Upgrading processes in BIF-derived iron ore deposits:
implications for ore genesis and downstream mineral processing
J. M. F. Clout
Ore textures in Australian BIF-derived ores are quite
complex and have formed the basis for ore genesis models,
which includes hypogene upgrading or supergene upgrading
then regional metamorphism for the microplaty hematite
ores and supergene upgrading for the martite–goethite
ores. Despite a high level of ore texture knowledge, little is
known about the spatial distribution of ore textures within
deposits or their relationship to downstream processing.
This paper describes a new iron ore texture classification
system to understand better the vertical textural zonation
characteristics of Australian BIF-derived deposits, the
interpreted role of recent supergene upgrading processes on
modifying primary ore textures and their implications for
downstream mineral processing.
The iron ore textural classification scheme presented
uses textural groupings defined on the basis of similarities
in mineralogy, ore texture, porosity, mineral associations
and hardness. The scheme is non-genetic and has been
successfully applied to deposits in the Pilbara, Yilgarn
and Gawler cratons. The main ore texture groups include
dense martite/hematite, microplaty hematite, microplaty
hematite–goethite, martite–goethite, goethite–martite
and goethite-rich. Each group can be further subdivided
into physically hard to softer subcategories.
The ore textural groups can be divided into those
interpreted to be associated with primary replacement of
BIF and secondary textures resulting from more recent
modification by near-surface hydration or dehydration
processes. A schematic vertical section through BIF-
derived deposits consists (from the surface) of detritals
underlain by a carapace, both of which may have been
INTRODUCTION
Australian iron ores can be classified into five broad
genetic types and a number of subtypes, each of which
have distinct ore and gangue mineralogy, ore textures
and porosity (Table 1).4 The banded iron formation
(BIF)-derived bedded iron deposits (BID) and the
channel iron deposits (CID, or pisolite ores) are the
most economically important, although there is also
current production from the much smaller meta-
morphosed BID and BIF-derived detrital iron deposits
(DID). The BIF-derived iron ore deposits of the
Pilbara, Yilgarn and Gawler cratons represent a very
significant iron ore resource for Australia, with current
and previous production dominated by the Pilbara iron
ore deposits (Table 1). The microplaty hematite ores
DOI 10.1179/037174503225011153 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) April 2003 Vol. 112 B89
eroded, followed by a hydrated zone with replacement of
primary ore martite and microplaty hematite by vitreous
goethite. The hydrated zone is underlain by 0·2–6 m thick
zones of intense dehydration and textural infilling of
porosity with hematite and hydrohematite. Immediately
below the dehydration zone is a strong zone of leaching,
where more porous and friable ore textures occur, followed
underneath by a gradational contact with primary ore.
Secondary supergene processes can impact on
beneficiation with hydration and leaching resulting in more
difficult density separations at the concentrator stage due
to reductions in density differences between ore and gangue
and loss of heavy media into pores. Supergene modification
of primary BIF-derived ore textures can substantially
change lump metallurgical properties, with hydration and
dehydration favourably increasing lump yield, but reducing
resistance to thermal shock whilst leaching will give the
opposing outcome. The lump properties of ore textural
groups appear to be relatively consistent within and
between the iron ore deposits examined.
The author is in CSIRO Minerals, PO Box 883, Kenmore, Qld
4069, Australia (john.clout@csiro.au). Based on a contribution
to the conference Iron Ore 2002, organised by AusIMM and
CSIRO in Perth, Australia on 9–11 September 2002.
© 2003 IoM Communications Ltd. Published by Maney for the
Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining in association with
AusIMM.
Keywords: BIF-derived iron ore deposits, Textural classification
scheme, Ore genesis, Downstream mineral processing
and martite–goethite ores are the most important BIF-
derived ores.7
Ore textures in the BIF-derived ores are quite
complex and have formed the basis for their interpreted
genesis which includes either hypogene upgrading for
the microplaty hematite ores6,9,10,17 or supergene
upgrading followed by regional metamorphism for
microplaty hematite ores and supergene upgrading for
