A Brief Review: Application of Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate in Asphalt Pavement Reinforcement

sustainability
Review
A Brief Review: Application of Recycled Polyethylene
Terephthalate in Asphalt Pavement Reinforcement
Mohamed Meftah Ben Zair 1,2 , Fauzan Mohd Jakarni 1, * , Ratnasamy Muniandy 1 and Salihudin Hassim 1
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; mzair84@gmail.com (M.M.B.Z.); ratnas@upm.edu.my (R.M.);
hsalih@upm.edu.my (S.H.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Misurata University, Misurata, Libya
* Correspondence: fauzan.mj@upm.edu.my
Abstract: Plastic is considered one of the most significant industrial inventions of this era due to its
excellent properties, which lend well to many manufacturing applications. These days, there are tons
of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) waste products that are generated around the world. This waste
presents a real environmental hazard because PET is not biodegradable. This paper delineates the
physical and chemical properties of PET to justify its use as an additive and aggregate replacement in
the manufacture of asphalt mixtures. Furthermore, discusses details of PET-modified asphalt mixture
by a dry and wet process with sufficient information to better understand the mixture. Several
critical matters are investigated, such as asphalt modification to increase resistance to fatigue, rutting
deformation, and moisture sensitivity. These results are important for determining the factors that
significantly improve pavement mixture characteristics. The findings show that the addition of PET
to asphalt mixtures yielded very promising results. PET enhanced the mechanical properties, the
durability, and the long-term sustainability of the pavement. Finally, using PET waste as an additive
in asphalt mixtures could serve as an environmentally friendly method to dispose of PET waste while
simultaneously producing high-quality pavements.

Citation: Ben Zair, M.M.; Jakarni, Keywords: asphalt binder; polyethylene terephthalate; fatigue life; rutting deformation; moisture sen-
F.M.; Muniandy, R.; Hassim, S. sitivity
A Brief Review: Application of
Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate
in Asphalt Pavement Reinforcement.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 1303. https://
1. Introduction
doi.org/10.3390/su13031303
A world without plastics or synthetic organic polymers sounds impossible today.
Received: 17 October 2020 However, their production and use on a vast scale only dates back to 1950 [1]. Plastics are
Accepted: 29 November 2020 different types of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials used in various growing product
Published: 27 January 2021 range. The rapid growth that ensued in the production of plastics is unprecedented,
surpassing any other human-made products [2,3]. The main concern, as stated in the
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- Paris Climate agreement, has recently been to enhance plastic design and production to
tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- promote its reuse, repair and recycling, to isolate plastics production from fossil resources
ms in published maps and institutio- and minimize emissions of greenhouse gases [4]. Many synthetic plastics today are made
nal affiliations. from petroleum and natural gas [5]. The biggest demand for plastics is packaging, an
application whose production has been accelerated by global change from reusable to
single-use products. The plastic proportion by mass in municipal solid waste has raised
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li-
from 1 to 10% from 1960 to 2005 in high- and middle-income countries [6].
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Plastic is considered as one of the most significant industrial inventions of this era.
This article is an open access article
It has excellent properties such as cheap costs, high durability, low-density durability,
distributed under the terms and con- high strength relative to weight, and easy to operation and shaping [7,8]. The world’s
ditions of the Creative Commons At- plastic production has grown dramatically and is predicted to exceed more than 34 billion
tribution (CC BY) license (https:// metric tons by 2050 [1]. In Europe, the main applications of plastics manufacturing could
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ be noted in the packaging industry 39.9%, construction 19.8% the automation industry
4.0/). 9.9%, and electronics 6.2% [2]. Although the manufacture of plastics in its various forms
Sustainability 2021, 13, 1303. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031303 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19
Sustainability 2021, 13, 1303 2 of 17

