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 Bra n c h e s o f C h e m istry

 Chemistry is a branch of science concerned with the study of matter, it’s

properties, composition, and structure, the changes it undergoes, and the
principles that explain these changes.
Che m istry ha s five ma jo r d ivisio ns.
1. An a lytic a l C h e m istry is concerned with finding out what is present in a given sample (qualitative
analysis) and how much of something is present (quantitative analysis). The other branches of chemistry
rely heavily on the techniques of analytical chemistry.
2. O rg a n ic C h e m istry is the study of carbon containing substances. Animal and vegetable matter is a rich
source of these substances. Early workers coined the term o rg a n ic because the materials they studied
could be derived from living (or formerly living) organism. Today, the term organic refers to any
substance whose primary component is carbon. Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, petroleum and coal,
animal meat, dairy products, fruits and vegetable are examples of organic substances.
3. In o rg a n ic c h e m istry involves the study of substances other than those classified as organic. Unlike
organic chemicals, these substances are generally derived from mineral sources. Water, which is
probably our most important chemical, is also classified as organic.

4. Ph ysic a l C h e m istry is concerned with the physical properties of chemicals. It is the study
of the theories that explain the behavior of chemicals. This branch of chemistry is the most
mathematical in nature among all the five branches .

5. Bio c h e m istry is the study of chemistry of biological processes in all living organisms. These
branches overlap considerably with each other, and all chemist practice a mixture of the
various branches, depending on the exact nature of their work.

Rules for Determining Significant Figures

1. All non zero digits are significant.
For example, 791.22 m has five significant digits, 32.54 cm has four significant digits.
2. All zeros to the left of the first non zero digits are not significant; they are merely decimal placeholders to
show the positions of the decimal point.
For examples, 0.0036 g has two significant digits.
Note that 0.0036 and 3.6 mg are two significant digits.
3. Zeros between non zero digits are always significant.
For example, 20 003 kg has five significant digits;
0.00005005 m has four significant digits.
4. Zeros that follow non zero digits and are on the right of the decimal point are significant are significant
digits.
For example, 129.0 m has four significant digits; 0.350 s has three significant digits. (the zero on the left is
not significant but the zero on the right is.)
5. Trailing zeros are ambiguous; they may or may not be significant. These are zeros to the right on non
zeros digits in number that contain no decimal point.
 Rule s in Ro und ing Off Num b e rs

1. If the number following the digits to be kept for the answer is less than 5, the digits kept
are not altered.
For example, 3.084 rounded to three digits is 3.08
2. If the number following the digits to be kept for the answer is 5 or greater, add 1 to the digit
kept.
For example, 4.899582 rounded to four digits is 4.900

Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is a simple way to write and keep track of

large and small numbers without a lot of zeros. It provides a
shortcut recording to results and doing calculations.
Exa m p le s:
100 = (10)(10)= 10² = one hundred
1 000 = (10) (10) (10) =10³ =one thousand
10 000 = (10)(10)(10)(10) = 104 =ten thousand
1/10 = 10-1 =one-ten tenth
1/100 = =1/ (10) (10) = 10-2 = one hundredth
1/1000 = 1/ (10) (10) (10) = 10-3 one-thousandth
Ma ss a n d We ig h t

Mass and weight are often used interchangeably , but the words
have different meanings. The mass of a body is defined as the
amount of matter in that body. The mass of an object is a fixed
and unvarying quantity that is independent of the object’s
location.
The weight of a body is the measure of the earth’s
gravitational attraction for that body. Unlike mass, weight varies
in relation to the position of an object on or its distance from the
earth and whether the rate of motion of the of the object is
changing with respect to the motion of the earth.

The mass of an object may be measured on a chemical

balance by comparing it with other known masses. Two
objects of equal masses will have equal weights if they are
measured in the same place. Thus , under these conditions
the terms mass and equal weight are used interchangeably.
Although the chemical balance is used to determine mass. It
is said to weight objects, and we often speak of the weight of
an object when we really mean its mass.
De n sity De n sitie s o f so m e su b sta n c e s

Sub sta nc e De nsity (g / c m )

O xyg e n 0.0013
Density is defined as the mass per unit Su g a r 1.6
volume of a material. Sa lt 2.2
Iro n 7.9
Cop pe r 8.9
Density = mass or P= m
Le a d 11.3
Volume V
Me rc u ry 13.6
The density of a substance can be used G o ld 19.3
to identify the substance. Density is an
Hu m a n fa t 0.94
important physical property of a
substance. C o rk 0.22-0.26
Ea rth 5.54
Wa te r (4.0C ) 1.000
Ic e (-10 C ) 0.917

Sp e c ific G ra vity

Th e sp e c ific g ra vity o f a sub sta n c e is th e ra tio o f th e d e n sity o f

th a t sub sta n c e to th e d e n sity o f w a te r a t 4◦C .
Sp e c ific g ra vity o f sub sta n c e X = De n sity o f sub sta n c e X
De n sity o f w a te r a t 4◦C
 Te m p e ra tu re Me a su re m e n t

Temperature is a measure of the hotness or

coldness of matter and is usually expressed
in degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Celsius, or ƒF to ƒC : = (ƒF -32)
Kelvin. It measures the intensity of energy 1.8
of the particles in a substance. For example, ƒC to ƒF : = (ƒCx1.8) + 32
the particles of water in a cup of hot water at ƒC to ƒK : = ƒC + 273
60ƒC are more energetic than particles in a
glass of cold water at 5ƒC. Temperature and
heat are related ,but they are often
confused.