the martite–goethite ores.7,12–15 There have also been a
number of papers on the genesis of banded iron form-
ation and their primary textures.2,16
This paper describes a new iron ore texture
classification system to understand better the complex
textural and vertical textural zonation characteristics of
Australian BIF-derived deposits, the interpreted role of
Clout Upgrading processes in BIF-derived iron ore deposits
Table 1 Australian iron ore deposit classifications for current and some future mines
Classification Deposit type
BIF (a) Magnetite
(b) Hematite
BIF-derived (a) Bedded iron deposit
(b) Metamorphosed bedded
iron deposit
(c) Detrital iron deposit
Channel iron CID
Hydrothermal/metasomatic (a) Hematite
(b) Magnetite
Magmatic
recent supergene upgrading processes on modifying
primary ore textures and their implications for down-
stream mineral processing.
PREVIOUS WORK
Various ore classification schemes have been developed
to distinguish between iron ores in the Hamersley Iron
Province of Western Australia including the Pilbara
Iron Ore Classification (PIOC) scheme of Kneeshaw8
and one for DID deposits.11 The PIOC is a genetic
scheme comprising a two-dimensional matrix based on
dominant mineralogy and physical hardness.7,8
However, this and other schemes generally infer texture
and are not designed to predict downstream process
performance, apart from lump:fines ratio. Whilst the
complex textural characteristics of the BIF-derived ores
are well described by Morris,12–15 abundances and
spatial relationships between textures within these
deposits have not been clearly defined.
The textural complexity and frequent lateral changes
in textural types for many BIF-derived deposits requires
a more comprehensive textural-based ore classification
scheme that is easy to use at the hand specimen and
microscope-scales. The absence of such a universal
textural scheme is believed to have made it quite difficult
to define vertical and lateral zonation in ore textural
characteristics that may represent a common theme
across a number of deposits. In addition, there has been
little information published linking the effect of ore
texture on downstream processing including lump:fines
ratio, beneficiation, blast furnace lump metallurgical
properties or fine ore sintering quality. A new scheme has
recently been presented to address these issues and is
believed to have more universal application across the
BIF-derived deposits.3
ORE TEXTURAL TYPES
A number of broad textural and mineralogical
characteristics were found to be common to many BIF-
derived ores including the BID microplaty hematite
B90 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) April 2003 Vol. 112
Subtype Current and future mines
Mount Gibson, Tallering Peak (Yilgarn)
Mount Gibson, Tallering Peak (Yilgarn)
Martite–goethite Marandoo, West Angelas, Orebody 29, Mining
Area C, Hope Downs (Pilbara), Koolyanobbing
(Yilgarn)
Microplaty hematite Mount Whaleback, Mount Tom Price, Paraburdoo,
Channar, Yarrie (Pilbara), Iron Duke, Iron Knight,
Iron Duchess (Gawler)
Cockatoo Island (Pilbara)
(Brockman 2 Detritals) (Pilbara)
Mesa J, Yandi, Yandicoogina (Pilbara)
Koolyanobbing –macroplaty hematite ore (Yilgarn)
Savage River
–
and martite–goethite ores and DID ores. This is not
surprising since the primary ore formation processes
have simply resulted in oxidation of magnetite in the
original BIF to martite (± kenomagnetite) and volume
reduction and replacement of BIF chert/carbonate by
either microplaty hematite (± goethite) or goethite (±
disseminated martite) as shown in Figure 1.13 In the case
of the martite–goethite ores, there is usually some
goethite replacement of kenomagnetite that was after
BIF magnetite bands. Kaolinite-rich shale, an alumin-
ous residue from breakdown of primary chert bands in
the BIF host, form discrete bands intercalated within
the ore. In contrast, primary BIF carbonate is largely
replaced by goethite and is therefore much lower in
alumina.7
The iron ore textural classification scheme presented
here (Table 2) uses the principles in Figure 1, but differs
from those discussed previously in that the textural
groupings are defined on the basis of similarities in
mineralogy, ore texture, porosity, mineral associations
and hardness. Groups are also distinguished by what
mineral forms the matrix and what is interstitial.
Textural characteristics are visible in hand specimen or
under the petrographic microscope and textures are
often liberated from each other in both lump (–40 mm)
and fine ore (–6·3 to 0·06 mm). The main ore texture
1 Summary of ore formation and replacement processes
 Clout Upgrading processes in BIF-derived iron ore deposits