relative to weight, and easy to operation and shaping [7,8]. The world’s plastic production has grown
dramatically and is predicted to exceed more than 34 billion metric tons by 2050 [1]. In Europe, the
main applications of plastics manufacturing could be noted in the packaging industry 39.9%,
cannot be stopped, recycling may be a better disposal solution to the hazardous waste
construction 19.8% the automation industry 9.9%, and electronics 6.2% [2]. Although the manufacture
plastics that affect the environment [9–11]. Throughout the world, there are millions of
of plastics in its various forms cannot be stopped, recycling may be a better disposal solution to the
tonnes of plastic waste that are generated in various forms. Almost 25% of plastic waste is
hazardous waste plastics that affect the environment [9–11]. Throughout the world, there are millions
recycled and reuse again in different fields. However, plastic recycling and regeneration
of tonnes ofareplastic waste that are
also inadequate, andgenerated
millions ofin tonnes
variousdisposed
forms. Almost 25% of and
of in landfills plastic
thewaste is recycled
other often their
and reuse again in different fields. However, plastic recycling and regeneration
way find into soil, oceans, and rivers every year [12]. This proportion of recycled plastic are also inadequate,
and millions canof be
tonnes disposed
raised of in landfills
by converting waste and the material
plastic other often intotheir way
items find intofor
beneficial soil,housing
oceans,and
and
rivers every year [12]. This
constructing [13].proportion of recycled plastic can be raised by converting waste plastic
material into items Therebeneficial
are twofor housing
plastic and constructing
groups—namely, [13]. plastics and thermoplastics. Ther-
thermoset
There moset
are twoplastics are melted
plastic by heating and
groups—namely, then solidify
thermoset afterwards.
plastics The process inThermoset
and thermoplastics. which the
plastics areplastic
meltedchanges fromand
by heating liquid
thentosolidify
solid state is irreversible.
afterwards. Thermoplastics
The process in which the canplastic
be frequently
changes
from liquidmelted
to solid and strengthened
state by heating
is irreversible. and cooling
Thermoplastics can be[14]. Polyethylene
frequently melted Terephthalate (PET)
and strengthened
is one of the most significant modern plastics to be invented.
by heating and cooling [14]. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is one of the most significant modernPET is a semi-crystalline
polymer,
plastics to be invented.with
PETmechanical properties polymer,
is a semi-crystalline that depend withonmechanical
crystallinity level [15].that
properties This material
depend on
is considered to be a thermoplastic polyester material, which is now used
crystallinity level [15]. This material is considered to be a thermoplastic polyester material, which is globally [16]. The
beverage industry has been using PET to produce drink bottles since the 1980s. More than
now used globally [16]. The beverage industry has been using PET to produce drink bottles since the
700 million pounds of this material has been consumed in 1987 [17]. The global production
1980s. More than 700 million pounds of this material has been consumed in 1987 [17]. The global
of PET was amounted to 41.56 Mt in 2014, with an expected growth of 70% by 2020. China
productionisofconsidered
PET was amounted
the largesttomanufacturer
41.56 Mt in 2014,withwith an expected
a percentage growth
of 27%; thenofEurope,
70% by 17%;
2020.North
China
is considered the largest manufacturer with a percentage of 27%; then Europe,
America, 17%; and South America, 7% [18]. Nowadays, because of the favorable physical 17%; North America,
17%; and South America,
and chemical 7% [18].of Nowadays,
properties because
PET, this material of the
is used favorable physical
as packaging and chemical
and container material
properties (i.e.,
of PET, this material
carbonated drinks is bottles,
used as jars,
packaging and container
pipes, sporting goods,material (i.e.,
etc.) [19]. carbonated
Figure drinks
1 outlines the
bottles, jars,research
pipes, sporting
flow forgoods, etc.) [19].
this current work. Figure 1 outlines the research flow for this current work.
Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) - Asphalt Mixture
Background on PET
Fatigue cracking
Recycled methods
of PET
Performance
Rutting deformation
evaluation
Current mix design
and process
Moisture sensitivity
Application of PET
in asphalt mixture
Figure 1. Research flow. Figure 1. Research flow.
1.1. Waste Polyethylene

