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The BIF-Hosted High-Grade Iron Ore Deposits in the Archean Koolyanobbing

Greenstone Belt, Western Australia: Structural Control on Synorogenic- and
Weathering-Related Magnetite, He...

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Economic Geology, v. 105, pp. 917–945

The BIF-Hosted High-Grade Iron Ore Deposits in the Archean Koolyanobbing

Greenstone Belt, Western Australia: Structural Control on Synorogenic- and
Weathering-Related Magnetite-, Hematite-, and Goethite-rich Iron Ore
THOMAS ANGERER† AND STEFFEN G. HAGEMANN
Centre for Exploration Targeting, Department of Earth and Environmental Science,
University of Western Australia, M006, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia

Abstract
The Koolyanobbing banded iron formation (BIF)-hosted iron ore deposits (total premining resources ~150
million metric tons (Mt), indicated reserves ~32 Mt) are located in the Mesoarchean lower succession BIF of
the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt, Younami terrane, Yilgarn craton in Western Australia. In the Koolyanob-
bing greenstone belt a deformation sequence that broadly correlates with the proposed deformation history of
most greenstones belts within the Southern Cross domain includes: D1 structures (mainly small-scale F1a and
F1b folds, formed in a north-south to northwest-southeast compressional regime), a ductile to brittle deforma-
tion sequence, D2 to D4 (generated during east-west compression) and, a late-stage brittle segmentation of BIF
and reactivation of faults, attributed to D5.
The formation of the seven known medium- (45−58 wt % Fe) to high-grade (58−68 wt % Fe) magnetite-,
martite-, specularite-, and goethite-bearing orebodies can be subdivided into four Archean stages and one
weathering-related upgrade from the Permian and/or Mesozoic to recent times. The Archean ore-forming
stages comprise: (1) early Fe-Mg ± Ca metasomatism causing local ferroan carbonate and ferroan talc alter-
ation of the metamorphosed quartz-magnetite BIF protolith; (2) sequential syn-D2a (coaxial) to syn-D4 (trans-
pressional) tight folding-driven removal of carbonate, quartz and minor ferroan talc by solution and mechanical
transfer, producing residual enrichment of medium- to high-grade magnetite ore; (3) magnetite mineralization
in syn-D2b and syn-D4 breccias and fractures, forming medium-grade ore zones, or overprint magnetite in BIF
and first-stage magnetite ore; and (4) mineralization of hydrothermal specularite and locally associated ferroan
dolomite-quartz alteration, and local oxidation of magnetite in and near brittle D4 faults, fractures, and reacti-
vated F1 and F2a fold cores.
Modern weathering-related leaching of carbonate (and minor quartz), pseudomorphic goethite replacement
of existing iron oxides and gangue, and coeval or subsequent to oxidation in the vadose zone formed goethite-
martite ore with local relics of specularite or magnetite and/or kenomagnetite. The intensity and localization of
this supergene modification is, in most deposits at Koolyanobbing, controlled by existing hypogene magnetite,
specularite-rich medium- to high-grade ore zones and/or carbonate-altered BIF at depth. The existence of
high-grade ore below the weathering horizons suggests the possibility of further concealed magnetite- and/or
specularite-rich orebodies within the deposits and region.

Introduction
THE STRUCTURAL control of high-grade iron ore (58−68 wt %
Fe) hosted in banded iron formation (BIF) is considered to be
one of the most important factors that influence the location
and geometry of iron ore deposits (Dalstra and Rosière, 2008,
and references therein). However, the details of ore-formation
processes and the relative timing of deformation and iron oxide
enrichment is still contentious for most known iron ore de-
posits globally. Syngenetic models propose that synsedimentary
or diagenetic structures, such as extensional faults or boudi-
nage (Findlay, 1994), led to lithofacies variations or diagenetic
modification of BIF and the production of chert-free iron for-
mation (e.g., Lascelles, 2007a). Supergene and supergene-
metamorphic models (Morris, 1985) regard existing struc-
tures as high-permeability zones for the circulation of ancient
or recent meteoric fluids through BIF, causing an upgrade in
iron by the leaching of gangue minerals from BIF to form ore
(Ramanaidou, 2009) or by the pseudomorphic replacement of
gangue minerals with goethite (Morris et al., 1980). In hypo-
gene models, hydrothermal fluid flow associated with defor-
mation is interpreted to be important for the localization of
† Corresponding author: e-mail, tangerer@cyllene.uwa.edu.au
0361-0128/10/3905/917-29
iron oxide mineralization in low mean stress zones within struc-
tures (e.g., Dalstra and Rosière, 2008). Hypogene-supergene
models are proposed to explain multistage upgrading processes
of iron in BIF (e.g., Barley et al., 1999; Taylor et al., 2001;
Thorne et al., 2004). Whereas structural models are well estab-
lished for many Proterozoic BIF-hosted iron ore deposits in
the Hamersley basin in the Pilbara craton (e.g., Powell et al.,
1999; Taylor et al., 2001; Thorne et al., 2004; Dalstra, 2006),
the same level of understanding is lacking for BIF-related
high-grade magnetite and hematite iron ore deposits in BIF
in Archean granite-greenstone belts (e.g., Lascelles, 2006b).
The goethite-hematite iron ore deposits located in the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt are among the most signifi-
cant accumulations of high-grade iron ore in the Yilgarn cra-
ton (Greentree and Lord, 2007). The premining iron ore re-
sources of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt deposits were
~150 Mt at 58 percent iron cut-off grade, the K deposit at
Koolyanobbing with >100 Mt premining resource is consid-
ered to be the largest single deposit in the Yilgarn. Indicated
mineral resources, as in 2008, are 32.4 Mt at 58 percent iron
cut-off grade (Portman, 2008).
This paper presents a structural model for the Koolyanob-
bing iron ore deposits in the context of the geologic evolution
Submitted: December 8, 2009
917 Accepted: May 1, 2010
918 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt and proposes a multi-
stage structurally controlled iron ore genesis, which resulted in
magnetite ore (which is currently uneconomic), coarse- or fine-
crystalline hematite ore (specularite and microspecularite, re-
spectively), and goethite-martite ore. The basis for this inter-
pretation is comprehensive mapping of the A, B, D, and K pits,
field mapping in undeveloped deposits (C, E, and F deposits),
and petrographical and mineralogical studies of drill cores.
Geologic Setting of the Koolyanobbing Greenstone Belt
The Koolyanobbing greenstone belt is situated 350 km east
of Perth, Western Australia. The northwestern-striking, elon-
gated belt is exposed for approximately 35 km between the
730000 mE
Lake Deborah and Lake Seabrook salt lakes (Fig. 1A). The
actual length of the approximately 8-km-wide greenstone belt
is unknown due to lacustrine cover. Regional airborne mag-
netic images (Geological Survey of Western Australia cover-
age: Barlee-Jackson and Southern Cross sheets) indicate con-
tinuation of a BIF unit to within a few kilometers south of
Lake Seabrook. The surrounding rocks of the Koolyanobbing
greenstone belt in the southwest are gneisses of the Ghooli
and Lake Deborah domes (Chin and Smith, 1983) and in the
northeast banded gneisses. Almost the entire southwestern
boundary of the belt is defined by the northwest-trending
Koolyanobbing shear zone (KSZ; Fig. 1A), which is marked
by a 6- to 14-km-wide mylonite zone (Libby et al., 1991). The

740000 mE

750000 mE
A

Iron ore
Goethite ore, undifferentiated
N Goethite-martite ore
Proterozoic Dike (undiff.)

Magmatic
Lake Seabrook granite

rocks
50 Koolyanobbing shear zone
71 Banded gneisses
6600000 mN
5 km Psammite, pelite

Lower succession
60 Quartz-martite/magnetite BIF
Lake Deborah Quartzite (after chert)
Massive pyrite
Ultramafic rock, undifferentiated
JD-D3 Amphibolite
55- Mafic rock, undifferentiated
La 80

do ke D
Fault (approximate)
No

53 Shear zone boundary (approx.)

Structures
m eb
rth

Anticline / syncline (inferred)

e o
Ra

56 BIF bedding
ra 63
ng

56 Mafic schist cleavage

h 56
e

Mylonitic S-C fabric (sinistral)

6591000 mN
JD-D3 Drill hole (azimuth indicated)
K Open pit / ore reserve (deposit)
So
ut

Koolyanobbing B NW SE
h
Ra

A
ng
e

Narryer B ca. 800 m *

gneiss terrane CD
E
total ca. 6000 m *

upper BIF (0- 30 m)

Murchison 75
domain Eastern middle BIF unit
(max. 200 m) K A B C DE F
Goldfields
Youanmi F
terrane
80
Koolyanobbing
Gho

lower BIF (0 - 100 m)

KS
Z

Perth Southern
Cross
oli d

South- domain
western ca. 6000 m **
gneiss Greenstone belt
ome

terrane Granitoid and gneiss

Fault, shear zone
Province boundary
200 km Terrane boundary Lake Seabrook banded gneisses

FIG. 1. Overview maps. A. Simplified geologic map of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt (inset: Yilgarn craton with its
location in Australia). The map is based on existing 1:250.000 scale regional map (GSWA Jackson map sheet: Chin and Smith,
1983), maps produced by Cliffs Asia Pacific Iron Ore Ltd., airborne magnetic and gravity imagery (carried out by Cliffs Asia
Pacific Iron Ore Ltd.), and local mapping by the first author. B. Lithostratigraphic column of the lower succession in the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt, mainly based on Griffin (1981) and unpublished cores and maps of Cliffs Asia Pacific Iron
Ore Ltd. and Western Areas NL (*Griffin, 1981; **Libby, 1991).

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 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA
Koolyanobbing shear zone dips moderately toward the north-
east (Drummond et al., 1993). Locally, a mostly undeformed
monzogranite (the Lake Seabrook granite) intrudes the Ghooli
dome gneisses, Koolyanobbing shear zone mylonites, and
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt succession.
Lithostratigraphy
The Koolyanobbing greenstone belt exhibits rocks of the
lower greenstone succession (Cassidy et al., 2006), which is
assumed to be the oldest (minimum age 3023 ± 10 Ma: Nel-
son, 1999) sedimentary succession within the Youanmi ter-
rane (Chen et al., 2003). Throughout the Youanmi terrane,
the lower greenstone succession consists of discontinuous
basal, clastic quartzites, followed by thick tholeiitic basalt
flows, high-magnesium basalts, minor basic tuffites and ko-
matiites, several BIFs, and minor clastic sedimentary rocks
(e.g., Chen et al., 2003; Wyche et al., 2004; Cassidy et al.,
2006).
A lithostratigraphic column of the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt has been established assuming a uniform strati-
graphic younging of the inclined lithostratigraphic units to-
ward the northeast (Fig. 1B). The sequences of the lower
greenstone succession in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt
contain less acid to intermediate lithologic units than most
other greenstone belts in the Yilgarn craton (Chin and Smith,
1983). The estimated thickness of the tholeiitic volcanic se-
quence in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt is 6 km (Grif-
fin, 1981). The basalts and tuffites were metamorphosed to
hornblende- and actinolite-dominated amphibolites and chlo-
rite schists (locally talc bearing). Ultramafic layers are abun-
dant in the lowermost and in the upper section of the lithos-
tratigraphic column and have a total thickness of about 800 m
(Griffin, 1981). These originally peridotitic komatiite flows
(Nesbitt, 1971) are now carbonate-bearing talc-, chlorite-,
tremolite-, antigorite-rich schists (Griffin, 1981). Exposed
clastic sedimentary rocks of the Koolyanobbing greenstone
belt include quartzite and pelites (Griffin, 1981). Three BIF
units within the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt define topo-
graphical ridges, which strike broadly parallel to the Kool-
yanobbing greenstone belt and have thicknesses between 50
and 180 m, locally up to 260 m. The middle BIF unit is the
most prominent, with a strike continuation throughout the
entire length of the greenstone belt.
The middle BIF unit comprises mainly layered quartz-
magnetite rock (BIF s.str.), which is weathered to quartz-
martite ± goethite BIF from the surface to depths of about
70 m. Laminated or massive metacherts, which contain re-
crystallized quartz, are intercalated in the BIF, especially in
the North Range. Within the middle BIF unit, particularly
in the K deposit, rocks are locally magnesium-rich (talc
schist, layered talc-magnetite BIF, talc-martite BIF,
dolomite-magnetite BIF). Amphibole ± carbonate-rich BIF
is observed in the lower and middle BIF unit, e.g., at the
Lake Seabrook and Jock’s Dream prospects (Fig. 1A).
Siderite-magnetite BIF occurs in the A and F deposits. A
thin (approx 10-m) layer of chlorite schist, probably repre-
senting a metamorphosed tuff, is intercalated (boudinaged)
in the middle BIF unit. Massive pyrite bodies with thick-
nesses between 5 and 70 m are locally present at the strati-
graphic footwall of the BIF.
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Magmatism and metamorphism: A large proportion of the
upper crust in the Southern Cross domain comprises multi-
phase granitoid batholiths that were emplaced during 2.80
and 2.67 Ga, resulting in separation of the greenstone belts
(Mueller and McNaughton, 2000, and references therein).
These granitoids were emplaced and deformed during
Youanmi terrane-wide, pre- to synorogenic plutonic phases
(Gee, 1979; Chen et al., 2001, 2004). One of these batholiths,
the Ghooli dome, is located adjacent to the Koolyanobbing
greenstone belt in the southwest and constitutes a series of
sequentially intruded granitoids with intrusion ages (young-
ing inward) from 2775 ± 10 to 2691 ± 9 Ma (Dalstra et al.,
1998; Qiu et al., 1999; Mueller and McNaughton, 2000). Peak
metamorphism of rocks in most greenstone belts of the
Southern Cross domain was associated with the intrusion of
these granitoid batholiths. An increase in metamorphic grade
from the center (subgreenschist to greenschist) to the bound-
ary (up to amphibolite facies) of greenstone belts is thought
to be the result of regional-scale contact metamorphism
(Ahmat, 1986).
A series of postorogenic and postmetamorphic plutons
(mostly monzogranites) intruded gneiss domes and green-
stone belts throughout the Youanmi terrane between 2.66
and 2.60 Ga (Chen et al., 2004, and references within). They
most likely formed as a result of anatexis of the second gen-
eration plutons (Mueller and McNaughton, 2000). The Lake
Seabrook magnetite series monzogranite has been dated at
2656 ± 3 Ma (Qiu et al., 1999). A cummingtonite-hornfels
contact aureole in BIF and amphibolites next to the slightly
deformed granite is observed in the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt at Lake Seabrook.
Proterozoic mafic and ultramafic dikes in east-trending ten-
sion fractures represent the latest stage of crustal-scale intru-
sion processes in the central Yilgarn craton (Hallberg, 1987).
Regional structural setting
A four-stage deformation sequence is proposed for the
Southern Cross domain of the central Yilgarn craton (Table 1;
Libby et al., 1991; Eisenlohr et al., 1993; Dalstra, 1995; Dal-
stra et al., 1999; Greenfield and Chen, 1999; Chen et al.,
2001, 2004). D1 was associated with a north-south compres-
sional paleostress regime and resulted in upright to recum-
bent tight to isoclinal folds and localized thrusts. Subsequent
east-west shortening included a deformation sequence char-
acterized by coaxial D2 and inhomogeneous transpressional
D3. This east-west shortening is considered to be the main
orogenic deformation period in the central Yilgarn craton re-
lated to amalgamation of most of the Yilgarn craton terranes
(Gee, 1979). All deformed granitoids and greenstone belts in
the Youanmi terrane are characterized by D2 deformation,
mainly involving the generation of a pervasive foliation in
granitoids and upright folds in greenstone belts. The entire
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt succession represents the
northeast-dipping limb of a larger F2 fold (cf. Griffin, 1981;
Chin and Smith, 1983). D3 produced megascale moderate- to
steep-dipping shear zones with transcurrent kinematics, ei-
ther northwest trending with sinistral movement or northeast
trending with dextral movement (Chen et al., 2001, 2004).
The L-S mylonites of the Koolyanobbing shear zone, showing
transcurrent sinistral kinematics, are products of D3 (Libby et
920 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