Pro p e rtie s o f Ma tte r

Prof Angelita Parlan
 Sta te s o f Ma tte r
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter may either be
living or non living, has an odor or no odor. It can be detected using our senses
˗ sight, hearing ,taste, touch, and smell. Matter is what the world is made of.
The materials surrounding us, the air we breathe, the earth beneath our feet,
the food we eat, the water we drink, this book, and even the stars of the
universe are forms of matter.
The three main states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. Several new studies
have come out showing that plasma is the fourth state and Bose-Einstein
condensate as the fifth. Each of these states is also known as a phase.
Elements and compounds can change from one phase to another when
special physical forces (not chemical) are present. One such force is
temperature. The phase can change when temperature changes. As the
temperature rises, matter transforms to a more active state without changing
its chemical properties. You can see water vapor over a boiling pot of water.
That vapor can condense and become a drop of water again. If you put that
drop in the freezer, it would become ice, which is a solid. No matter what
phasePlait issm
in, a
it is always water. It always has the same chemical properties.
Plasma is the fourth state of matter. The term ‘Plasma’
has nothing to do with blood plasma. Plasma has neither
a definite volume nor a definite shape. It often is seen in
ionized gases. Plasma is distinct from a gas because it
possesses unique properties. Free electrical charges
(not bound to atoms or ions) cause plasma to be
electrically conductive. Plasma may be formed by
heating and ionizing a gas. It occurs only in lightning
discharges and in artificial devices like fluorescent bulbs
and neon signs.
 Phys ical and Chemical Properties of Matte r
Properties are the distinguishing characteristic that we use to identify different samples of
matter. We can recognize our own house among the other houses on the same street by
characteristics, such as paint, make, and design. In the same way, we can recognize different
substances by their characteristics or properties. Matter has two main kinds of properties –
physical and chemical.

Phys ical Properties

These are the characteristics that can be observed without changing the substance into
another substance. Melting point, boiling point, odor, color, taste, solubility, density,
hardness, softness, volatility, ductility, malleability, viscosity, physical state, hate conductivity,
and electrical conductivity are all physical properties. For example, to determine the melting
point of ice, we must change the ice to water. In this process, the appearance change, but
there is no change in composition. Water has a boiling point of 100̊C at sea level where
pressure is one atmospheric pressure. It is a clear, colorless liquid and with a density of
about 1 g/mL . Pure liquid water does not conduct electricity and is not a great conductor of
heat.

Chemical Properties

These are the characteristics that can be observed when the substance
undergoes a change in its composition. The ability of water to undergo a
process called electrolysis is among its chemical properties. A change in
composition occurs when an electric current is passed through a
container of liquid water (H2O), and the water is broken down to yield the
hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), gases. A chemical property is evident
when a substance reacts with another substance.
For example, iron slowly corrodes or rusts when exposed to air or a
moist environment to form iron oxide – the reddish brown rust. It is also a
chemical property is a substance does not react with another substance
because it is inert or more stable than the other substance.
 P u re S u b s ta n c e
Pure substance are forms of matter that have the same properties throughout, but
unlike solutions that have variable composition, these have definite and unchanging
chemical composition. This means that the substance is the same no matter where it is
found. Salt, water, aluminum foil, baking soda, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are all
substances because their composition is the same no matter where you find them. All
elements and all compounds are substances.

Ele m e nts
Elements are substances that are made up of only one type of atom. They
cannot be further separated into simpler substances. Atoms are made up of smaller
particles, but they are not broken down by ordinary chemical means.
There are currently 112 known elements, most of which are metals. Chemical
elements have abbreviations called “ Element Symbols”. Element symbol consist of
one, two, three letters. The first letter of an element symbol is always capitalized
and the second and third letter, if present, are lower cased.

PERIO DIC TABLE

PSI ANG ELITA S PARLAN (RET)
 HISTO RY O F PERIO DIC TABLE

Th e p e rio d ic ta b le o f e le m e n ts is a c o m m o n sig h t in c la ssro o m s, c a m p u s h a llw a ys a n d lib ra rie s,

b u t it is m o re th a n a ta b u la r o rg a n iza tio n o f p u re sub sta n c e s. Sc ie n tists c a n u se th e ta b le to
a n a lyze re a c tivity a m o n g e le m e n ts, p re d ic t c h e m ic a l re a c tio n s, u n d e rsta n d tre n d s in p e rio d ic
p ro p e rtie s a m o ng d iffe re n t e le m e n ts a n d sp e c u la te o n th e p ro p e rtie s o f th o se ye t to b e
d isc o ve re d . Th e m o d e rn p e rio d ic ta b le a rra n g e s the e le m e n ts b y th e ir a to m ic n u m b e rs a n d
p e rio d ic p ro p e rtie s. Se ve ra l sc ie n tists w o rke d o ve r a lm o st a c e n tu ry to a sse m b le th e e le m e n ts
in to th is fo rm a t.