1.1. Waste Polyethylene Terephthalate
Terephthalate (PET) (PET)
These days, there are tons of PET waste products that are generated around the world.
These This
days,waste
therepresents
are tonsaof PET
real waste products
environmental that because
hazard are generated
PET is around the world. [20].
not biodegradable This
waste presents a real environmental hazard because PET is not biodegradable [20].
Currently, modern techniques to dispose of PET waste and polymers include waste landfills, Currently,
modern techniques to dispose
open burning, andofrecycling.
PET wasteHowever,
and polymers
theseinclude wastedo
techniques landfills,
not helpopen burning, and
environmental
recycling. However, these techniques do not help environmental protection efforts. The
protection efforts. The waste landfill is the simplest and oldest waste disposal strategy waste landfill
in
is the simplest and oldest
the world, waste
but it disposal
has led strategy
to many issuesinsuch
the as
world,
land but it has ledgroundwater
occupation, to many issues such as
pollution,
unsafe disposal,
land occupation, groundwaterand wastage of resources.
pollution, Hence, reprocessing
unsafe disposal, and wastage(recycling) these plastic
of resources. Hence,
reprocessingmaterials
(recycling)seems to plastic
these be the best option.
materials Recycling
seems to be theis abest
convincing and logical
option. Recycling is astrategy for
convincing
reusing PET waste. Nevertheless, recycling is essentially limited due to its
and logical strategy for reusing PET waste. Nevertheless, recycling is essentially limited due to its high cost [21].
As shown in Figure 2, there are three specific environmental advantages of using PET in
new pavement construction.
high cost [21]. As shown in Figure 2, there are three specific environmental advantages of using PET
high cost [21]. As shown in Figure 2, there are three specific environmental advantages of using PET
in new pavement construction.
in new pavement construction.
Figure 2. Environmental
Figure 2. Environmental benefits
benefits of using PEToffor
using
newPET for newconstruction.
pavement pavement construction.
Figure 2. Environmental benefits of using PET for new pavement construction.
Figure 3 illustrates the accumulated quantity of the generated plastic waste and
Figure 3 illustrates the accumulated quantity of the generated plastic waste and disposed 1950
Figure 3 illustrates
disposedthe accumulated
1950 to 2015 andquantity of thequantity
the expected generated plasticAlmost
by 2050. waste 16%
and ofdisposed 1950 was
this quantity
to 2015 and the expected quantity by 2050. Almost 16% of this quantity was recycled up to 2015. It is
to 2015 and the expected
recycled quantity
up to 2015.by It
2050. Almost 16%
is predicted that of
upthis quantity
to 33% of thewas recycled
waste plasticup to 2015.
will It is by
be recycled
predicted that up to 33% of the waste plastic will be recycled by 2050. Even if this prediction becomes
2050. Even if this prediction becomes true, the quantity of unrecycled plastic
predicted that up to 33% of the waste plastic will be recycled by 2050. Even if this prediction becomeswaste would
true, the quantity of unrecycled plastic waste would leave much to be desired [1].
true, the quantityleave much to beplastic
of unrecycled desired [1]. would leave much to be desired [1].
waste
Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal

Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal
Primary waste generated 25,000
Primary waste generated 25,000
Million metric tons

All waste discarded
Million metric tons

20,000
All waste discarded 20,000
All waste incinerated
All waste incinerated 15,000
All waste recycled 15,000
All waste recycled
10,000
10,000
5000
5000
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
1950 1960 1970 1980
Years1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Years
Figure 3. The accumulated quantity of the generated plastic waste and Disposed 1950 to 2015 and the
Figure 3. TheFigure 3. The accumulated
accumulated quantity
quantity of the of the
generated generated
plastic plastic
waste and waste and
Disposed 1950Disposed 1950
to 2015 and theto 2015 and
expected quantity by 2050 [1].
the expected
expected quantity by 2050quantity
[1]. by 2050 [1].
1.2. Methods for Recycling Polyethylene