TABLE 1. Comparison of the Structural Evolutions of the Central Southern Cross Domain1 and the Koolyanobbing Greenstone Belt

Central Southern Cross domain Koolyanobbing greenstone belt

Tectonic regime Tectonic event Structures and P-T conditions Tectonic event Structures and P-T conditions

N-S compression D1 Regional detachments, D1a Regional recumbent isoclinals folds,

Moderate- to low-P-T conditions, Low- to moderate-P-T conditions
Localized recumbent folds, moderate- D1b Localized upright to inclined folds,
to high-P-T conditions Low- to moderate-P-T condition

E-W compression D2 Regional upright to inclined folds, D2a Regional upright to inclined folds,
Low- to high-P-T conditions Low- to moderate-P-T conditions
D2b Localized upright to inclined folds,
brittle-ductile reverse shearing
Low-P-T conditions (hydrothermal)

E-W transpression
D3 Regional ductile transcurrent shearing,
Low- to high-P-T conditions
D4 Regional transcurrent faulting,
Moderate- to low-P-T conditions
D3 Localized ductile shearing (KSZ),
Low- to moderate-P-T conditions
D4 Localized brittle transcurrent faulting,
Regional folds around vertical axis,
Regional cleavage,
Low-P-T conditions (hydrothermal)

N-S compression D5 Localized brittle reactivations and thrusting, D5 Localized brittle reactivations,
low-P-T conditions Low-P-T conditions

1 Summarized in Dalstra et al. (1999)

al., 1991; Chen et al., 2001, 2004). Because the Lake
Seabrook granite intruded the Koolyanobbing shear zone, its
intrusion age (2656 ± Ma: Qiu et al., 1999) may be the mini-
mum age of the Koolyanobbing shear zone ductile deforma-
tion event. The youngest ductile deformation within the
Southern Cross domain has been reported from the Lake
Johnston greenstone belt (2629 ± 1Ma: Joly et al., 2010).
Post-D3 brittle faults have varied orientations in the Southern
Cross domain and are interpreted to be results of east-west−
to east-northeast-west-southwest−shortening (D4: Dalstra et
al., 1999; also Wyche, 1999), and north-south−shortening
compression with localized brittle reactivation and thrusting
(D5: Dalstra et al., 1999).
Petrography of BIF and Iron Ore in
the Koolyanobbing Greenstone Belt
Throughout the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt, the least
altered, nonweathered, protolith BIF is a quartz-magnetite
BIF. Minor cummingtonite-quartz BIF crops out at Lake
Seabrook. The BIF is host to five high-grade iron ore types,
which are distinguished based on the dominant iron oxide:
magnetite, martite, specularite, goethite, and goethite-mar-
tite ore. The latter is volumetrically the most important type
(about 80% of the total iron ore resources). Typically, ore
lithologic units show mixtures of the main iron oxides (e.g.,
magnetite-martite, specularite-martite, specularite-martite-
goethite ores). This complexity prohibits an accurate quan-
tification of individual ore types. Information about iron ore
contaminants, P, Si, Mg, Al, S, are given qualitatively for
each ore type, i.e., low, medium, high, referring to the com-
mon terminology used in the iron ore industry. Bulk geo-
chemical values of contaminants for the deposits are shown
in Table 2.
Quartz-magnetite/martite/goethite BIF
The lower succession of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt
consists mainly of least altered quartz-magnetite BIF, weath-
ered quartz-martite-goethite BIF, and locally hydrothermally
oxidized quartz-martite BIF. The texture of the BIF is char-
acterized by micro- to mesolayers of iron oxide, intercalated
with quartz mesolayers. The average iron oxide mesolayer
thickness increases from 2 to 5 mm, from northwest to south-
east within the middle BIF unit (Griffin, 1981). The layer tex-
ture is typically anastomosing and centimeter- to microscale
structures are common, including boudinage, shear zones,
harmonic isoclinal or tight folds, disharmonic folds, and dis-
crete faults and veins that crosscut layering.
Iron oxides: Magnetite commonly occurs as amalgamated
anhedral grains (< 0.05 mm) and is the main constituent of
iron oxide layers in least altered BIF, which is characterized
by dark gray magnetite and white or light gray quartz layers.
Quartz-martite BIF displays bluish-gray martite layers and lo-
cally, typically at microfaults, reddish quartz layers. Weath-
ered siliceous BIF is commonly present as quartz-martite-
goethite BIF with gray-brown martite-goethite layers and in
many localities ochreous quartz layers. Therefore, the specific
colors of the quartz layers reflect the presence, and the oxi-
dation-hydration state, of iron oxide grains. Goethite partially
replaces quartz, martite, and amphiboles, and commonly fills
voids. Elevated contents of goethite in BIF are observed
characteristically proximal to goethite and goethite-martite
ore.
Quartz: Siliceous BIF layers are characterized by recrystal-
lized quartz (~0.025 mm). Medium-grained granoblastic
quartz shows grain boundary area reduction in the contact au-
reole of the Lake Seabrook granite and in zones of euhedral
magnetite mineralization, close to iron ore.

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 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA
Grunerite and cummingtonite
The magnesium/iron ratio of amphiboles is high (i.e., cum-
mingtonite composition) in BIF that occurs in the South
Range and low (i.e., grunerite) in the North Range (Griffin,
1981). Abundant coarse-grained grunerite is observed in de-
formed quartz-magnetite BIF located close to the Koolya-
nobbing shear zone, and a quartz-cummingtonite BIF is ob-
served at Lake Seabrook.
Minor and accessory minerals: Minor minerals in BIF in-
clude disseminated siderite, ferroan talc, chlorite, iron sul-
fides, and garnet (Davis, 1972; Sullivan, 1973; Griffin, 1981).
Magnetite ore
Laminated magnetite ore and ore breccia: Medium-, locally
high-grade magnetite ore (45−63 wt % Fe, high Mg, Si, S, P
contamination) is commonly laminated and characterized by
primary magnetite mesolayer and layers of fine-grained an-
hedral magnetite, which are microporous (0.02 mm; Fig. 2A,
B). Laminated magnetite ore locally displays microfolds, which
commonly show a “brick-and-mortar” fabric. Magnetite ore
breccias are mineralogically similar to laminated magnetite ore
but display a texture of brecciated layers in a fine-grained, cat-
aclastic, magnetite matrix. Common gangue minerals in mag-
netite ore are quartz, ferroan talc, and Fe carbonate. Pyrite (up
to 10 vol %) is present as disseminated, coarse, euhedral crys-
tals, clusters, or decimeter-wide bands. Granular magnetite ore
is a local variety of medium-grade magnetite ore, which is rich
in sub- to euhedral, coarse-grained, partially martitized, mag-
netite crystals and pressure solution seams (Fig. 2C). Locally,
magnetite is replaced by disseminated specularite crystals or
truncated by specularite veins. In specularite-rich areas, mag-
netite crystals show evidence of intense martitization.
Martite ore
Martite ore (58−67 wt % Fe, medium to high P, low S) is ei-
ther massive or vuggy laminated. In the weathering zone and
along faults, martite ore shows typically goethite replacement
to form goethite-martite ore.
Massive laminated and martite ore breccia: Laminated
martite ore is a common ore type and shows textural charac-
teristics that are similar to laminated magnetite ore, such as
martite layers, intercalated with cataclastic martite layers, or
“brick-and-mortar” fabrics (Fig. 2E). Martite ore breccia tex-
tures show similarities to magnetite ore breccias.
Vuggy laminated martite ore: This ore type is characterized
by martite layers with interstitial layer-parallel voids (Fig. 2F).
This indicates minimal lithostatical pressure with limited
compaction and/or collapse during and after leaching. There-
fore, this ore type is most likely a product of mineral leaching
during recent near-surface weathering.
Specularite ore
Specularite ore: Zones of monomineralic hydrothermal
specularite (65−68% wt Fe, low P, low S) are only observed in
some fault zones in the K, C, and D deposits, where it is lo-
cally preserved as large, pseudohexagonal crystal blades with
basal planes of up to 10-cm diameter (Fig. 2H) and more
commonly as friable masses of fine-grained, brecciated spec-
ularite. In the latter example, specularite probably experi-
enced grain-size reduction during the reactivation of faults.
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Specularite-martite ore: Specularite with commonly >5-
mm grain sizes occur as disseminated crystals, veins, or pods
in some martite ore and goethite-martite ore at the K, C, and
D deposits (Fig. 2G). Locally, microspecularite with <1-mm
grain sizes is a major constituents of specularite-martite ore
(63−68 wt % Fe, medium P, low S), where it partially replaces
quartz and martite layers (Fig. 2I).
Goethite-martite ore
High-grade goethite-martite ore (58−63 wt % Fe, medium
P, low S) is locally present in the weathering zone, i.e., within
approximately 70 m of the present surface in all iron ore de-
posits. Goethite typically replaces martite, specularite, or
gangue minerals.
Massive layered goethite-martite ore: This ore type is com-
mon in small- to medium-size orebodies, such as the D and E
deposits, where no deep-seated martite or magnetite orebody
is present. The mineralogical difference between this ore
type and the laminated ore described above is that the gangue
minerals are replaced by microcrystalline goethite to form a
layered rock of martite and goethite. Proximal to this layered
ore, quartz-martite BIF is characteristically goethite rich.
Massive goethite-martite breccia ore: Goethite-martite
breccia ore is characterized by brecciated, martite mesolayers
and locally also microspecularite layers that are enveloped by
a groundmass of microcrystalline goethite. Proximal to the
BIF host rock, these breccia matrices are siliceous.
Goethite ore
Vitreous goethite: Tabular orebodies of massive and vuggy,
vitreous goethite (58−60 wt % Fe, high Al, high Si, medium-
high P, low S) are located at the present surface, typically
above goethite-martite ore and locally above BIF. This ore
commonly contains minor quartz and clay and lacks BIF tex-
ture. Locally, within the vitreous goethite zone, spongy, botry-
oidal, stalactite, or tubular goethite is present. These goethitic
textural variations also occur as infills in voids within BIF and
goethite-martite ore and are observed in the weathering zone
of the A, C, F, and K deposits but are volumetrically minor.
Gossanous goethite: Deep-seated massive pyrite bodies at
basal parts of the middle BIF unit (Ellis, 1958) are expressed
as gossanous goethite (55−59 wt % Fe, high Al, high Si, low
P, low S) near the surface. They display a high porosity and
characteristic boxwork textures after dissolved cubic pyrite
crystals.
Ochreous goethite ore (limonite): Unconsolidated ochreous
goethite (50−58 wt % Fe, high Al, high Si, low P, low S) is a
product of massive, vitreous, or gossanous goethite weather-
ing. Ochreous goethite zones in the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt are commonly controlled by deep weathering along
fault zones within goethite-martite orebodies. Ochreous
goethite is also a minor constituent in some weathered BIF
and goethite-martite ore.
Mineralized BIF and BIF breccia
Mineralized BIF and BIF breccia is a medium-grade ore
(45−58 wt % Fe) characterized by abundant iron oxide-rich
pods or veins of decimeter to several meters in size. Below
the weathering front, the mineralogy of iron-rich pods and
breccia matrices includes mainly amalgamated, euhedral to
922 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

A coarsely
cataclastic mag layer 1 cm
brecciated
primary mag

cataclastic
mag zone

primary mag layer

B talc C chl D D4(?)-

primary mag cleavage
D4(?)- plane
layer cleavage por
plane
py

qtz
py

cataclastic mart
mag layer

goe kmag/mag

mar
coarsely cataclastic
brecciated mag mag
0.2 mm 0.2 mm 0.2 mm
E mar micro-layers F lens G
(2.5cm)

shem

goe

void+ogoe mar meso- mar meso- goe-layer

mar meso-layer 1 cm +hhem layer layer

H I
primary meso-layer
(mag/mar)

shem layer
boundary

shem
qtz

mar

1 cm 0.2 mm
FIG. 2. Ore textures. A. Laminated magnetite ore from the K deposit (core sample KPDDH012-2), characterized by pri-
mary layers of coarse magnetite (light gray) intercalated with layers of fine magnetite (dark gray). B. Photomicrograph re-
flected + transmitted light, showing details of laminations described in (A), pyrite replaces locally fine magnetite. C. Pho-
tomicrograph reflected + transmitted light, showing coarse-grained magnetite ore that is rich in euhedral magnetite grains and
pressure solution seams that define a cleavage. D. Photomicrograph reflected + transmitted light of a BIF breccia matrix at
the C deposit, showing a (keno-) magnetite- and/or martite-mineralized zone, which replaced quartz matrix; the zone is de-
formed by a pressure-solution cleavage (D4); in the left part quartz is replaced by goethite, seeding on martite grains (sample
C-6). E. Massive laminated martite ± goethite ore from the K pit, showing a “brick-and-mortar” fabric of primary mesolayers,
which are intercalated with fine cataclastically deformed martite (sample KP-50). F. Vuggy martite ± goethite ore at the K pit
with secondary ochreous goethite and reddish hydrohematite in voids. G. Martite-specularite ore at the D deposit. H. Hand
specimen of specularite ore from a fault zone in the K pit (sample KP-920). I. Photomicrograph reflected + transmitted light
of martite-microspecularite ore from north of the K deposit (sample KN-1). Abbreviations: goe = goethite, hhem = hydrohe-
matite, kmag = kenomagnetite, mar = martite, ogoe = ochreous goethite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, shem = specularite.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 922

 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA 923

anhedral magnetite and/or martite grains. Locally, medium-
grade mineralized BIF is overprinted by hydrothermal spec-
ularite. Within the weathering zone, iron oxide is mostly al-
tered to kenomagnetite and martite and replaced by massive
goethite (Fig. 2D).
These mineralized BIF and BIF breccias are typically asso-
ciated with strongly folded or faulted zones (i.e., satellite fea-
tures) proximal to high-grade orebodies. At the A, B, C, and
F deposits, meter- to decameter-wide mineralized pods are
hosted in siliceous breccias or in BIF. These mineralized pods
typically display breccia textures that are characterized by
gangue minerals, which are replaced by iron oxides (Fig. 2D).
Decimeters to meters away from structures, mineralized BIF
retains its layered fabric but shows iron oxide replacement of
quartz layers.
Descriptions of the Koolyanobbing Iron Ore Deposit
History of exploration and mining at Koolyanobbing
The Koolyanobbing greenstone belt hosts seven known
high-grade iron ore deposits, which are hosted in the south-
ern section of the middle BIF unit and named the A, B, C,
D, E, F, and K deposits (Fig. 1A). The A, B, D, and K de-
posits are exploited by open-pit mines. We use the term “de-
posit” to refer to all high-grade orebodies exploited by open
pits or existing as undeveloped ore reserves in 2009. The K,
A, and C deposits are described in this paper, representing
the economically most important deposits in the Koolyanob-
bing greenstone belt.
Iron ore mining at Dowd’s Hill (K deposit) started in 1948
when the government operated the mine to supply charcoal
iron to the Wundowie iron smelter. Between the mid 1960s
and 1983, BHP operated the K and A mines to supply the
Kwinana blast furnace. After a ten-year period of care and
maintenance, Portman Iron Ore Ltd., in a joint venture with
a Chinese partner, bought the operation and mining recom-
menced in 1994. Since 2007, the mines have been operated
by the Koolyanobbing Alliance, a joint venture between Port-
man and BGC Contracting. Since 2009, Portman has come
under 100 percent ownership of Cliffs Natural Resources
Asia Pacific Iron Ore Ltd.
Mineral exploration during the 1950s led to the discovery
of massive sulfide bodies, sulfide-hosted goethite gossan, and
medium- to high-grade magnetite ore below the high-grade
hematite-goethite ore at the K and A deposits (Ellis, 1958).
Sullivan (1973) described the hematite-goethite ore in the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt “South Range” (south of
6591000 mN) as a product of supergene enrichment of oxide
and sulfide facies BIF. The lithostratigraphy, structural, and
metamorphic setting, and the nature of iron ore in the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt have been described by Grif-
fin (1981). He concluded that the BIF-hosted iron ore is a
complex product of an initial hydrothermal mineralization
stage related to structurally controlled hydrothermal fluid

