents. Pak
J Bot 2013;45(S1):521–7.
[182] Vidal CB, Seredych M, Rodríguez-Castellón E, Nascimento RF, Bandosz TJ. Effect
of nanoporous carbon surface chemistry on the removal of endocrine disruptors
from water phase. J Colloid Interface Sci 2015;449:180–91.