1.2. Methods Terephthalate
for Recycling Waste
Polyethylene Terephthalate Waste
1.2. Methods for Recycling Polyethylene Terephthalate Waste
The most practical methods Thetomost practical
recycle methodsTerephthalate
Polyethylene to recycle Polyethylene
are mechanicalTerephthalate are mechanical and
and chemical.
The most practical
chemical. methods
The to recycle Polyethylene
mechanical recycling of Terephthalate
PET will decreasearethe
mechanical
quality and
of thechemical.
recycled PET
The mechanical recycling of PET will decrease the quality of the recycled PET because it involves
The mechanical because
recycling it of PET
involves will decrease
adhesive the quality
contaminants. of the recycled
Additionally, the PET because
chemical it involves
recycling of PET has
adhesive contaminants. Additionally, the chemical recycling of PET has a higher cost than mechanical
adhesive contaminants.
a higherAdditionally, the chemical
cost than mechanical recycling
recycling of PETthe
because hasformer
a higher costuse
must than mechanical
chemicals such as
recycling because the former must use chemicals such as catalysts at a certain temperature and at
recycling because the former
catalysts must use
at a certain chemicals and
temperature suchatashighcatalysts at a[22].
pressure certain temperature
Mechanical and at
recycling is also
high pressure [22]. Mechanical recycling is also termed physical recycling; this process re-processes
high pressure [22].termed physicalrecycling
Mechanical recycling;isthis
alsoprocess
termedre-processes PET material
physical recycling; by melting
this process extrusions of
re-processes
PET material by meltingthe extrusions
material of the
after material them
separating after from
separating them from
theirseparating
integrated their integrated
contaminants. It mostly involves
PET material by melting extrusions of the material after them from their integrated
contaminants. It mostly involves the following processes and treatments: (1) insulating the PET from
contaminants. It the following
mostly involves processes and treatments:
the following processes(1) andinsulating
treatments: the PET from other
(1) insulating theplastic materials,
PET from
other plastic materials, (2)(2)
washing
washing thethe
filth andand
filth other contaminants
other contaminants followed
followedby drying,
by (3) grinding
drying, (3) grinding the PET
other plastic materials, (2) washing the filth and other contaminants followed by drying, (3) grinding
the PET particles to reduce the particle sizethe
before reuse, (4) Heatreuse,
extrusion, andextrusion,
(5) shaping and
the PET particles to reduce the particle size before reuse, (4) Heat extrusion, and (5) shaping and and
particles to reduce particle size before (4) Heat and (5) shaping
grinding the PET products. Physical
grinding recycling
the is simpler
PET products. to apply
Physical and generally
recycling is simpler requires
to applylesser
andeffort
generally requires
grinding the PET products. Physical recycling is simpler to apply and generally requires lesser effort
than chemical recycling [23,24].
lesser effort than chemical recycling [23,24].
than chemical recycling [23,24].
Chemical recycling is an Chemical
alternativerecycling is an alternative
to the physical recycling to the physical
method. recycling
This method method. This method
chemically
Chemical recycling is an alternative to the physical recycling method. This method chemically
polymerises or degrades PET waste before re-use. Many chemical recycling chemical processeschemical
chemically polymerises or degrades PET waste before re-use. Many can recycling
polymerises or degrades PET
chemical processes waste before re-use.
canaminolysis,
be used, such Many chemical
as hydrogenation, recycling chemical processes
glycolysis, aminolysis, can
methanol-
be used, such as hydrogenation, glycolysis, methanolysis, and hydrolysis [17,24].
be used, such as ysis,hydrogenation,
and hydrolysisglycolysis,
[17,24]. aminolysis,onmethanolysis, and hydrolysis [17,24].
Depending on the chemical depolymerisation processDepending
of PET post-consumer,the chemical the depolymerisation
corresponding process of
Depending on the PET chemical depolymerisation
post-consumer, the process
corresponding of PET
terephthalic post-consumer,
acid (TPA) the
or corresponding
ethylene glycol can be
terephthalic acid (TPA) or ethylene glycol can be produced from the yield resulting from aminolytic
terephthalic acidproduced
(TPA) or ethylene
from the glycol can be produced
yield resulting from the yield
from aminolytic chainresulting
cleavagefrom aminolytic
[17,25]. The depoly-
merisation of PET waste material can be accomplished using several types of amines, for
chain cleavage [17,25]. The depolymerisation of PET waste material can be accomplished using
several types of amines,example, polyamines,
for example, ethanolamine,
polyamines, allylamine,
ethanolamine, and tri-ethanol
allylamine, amine.amine.
and tri-ethanol The aminolysis re-
The aminolysis responsesponse is applied
is applied to manufacture
to manufacture PETPETproducts
productssuch
such as
as plasticisers
plasticisers and
andrigid
rigidpolyurethane
foams
polyurethane foams [17,26]. [17,26].
1.3. Physical and Chemical Properties of PET