TABLE 2. Summary of the Characteristics of the Koolyanobbing Iron Ore Deposits, Showing Their Resources, Average Ore Grades and
Contaminants, Indicated Ore Protoliths and Ore Types, and the Spatial Controls of the Ore Types

Indicated ore types

Tons Fe P SiO2 AI2O3 S LOl
Deposit Resource (Mt) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) Ore protolith mag mar s-m g-m goss

K Indicated 10.4 62.25 0.103 3.24 0.61 0.063 5.47 Quartz, carbonate, x x x x x
Total 10.4 62.25 0.103 3.24 0.61 0.063 5.47 (talc) magnetite BIF,
massive pyrite

A Indicated 4.6 61.71 0.097 3.54 0.62 0.348 6.29 Quartz and carbonate- x x x x
Total 4.6 61.71 0.097 3.54 0.62 0.348 6.29 magnetite BIF,
massive pyrite

B Indicated 3.6 60.96 0.018 4.20 0.59 0.073 6.29 Quartz-magnetite BIF x x
Inferred 0.2 60.51 0.039 4.97 0.40 0.079 6.88
Total 3.8 60.94 0.019 4.25 0.58 0.073 6.33

C Indicated 6.9 61.50 0.033 2.68 0.71 0.066 7.27 Quartz-magnetite BIF, x x x x
Inferred 0.2 61.35 0.009 3.42 0.36 0.064 7.02 massive pyrite
Total 7.1 61.49 0.032 2.69 0.71 0.067 7.26

D Indicated 0.3 60.67 0.031 4.47 1.46 0.019 6.62 Quartz-magnetite BIF, x x x x
Total 0.3 60.86 0.031 4.46 1.44 0.019 6.63 massive pyrite

E Indicated 0.6 60.54 0.035 4.90 0.39 0.050 7.37 Quartz-magnetite BIF x x
Total 0.6 60.54 0.035 4.90 0.39 0.050 7.37

F Indicated 5.6 61.36 0.042 2.87 0.78 0.084 8.01 Quartz- and carbonate- x x
Inferred 0.1 60.66 0.022 3.41 0.73 0.012 8.08 magnetite BIF

Total Indicated 32.4 61.66 0.064 3.29 0.66 0.108 6.57

Inferred 0.5 60.92 0.024 4.04 0.46 0.060 7.16
Total 32.9 61.65 0.064 3.30 0.66 0.108 6.58

Notes: Resource data from Portman (2007); medium- to high-grade “magnetite ore” is not included in tonnage and grades; ore abbreviations: g-m =
goethite-martite ore, goss = gossanous goethite ore, mag = magnetite ore, mar = martite ore, s-m = specularite-martite ore

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 923

924 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN
flow, followed by subsequent upgrading by recent weather-
ing-related quartz and carbonate leaching. In addition to the
upgrading effects of supergene leaching, early formation of
syngenetic iron ore has also been suggested (Lascelles,
2007b).
K deposit
The K deposit is located in the central part of the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt, about 1.5 km north of the
town of Koolyanobbing (Fig. 1A). This deposit is the most sig-
nificant in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt in terms of its
size and ore grade, however the iron ore is phosphorous rich
(Table 2). As of 2008, the K deposit has an indicated mineral
resource of 10.4 Mt goethite-martite and specularite-martite
ore with an average grade of 62.25 percent iron. A zone of
massive magnetite ore, informally named the “K deeps” de-
posit (Guarin et al., 2009), is located beneath near-surface
goethite-martite ore.
Lithostratigraphy and BIF host rocks: The footwall of the
K deposit consists of chlorite ± talc schists and decameter-
wide lenses of massive metabasalts and metatuffites (Fig. 3).
The chlorite ± talc schist is overlain by a 230-m-wide BIF that
hosts the iron ore. The northern hanging wall to the BIF com-
prises chlorite schists, which are petrographically similar to
the footwall schists. In the western part of the open pit, re-
crystallized chert and cherty BIF are the dominant basal
rocks of the BIF unit. There is an increase of martite bands
and a corresponding increase in the iron oxide/quartz ratio
with distance to the north and upsequence in the BIF unit.
The quartz-magnetite BIF displays considerable composi-
tional variation in the south and southeastern pit walls from
carbonate-magnetite to talc-magnetite BIF. Several strike-
parallel, 5- to 10-m-thick, en echelon lenses of chlorite schist
bands are located in the upper part of the BIF unit. An ap-
proximately 300-m-long and 50- to 70-m-thick lens of massive
pyrite is located between the footwall mafic rocks and the
BIF (Fig. 4).
Hydrothermal mineral assemblages: Large parts of BIF,
magnetite ore, and fault zones at the K deposit are affected by
hydrothermal talc and carbonate alteration (Fig. 5). Talc-
magnetite BIF is common in the K deposit, and it is charac-
terized by ferroan talc mesolayers, magnetite meso- and mi-
crolayers, and talc-magnetite mesolayers. Talc-magnetite
schists contain ferroan talc matrices with up to 50 percent
magnetite-rich lenses, which define a weak foliation (D2b,
Fig. 6D). This rock is interpreted to be deformed talc BIF,
because magnetite lenses are formed by deformation of pri-
mary iron oxide layers. In the weathering zone, talc schist has
martite-rich schlieren. Lithologic transitions between talc-
rich and siliceous BIF that are oblique to the bedding planes
supports the interpreted metasomatic formation of ferroan
talc (Fig. 6G). Chlorite ± talc schists are common in the foot-
wall and hanging wall of the K deposit but uncommon as a
country rock within the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt and,
therefore, may also be a result of this hydrothermal alteration
event. The origin and timing of the Mg metasomatism is con-
tentious. Foliated and crenulated fabrics in talc-magnetite
BIF and schist and syndeformational ferroan talc fibrous in
boudin necks of “brick-and-mortar” fabrics (Fig. 6D) suggest
that ferroan talc formed prior to D4.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 924
Magnesium- and Mn-bearing siderite is observed as fine
grains interlocked with and overgrowing recrystallized quartz
in transitional talc-carbonate-quartz BIF and as inclusions in
largely undeformed hydrothermal sparitic ferroan dolomite
and euhedral magnetite. Magnesium- and Mn-bearing
siderite and quartz in transitional talc-carbonate-quartz BIF
are, in many expamles, replaced by ferroan talc.
A late-stage assemblage of sparitic ferroan dolomite (Fig.
6B, E), granoblastic and euhedral quartz, specularite (Fig.
6F), minor ferroan talc, euhedral magnetite and pyrite, re-
placed magnetite BIF, magnetite ore, and talc-schist, or
formed breccia pods and veins (Fig. 6E). Minerals are mostly
undeformed but locally granoblastic quartz shows undulose
extinction and subgrains, carbonate crystals are locally
twinned and undulose, and the hydrothermal pods occur
often in BIF fold cores. These features suggest that there
were several stages of metasomatism, or one single stage of
metasomatism began during the end of the folding stages but
was mostly a postfolding event.
Structures: The deposit strikes west-northwest in its west-
ern part and northwest to north-northwest in its eastern and
southeastern parts, showing a bend in between (Fig. 3A). The
BIF at the K deposit has been structurally thickened to about
230 m by the following several deformational processes:
1. Decimeter-scale, tight to isoclinal F1 folding, which shows
various orientations, located in limbs of mesoscale F2a folds.
2. East- to southeast-plunging, mesoscale (meter to de-
cameter) open and tight F2a folding, which displays S, Z, and
M shapes and fold axial planes that dip steeply toward the
north-northeast to northeast (Fig. 7E1). The mesoscale F2a
fold cores are typically complexly deformed, showing hinge-
crosscutting faults and/or fold tightening (Fig. 5B). The fold
axes in BIF and schists are rotated around a subvertical F4
axis, especially in the southeastern pit area, west of the east-
ern lithon (Fig. 7E2, E3).
3. A large-scale sinistral duplex and imbricate fan system
(cf. Woodcock and Fischer, 1986) also allowed structural
thickening; this is indicated by en echelon, steeply north-
northeast to east-northeast dipping D4 faults that are parallel
to, and crosscutting, the BIF unit at a low angle (Fig. 7E2,
E3). The imbricate fan is indicated by two lithons (a western
and eastern) consisting largely of goethite-martite ore (Fig.
3). Both lithons are enclosed by moderately to steeply east
dipping D4 faults. Subhorizontal and dip-slip structural lin-
eations on D4 faults and structurally reactivated S2a cleavage
planes in mafic rock and talc-rich rocks are common within
the duplex system (Fig. 7E5). The chlorite schists in the foot-
wall and hanging wall display two sets of cleavages: one set
dips northeast, whereas the other dips east (Fig. 7E4). The
second cleavage (S4), characteristically a discrete pressure-so-
lution cleavage, overprints the first one (S2a), which is defined
by chlorite and quartz elongation (Fig. 8). Strike-slip and dip-
slip fault movements, fold rotation, and cleavage orientations
suggest a complex oblique transpressional deformation (cf.
Jones et al., 2004). D5 faults crosscut the D4 duplex and D4
imbricate fan structures or reactivate older faults.
Iron ore setting: The K deposit orebody can be subdivided
into five distinct zones according to their iron ore types (Fig.
 A A’ C Pit floor (222 m RL) Fe assay map

740400 mE
740500 mE
740600 mE
740700 mE
740800 mE
740900 mE
741000 mE
50 60 49
50 68 50
64
48
50 D4 western lithon
60 66
6590500 mN D4 eastern lithon
Fe assay map 50
38 009)
56 ottom (2
55 L pit b

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
222m R
50 37
49
60 52 Iron content
D5 fault 55
> 58 - 68 % (ore)
> 45 - 58 % (sub-ore)
70 60 77 50
6590400 mN > 10 - 45 %
83 > 1 - 10 %

cu
70 46 >0-1%

tb
56 75 0%
66 F4 44
45 ack
75
65
(27

68
0m

82
43 59
RL

6590300 mN
)

40 60 80 51
63

D
52

4
footw
70 D5 fault

du
all fa
ult

pl
60 75 5

ex
fa
46

u
54

lt
3
50 32 40 49

925
6590200 mN
5 horizontal
48 53 F 4 (drag)
55
50 47
40
70 44 47
70 58 60 13
70
Ochreous goethite (limonite), medium-grade 49 19
63 66 54
Specularite ore (> 63 % Fe) 37
73
Goethite ore (> 58 % Fe)

Iron ore
ram
Goethite-martite ore±specularite (> 58 % Fe) 68 p 56
Martite±specularite ore (> 63 % Fe)

Hard ore
30
Magnetite ore (>55 % Fe) 49
70
46 65
Specularite-quartz breccia (locally fault-hosted) 58 70 84
49
Mineralized BIF (45 - 55 % Fe) A 71

(45-58 %Fe)
Medium grade
Talc-magnetite schist / talc-martite schist Sheared rock (hatchure on top of color) B 86 80
Carbonate-magnetite BIF Sheared rock (hatchure on top of color)
68
Talc-quartz BIF Bedding surfaces in BIF 60
4
Talc-magnetite BIF / talc-martite BIF Cleavage in schists with 1, 2 75
86
BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA

BIF unit
75 65
68
Quartz-magnetite BIF / quartz-martite BIF S-shape / Z-shape fold limb 63 80
75 5
46

Metachert Minor fold 32

(K-deeps)
Syncline / anticline 44

Structures
Massive Pyrite 5480

Slickenline and stretching lineation

Lower succession
58 3
Phyllitic chlorite schist
Fold hinge line (inclined)
Chlorite±talc schist Fault (defined, interpreted)
Metabasalt Reverse fault

Mafic rocks
Zones of K deposit
FIG. 3. Geologic map of the K deposit pit (A), the five ore zones in the deposit (B), assays map of the pit bottom (see box in A for location of map) for iron-grade
control, showing BIF-to-ore relationships and faults geometries (C).
925
926 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

6590100 mN

740900 mE

6590300 mN

6590500 mN
741000 mE
A A’ Specularite ore (> 63 % Fe)

Iron ore
Goethite ore (> 58 % Fe)

Hard ore
Goethite-martite ore (> 58 % Fe)

D 4/D 5-
400m RL
Martite±specularite ore (> 63 % Fe)
D 4/

Magnetite ore (>55 % Fe)

fault
D 5-

( 45-58 %F e)
Sub-ore
fau

Specularite-quartz breccia
t l

300m RL
present pit floor (2008) Talc-magnetite schist / talc-martite schist
Carbonate-magnetite BIF

BIF unit
Talc-quartz BIF

Lower succession
200m RL Talc-magnetite BIF / talc-martite BIF
Quartz-magnetite BIF / quartz-martite BIF
final pit floor D4 fault
F2
t?

Massive Pyrite
?
D1 faul

mafic
rock
Mafic volcanic rock (undifferentiated)
D 2b

100m RL
fau

Fault, inferred
lt

Drill hole
0m RL weathering front
? ?
?

FIG. 4. Interpreted cross section A-A' across the K deposit (see Fig. 3 for location of section).

qtz-mar
chlorite schist BIF
qtz-mar BIF metabasalt

t
er
chlorite schist tc-mar BIF

ch
ci
metabasalt mag ore phylliitic

ec
tc-mar ogoe chlorite schist
tc-fold core qtz-mar

br
BIF talc-mar
BIF BIF
goe ore goe ore qtz-mar
tc-mag BIF ogoe goe-hem ore BIF
goe-spec ore
carb±tc-mag BIF fault massive pyrite shem ore
chert
qtz-mar fault shem qtz-mar BIF
BIF ore qtz-mag mar+shem talc-mar talc schist
qtz-mag BIF
BIF mag ore ore BIF talc-mag BIF
fault
talc-
lt

mar+
fau

mag shem
BIF ore

massive mag ore massive mag ore qtz-mar-shem BIF

shem pod

BIF
brecciated fault BIF talc-schist BIF mag fold fault
sheared fold core ore core (shem-rich)
fold core 5m

FIG. 5. Lithologic interpretation of the K pit south wall (as in August 2008). Note in the left part the talc-rich eastern
lithon in light color and the black magnetite ore to its right showing talc-rich fold cores. Abbreviations: carb = carbonate,
goe = goethite, mag = magnetite, mar = martite, ogoe = ochreous goethite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, shem = specularite,
tc = talc.

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 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA 927

A B
dol

mag

1 cm

1 cm
1 cm D
C
fold

mag

talc
1 cm

E F G
qtz shem

weathered talc

shem

mag. ore
qtz
dol
qtz
py
qtz-(talc-)
martite BIF
goe
2 cm

FIG. 6. The K deposit host rocks. A. Fine laminated quartz-magnetite BIF from KKDDH017 diamond core. B. Dolomite-
magnetite BIF from KKDDH017, brittle deformed. C. Talc-magnetite BIF from KKDDH017, displaying tight folding with
an associated “brick-and-mortar” fabric. D. Talc-magnetite schist from KKDDH017, showing a foliation with schlieren of
magnetite in talc matrix. E. Dolomite-specularite breccia pod hosted in magnetite ore in the K pit. F. Granoblastic quartz-
specularite fault infill with pyrite flakes and goethite replacement. G. Alteration lenses of talc in quartz-martite, located prox-
imal to eastern lithon in the K pit. Abbreviations: dol = ferroan dolomite, goe = goethite, mag = magnetite, mar = martite,
py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, shem = specularite.