2 Photomicrographs of typical ore textures and microstructures for primary, hydrated and dehydrated ore. Plane
polarised reflected light images. Micropores (P) are black, H = hematite, M = martite, mpl H = microplaty
hematite, HH = hydrohematite, VG = vitreous goethite and OG = ochreous goethite. Samples are from
Koolyanobbing K deposit (a and c), Iron Duke (d and e), Mount Tom Price Section 6 (b), Marandoo (g and h),
Paraburdoo 4 East (f) and Brockman No. 2 detritals – hematite conglomerate (i)

groups (Table 2) include dense martite/hematite (Fig. 2a),
microplaty hematite (Fig. 2d), microplaty hematite–
goethite (Fig. 2e), martite-goethite (Fig. 2g,h), goethite–
martite (Fig. 2b) and goethite-rich. The distinction
between martite–goethite and goethite– martite textures is
on the basis that the first mineral listed forms the matrix
whilst the latter is interstitial. Each group can be further
subdivided into physically hard to softer subcategories.
The ore textural groups can be divided into those
associated with primary replacement of BIF (groups 1–4,
Fig. 2a,d,g) and secondary textures interpreted to have
resulted from more recent modification by near-surface
hydration (groups 6–10, Fig. 2b,e,h) or dehydration (group
5, Fig. 2c,f,i) processes.
The ore textural groups have been documented from
extensive mapping and sampling from the Paraburdoo,
Channar, Mount Tom Price, Marandoo and Brockman
No. 2 detritals deposits in the Pilbara Craton, the
Koolyanobbing deposits in the Yilgarn Craton and the
Iron Duke, Iron Knight and Iron Duchess deposits from

Table 2 The ore group textural classification scheme and distribution in BIF-derived deposits

BIF-derived deposit subtype

Microplaty Martite– Detritals

Group Dominant mineralogy Porosity Origin hematite goethite

1 Dense martite/hematite Very low Primary

2 Microplaty hematite Medium-high Primary
3 Martite–goethite Medium Primary
4 Goethite–martite High Primary
5 Dense hematite/martite/hydrohematite Low Dehydration
6 Dense martite–goethite Low Hydration
7 Dense goethite–martite Medium Hydration
8 Microplaty hematite–goethite Medium Hydration
9 Ochreous goethite Very high Hydration-Primary
10 Vitreous goethite Medium Hydration

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) April 2003 Vol. 112 B91
Clout Upgrading processes in BIF-derived iron ore deposits
3 Generalised ore texture vertical zonation profiles and interpreted processes. Minerals in brackets imply leaching of
this phase. V = vitreous, OG = ochreous goethite, M = martite, H = hematite, mpl H = microplaty hematite
the South Middleback Ranges in the Gawler Craton.
The principles of the ore group classification scheme
formed the basis for the material type classification used
by Hamersley Iron Pty Limited for logging of drill holes
and geological mapping.3
Primary and secondary ore texture zonation
Whilst the ore textural variations and replacement
sequences are quite complex (e.g. Morris13,15) a number
of key relationships can be established in a schematic
vertical section through a BIF-derived deposit (Fig. 3).
The secondary processes in the hydration zone are
interpreted to have resulted in replacement of martite
and microplaty hematite by vitreous goethite as well as
back filling of porosity by vitreous goethite (Fig. 2). In
the upper part of the hydration zone, cavity development
through leaching of goethite is often accompanied by
intense silicification and local deposition of manganese
phases. The development of more porous and friable ore
textures occurs immediately below 0·2–6 m thick zones
of intense dehydration and textural infilling of porosity
with hematite and hydrohematite. In some cases, such as
at the Paraburdoo 4 East orebody, several dehydration
zones may be present, with the uppermost zone thickest
(~10 m) and the lowermost zones progressively thinner
and associated with fault zones. The dehydration zone
textures were similar for all BID and DID deposits
studied and replace any of the primary or secondary
texture groups. In many cases, vitreous goethite, hematite
and hydrohematite occur as alternating colloform bands
(Fig. 2f,i). Often the textures are suggestive of wide-
spread replacement of colloform banded vitreous
goethite by hydrohematite and hematite (Fig. 2c).
Dehydration results in very dense and thick (0·1–2 m)
B92 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) April 2003 Vol. 112
individual hematite bands, significantly thicker than
stratigraphically equivalent primary magnetite beds
(0·001–0·05 m) in the BIF. The secondary textures are
interpreted to relate to recent development of the
weathering profile, similar to those documented in the
Yilgarn1 and to recent interaction with and movements
of the water table. However, further work is required.
The distribution of these secondary textural zones
has important implications for lump:fines ratio and
lump metallurgical quality, particularly for tumble
strength and high temperature thermal stability. The
hydration and dehydration zones at the top of many
deposits results in much higher lump yields.
IMPLICATIONS FOR DOWNSTREAM
MINERAL PROCESSING
For typical Australian iron ores, downstream processing
performance is far more complex and dependent on ore
petrology, from crushing and beneficiation right through
to the final metallisation stage in the blast furnace,
compared to either base metals or gold. Iron ore
petrology, particularly ore textures, largely determines the
amount of lump or fine ore product, the nature if any of a
concentration step (usually to reduce kaolinite and/or
quartz), the performance of fine ore during the sintering
agglomeration step and lump ore performance in the blast
furnace at the ironmaking stage.
Beneficiation
Whilst many of Australia’s BIF-derived deposits
contain relatively few iron bearing minerals, largely
hematite and goethite, complex ore textures and very
porous ore types result in quite variable beneficiation
 Clout Upgrading processes in BIF-derived iron ore deposits