1.3. Physical and Chemical Properties of PET
Virgin PET is a superior material for certain applications. This material has several
Virgin PET is a superior
excellentmaterial for certain
characteristics, suchapplications. Thisstrength,
as good tensile materialreasonable
has several excellent
thermal stability, chemi-
characteristics, such ascalgood tensile strength, reasonable thermal stability, chemical resistance,
resistance, processing capability, color capability, and clarity [27]. It can be formed by
processing capability, color capability,
pressures and atand clarity
normal [27]. It can be
temperatures. formed
PET can bebycreated
pressures
fromand at normal
petroleum hydrocarbons,
temperatures. PET can befromcreated from petroleum
the reaction hydrocarbons,
between ethylene fromTerephthalate
glycol and the reaction between ethylene
acid, as shown in Figure 4 [28].
glycol and TerephthalateThe basic
acid, as physical
shown inand chemical
Figure properties
4 [28]. The basicofphysical
commercially-used
and chemicalPET plastics are indicated
properties
in Table 1 [27].
of commercially-used PET plastics are indicated in Table 1 [27].
Figure 4. PET produced

Figure 4. from the reaction
PET produced between
from ethylene
the reaction glycolethylene
between and terephthalic acid.
glycol and terephthalic acid.
Table 1. Physical
Table andand
1. Physical chemical properties
chemical of PET
properties [27].
of PET [27].
Property PropertyTest Method Test Method