3C). Zone 1 is a goethite ± martite ± specularite zone that ex-
tends to about 70 m below the current surface. Zone 2 is a
martite-microspecularite ± goethite zone situated below zone
1 and includes the western lithon. Zone 3 is a 15- to 100-m-
wide, quartz-martite BIF and goethite-martite zone, located
at the southern end of the open pit. Zone 4 is situated in the
eastern lithon and is characterized in the north by two paral-
lel goethite-martite ± specularite ore zones with minor
quartz-martite BIF, and in the south by talc-rich rocks. Zone
5 is a magnetite zone in the south wall, and in the central part
of the open pit, and is characterized by medium-grade
quartz-, talc-, and carbonate-magnetite BIF enveloping mag-
netite orebodies.
The main magnetite ore zone is located either underneath
the martite orebody or is juxtaposed against it by steep dip-
ping D4 and/or D5 faults (Fig. 4). The transition from mag-
netite to dominantly martite in BIF and ore zones is matched
with a decrease in magnetic susceptibility from >1 to 1 × 10−3
SI units. The southern wall of the open pit exposes patchy
magnetite ore located in fold limbs, boudins and anticlinal
hinges of micro- and mesoscale folded talc-, quartz-, and car-
bonate-rich BIF. Locally, magnetite ore is granular.
High-grade specularite ore and specularite-quartz breccia
subore are spatially controlled by the steeply north-northeast
to east-northeast dipping D4 faults of the sinistral duplex sys-
tem and their adjacent wall rocks. The footwall contact is de-
fined by a <10-m-thick zone of brecciated specularite and a
10-m-thick zone of brecciated goethite-martite ore and chert
breccia. Mostly undeformed specularite veins are abundant
in the eastern lithon.
A deposit
The A deposit, located 2.5 km south of Koolyanobbing,
with about 10 Mt premining resources (4.6 Mt remaining as
in 2008), is the second largest mine in the Koolyanobbing
greenstone belt (Table 2). This approximately 700-m-long,

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928 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

A A-deposit A deposit scheme B C deposit C deposit scheme

bedding and folds in cleavages and folds in bedding and folds in cleavage and folds in
A1) quartz-martite BIF A2) chlorite schists
B1) quartz-martite BIF B2) chlorite schist BI
F
0° 0° un
0° 0° it

N
BI N
F
un
it

S2a/S4 (27)
S4 (2)
S2a (2) S2a/S4 (45)
F2b (1) S0 (153) F4 drag fold (3)
S0 (16) F2b constructed (1) F1 (8) F4 drag fold
F2b (3) F4 constructed (1) F4 constructed with constructed (1)
F2b constructed (1) with 50° small circle 75° small circle (1) D4 fault plane (2)

C D deposit D deposit scheme D F deposit F deposit scheme

BIF unit
bedding and folds in cleavage and folds Axial
bedding and folds in cleavage and folds in
C1) quartz-martite BIF C2) in chlorite schist Axial D1) quartz-martite BIF D2) chlorite schist
BIF
un
planes
plane it
0° 0° 0° 0°
l

S1 in
ch

short limb BIF

S1/2a S1/2a
N N

S4 S4

S1 (3)
S0 (99) S2a (10) S0 (234) S1/2a (65)
long limb F1 (9) S4 (20) F1 (22) F1/2a? (6)
F1 constructed (1) cleavage undiff. (6)

E K-deposit
bedding and folds in bedding and folds in cleavages in cleavages in strike-slip and dip-slip faults
E1) quartz-martite BIF E2) talc rocks E3) talc schists E4) chlorite schists E5) with variations of 1 axes
0° 0° 0° 0° 0°

1
S4 (11)

S0 (118)
S0 (78)
F2a/F2b (10)
S2 (7)
S4 (11)
S2b (5)
S4 (103)
S2b (65)
1 fault planes (17)
F2a measured (9) delta lineation (3) S undifferentiated (7) S undifferentiated (71) structural lineation (13)
F2a constructed (5) F4 (constructed) F4 (constructed) F4 (constructed) horizontal F4 fold (8)
F1 (3) with 60° small circle with 55° small circle with 55° small circle F2b fold (8)

FIG. 7. Schmidt net projections (lower hemisphere) of main structural features in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt de-
posits A, C, D, F, and K. Inset sketches display the local fold geometries in relationship to the strike of the BIF unit. Dataset
is a compilation from measurements taken by Cliffs Asia Pacific Iron Ore Ltd. and the first author.

A B

S4
S2

S4
FIG. 8. Cleavages in chlorite schist. A. Photograph of brittle-ductile shear fabric at the C deposit. B. Photomicrograph
plane-polarized light, showing two sets of cleavages, an older one, S2a, which has been overprinted by a younger one, S4.

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 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA 929

90-m-wide, and 50-m-deep open pit contains goethite-mar- Lithostratigraphy and BIF host rocks: Chlorite schist is the
tite ore and gossanous goethite with an average ore grade of stratigraphic footwall rock to BIF in the A deposit. Explo-
61.71 percent Fe. Massive magnetite ore is situated beneath ration drilling intersected a 6- to 15-m-thick band of massive
goethite-martite ore (Fig. 9). pyrite between the footwall chlorite schist and BIF. The BIF

A B

742400 mE

742500 mE

742600 mE

742700 mE
A’
53
assay map
6517
26
66
60
63
D 2b

48
/D 4

A
F 2b
fau
lt

28
65
6586300 mN
D5 fault

55
F 2b
62

6586200 mN

lt
Fe assay map: at 356 m

D5 fau
D > 58 - 68 % Fe (ore)
6586100 mN 2 fau > 45 - 58 % Fe (sub-ore)
lt
> 10 - 45 % Fe
55 > 1 - 10 % Fe
45 > 0 - 1 % Fe
45 0 % Fe (or not assayed)
6586000 mN 55 Canga (medium-grade ore)
30
Goethite ore (> 58 % Fe)
42
Iron ore

48
Goethite-martite ore (> 58 % Fe)
50
Martite ore (> 63 % Fe)
Magnetite ore (>55 % Fe)
6585900 mN
medium-grade

Mineralized BIF breccia

( 45-58 %F e)

(goethite matrix)
Mineralized mafic breccia
(goethite matrix)
Mineralized BIF
6586350 mN

6586400 mN

6586450 mN

6586500 mN

C
742200 mE

742250 mE

742300 mE

Carbonate-magnetite BIF
Lower succession

A
BIF unit

A’ Quartz-magnetite BIF /
quartz-martite BIF
Metachert
Mafic rocks

Metatuffite
F 2b F 2b Chlorite schist
350 m RL 350 m RL Metabasalt
D
2 fa Brecciated rock (undifferentiated)
u lt
55 Bedding surfaces in BIF
D 2b

? Cleavage in schists
55
fau

Structures

Minor fold
lt

Fold axis trace

300 m RL ? 300 m RL
Fault (defined, interpreted)
Reverse fault, thrust
? ?
Drill hole
D4 fault
weathering front

FIG. 9. Geologic map of the A deposit pit (A), iron assay map of the pit bottom in the north pit (B), and northeast ori-
ented cross section A-A' (C).

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930 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN
consists of quartz-magnetite ± martite and siderite-magnetite
domains (Fig. 9C). A fine-grained crystalline quartzitic rock
(recrystallized chert) occurs as a lens near the footwall contact
in the north part of the A deposit. A thin (<10-m) band of
chlorite schist and layered felsic tuffite (weathered to a
banded kaolinite-rich rock in the pit) is intercalated with the
BIF. The stratigraphic hanging wall to the BIF unit includes
mafic rocks and chlorite schist, which are similar to the foot-
wall rocks.
Hydrothermal siderite-magnetite-pyrite BIF: Siderite is a
major rock constituent in siderite-magnetite BIF below the
weathering zone at the A and F deposits. It forms a vein net-
work within medium-grade magnetite ore. Close to the
weathering zone, goethite needles replace siderite.
Structures: The deposit extends north-northwest in the
northern half and northwest in the southern half (Fig. 9A).
The S1a foliation in the BIF and lamination in the ore dip
moderately toward the east-northeast to northeast, and the
dominant cleavage in mafic rocks and chlorite schists (S2a) is
moderately east or northeast to north-northeast dipping. The
BIF and mafic rocks are folded around subhorizontal north-
northwest-plunging D2a and/or D2b fold axes. Folds show S-
shape symmetries with axial planes dipping moderately to
steeply toward east-northeast (Fig. 7A1, A2). Several steep
northeast- to east-northeast−dipping brittle D2b and/or D4
faults, locally with brecciated zones of several meters thick-
ness, truncate D2a and/or D2b fold limbs and reactivate the
boundary between BIF and mafic rocks (Fig. 9C). The south-
ern end of the A deposit is defined by a north-south−trend-
ing, steep dipping D5 fault that crosscuts the BIF unit.
Iron ore setting: Goethite-martite ore and the quartz-mar-
tite BIF host rock are common above the present ground-
water table at about a 70-m depth (Hoppe, 2005). Below the
weathering front quartz-magnetite BIF and siderite-mag-
netite BIF are closely associated with, and envelope at, the
meter- to decameter-scale, patchy magnetite ore (Fig. 9C).
Larger (decameter-wide) magnetite ore pods have been in-
tersected in several drill holes. Similar to the K deposit, mag-
netite ore and magnetite-carbonate BIF represent the base to
the goethite-martite ore. A spatial relationship of magnetite
iron ore with decameter-scale folds, as is the case in the K de-
posit, is not clearly manifested in the shallow A pit but may be
interpreted from grade-control assay maps (Fig. 9B). Breccias
in D2b fault zones in the northern pit wall contain BIF or
chlorite schist clasts and iron oxide (mostly goethite) matri-
ces, suggesting at least a local brittle structural control on iron
oxide mineralization. Toward the north end of the open pit,
goethite-martite ore pinches out and displays a lateral transi-
tion to quartz-martite BIF. At the south end, the ore zone is
truncated by the north-south−trending steep D5 fault that is
bordered by a thin zone of goethite-martite ore along its east-
ern margin. The vuggy gossanous goethite band at the foot-
wall contact is interpreted to be weathered massive pyrite
(Hoppe, 2005).
C deposit
The C deposit is located 4.5 km southwest of Koolyanob-
bing and has an indicated mineral resource of 6.9 Mt goethite
and goethite-martite ore at an average grade of 61.5 percent
Fe (Table 2).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Lithostratigraphy and BIF host rocks: The BIF unit at the
C deposit has an apparent thickness of approximately 350 m,
although the true thickness is unclear due to complex folding
and faulting (Fig. 10). Stratigraphic footwall and hanging-wall
rocks include intensely foliated chlorite schists. At least one
approximately 10-m-wide band of mafic schist is intercalated
with the BIF. The host rock of goethite-martite ore is quartz-
magnetite and/or martite BIF.
Structures: Cleavages in chlorite schist (S2a, S4) are variably
orientated (Fig. 7B2). Most of the C deposit is positioned in
the northeast-trending parasitic short limb of a large-scale
(100-) northwest-trending S-shape fold (F4) that has a sub-
vertical axis orientation and a northwest-trending axial plane
(Fig. 7B1). In the northwest, the moderately southeast dip-
ping boundary between BIF and the footwall chlorite schists
is defined by a reverse fault (D2b?). The BIF in the deposit is
structurally thickened, mainly because of (1) moderately to
steeply plunging, small-scale, M-shape folds (F1b); (2) up to
deposit-scale subhorizontal-plunging parasitic F2a folds; and
(3) the northwest-trending crosscutting D4 faults, which trun-
cate F2a folds. The F1 fold axes scatter around a vertical F4
axis (Fig. 7B1). A <50-m wide, irregularly shaped BIF brec-
cia zone is present in an F2b limb and shows siliceous and iron
oxide-rich matrices.
Iron ore setting: The main ore zone, located along the west-
ern margin of the deposit, comprises goethite-martite ore and
is controlled by an approximately east-dipping, reverse fault.
The ore is partly concealed underneath BIF owing to the
shallow dip of the fault, where BIF and stratigraphic hanging-
wall mafic schist are juxtaposed against each other (Fig. 10B).
Goethite ore in the southwest of the deposit locally displays
gossanous textures and may indicate a massive pyrite body lo-
cated at depth. Matrices of the siliceous breccia in the north-
western part are locally rich in martite and/or goethite and are
overprinted by specularite to the west. Specularite breccias,
which contain BIF clasts, represent a medium iron-grade
rock (Hoppe, 2005). The specularite is considered to be con-
trolled by a northwest-trending fault.
Deformation and Metamorphism History of
the Koolyanobbing Greenstone Belt
Structures observed in the Koolyanobbing iron ore de-
posits and in most parts of the Koolyanobbing greenstone
belt formed during five main deformation events (D1 to D5:
Table 1). Some of these main events have been subdivided
into subevents according to different strain characteristics
within the same tectonic regime (D1a, D1b and D2a, D2b).
Structures are described below in order of their interpreted
formation.
D1: Early coaxial folding
Two sets of early folds, F1a and F1b, are developed in all iron
ore deposits and in parts of the Koolyanobbing greenstone
belt. These are the earliest structures recorded within the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt, however, it is speculated that
earliest extensional faults controlled the localization of thick
massive pyrite bodies, which are abundant throughout the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt along the footwall contact be-
tween BIF and mafic rocks. Such a D1 fault, although not ob-
served, has been inferred for the K deposit (Fig. 4).
930
 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA 931

A A’
743600 mE

743700 mE

743800 mE

743900 mE

744000 mE

744100 mE
Ochreous goethite (limonite)
medium-grade
rust

Iron ore
D 2 th 87 Goethite ore (> 58 % Fe)

Hard ore
45
D 4 fault

75 Goethite-martite ore (> 58 % Fe)

40 Martite ore (> 63 % Fe)
64 86
88
90

Medium grade
90 74 80

( 45-58 %F e)
85 82 Specularite rich BIF-breccia
6585200 mN 75 78 82
74 75 88 79 78 Mineralized BIF breccia
53 88 (martite matrix)
85 14
66 Mineralized BIF
67 85

BIF unit
72 F 2a

Lower succession
62 76 Quartz-martite BIF
81 73
82
65 Quartzite (after chert)
6585100 mN 75 76
85 50 57
88 73
70

rocks
Mafic
Phyllitic chlorite schist
70 70 70
80 30 63 80
54 Chlorite schist
70 76
80 70
67 brecciated rock (undifferentiated)
6585000 mN 50
68 85
60 58 sheared rock (undifferentiated)
70 45 Bedding surfaces in BIF
46 63 45 45
45 Cleavage in schists
45

Structures
39 56
S-shape / Z-shape fold limb

D4
6584900 mN 35 74 31
89 67
D4

fau
78 Minor fold
45
fa

lt
ul

Fold axis trace

56
t

Fault (defined, interpreted)

35 30 60
Thrust
6584800 mN 26 Drill hole
A weathering front
6584800mE

6584900mE

6585000mE

6585100mE

6585200mE

B
A
500m RL
A’
500m RL

▲ ▲ ▲
▲
▲ ▲
▲ ▲
▲ ▲
400m RL ▲ 400m RL
▲ ▲ ▲
▲ ▲
▲ ▲ ▲ ▲
▲ ▲ ▲▲ ▲ ▲ ▲
▲ ▲
▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲
▲
D 2 thrust
ult
D4 fa

300m RL 300m RL

FIG. 10. Geologic map of the C deposit (A), and north-south−oriented cross section A-A' (B).