characteristics.4 Large differences in specific gravity Table 3 Theoretical and apparent specific gravities for the
between crystalline equivalents of ore and gangue ore and gangue minerals
minerals (Table 3) may be substantially reduced in these
Apparent
ores by the effects of increased or decreased porosity due Theoretical specific
to leaching or hydration, respectively. All these, specific gravity
especially increased porosity, result in more difficult Chemical gravity range in
physical separations based on density at the con- Mineral/type formula (g cm–3) ore (g cm–3)
centrator stage than would otherwise be expected from Ore minerals
theory. Microporosity will also reduce the amount of Hematite Fe2O3 5·26 4·0–5·26
dewatering possible and macroporosity formation at the Goethite FeOOH 4·2 3·3–4·2
Kenomagnetite Fe3-x.[( )xO4] .… 4·2–5·1
top of the hydration zone (Fig. 2) will increase the loss
Magnetite Fe3O4 5·17 .…
of heavy media. Dehydration will improve density
separation since it has resulted in a decrease in porosity Gangue minerals
and an increase in density compared to kaolinite-rich Quartz SiO2 2·65 .…
shale. The extent of replacement or oxidation of keno- Kaolinite Al4(Si4O10)(OH)8 2·7 2·2–2·7
magnetite, an intermediate metal-deficient phase bet-
Types
ween magnetite and maghemite,13 will have an effect Shale .… .… 2·4–3·4
on magnetic separation. In contrast, the well- BIF .… .… 2·6–3·3
metamorphosed BIF-derived deposits such as the
Cockatoo Island deposit contain very dense hematite
with low porosity and hence have good beneficiation the blast furnace, RDI simulates physical breakdown
characteristics. during reduction whilst RI is a measure of the ease
There is also a large variation in the grain size and with which iron oxides can be reduced. Key controls
degree of fine intergrowth of the ore and gangue on lump metallurgical quality include:
minerals across the deposit types and, in many cases, (i) TI is interpreted to be largely a function of physical
within a mine or prospect. This may result in significant hardness, with less porous and dense martite/
variations in the ease of upgrading for sinter fines or hematite textures being of higher TI and more porous
grind size requirements to achieve adequate liberation soft goethite-bearing textures being of lower TI
for separation of ore from gangue minerals. However, a (ii) AI is essentially the compliment of TI, with more
high percentage of gangue occurs in many deposits as porous and/or goethitic ores having higher AI
thick (0·1–6 m) bands of kaolinite-rich shale that are (iii) DI appears to be highest where thermal shock
easily separated from hematite ore by selective mining or results in rapid evolution of mineral structural
using heavy media drums and cyclones.7 Gangue also water, especially where goethite is locked within
occurs as either coarse-grained (+100 mm) kaolinite, dense/low open porosity hematite/hydrohematite
traces of gibbsite or minor quartz.5 There may also be or where dense goethite is present
appreciable fine grained (< 5 mm) kaolinite gangue (iv) RDI tends to be high where there is a finely
intergrown with the ore minerals, as well as alumina, porous structure and the minerals have few
silica or phosphorus locked inside the goethite crystal thick/solid interconnections
structure.13 Alumina and silica substitution in vitreous (v) high lump reducibility is interpreted to be due to
goethite and especially ochreous goethite is more more porous ore textures and is highest for porous
common in the hydration zone. goethitic textures and lowest for very dense
kenomagnetite.
Blast furnace lump quality The common ore textural types in lump ores can be
The effects of lump ore petrology (e.g. bedding assigned relative metallurgical characteristics, based
thickness, texture/porosity, joint spacing, hardness) on previous CSIRO test result experience (Table 4).
will be initially seen in mine lump yield and then Key interpreted changes in lump properties due to
directly in lump high temperature performance in the supergene upgrading include:
blast furnace. CSIRO Minerals has for a number of (i) the most significant changes are increases in lump
years conducted extensive metallurgical testing of yield and physical strength due to the effects of
different lump ore textural/petrological groups from either hydration or dehydration
many different iron ore deposits from Australia and (ii) hydration of primary martite (group 1) and micro-
around the world. This detailed work together with platy hematite (group 2) textures results in hem-
collaborative industry studies (e.g. Box et al.3) has atite replacement and goethite-infill of porosity to
built up a picture of the relationship between ore form groups 6 and 8, respectively, and an un-
textural-petrological characteristics and lump desirable increase in DI for both groups as well as
metallurgical quality in terms of their tumble index a favourable increase in lump strength for the
(TI), abrasion index (AI), decrepitation index (DI), microplaty hematite–goethite texture
reduction degradation index (RDI) and reducibility (iii) groups 6 and 7, the hydrated equivalents of martite–
index (RI). TI and AI are standard industry tests goethite and goethite–martite, respectively, are
designed to measure lump resistance to physical higher in both TI and DI
breakdown during transportation, DI is a measure of (iv) dehydration of either the martite–goethite or
lump resistance to thermal shock in the upper part of microplaty hematite ores (groups 1–4) to group 5

Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) April 2003 Vol. 112 B93
Clout Upgrading processes in BIF-derived iron ore deposits

Table 4 Relative lump metallurgical qualities of common iron ore textural groups

Reduction
Tumble Abrasion Decrepitation degradation Reducibility
Ore group index index index index index

1. Dense martite/hematite (P) High Low Low Low Medium

2. Microplaty hematite (P) Low-medium High-medium Very low Medium-high High
3. Martite–goethite (P) Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
4. Goethite–martite (P) Low-medium High-medium Medium Medium High
5. Dense hematite/martite/hydrohematite (D) Very high Low Very high Low Medium
6. Dense martite–goethite (H) High Low High Medium Medium
7. Dense goethite–martite (H) Medium Medium High Medium Medium
8. Microplaty hematite–goethite (H) Medium Medium Medium High High
9. Ochreous goethite (H-P) Low High Low High Very high
10. Vitreous goethite (H) Medium Medium Medium Medium High

results in very high lump physical strength but at the
expense of a significant undesirable increase in DI
(v) leaching of key martite–goethite or microplaty
hematite ore (groups 2–4) to their leached equi-
valents results in increased porosity which leads to
decreased TI and DI but increases in AI, RI and
especially RDI
(vi) dehydration and leaching in the carapace results in
increased vitreous goethite and hence more medium
values for lump properties.
The lump properties of ore textural groups appear to
be relatively consistent within and between the iron
ore deposits examined, with minor quality differences
largely due to differences in porosity (leaching).
CONCLUSIONS
The ore group textural classification scheme allows for a
more comprehensive and practical description of the
complex ore textures present in BIF-derived iron ore
deposits. There is a consistent vertical zonation pattern
of these ore textures across BIF-derived deposits in
three different cratons, thought to reflect similarities in
primary ore forming processes as well as more recent
secondary supergene modification processes. However,
further work is required to improve the spatial details
and understanding of the processes involved, especially
the zone of dehydration. Supergene modification of
primary BIF-derived ore textures can substantially
change lump metallurgical properties, particularly lump
yield and DI. The key textural groups have distinct lump
metallurgical properties and the scheme allows a much
better consistency of approach to understanding and
predicting metallurgical quality for a lump product.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank industry sponsors Hamersley
Iron Pty Limited (especially Mr K. Simpson as well as
current and former staff – M. Richmond, R. Harms-
worth, S. Wilson and J. Phillips), OneSteel Manufacturing
Pty Limited (P. Page, A. Rogers, R. MacPherson) and
Portman Mining Pty Ltd (P. Collings, P. Bilbe) for
support to undertake and publish this research as well as
field trip and financial support. The author wishes to
thank CSIRO for permission to publish and assistance
from current and former CSIRO staff including A. Trudu,
A. Morrison (lump metallurgy), I. Smith, J. Young and
support from the Iron Ore Processing Program by Ralph
Holmes (Manager).
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Author
Dr John Clout graduated with a BSc (Hons) from Sydney
University (1979) and a PhD in Economic Geology (1989)
from Monash University. He is currently Senior Principal
Research Scientist with the Iron Ore Processing Group of
CSIRO Minerals based at the Queensland Centre for
Advanced Technologies in Pullenvale, Brisbane. He is
responsible for a number of research projects on prediction
of downstream process performance for iron ores. His
current research areas include ore characterisation,
hydrocyclone optimisation and modelling, lump quality,
sintering and pelletising of iron ores.