Among the scientists who worked to created a table of the elements were, from left, Antoine
Lavoisier, Johann Wolfang Döbereiner, John Newlands and Henry Moseley.

In 1789, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier tried grouping the elements as metals and
nonmetals. Forty years later, German physicist Johann Wolfang Döbereiner observed
similarities in physical and chemical properties of certain elements. He arranged them in
groups of three in increasing order of atomic weight and called them triads, observing that
some properties of the middle element, such as atomic weight and density, approximated
the average value of these properties in the other two in each triad.
A breakthrough came with the publication of a revised list of elements and their atomic
masses at the first international conference of chemistry in Karlsruhe, Germany, in 1860.
They concluded that hydrogen would be assigned the atomic weight of 1 and the atomic
weight of other elements would be decided by comparison with hydrogen. For example,
carbon, being12 times heavier than hydrogen, would have an atomic weight of 12.
British chemist John Newlands was the first to arrange the elements into a
periodic table with increasing order of atomic masses. He found that every eight
elements had similar properties and called this the law of octaves. He arranged
the elements in eight groups but left no gaps for undiscovered elements.
In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created the framework that became
the modern periodic table, leaving gaps for elements that were yet to be
discovered. While arranging the elements according to their atomic weight, if he Dmitri Mendeleev
found that they did not fit into the group he would rearrange them. Mendeleev
predicted the properties of some undiscovered elements and gave them names
such as "eka-aluminium" for an element with properties similar to aluminium.
Later eka-aluminium was discovered as gallium. Some discrepancies remained;
the position of certain elements, such as iodine and tellurium, could not be
explained.

German chemist Lothar Meyer produced a version of the periodic table similar
to Mendeleev’s in 1870. He left gaps for undiscovered elements but never
predicted their properties. The Royal Society of London awarded the Davy
Medal in 1882 to both Mendeleev and Meyer. The later discovery of elements
predicted by Mendeleev, including gallium (1875), scandium (1879) and
germanium (1886), verified his predictions and his periodic table won
universal recognition. In 1955 the 101st element was named mendelevium in
his honor.
The concept of sub-atomic particles did not exist in the 19 th century. In 1913, Lothar Meyer
English physicist Henry Moseley used X-rays to measure the wavelengths of
elements and correlated these measurements to their atomic numbers. He
then rearranged the elements in the periodic table on the basis of atomic
numbers. This helped explain disparities in earlier versions that had
used atomic masses.
In th e p e rio d ic ta b le , th e h o rizo n ta l ro w s a re c a lle d p e rio d s, w ith m e ta ls in th e e xtre m e le ft a n d
n o n m e ta ls o n th e rig h t. Th e ve rtic a l c o lu m n s, c a lle d g ro u p s, c o n sist o f e le m e n ts w ith sim ila r
c h e m ic a l p ro p e rtie s. Th e p e rio d ic ta b le p ro vid e s in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e a to m ic stru c tu re o f th e
e le m e n ts a n d th e c h e m ic a l sim ila ritie s o r d issim ila ritie s b e tw e e n th e m . Sc ie n tists u se th e ta b le
to stu d y c h e m ic a ls a n d d e sig n e xp e rim e n ts. It is u se d to d e ve lo p c h e m ic a ls u se d in th e
p h a rm a c e u tic a l a n d c o sm e tic s in d u strie s a n d b a tte rie s u se d in te c h n o lo g ic a l d e vic e s.
UNESC O n a m e d 2019 th e In te rn a tio n a l Ye a r o f th e Pe rio d ic Ta b le to m a rk th e 150 th a n n ive rsa ry
o f Me n d e le e v’s p u b lic a tio n . Re se a rc h e rs a n d te a c h e rs w o rld w id e to o k th is o p p o rtu n ity to
re fle c t o n th e im p o rta n c e o f th e p e rio d ic ta b le a n d sp re a d a w a re n e ss a b o u t it in c la ssro o m s
a n d b e yo n d . Wo rksh o p s a n d c o n fe re n c e s e n c o u ra g e d p e o p le to u se th e kn o w le d g e o f th e
p e rio d ic ta b le to so lve p ro b le m s in h e a lth , te c h n o lo g y, a g ric u ltu re , e n viro n m e n t a n d
e d u c a tio n . Pu b lic a tio n h o u se s o rg a n ize d m o n th ly a c tivitie s su c h a s q u iz c o n te sts, p o d c a sts,
p e rso n a l sto ry se c tio n s a n d in d u stry site to u rs. Th e se in itia tive s d e m o n stra te d h o w th e e le m e n ts
a re in te g ra l to o u r d a ily live s in m e d ic in e s, p e stic id e s a n d lith iu m b a tte rie s