F1a folds and foliation in BIF: Ductile microstructural fea- attitudes (Fig. 11C). These folds occur locally in moderately
tures, such as recrystallized, anastomosing, and boudinaged to steeply dipping BIF, showing axial planes and fold axes that
quartz layers, are ubiquitously developed in BIF in the are parallel to the BIF foliation (Fig. 7B1, C1, D1). Layered
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt (Fig. 11A, B). Recrystallized talc-magnetite BIF at the K deposit shows localized isoclinal
quartz typically has a preferred crystallographic orientation F1a folds with an associated bedding-parallel (i.e., fold limb-
and minor elongation aligned parallel to fold limbs. This sug- parallel) continuous cleavage (i.e., S1b). The S1b crosscuts F1a
gests that recrystallization was associated with isoclinal fold- fold hinges.
ing. Commonly, there is a lack of recovery textures, such as F1b open to tight folds in BIF: Throughout the middle BIF
grain boundary area reduction and crystal growth, which may unit, rocks are folded with up to 100-m-long wavelengths.
indicate that recrystallization ceased before the end of defor- These generally low-amplitude folds typically show internal
mation. The earliest recognizable folds in the BIF are decimeter- to meter-scale parasitic folds with Z, S, and M
decimeter scale, tight to isoclinal with vertical or reclined symmetries (Fig. 11E). Folds are characterized by steep axial

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932 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

A B
mar micro-layer mar

qtz

qtz meso-layer goe

mar
0.2 mm mag
mar meso-layer

C D

F 1a axial plane

boudin lines and

“brick-and-mortar” fabric

F 1b axial Lbud
qtz meso-layer SE Lstr
plane
NW

mar meso-layer F1, L str

E 1 dm F G pre-to syn-
kinematic gru
mineralized mag mag
BIF-breccia

qtz

1 cm post-kinematic gru 0.2 mm

FIG. 11. BIF textures and structures. A. Quartz-martite-goethite BIF from the North Range displays dominantly iron
oxide microlayers intercalated with quartz mesolayers (sample KB-1). B. Photomicrograph of quartz-martite BIF from the
F deposit, showing iron oxide meso- and microlayers intercalated with quartz mesolayers (sample F-7; left plane-polarized,
right reflected light). C. Isoclinally D1a-folded BIF south of the F deposit, characterized by north-south−trending axial plane,
which is parallel with the local BIF unit strike and buckling by D1b open folds with east-west axial planes, which are orthog-
onal to the local BIF unit strike. D. Limb of a D1a-folded quartz-martite BIF at the B deposit, showing martite layer boud-
inage and a “brick-and-mortar” fabric. E. Open to tight M-shape D1b folds at the C deposit, truncated by a small-scale iron
oxide-mineralized breccia, which probably has been generated during D3. F. Sheared BIF close to the Koolyanobbing shear
zone, from JD-D3 at the Jock’s Dream prospect. G. Photomicrograph plane-polarized light, showing pre- to synkinematic
granular grunterite and postkinematic grunerite porphyroblasts in domains of sheared BIF from diamond core JD-D3 at the
Jock’s Dream prospect. Abbreviations: cum = cummingtonite, goe = goethite, gru = grunerite, mag = magnetite, mar = mar-
tite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, shem = specularite.

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 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA
planes that are oriented subparallel to orthogonal to the gen-
eral northwest trend of the BIF unit. An overprinting rela-
tionship between folds in the BIF at Lake Seabrook (Fig.
11C) indicates that F1b folds formed after F1a isoclinal folds.
The F1b folds are most abundant in areas proximal to all iron
ore deposits, e.g., in the North Range, but are less common
in BIF distal to ore. Centimeter- to decimeter-scale mi-
crothrusts that crosscut BIF layers at a low angle show asso-
ciated drag folds with axes that are oriented subparallel to F1b.
These thrusts may have formed during D1, however, there are
no indications for large-scale thrusts related to D1 in the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt.
Fracture cleavages associated with F1b folds are rare in the
BIF and do not show consistent orientations. There is no
clear evidence for an S1 in mafic rocks, likely it was obliter-
ated by subsequent polyphase cleavage formation.
D2: Main horizontal coaxial compression
F2a upright folds: Horizontal coaxial shortening during D2a
resulted in the folding of the entire Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt succession around a subhorizontal northwest-
trending fold axis. All lower succession units have been tilted
to a moderately to steep northeast dipping orientation (Fig.
1A), presumably associated with emplacement of the sur-
rounding granitoid domes (Gee, 1979; Ahmat, 1986; Chen et
al., 2001, 2004). It is likely that the entire Koolyanobbing
greenstone belt represents an upright F2a mega fold limb
based on (1) observation that the dominant dip orientation is
uniformly to the northeast throughout the Koolyanobbing
greenstone belt , (2) subregional-scale fold closures are inter-
preted as localized S-shape parasitic F2a folds (Fig. 1A), and
(3) there are no unambiguous indications of a regional-scale
lithostratigraphic duplication in the belt. At the deposit scale,
F2a folds are expressed as meter- to decameter-scale, pre-
dominantly S-shape parasitic folds with shallowly (A deposit,
Fig. 9) or moderately (K deposit, Fig. 3, 4, 7E1) east to south-
southeast plunging axes and axial planes that are subparallel
to the strike of the BIF unit. The regional inclination variation
of the F2a axes is either a result of hinge line variation during
folding (cf. Ramsey, 1962), or it was likely caused by subse-
quent deformations. The F2a fold limbs locally preserve boud-
inaged F1a or F1b fold cores, which are present in layered talc
BIF and siliceous BIF.
S2a: Cleavage in mafic rocks: During regional horizontal
compression, mafic-ultramafic rocks, and layered talc BIF in
the K deposit developed a steeply northeast dipping S2a fab-
ric (Fig. 7E3, E4). Adjacent to the BIF unit, the orientation
of the cleavage in rocks is parallel to the axial plane of F2a in
BIF. This indicates that the S2a is genetically associated with
the northwest-trending, regional F2a and generally upright F2a
axial planes. The S2a is characterized by preferred chlorite and
quartz orientation (Fig. 8B).
D2b: Reverse shearing: This deformation, which was typi-
cally cataclastic in BIF and ductile in chlorite and talc schists,
resulted in reverse shear zones parallel to the footwall con-
tacts between BIF and mafic rocks or massive pyrite (Fig. 4),
locally within the BIF unit, as observed at the A, C, K, and F
deposits. Shear zones in talc-rich rocks in the K deposit trun-
cate F2a fold hinges, and internal shear facoids show sub-
decimeter-scale folds with F2b fold axes that are oriented
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 933
933
subparallel to the F2a (Fig. 7E2). These orientations suggest
that shear zones formed as D2b progressively after F2a. The S2a
cleavage planes in chlorite schists are drag folded proximal to
the D2b fault planes. These F2b drag-fold axes in chlorite
schists are oriented parallel to the F2a fold axes in the A and
K deposits (Fig. 7A1, E2). Chlorite and talc schists that were
deformed during D2b tend to display phyllitic S2b cleavage
planes. At the C deposit, D2b faults are truncated by specu-
larite-bearing D4 faults, which provide a minimum relative
timing (Fig. 10).
D2b-D4: BIF and ore boudinage: Magnetite and martite
mesolayers in tightly folded BIF have been structurally frag-
mented by layer-parallel extension. Laminated magnetite and
martite ore display similar boudinage fabrics. This deforma-
tion caused either the formation of boundin lines parallel to
the direction of fold axes (i.e., σ2) and orthogonal to σ3, or a
rather irregular “brick-and-mortar” fabric (Fig. 11D), when
σ2 value equals σ3 value (Ramsey, 1967). Pressure shadows in
boudin necks are filled with granoblastic quartz, fibrous fer-
roan talc, or sparitic ferroan dolimite, depending on the sur-
rounding gangue minerals. These mineral growth zones in the
pressure shadows indicate a syndeformational solution trans-
fer, either originated in the surrounding, compacted, gangue
layers (Hippertt et al., 2001), or from farther areas away.
Quartz is not recrystallized in strain shadows in boudin necks,
which suggests that boudinage took place later than the duc-
tile stage of D1 and D2a, after dynamic quartz recrystallization
ceased. The formation of the layer boudinage may also be re-
lated to fold tightening by D2a, D2b, or D4, considering that F1
axial planes are subparallel to the compressional axes of D2a to
D4 in many places throughout the BIF unit. Sparitic carbon-
ate and talc “mortar” in “brick” strain shadows in BIF of the
K deposit indicate at least one stage of tightening associated
with D4-related hydrothermal processes.
D3: Ductile transpression
The transpressional Koolyanobbing shear zone (Libby et
al., 1991) formed during D3. The main shear sense in my-
lonites of the Koolyanobbing shear zone is sinistral (Libby et
al., 1991), based on horizontal stretching lineations, asym-
metric folds around vertical axes, and the orientation of S-C
and C' fabrics (cf. Passchier and Trouw, 1996). Minor, 10-m-
long and 0.1-m-wide, north-northeast−striking ductile shear
zones display a dextral shear sense (similar shear zone indica-
tors as the main sinistral shear zones) and truncate the sinis-
tral mylonite zones. Although strain increases toward the cen-
ter of the mylonite zone, based on the high density and
increasing width of mylonite zones, there is a localization of
high strain especially along, and up to 100 m away from, the
western side of the greenstone belt and/or mylonite zone
boundary. Mylonites exist in the granitoids on the eastern
side, whereas inside the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt,
shear zones are defined by bands of well-foliated amphibo-
lites, chlorite-actinolite schists, and talc-chlorite-carbonate
schists. Diamond hole JD-D3 (western areas NL, see Fig. 1A)
intersects the lowermost sequences of the Koolyanobbing
greenstone belt and the mylonite and shows that the lower
BIF unit displays strongly ductile shear zones, characterized
by disharmonic boudinage and tight folds (Fig. 11F), dynamic
quartz recrystallization, and grunerite growth. Grunerite is
934 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

present as pre- or synkinematic fine-grained masses and un- A 0°

deformed postkinematic porphyroblasts (Fig. 11G). The duc-

tile deformation is weaker in the middle BIF unit and in
mafic rocks located away from the boundary. BIF unit (11)
F1 (7)
D4: Cataclastic strike-slip and reverse structures D
E F2a at K deposit (2)
F B F4 (2)
K-W (F2)
Rocks within the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt experi- Dol
enced internal deformation, which is described below as D4 Dol A

strike-slip and reverse faults, F4 folds, and S4 cleavages. K-SE B-C K-SE (F2)
N’K D E
Imaging of airborne magnetic data (carried out by Cliffs Asia K-W C
Pacific Iron Ore Ltd.) defines kilometer-scale, north- and cw22° F F2a/2b
northwest-striking faults, which may form conjugate sets ccw22°
(Fig. 1A). Several faults that are oriented at a low angle to ccw67°

the BIF foliation led to the local duplication of BIF units. B1 D2-D4 B2
The most significant north-striking regional-scale faults are stress field alternative:
those located to the northwest and southeast of the K de- 0° 0°

posit, which display north-south−trending dextral displace- 1

ments of several hundred meters, thus truncating the (alter-
native)
Koolyanobbing shear zone.
Deposit-scale, brittle strike-slip faults are observed at the 1
K, C, and D deposits and are locally rich in specularite. These F4c
F4c F4c K-W
specularite-rich faults and specularite veins truncate the iron K-SE

oxide-rich D2b BIF breccia in the C deposit.

At the K deposit, horizontal to shallowly plunging slicken F2a/2b
fibers and mineral stretching lineations on moderately to F2a/2b
steeply dipping S2a cleavage and fault planes in mafic rocks of
the footwall, hanging wall, internal lenses, and in talc BIF and C1 D1 stress field C2
schist indicate strike-slip and reverse faulting, which post- 0° 1 alternative:
1 0°
dated D2 (Fig. 7E5). Major steep faults striking at a low angle (alter-
native)
to the BIF locally duplicated the BIF unit at the K deposit.
Two BIF and goethite-martite ± specularite ore lithons are K-SE (F2) F1

indented in the hanging-wall rocks by displacement along F1

faults, which trend north to northwest in a high angle to the K-SE (F2)

BIF unit (Fig. 3). This caused a north-northeast to north F1

K-W (F2)

strike of the lithons, deviating from the overall east-northeast

strike of the main BIF unit. Meter-scale drag folding of mul-
tiphase-foliated chlorite schist around a horizontal F4 axis par-
allel to the eastern lithon boundary fault is displayed in the
southern pit wall (Fig. 7E5). Its geometry suggests reverse
movement, which is probably a late-stage deformation incre-
ment following sinistral strike-slip displacement and S4 cleav-
age development. Fault planes west of the eastern lithon
crosscut small- to mesoscale F2a fold cores and meter- to de-
cameter-scale boudins of magnetite ore are located in folded
talc-magnetite BIF and talc-magnetite schist.
F4 rotation around vertical axes: All BIF units in the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt show local deviations from
the uniform northwest trend of the belt (Fig. 12A) and pre-
D4 structures are folded (see small circles in Fig. 7A2, B1,
E1). This suggests that F4 folding, or block rotation, around a
subvertical axis took place. The rotation of BIF blocks
throughout the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt commonly ex-
hibits an anticlockwise direction; an extreme form is the F4 S-
shape parasitic fold developed in the C deposit (Fig. 10, and
small-circle distribution in Fig. 7C1). The BIF in the K de-
posit is slightly folded around a vertical axis, indicated by local
small-circle distribution of F2a axes (Fig. 7E2, E3, E4).
S4 cleavage in mafic rocks: Throughout the Koolyanobbing
greenstone belt, schistose mafic rocks show a steeply east
dipping fracture or chlorite cleavage, with minor scattering
K-W (F2) F1
FIG. 12. Back rotation of folded BIF unit orientations. A. Present-day ori-
entation of BIF unit at the deposits and some prospects. B. East-west−trend-
ing 1σ orientation during D2 to D4 displayed by back rotation of BIF unit
around F4 to a general north-south trend (cf. Chen et al., 2001, 2004). The
Schmidt net on the right shows an alternative southwest-northeast orienta-
tion of 1σ (alternative) by back rotation of the BIF units to a general north-
west trend (right). C. Second stage of BIF back rotation around horizontal F2
axis to achieve a horizontal orientation of F1b axes displays a north-south
trending 1σ for D1. The alternative model shows a northwest-trending 1σ.
Abbreviations: B-C = between B and C deposits, Dol = Dolphin prospect, K-
SE = southeastern end of K deposit, K-W = western K deposit.
between east-southeast to east-northeast (Fig. 7E4). This S4
cleavage overprints the S2a cleavage (Fig. 8B). The relative
orientation of this S4 is characteristically at a low angle
(20°−40°) to the general northwest-southeast strike of the
BIF units, and subparallel to the S plane orientation in the
Koolyanobbing shear zone mylonites located proximal to the
boundary of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt (Fig. 1;
Libby et al., 1991). The S4 is locally folded by late increments
of vertical F4 (Fig. 7E4) and horizontal F4 drag folds at the
eastern lithon (Fig. 7E5).

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 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA 935

Inclined transpressional system in the K deposit: It is inter-
preted that the D4 structures in the K deposit (i.e., D4 strike-
slip and reverse slip faults forming the duplex and imbrica-
tion, subvertical F4, and S4 cleavage) result from progressive
deformation during inclined transpression (cf. Jones et al.,
2004). The initial stage of the system (Fig. 7E2) is the north-
east-dipping strike slip duplex, followed by imbrications of
the western and then the eastern lithons (Fig. 7E3), with each
deformation facilitated by strike-slip and locally reverse slip
faults. The slightly different orientations of the lithons are
likely the result of a continuous anticlockwise vertical block
rotation of the K deposit during the transpression phase
under a stationary east-west stress field.
D5: Brittle faulting and boudinage
The topographic expression of the BIF units and airborne
magnetic images (carried out by Cliffs Asia Pacific Iron Ore
Ltd.) indicate a lateral northwest-southeast extensional boud-
inage and pinch-and-swell structures, and displacement of
BIF along faults that crosscut the BIF units at low to high
angles, which is attributed to D5. It is unlikely that earlier de-
formation stages, such as D1 to D2b, formed the boudins, be-
cause they are generally not laterally imbricated by transpres-
sional D4 strike-slip deformation.
At the K deposit, the footwall and hanging-wall contacts
have been reactivated during D5 with the western and eastern
lithons truncated by dextral D5 faults (Fig. 3). Indications for
such a reactivation are cataclastic-deformed specularite
masses and local displacement of the eastern and western
lithon faults. Locally, F5 drag folds in the S4-deformed phyl-
litic chlorite schist are associated with this faulting with the
fold axes displaying the same east plunge as F2a. Generally,
the regional and deposit-scale dextral faults may be reacti-
vated sinistral D4 faults. It is likely that many of the D4 faults
throughout the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt have been re-
activated during D5.
Paleostress field
A five-stage deformation (D1 to D5) sequence has been es-
tablished (Fig. 13). The paleostress axes determination for D1
is based on a two-stage back rotation of the BIF layers around
a vertical axis to achieve a north-south trend (i.e., a pre-D2b
stage; cf. Chen et al., 2001, 2004); and a horizontal axis to
achieve a horizontal orientation (pre-D2a stage). The pale-
ostress axes estimation of D2a and D2b is based on a one-stage
back rotation of the BIF layers around a vertical axis to
achieve a pre-D4 stage north-south trend (Fig. 12). The in-
ferred pre-D2b, north-south trend of the Koolyanobbing

deposition early crustal shortening orogenic stage: compression

A B D1a: intrafoliation folding C D W

D1b: N-S buckling E
W (SW)
N S E (NE)
E (NE)

hanging wall mafic rocks W (SW)

chert-magnetite BIF
60° N
D1
a
? footwall
? mafic rocks D2b faults
massive pyrite
growth fault?
F1b S2 F2 F1a/b
S2a
S2b
F1a W E talc-schist
Deposition of footwall Vertical compaction and F 1 a Folding around regional horizontal F2 fold axis, Progressive shearing forming brittle to ductile D2b
mafic rocks, massive isoclinal folding, followed by F1b tilting of BIF to a west-dipping steep orientation. shear zones and breccias truncating F2a. Further
sulfide(?), chert-magnetite open to tight folding. Low-grade Cleavage S2a formation. Local BIF thickening by tightening of F1 and F2a.
BIF, and hanging wall background metamorphism parasitic F2a.
mafic rocks.
orogenic stage: transpression post-orogenic stage
D3: KSZ
E F4: vertical rotation
E2
x
F
x
x xx x
E1 Koolyanobbing
shear zone
x
x x x NW
F4 x x

S4 at an x F4
angle with S2 x
NW N horiz-
K deposit x ontal
(D5)
duplex F2 F5
E3 x
x F4H N
x x
NW W E x x
x x
x specularite x
mineralization
5 km
K deposit x
F2 imbricate fan x S
Formation of KSZ and associated or subsequent rotation imbricated fan structures (i.e., K deposit) and S-shape N-S compression or E-W extension with
of the KGB to a NW trend. Internally in KGB, anticlockwise folding (i.e., at C deposit). Formation of S 4 . associated dextral faults, locally reactivating
rotation of BIF units around vertical F 4 , locally Metamorphism in KGB: lower amphibolite-facies close to D4 faults.
accommodated by NNW to NW trending faults. the KSZ, greenschist facies in the middle BIF and iron ore
At the deposit scale formation of large duplex and deposits.

FIG. 13. Generalized structural model of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt (KGB) (at both regional and iron ore de-
posits scale).

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936 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN
greenstone belt (Chen et al., 2001, 2004) represents an ex-
treme anticlockwise rotation of the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt during D4 (Fig. 12B1, C1); an alternative is the
minimum rotation around F4 (Fig. 12B2, C2). The true 1σ
trend that occurs during D1 to D4 probably has a position be-
tween both end-member possibilities.
D1 paleostress: Compressional structures associated with
D1 formed within an overall north to north-northwest com-
pressional regime (Fig. 12C). A north-south compressional
regime during D1 has been observed throughout the South-
ern Cross domain (Dalstra, 1995; Chen et al., 2001, 2004). In
the low-grade metamorphosed BIF of the Marda greenstone
belt, which is located 100 km north-northwest of the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt, north-south contraction
with associated folds is well observed in fold interference
patterns in outcrop and at a regional scale (D1a and D1b of
Dalstra, 1995; Dalstra et al., 1999; Chen et al., 2003). The
BIFs in the Marda-Diemals greenstone belt are character-
ized by thicker mesolayers (>5 mm) and less intense internal
D1 deformation than those in the Koolyanobbing greenstone
belt. This suggests that BIF in the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt experienced a more intense coaxial compression.
The preservation of early structures is mostly due to less in-
tense structural overprint during subsequent D2 and D3.
This is not the case in the Southern Cross greenstone belt,
where D2 folding obliterated D1 structures older than D2
(Bloem et al., 1994; Dalstra, 1995). Even though isoclinal
folding and stratigraphic thinning is observed in BIF and in-
terpreted as a D1a feature, the finite strain during D1b com-
pression was rather weak; evidence heretofore includes: (1)
there is no evidence of early thrust tectonics in the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt during D1 north-south com-
pression; (2) the amplitudes of regional-scale D1b folds are
not high, showing wavelength/amplitudes ratios of <10, oth-
erwise the BIF units would show a strong curvature; instead,
the lower, middle, and upper BIF units are characterized by
a roughly linear trend; and (3) the BIF displays just localized
internal D1a folds, and the amplitudes appear to decrease
with proximity to footwall and hanging-wall mafic rocks. It is
likely that the north-south−directed shortening of the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt succession was accommo-
dated by minor shearing, without thrusting, along the foot-
wall and/or hanging-wall contacts, and by folding in the in-
ternally layered BIF.
D2a and D2b paleostress: After one-stage back rotation, the
D2a and progressive D2b event occurred during a compres-
sional regime characterized by an east-west− to northeast-
southwest−trending 1σ axis (Fig. 12B). D2a is compatible with
a D2 that has been described for the Southern Cross domain
(Bloem et al., 1994; Dalstra, 1995; Chen et al., 2003). D2b is
only expressed in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt but has
not been observed regionally. Because D2b involved only
minor faulting, or reactivation of lithologic contacts during
progressive deformation subsequent to D2a, it is still compat-
ible with the deformation history for the remainder of the
Southern Cross domain.
D4 paleostress: The development of S4 in mafic rocks asso-
ciated with sinistral D4 strike-slip deformation in BIF indi-
cates overall lateral east-west− to northeast-southwest−di-
rected horizontal shortening (Fig. 7E5), which coincides with
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the stress field of the Koolyanobbing shear zone (Libby et al.,
1991). The formation of the Koolyanobbing shear zone and
similar transcurrent shear zones in the Southern Cross do-
main has been assigned to a regional D3 in an east-west com-
pressive stress field (Libby et al., 1991; Chen et al., 2001,
2004). The Koolyanobbing shear zone was likely generated
during an earlier stage of the D3 transpressional tectonics,
whereas the discrete C' fabrics, which indicates deformation
in the brittle-ductile transitional stage and the minor north-
east-trending dextral shear zones that both overprinted the
ductile S-C fabrics (Libby et al., 1991) suggest prolonged de-
formation during a cooler stage. This stage was probably co-
eval with, or in a transitional phase to, the mainly cataclastic
deformation during D4.
The field stress trajectories for D2a, D2b, D3, and D4 are
similar to each other, therefore, it is possible that D2a to D4
represents a progressive deformation sequence in an east-
west−directed paleostress field, commencing with coaxial
shortening during D2a and D2b, changing to transpression
during D4, resulting in strike-slip deformation (Fig. 14). D3,
which is characterized by ductile deformation (Koolyanob-
bing shear zone), is preceded and followed by two mostly
brittle deformation phases, D2b and D4, respectively. This in-
dicates that there were separate deformation events. At the
scale of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt this timing prob-
lem is not solvable due to the spatial separation of the
Koolyanobbing shear zone (D3) and D2 and D4 structures in
the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt , and lack of absolute age
dates other than the date for the apparently post-D3 Lake
Seabrook granite (2656 Ma: Qiu et al., 1999). However, dat-
ing of deformed and undeformed pegmatites in the Lake
Johnston greenstone belt (south of the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt ) have been used to constrain the age of ductile D3
deformation associated with the Koolyanobbing shear zone,
and these ages suggest that D3 deformation, at least locally,
did not cease before 2629 Ma (Joly et al., 2010). Gold-related
D4 faults in the Southern Cross greenstone belt (50 km SW of
the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt) have similar ages, sup-
porting the suggestion of a progressive D3-D4 deformation
sequence.
D5 paleostress: The late-stage D5 faulting reactivated earlier
faults and shear zones that display extensional or dextral
strike-slip movement. This suggests a late-stage north-south
compression, or probably east-west extension, and is compat-
ible with observations in other parts of the Southern Cross
domain (Dalstra et al., 1999).
Metamorphic events
Peak metamorphism (syn-D2a to syn-D4): Peak metamor-
phism in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt was related to
emplacement of regional batholiths, which caused regional-
scale contact metamorphism (Ahmat, 1986). Granite em-
placement took place during the main orogenic east-west
compression phase (Gee, 1979), starting with the onset of
D2. Close to the Koolyanobbing shear zone in the North
Range, grunerite is an abundant metamorphic mineral in
quartz-magnetite BIF, indicating that the upper greenschist
facies was reached. The Koolyanobbing shear zone sepa-
rates amphibolite facies metamorphic-grade rocks (to the
southwest) from greenschist to subamphibolite facies-grade
 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA 937

time- deposition / metamorphism iron ore genesis

ages and timing stress field deformation (and gold for comparison)
scale magmatism very low low high
recent

2nd martite
uplift

goethite
~250 Ma
D5KGB

de
relative age D5 reactivation

nu
constrain

da
N-S

tio
compression

n
D4 strike-slip and

1st martite
transtension?

specularite
relative reverse dip-slip
age D4 faults, vertical-

local contact M.
(0-50m aureole)
plutons 2.66-2.60 Ga

2.6 Ga constrain
axis rotation
D3:2629±1 (6)

magnetite mineralization
x xx x

ambient burial Metamorphism ( >300MPa @ 14 km )

Lake Seabrook x xx x

granite: 2656±3 (4)

residual magnetite
D3 Lake Seabrook
relative granite, E-W D3 KSZ Southern Cross
age intruded Ghooli transpression gold skarns

medium-grade in outer KGB (0.5-2km)

constrain dome, (Mueller &
low-grade in inner KGB (<5 km) britte-ductile McNaughton, 2000)
KSZ, and KGB reverse faulting
D2a - D2b D2b 2620+-6 (5)
relative regional contact M.
age
plutons 2.8-2.67 Ga

x xx x
constrain upright ductile
x xx

x
x

xx x
D2a folding
x xx x

D2 and D 3 are main deformation

Ghooli dome: 2nd generation E-W phases throughout Southern Cross
2775±10 (2) to banded gneisses coaxial domain, affecting all greenstone belts
2691±7 (3) (Ghooli dome, compression and synkinematic batholiths
Lake Deborah (i.e., forming banded gneisses)
dome x xx
x
x
x
x x
2.8 Ga
plutons 2.99-2.92 Ga

D1KGB ductile folding

regional or
contact M.

relative D1b (and thrusting?)

age
constrain
x
x
x
x D1regional ductile
N-S or NW-SE D1a recumbent folding
1st generation compression (and thrusting?)
plutons: only
preserved as
14 km depth

rafts in 2nd
age dating:
(300MPa)

batholites
1) Pidgeon, 1990 (U\Pb on Zr in Fsp-porphyry sill)
3.0 Ga 2) Mueller & McNaughton, 2000 (U/Pb on Zr)
lower succession deposition of 3) Dalstra et al., 1998 (U/Pb on Zr)
3010±7 (1) lower succession 4) Qiu et al., 1999 (U/Pb on Zr)
5) Bloehm et al., 1995 (U/Pb on Zr)
6) Joly et al., 2010 (U/Pb on Zr)

FIG. 14. Synthesis of the geologic evolution of the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt (KGB), including relative timing of the
iron ore stages in relationship to the regional tectonometamorphic and magmatic stages in the central Southern Cross do-
main.

domains (to the northeast; Libby et al., 1991), hence peak Ore-Forming Stages and their Structural Control
metamorphism probably ceased during D3 transpressional
tectonics. Within the middle BIF unit (i.e., 1−3 km away Ore stage 1: Iron-rich carbonate and talc alteration
from the Koolyanobbing shear zone) mafic footwall and (pre-D2a)
hanging-wall rocks are characterized by a chloritic cleavage. Iron ore stage 1 was an early Fe-Mg(±Ca?) metasomatism
This indicates a decrease in metamorphic grade from amphi- that locally altered quartz-magnetite BIF to Fe-rich carbonate-
bolite (grunerite) to lower greenschist facies (chlorite zone) magnetite BIF, replacing silica layers (Fig. 15A). This carbon-
with distance from the surrounding gneisses. Such a meta- ate alteration is evident in the A, F (siderite), and K (ferroan
morphic zonation has been described from several green- dolomite) deposits. Ferroan talc alteration is closely associated
stone belts in the Southern Cross domain and is considered with carbonate alteration in the K deposit and may be the prod-
to be the result of decreasing temperature gradients across uct of the same metasomatic event. The hydrothermally al-
contact aureoles (Ahmat, 1986). tered BIF is typically enriched in iron (~45−55 wt % Fe) with-
Lake Seabrook contact metamorphism (late to post-D4): out showing significant volume reduction, which implies that
The Lake Seabrook granite experienced syn- to postemplace- iron was added to the BIF host rock by metasomatism.
ment deformation; the biotite cleavage suggests upper green- In general, dolomite dissolution is facilitated by fluid flow
schist facies metamorphism (T. Angerer, 2009, unpub. data). under varied conditions, such as moderately elevated temper-
Quartz-cummingtonite BIF in the adjacent contact aureole ature of 100° to 250°C (Pokrovsky and Schott, 2001) and neu-
suggests a cummingtonite-hornfels facies contact metamor- tral to low pH (Zhang et al., 2007). Therefore, it is suggested
phism (Klein, 1983, 2005). that ore stage 1 “prepared” BIF for subsequent dissolution of

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938 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN

A ore stage 1: carbonate alteration (talc-alteration?)

process: replacement of quartz-layers
NW SE carbonate
alteration 1 cm
? carbonate
alteration ?
mag
F2 Fe-carb qtz

? siderite-magnetite BIF
altered layer

B ore stage 2: residual magnteite by gangue leaching

process: mass transfer by gangue removal mostly from fold limbs
folds control talc-altered folds without D2- to D4 -associated tightening of
NW SE magnetite significant gangue removal folds: partitioning of material

enrich- low strain

late stage S4
ment
ta

residual
lc

magnetite
F2

? boudinage:
layer parallel
extension core is talc-
fluid-feeder fold scale: decimeter to decameter carbonate
structure ? -quartz rich

C ore stage 3: magnetite mineralization process: breccia matrix and BIF replacement
main fault controls iron mineralized breccia
ore enrichment mineralized
mineralized layer breccia

mineralized mineralized
minor structures
minor fault

main fault with

silicious breccia

D Ore stage 4: specularite mineralization process: breccia matrix and BIF replacement
brittle D4 within fault: mineralized breccia
structures pure specularite
control mineralization
(K deposit)
specularite

specularite- BIF clasts

bearing BIF
specularite-
bearing ore

E Ore stage 5: weathering-related modifications

vertical zoning in ore vertical zoning in BIF any steep structure can
any steep structure (unaltered and carbonate-altered) control deep weathering
can enhance depth
of weathering
vitreous goethite ore (Al+Si enriched) vitreous goethite ore (Al+Si enriched) medium-grade
satellite features
pseudomorphic pseudomorphic goethite-martite
goethite-martite ore mineralized BIF (medium-grade)
gossan
canga leached martite BIF
BIF detritus massive (medium-grade)
saprolite martite ore
martite BIF
magnetite ore magnetite BIF
(quartz or carbonate)
present-day
groundwater
levels (vertically exaggerated) (vertically exaggerated)

Processes:
Gangue mineral leaching Goethite replacement of gangue and iron oxides Martitization
mar±goe layer
void
tz
oe

mag-layer
ar

mag
±g

qu

qtz/tc/carb-layer
ar

former qtz-layer
m

r ma goe qtz
controlling ma ite g+
ma
e± rt
structure go ma
r+g
mar
oe
compare with example goe
goe±mag±mar mar±goe layer
in Fig. 3F 10 m

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 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA 939

carbonate gangue during ore stage 2. Since dolomite deforms
easily under moderately hot (<300°C) and wet conditions
(Newman and Mitra, 1994), early stage of carbonate alter-
ation was probably also important for strain localization of
shear zones and faults in which magnetite and specularite
precipitated during ore stages 3 and 4, respectively.
The structural control of the Fe-rich carbonate ± talc alter-
ation is difficult to reconstruct because subsequent deforma-
tion (D2-D4) and alteration were so intense that the original
geometry of the alteration zone has been obliterated. The
timing of ore stage 1 may have been as early as diagenetic,
and some of the talc-rich rocks are probably related to hy-
drothermal activities at or near the seafloor, which may have
also led to the formation of the massive pyrite body (cf. Costa
et al., 1980, 1983). At the small scale, a syngenetic deposition
of ferroan talc and magnetite, leading to intercalated talc
schist, talc-magnetite BIF, and medium- to high-grade mag-
netite ore, may have occurred. This syngenetic genesis may
explain talc-enriched fold cores and talc-depleted fold limbs
at a small scale. However, quartz in transitional talc-carbon-
ate-quartz BIF (i.e., in zones of incomplete replacement)
shows predominantly carbonate and ferroan talc overgrowing
recrystallized textures and this suggests that replacement
postdated dynamic recrystallization during D1 metamor-
phism. The existence of deformed and undeformed carbon-
ate and talc veins, syndeformational strain shadows at mag-
netite, juxtaposition of different talc and carbonate
generations in talc-schists and late-stage carbonate breccias,
respectively, point to a complicated multistage alteration his-
tory. A detailed investigation of the genesis of talc and car-
bonate alteration is the subject of ongoing research.
Ore stage 2: Residual magnetite enrichment (D2a-D4)
Iron ore stage 2 includes formation of laminated magnetite
ore and magnetite ore breccia (Fig. 15B). The known mag-
netite orebodies in the A and K deposits are located predom-
inantly in tight D1b and/or D2a folded zones. These controlling
folds strike subparallel to the BIF unit, i.e., north-northwest
to west-northwest and plunge subhorizontally (in the A de-
posit) to moderately steeply (in the K deposit). Talc-schists
and medium-grade talc-carbonate-magnetite BIF occur from
the meter to decameter scale surrounding medium- to high-
grade magnetite ore in the K deposit. The appearance of
magnetite ore is patchy in the talc zone but prominent in the
center of the K deposit, where ore is enveloped mostly by
quartz- and carbonate-magnetite BIF. High-grade magnetite
ore is also prominent in the A deposit, often enveloped by a
siderite-rich BIF protolith. As a consequence, it is proposed
here that formation of the larger bodies of high-grade mag-
netite ore was a result of removal of carbonate and, to a minor
extent, quartz.
Gangue removal was by selective mobilization of preexist-
ing carbonate, quartz, and minor ferroan talc by solution or
minor mechanical transfer, observed in high mean stress
zones such as tight fold limbs or faults that truncate folds at
various scales. The location of fibrous talc, granoblastic
quartz, and sparitic ferroan dolomite in strain shadows of
boudin necks (talc: Fig. 6C) supports the suggestion that the
gangue was mobile during deformation. Deformation-con-
trolled solution transfer of quartz during layer-parallel boudi-
nage associated with tight folding of quartz-calcite-hematite
BIF has been described by Hippertt et al. (2001). Similar
processes may have occurred in the Koolyanobbing deposits
under fluid conditions favoring carbonate dissolution, such as
moderately elevated temperatures of 100° to 250°C
(Pokrovsky and Schott, 2001) and neutral to low pH (Zhang
et al., 2007). Magnetite remained mostly in place during this
process, suggesting that fluids were iron saturated, which
would inhibit iron oxide dissolution. As a consequence of
gangue removal, microporosity increased and caused mag-
netite microlayers to disintegrate forming the typical fine-
grained collapse zones intercalated with the mechanically
more stable magnetite mesolayers in laminated and breccia
ore (Fig. 2A, B). Locally, the entire BIF texture disintegrated
during gangue removal and ore brecciated textures formed.
Microscale boudinage fabrics (Fig. 2B) are observed in
both BIF and laminated magnetite ore. These fabrics were
generated by competency contrasts between mineralogically
distinct layers but are rather unlikely in monomineralic rocks
where no competency contrast between layers exists, such as
a syngenetic, metamorphosed magnetite ore (i.e., chert-free
BIF: Lascelles, 2006a, b). Thus, gangue removal occurred at
least during, probably later than, layer fragmentation in fold
limbs and locally fold hinges. Talc in alteration zones sur-
rounding magnetite orebodies may be explained by the reac-
tion of Mg in solution from mobilized Fe-Mg carbonate with
residual quartz in less-deformed magnetite BIF (cf. Klein,
1974; Costa et al., 1980; Moine et al., 1989). In transitional
talc-carbonate-quartz BIF this reaction is “halfway frozen” in
time. A talc-forming reaction would imply lower to medium
(about 300°−400°C) conditions such as greenschist facies
metamorphism (Klein, 1974). Considering that controlling
folds were formed during synmetamorphic F2a, regional-scale
metamorphism may be a relevant process. Similar conditions
may also be generated by localized, high-temperature
(>300°C) hydrothermal activity unrelated to metamorphism.

FIG. 15. Ore-forming stages and enrichment processes. A. Ore stage 1: carbonate (and talc?) alteration of siliceous BIF.
B. Ore stage 2: Residual magnetite enrichment by carbonate removal, controlled by F2 and tightened F1 fold limbs and
hinges and probable associated talc alteration. C. Ore stage 3: Magnetite mineralization of BIF, magnetite ore, and breccias
proximal to, or within, stage 2 magnetite ore. D. Ore stage 4: Specularite in faults, fractures, reactivated fold cores, breccia
pods, BIF, and in stages 1 and 2 ore. Synchronous with specularite is a localized first stage of martitization of magnetite ore
and quartz-Fe-carbonate alteration. E. Ore stage 5: Three processes occurred: (1) leaching of gangue in martite BIF, form-
ing high-grade ore; (2) goethite precipitation in the vadose zone, either by replacing quartz, carbonate, and iron oxides in un-
altered and carbonate-altered BIF, and medium-grade stage 2-4 ore, or by precipitation in macroporosity in leached BIF;
clay- and silica- enriched vitreous goethite hard cap in the uppermost zone; (3) martitization of magnetite ore to martite ore
and magnetite BIF to martite BIF.

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940 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN
In any case, the D2 event most likely represents the maximum
relative age for gangue removal and hence for magnetite ore
genesis. A continuation of ore stage 2 during postmetamor-
phic D2b and D4 fold reactivation is suggested by the intersti-
tial microporosity in and between anhedral magnetite grains
and the nearly complete lack of amalgamation of magnetite
grains. These textural observations are incompatible with
metamorphic overprint and deformation. The minimum rela-
tive age for the magnetite ore formation in the K deposit is
constrained by the onset of D4 based on (1) boudinage of
magnetite bodies and shearing of adjacent talc-schists as a
consequence of the reverse and strike-slip faulting that
shaped the eastern lithon, (2) development of a discontinuous
pressure solution cleavage that overprinted magnetite ore and
euhedral magnetite (Fig. 2C; i.e., formation of granular mag-
netite ore), and (3) localized hydrothermal specularite ±
quartz ± ferroan dolomite ± pyrite ± talc ± chlorite assem-
blage, which replaced the magnetite ore.
Ore stage 3: Magnetite mineralization in brittle (-ductile)
structures (D2a-D4)
Ore stage 3 includes formation of magnetite in brittle and
brittle-ductile structures (such as D2b faults, fractures, and
breccias) in reactivated D2a fold cores, and locally in wall rock
and quartz veins adjacent to mineralized brittle structures
(Fig. 15C). Structures that control ore stage 3 mineralization
are (1) in the K deposit, the boundary fault between massive
sulfide and quartz-, and carbonate-magnetite BIF (Fig. 4); (2)
in the A deposit linear, BIF unit-parallel, fault breccias trun-
cating BIF and mafic rocks (Fig. 9); (3) a linear, BIF unit-par-
allel, breccia body likely controlling the F deposit and smaller
bodies of BIF breccias proximal to this deposit; (4) irregularly
shaped breccias proximal to the high-grade ore in the C de-
posit (Fig. 10); and (5) meter-scale fractures in BIF proximal
to high-grade ore-forming zones of mineralized BIF (in all
deposits, best displayed in the D pit). Magnetite mineraliza-
tion adds only a minor fraction to the overall ore formation, as
it is restricted to the brittle structures and bordering wall
rocks. The main process of magnetite formation during ore
stage 3 involved replacement of quartz and localized carbon-
ate (Fig. 15B2).
The granular magnetite ore in the K deposit (Fig. 2C) is in-
terpreted to have been upgraded during ore stage 2 but mod-
ified by minor deformation and mineral growth during ore
stage 3. In magnetite BIF in the K deposit only minor and
centimeter- to decimeter-scale brittle-ductile shear zones or
mineralized fold cores contain stage 2 magnetite mineraliza-
tion. The local overprint of magnetite and/or martite crystals
by a weak pressure solution cleavage and the replacement of
specularite indicate that D4 represents the minimum age for
ore stage 3.
Mineralized D2b breccias in proximity to goethite-martite
high-grade ore are commonly medium grade, due to elevated
quartz content in the matrices and/or clasts of BIF or mafic
rock. The textures of these mineralized zones are typically
produced by subhedral to euhedral magnetite and/or martite
crystals that are partially amalgamated (Fig. 2D) and form ce-
ments around BIF clasts (Fig. 15B4). The mineralized matri-
ces locally replaced a primarily silica-rich breccia matrix (Fig.
15B5).
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The densely distributed euhedral martite that commonly
occurs in goethite matrices in goethite-martite ore in small- to
medium-scale orebodies (i.e., the C, D, E, and F deposits)
implies a two-stage iron oxide formation: sub- to euhedral
magnetite growth replacing siliceous breccia matrices and
BIF layers, followed by partial to complete goethite replace-
ment of magnetite and/or martite and upgrade by goethite re-
placement of remaining quartz.
Ore stage 4: Specularite mineralization and
first martitization (synpost-D4)
Specularite mineralization: Specularite mineralization, con-
trolled by D4 faults, is observed in the K, C, and D deposits
and defined as ore stage 4 (Fig. 15D). Based on analyses of
the fault and/or fracture pattern of the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt, it is likely that the major controlling structures are
large strike-slip faults with a north-northwest to west-north-
west trend. Deposit-scale examples include the strike-slip
faults in the K deposit, such as the footwall and horse faults of
the duplex system, and strike-slip and reverse shear zones in
the eastern lithon (Fig. 3). Directly north of the K deposit,
outside the strike-slip duplex, specularite is also present, most
likely controlled by the west-northwest− to north-north-
west−striking footwall fault. Specularite in the C deposit is lo-
cated within a northwest-striking fault at the limb of a large-
scale S-shaped drag fold in that accommodated vertical
folding or in faults that caused imbrications at the D deposit.
Specularite formation is locally associated with hydrothermal
quartz ± ferroan dolomite ± pyrite ± talc ± chlorite alteration
and is most significant in the K deposit within reactivated
breccia pods, brittle faults, and tension gashes, which all
crosscut D1 and D2a folds. Locally, tightened or faulted D1
and/or D2a fold cores are also loci for a hydrothermal over-
print, and replacement of neighboring wall-rock BIF by hy-
drothermal assemblages is common. The precipitation of
specularite-bearing hydrothermal assemblages in BIF was
not an effective ore upgrading process, and in magnetite ore
carbonate-specularite veins and pods replacing magnetite ore
caused a downgrading. However, carbonate replacement of
quartz in siliceous BIF was an important ground preparation
for weathering-related leaching during ore stage 5 (see
below).
The A, B, E, and F deposits do not show any specularite or
associated hydrothermal overprint, although they are trun-
cated by brittle faults. It is, therefore, interpreted that not all
footwall faults are coeval with specularite formation or were
not hydrologically connected with structures that acted as
fluid feeder. For example, the mineralized faults in the A de-
posit are interpreted to be reverse slip fault that formed dur-
ing D2b and controlling ore stage 3 but were inactive during
ore stage 4.
Specularite formation is characterized by the replacement
of gangue in laminated microspecularite-martite ore and
medium-grade BIF and by coarse crystalline massive and dis-
seminated specularite in brittle faults, breccias, and voids.
Disseminated specularite and specularite (±carbonate ±
quartz) veins overprint stage 1 and 2 magnetite ore. Most hy-
drothermal, ore stage 4-related alteration is late to postdefor-
mational, i.e., it took place after D4-related brittle deforma-
tion ceased, probably during the relaxation phase of faulting.
 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA
This is indicated by the lack of internal deformation in the
late-stage hydrothermal alteration assemblage. Deformed
transtensional gashes in the eastern lithon with crystal-plastic
carbonate and chlorite deformation indicates a localized syn-
deformational alteration.
Martitization: Martitization in wall-rock magnetite associ-
ated with specularite veins is minor. Existing juxtaposition of
martite against magnetite ore along steep D5 faults at the K
deposit suggests an earlier stage of martitization with regard
to faulting. Hydrothermal martitization has been described in
several hypogene ore deposits (Lobato et al., 2008). It is thus
interpreted that localized, structurally controlled, martitiza-
tion related to specularite has been overprinted by ubiquitous
martitization related to weathering.
The spatial relationship of martite with a hydrothermal
mineral assemblage suggests that martitization commenced
during the hydrothermal alteration. There is no evidence for
gangue leaching taking place during ore stage 4 nor for a
preferred replacement of Fe-rich talc or carbonate in the K
deposit.
Controls by post-D4 deformation
Subsequent to the D4 strike-slip fault movement and con-
current hydrothermal ore stage 4, deformation took place
without associated ore formation (i.e., upgrading) processes.
During D5, preexisting structures such as D4 faults were re-
activated during north-south compression or east-west exten-
sion and (further) block rotation around a vertical axis may
have taken place. It appears that magnetite ore and specular-
ite-overprinted magnetite orebodies did not experience D5
block segmentation. However, D5 faulting led to localized re-
orientation and displacement. For example, dextral move-
ment along the footwall (reactivating sinistral D4 faults) and
hanging-wall contact at the K deposit caused decoupling of
the western lithon from its imbricate fan basal fault (Fig.
13E3). The southern end of the A deposit is defined by a D5
fault crosscutting the middle BIF unit, which juxtaposed
magnetite ore (now mostly goethite-martite ore) with quartz-
martite BIF. This fault likely originated earlier and was an im-
portant fluid pathway causing siderite alteration of the BIF
prior to residual magnetite ore enrichment.
Ore stage 5: Supergene modifications
Fluids responsible for ore stage 5 are interpreted to be of
supergene origin (cf. Clout, 2003), which is supported by a
topdown zoning of orebody characteristics. Two types of
weathering profiles are developed in the middle BIF: a thick
zone of goethite-martite ore in the upper part underlain by a
deep zones of stage 2 to 3 ore, which is characteristic for the
larger iron ore deposits; and a thin zone of goethite ore un-
derlain by oxidized, siliceous or slightly hydrothermally al-
tered BIF (Fig. 15E). The main zones of the weathering pro-
files are, from the base to the top, a magnetite BIF or ore
zone showing no weathering, followed by a martite zone,
which indicates partial to complete gangue leaching (i.e., up-
grade in BIF) and minor leaching of massive martite (after
massive magnetite ore), followed by a goethite-rich martite
zone, which shows partial to complete pseudomorphic
gangue replacement of carbonate ± siliceous BIF or breccias
and goethite replacement of martite forming goethite-martite
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941
ore, followed by a massive to vuggy, clay- and secondary sil-
ica-rich, goethite zone, which represents the hard cap. This
zoning is similar to vertical depth profiles of supergene (i.e.,
weathering-related) modifications in iron ore deposits in the
Hamersley basin (Clout, 2003). The maximum age of this
weathering-related overprint in the Koolyanobbing green-
stone belt may be as old as Permian, corresponding to re-
golith ages throughout the central Yilgarn craton (Pillans,
2000, 2004; Anand and Paine, 2002).
Gangue leaching: A second stage of removal of carbonate ±
quartz from medium-grade ore of stages 2, 3, or 4 at depth
led to an upgrade to residual high-grade ore. These weather-
ing-related leached ores are typically martite rich. Locally,
gangue leaching is associated with volume loss of the orebody,
as the voids that were produced are subject of vertical col-
lapse and horizontal contraction. However, leached martite
ore is observed that shows no collapse texture. This macrop-
orous martite ore is readily distinguishable from martitized
magnetite ore of ore stage 2, because the latter has a charac-
teristically massive laminated texture with no macro- but a
microporosity in the cataclastic layers.
Pseudomorphic goethite mineralization: Goethite ore is
characterized by textural modification of the BIF layering and
shows clearly replacement of magnetite, martite, and specu-
larite. Goethite replacement affected rocks to 70 m below the
present surface, with deeper weathering zones observed in
steep fault zones.
Martitization: Textural similarities between massive mag-
netite and martite ore and common relics of magnetite in
martite grains suggest that, principally, massive laminated
martite ore in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt represents
pseudomorphically altered massive magnetite ore of ore stage
2. Martite is commonly interpreted as a weathering-related
phase (e.g., Morris, 1980, 1985); however, as mentioned be-
forehand, some martite formed already during earlier D4-re-
lated fluid-rock interaction. The localized nature of magnetite
crystals in goethite matrix next to completely martitized mag-
netite crystals in BIF suggests that martitization ceased when
surrounded by a massive “mantle” of goethite. Magnetite in
goethite-magnetite-martite ore is locally described from sur-
face outcrops at the Mount Gibson deposit (Lascelles, 2006b)
and may have been preserved by a similar process described
here.
Discussion
The relative significance of ore-forming stages and
BIF alteration
The intensity of BIF alteration and hypogene ore stages 1
to 4 varies throughout the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt,
and there is a positive correlation between deposit size and
number of developed BIF ore stages within the deposit. It is
evident that in all BIF-hosted deposits within the Koolyanob-
bing greenstone belt, at least one of the four hypogene (i.e.,
deep-seated) ore stages occurred. The importance of the
residual magnetite ore formation during ore stage 2 in terms
of generating ore volume or tonnage is unclear, because
weathering-related gangue leaching may have overprinted
areas affected by this ore formation stage. The significance of
magnetite mineralization associated with ore stage 3 for the
942 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN
formation of the high-grade orebodies at Koolyanobbing re-
mains contentious. Despite common occurrence of euhedral
magnetite and/or martite in BIF proximal to ore zones, de-
posit-scale high-grade magnetite and/or martite ore that
formed during stage 3 mineralization is not identified. How-
ever, medium-grade martite ore in the K deposit and high-
grade goethite-martite ores in the D, E, and F deposits show
euhedral magnetite and/or martite (in case of goethite-mar-
tite in a goethite matrix), which originated from magnetite
growth during ore stage 3. Ore stage 4 developed only locally,
but it was a very effective iron upgrading process. At the K
deposit the high density of duplex and imbrications faults
caused a pervasive specularite alteration in BIF and breccias
in the lithons (wall rock) between faults, resulting in (micro-)
specularite-martite ore to be volumetrically very important.
The dominant occurrence of goethite-martite ore (approx
80%) throughout the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt iron ore
deposits is a result of extensive surface-related (supergene)
processes that took place during ore stage 5. Supergene mod-
ification and upgrade of ore stage 1 carbonate-altered BIF is
likely to be an economically important process in the evolu-
tion of the iron ore deposits in the Koolyanobbing greenstone
belt. This is in accordance with observations of early parage-
netic stages of carbonate in several Archean and Proterozoic
BIF-hosted high-grade iron ore deposits (Barley et al., 1999;
Taylor et al., 2001; Dalstra and Guedes, 2004; Gutzmer et al.,
2005; Lascelles, 2006b; Thorne et al., 2008).
The commonly observed martite and goethite replacement
of magnetite and specularite ore and the spatial coincidence
of replacement fronts of ore stage 3 magnetite and/or martite
and ore stage 5 goethite pseudomorphs (Fig. 15B1, B2) sug-
gest that residual magnetite, magnetite-mineralized, and
probably also specularite-mineralized zones were important
precursors for the localization of late-stage martite and
goethite replacement of magnetite and/or martite and quartz.
This is petrographically supported by the frequently observed
preferred nucleation of goethite on magnetite and/or martite
and specularite crystals (Fig. 2D).
Fluid flow
Fluids parental to carbonate (and talc?) alteration during
ore stage 1 BIF must have been hot, Fe + Mg + CO2/CO3
rich, and silica undersaturated in order to replace all quartz
with BIF-hosted carbonate. Magmatic fluids, sourced from
batholiths intruded during the D2 event (i.e., the Ghooli
dome; Ahmat, 1986) and likely enriched in Fe + Mg during
channeling through the surrounding mafic rocks (i.e., mixing
with metamorphic fluids), may have been a suitable fluid
source.
It is assumed for ore stage 2 that deformation took place
during infiltration of carbonate-undersaturated, hydrother-
mal fluids through strained zones in BIF units, with prefer-
entially upgraded BIF zones that were subject to early car-
bonate alteration. The main feeder channels for these fluids
have not yet been detected; they may be D2a thrusts or local
D2b reverse faults. The fluids that caused gangue leaching
during ore stage 2 were considerably different from the fluids
that led to ore stage 1 carbonate (and talc?) alteration in the
BIF. However, also the fluid-rock interaction associated with
ore stage 2 coincided with emplacement of granitoids and
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associated metamorphism. Orogenic deformation, granite
emplacement, and contact metamorphism of mafic rocks in
the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt lasted several tens of mil-
lions years (Fig. 14; cf. Pidgeon et al., 1990; Dalstra et al.,
1998; Qiu et al., 1999; Mueller and McNaughton, 2000). Con-
sidering the length of this fluid-forming event, such a change
in physicochemical fluid conditions is probable and may be
induced by heat changes, varied fluid mixing, or introductions
of other fluid types such as meteoric water. Typical silica sat-
uration in metamorphic water may have been the cause for
preferred carbonate dissolution, whereas strongly folded
quartz-magnetite BIF in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt
and in other greenstone belts, such as the Southern Cross
greenstone belt, did not experience leaching during meta-
morphism.
Several contrasting interpretations of magnetite mineral-
ization are possible: (1) iron oxide precipitation may have
been a response of Fe carbonate dissolution nearby during
ore stage 2, considering that iron-saturated fluids were re-
sponsible for selective gangue leaching; (2) the hydrothermal
fluid event that caused magnetite mineralization is indepen-
dent of ore stage 2 and occurred syn-D2b/pre-D4; and/or (3)
replacement textures of magnetite in D2b breccias do not nec-
essarily imply coeval mineralization and deformation, there-
fore the mineralizing fluid event may have been genetically
related to the subsequent hydrothermal specularite forming
ore stage 4. An evolution of the fluid characteristics from
lesser oxidizing (magnetite) to more oxidizing (specularite)
would have taken place.
Fluids related to the specularite alteration stage 4 may have
been channeled by major north-trending D4 faults close to
the K deposit (Fig. 1). These brittle structures crosscut the
Koolyanobbing shear zone and truncate 2656 Ma old Lake
Seabrook granite. It is possible that the brittle deformation
stage channeled magmatic fluids from this granite. The post-
ductile deformation and late to postmagmatic timing of the
specularite stage in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt allow
speculation about the synchronicity with hydrothermal
quartz-hematite veins (Dalstra et al., 1999) and iron ore-re-
lated fluid flow some 50 km to the west, close to Mount Cor-
rell in the northern Southern Cross greenstone belt. A minor
amount of gold has been exploited at Koolyanobbing (cumu-
lative 2.6 Kt until 1951; source: Minedex, DMP), mostly
hosted in mafic rocks in the footwall of the middle BIF. Thus,
there may be a genetic relationship between specularite-
quartz-carbonate alteration and gold-bearing hydrothermal
fluids in the central Southern Cross domain (Fig. 14).
Further controls on high-grade iron ore
We have shown that iron ore formation is controlled by de-
formation-controlled processes. This structural control is re-
quired to explain the absence of exposed iron ore in the lower
and upper BIF and furthermore in many other greenstone
belts in the Southern Cross domain. Generally, the localiza-
tion of one or more of the following geologic features and
processes have been discussed in the literature to control the
spatial distribution of processes of BIF-hosted high-grade
iron ore formation: (1) changes in the depositional facies of
BIF, particularly carbonate facies BIF (Beukes and Gutzmer,
2008) or high iron/silica ratio; (2) hydrothermal alteration of
 BIF-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, ARCHEAN KOOLYANOBBING GREENSTONE BELT, WA
the gangue minerals, i.e., hydrothermal carbonate replace-
ment of quartz, as an important stage forming a proto-ore that
is more amendable to dissolution than quartz during subse-
quent hypogene or supergene upgrade processes (Barley et
al., 1999; Chown et al., 2000; Taylor et al., 2001; Dalstra and
Guedes, 2004; Thorne et al., 2004, 2008; Lobato et al., 2008);
(3a) structures 1: the existence of brittle or brittle-ductile
structures as a ground preparation for a channeled infiltration
of certain fluids that lead to iron oxide mineralization and/or
gangue leaching (Dalstra and Rosière, 2008); (3b) structures
2: active deformation-like folding, fold reactivation, or various
styles of brittle (-ductile) faulting, creating pressure gradients
within the structures leading to iron oxide mineralization in
low mean stress zones (Rosière et al., 2008) and/or to selec-
tive removal of gangue in high-strain zones (this study); and
(4) exposure to the surface leading to weathering of initially
nonaltered BIF (Morris, 1985; Ramanaidou and Morris,
2009) or hydrothermally altered (e.g., carbonate-replaced
BIF) or hypogene iron ore.
The contacts between BIF (gangue carbonate and talc) and
laminated ore (almost free of gangue) are often perpendicu-
lar to bedding, which shows that the massive layered mag-
netite rock did not form during sedimentation. However, re-
moval of gangue minerals may have started at an early
paragenetic stage, such as during diagenesis, prior to folding
events and metamorphism. Although the stratiform distribu-
tion of magnetite lenses supports a chert-free iron formation
(cf. Lascelles, 2006b, 2007a, b), the fold-controlled nature of
early magnetite ore, showing porous, cataclastic, microtex-
tures, indicates a synorogenic, late to postmetamorphic, up-
grade of the iron ore by gangue removal.
Besides the structural framework that controlled the loca-
tion of iron ore at the deposit scale, the conjunction of spe-
cific regional-scale geologic elements and processes was a key
combination that facilitated an effective and sequential up-
grade of BIF to iron ore at Koolyanobbing. These key ele-
ments and processes include: (1) an originally high iron con-
tent in BIF, (2) localized preore hydrothermal alteration of
BIF, (3) progressive compressive deformation characterized
by fold reactivation and brittle deformation, and (4) long-last-
ing syn- to postdeformation hydrothermal fluid flow favoring
gangue leaching, channeled by large structures. It is note-
worthy that in other greenstone belts throughout the South-
ern Cross domain that lack one or more of these features,
high-grade iron ore deposits did not develop. For instance,
BIF in the Southern Cross belt experienced very intense duc-
tile deformation during D2 (Bloem et al., 1994; Dalstra,
1995), however, here, the silicate-rich BIF (iron phase is pre-
dominantly amphibole) lacks any apparent early carbonate al-
teration and did not develop synorogenic magnetite ore. Syn-
deformational metamorphism may also play a significant role
in ore formation, if selective mobilization of (dolomitic)
gangue, while iron oxides remain in the solid phase, is facili-
tated within a distinct temperature range (low temperatures,
?100°−250°C: Pokrovsky and Schott, 2001).
Conclusions
This study establishes a deformation history and a multi-
stage structural control for the magnetite, martite, specular-
ite, and goethite ore in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt. A
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943
five-stage deformation sequence has been established, which
is mostly in accordance with structural models proposed for
the Southern Cross domain (Dalstra et al., 1999; Chen et al.,
2003). The formation of medium- to high-grade iron ore is
closely associated with Late Archean stages of deformation
and associated hydrothermal fluid flow. The stages include
carbonate (and talc?) alteration during Fe-Mg ± Ca metaso-
matism (ore stage 1), leaching associated with ductile to brit-
tle deformation syn- to postgreenschist facies metamorphism
or mesothermal metasomatism (ore stage 2), and magnetite
and specularite mineralization controlled by brittle deforma-
tion and associated hydrothermal alteration (ore stages 3 and
4, respectively). Hydrothermal ore formation was followed
after a long period of uplift by weathering-related upgrade
from the Permian to recent times (ore stage 5). Hydrothermal
ore formation during the Late Archean at Koolyanobbing is
therefore one of the oldest known, structurally controlled iron
ore deposits in the world. Fluid sources are still contentious
and the subject of ongoing research, but the importance of
magmatic and metamorphic fluids for carbonate alteration,
subsequent leaching, and magnetite and specularite mineral-
ization is suggested by the proposed timing relationship with
magmatic and tectonometamorphic processes in the country
rocks.
Permian to recent weathering-related upgrade by martitiza-
tion, gangue leaching, and goethite replacement in ore deposits
was in most deposits spatially related to existing Archean
magnetite and specularite ± martite-rich ore. This implication
has a significant impact on the understanding of the super-
gene-modified hypogene iron ore types, because it suggests
that the localization of supergene enrichment processes may
be preferably controlled by early stages of medium-grade ore
formation, rather than by structures in unaltered BIF. Pure
supergene ore (i.e., massive, vitreous goethite hosted in BIF)
are minor in the Koolyanobbing greenstone belt.
The results of this study may influence exploration for iron
ore in Archean BIF, because the strong structural control on
iron ore distribution that has been described for the
Koolyanobbing greenstone belt implies the general necessity
of evaluating the structural features and evolution of an ex-
ploration district to fully understand its prospectivity. The
close spatial relationship of the surface-related upgrade by
goethite precipitation and gangue leaching to existing
medium- to high-grade magnetite/martite/specularite ore in-
dicates the possibility of existing blind magnetite- and/or
specularite-rich orebodies within the BIF units. The martiti-
zation during specularite stage may also have produced local-
ized high-grade specularite-martite ore. In order to delineate
these blind orebodies, an evaluation of the prospectivity of
structures in the BIF unit, combined with application of geo-
physical surveys, especially gravity and magnetic inversion,
are essential. The occurrence of (ferroan) talc and carbonate
proximal to high-grade ore, as observed in the A and K de-
posits, may be utilized as footprint indicators for high-grade
magnetite-, martite-, and specularite-rich ore.
Acknowledgments
This work has been funded and logistically supported by
Cliffs Natural Resources Asia Pacific Iron Ore Ltd. The pro-
ject was initiated by Nick Payne and Dave Fielding whose
944 ANGERER AND HAGEMANN
foresight and trust in using applied science as an aid for ex-
ploration is highly appreciated. The authors are grateful for
the support from Cliffs Exploration/Resource Development
team, especially Nick Payne, Camilo Guarin, Jr., Dave Field-
ing, Nigel Maund, and Kaye Hodgkiss. We very much appre-
ciate the thorough reviews of the manuscript from SEG re-
viewers Hilke Dalstra and Jens Gutzmer.
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Barley, M.E., Pickard, A.L., Hagemann, S.G., and Folkert, S.L., 1999, Hy-
drothermal origin for the 2 billion year old Mount Tom Price giant iron ore
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