Value (Unit) Value (Unit)
Molecular weight (ofMolecular
repeatingweight ˗ unit)
unit) (of repeating - 192 (g mol−1 ) 192 (g mol−1 )
Mark–Houwink parameters Mark–Houwink parameters ˗ −2 −1
k = 3.72 ×- 10 (mlkg= 3.72 ) a× 10−2 (mL g −1 ) a = 0.73
= 0.73
Weight-average MWWeight-average MW˗ -
30,000–80,000 (g mol 30,000–80,000
−1
) (g mol −1 )
Density - 1.41 (g cm −3 )
Density ˗ 1.41 (g cm−3 )
Glass transition temperature (DSC) 1 69–115 (◦ C)
Glass transition temperature Melting temperature(DSC) 1
(DSC)69–115
1 (°C) 265 (◦ C)
Melting temperature Heat of fusion(DSC) 1 (DSC) 1265 (°C) 166 (J/g)
Heat of fusion Breaking strength(DSC) 1 Tensile166 (J/g) 50 (MPa)
Tensile
Breaking strength strength (Young’s modulus)
Tensile - 50 (MPa) 1700 (MPa)
Yield strain Tensile 4 (%)
Tensile strength (Young’s modulus) ˗ 1700 (MPa)
Impact strength ASTM D256-86 90 (J m −1 )
Yield strain Water absorption (after Tensile
24 h) - 4 (%) 0.5 (%)
Impact 1strength ASTM D256-86
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).
90 (J m −1 )
Water absorption (after 24 h) ˗ 0.5 (%)
1 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).
2. Performance of PET Modified Asphalt Binder
Researchers have investigated the benefits of using waste materials in the construc-
2. Performance of PET Modified Asphalt
tion industry, Binder
to better manage waste and to enhance the quality of construction mate-
rials [29,30].the
Researchers have investigated Currently,
benefits ofseveral waste materials
using waste materials,insuch as waste glass,
the construction plastic, tires, etc.,
industry,
to better manage waste and to enhance the quality of construction materials [29,30]. Currently, several the asphalt
are used to improve the construction of various pavement layers, including
waste materials, such assurface [31]. plastic,
waste glass, Asphalttires,
pavements
etc., arewill
usedbetoexposed
improveto deterioration
the constructionafter construction, due
of various
to traffic loading activity and climatic conditions. This process can be delayed if good
pavement layers, including the asphalt surface [31]. Asphalt pavements will be exposed to
materials are used in the construction phase. Usually, materials that used as a modifier of
deterioration after construction, due to traffic loading activity and climatic conditions. This process
asphalt binder have better performance than conventional ones [32]. According to Mashaan
can be delayed if good materials
et al. [33],are used binder
asphalt in the construction
modificationphase. Usually,
provides severalmaterials
benefitsthat
suchused
as as a
modifier of asphalt binder have better performance than conventional ones [32]. According to
Mashaan et al. [33], asphalt binder modification provides several benefits such as
Sustainability 2020,
Sustainability 12,12,
2020, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 5 of 1919
5 of
  AAsufficient
sufficientincrease
increasein the
theconsistency of the asphalt pavement to prevent plastic
plasticdeformation
• A in consistency
sufficient increase of in the
the asphalt pavement
consistency of thetoasphalt
prevent pavement deformation
to prevent plastic
atat
high temperatures;
high temperatures; deformation at high temperatures;
  Enhanced
Enhancedasphalt
asphalt binder
binderelasticity
elasticityand
and flexibility
flexibilitytotoavoid
avoidloss
lossdue
duetoto
chipping ororcracking atat
• Enhanced asphalt binder elasticity and flexibility tochipping
avoid loss duecracking
to chipping or
low temperature;
low temperature; cracking at low temperature;
  Increased
Increasedadhesion•
adhesion between
betweenasphalt
Increased asphaltbinder
adhesion binderand
between aggregate;
asphalt
and binderimproved
aggregate; and ageing
aggregate;
improved resistance
improved
ageing and
ageing
resistance resistance
and
homogeneity, and
homogeneity, and andhigh thermal stability,
highhomogeneity, which
and high
thermal stability, which helps
thermal decrease the stiffening
stability, which
helps decrease and initial
helps decrease
the stiffening ageing
the ageing
and initial stiffening and
ofof
asphalt
asphaltbinders
binders during
initialmixing
during ageing
mixing and
ofandroad
asphalt
road construction.
binders during mixing and road construction.
construction.
Recycled Recycled PET can be used as an improved modifier This for asphalt binders. This appli-
RecycledPET PETcan canbebeusedusedasasananimproved
improvedmodifier modifierfor forasphalt
asphaltbinders.
binders. Thisapplication applicationcould could
bebecounted asas a methodcationtoto could
reuse be
PET counted
waste as
and a method
ininturn, to reuse
addresses PET waste
potential and in
environmental turn, addresses
risks and potential
counted a method reuse PET waste and turn, addresses potential environmental risks and
reduces construction environmental
costs that would risks and
result reduces
if if
polymers construction
were used costs
inin that
the would
asphalt result
mixtures if polymers
[23,34,35]. were used
reduces construction costs that would result polymers were used the asphalt mixtures [23,34,35].
Moreover, in the asphalt mixtures [23,34,35]. Moreover, the positive effects of PET have been proven,
Moreover,the thepositive
positive effects ofofPET
such aseffects
providingPET
havehavebeen
high-temperature beenproven,
proven, such
suchasasproviding
characteristics forproviding
the asphalt
high-temperature
high-temperature
mixture [36]. Neverthe-
characteristics for
characteristics for thethe asphalt
asphalt mixture
mixture [36].
[36]. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, PET
PET is not
is notalways
always effective
effective atatincreasing
increasing
less, PET is not always effective at increasing asphalt binder elasticity, especially during
asphalt binder elasticity,
asphalt binder elasticity, especially
especially during
during dramatic
dramatic andand unexpected
unexpected drops
drops in intemperature.
temperature. This
This
dramatic and unexpected drops in temperature. This condition degrades the intermediate-
condition degrades
condition degradesand the intermediate-
thelow-temperature and low-temperature
intermediate- andcharacteristics
low-temperature characteristics
characteristics of ofthetheasphalt
asphalt binder
binder [35].
[35].
of the asphalt binder [35]. In order to investigate the
InInorder to investigate
order to investigate the
impact impact
theofimpact of PET
PET onofasphalt on
PET on asphalt
asphalt
binder binder properties,
binder properties,
properties, PET was blended PET was
PET was blended
with blended with
the asphalt the
withbinder.
the The
asphalt
asphalt binder.
binder. The
Theprogressive
progressive
progressive addition
addition
addition of PET
ofof PET
PET has
has
has been
been
been shown
shown
shown enhancing
enhancing
enhancing inin
inthe
the
the consistency
consistency
consistency ofof thethe binder
binder and increased its elastic behavior. However, the increase in viscosity
binder and increased its elastic behavior. However, the increase in viscosity of modified binder leads binder
and increased its elastic behavior. However, the increase of modified
in viscosity binder
of leads
modified
totohigher
highermixing
mixingand and compaction
leads to highertemperatures.
compaction mixing Although
Althoughthis
and compaction
temperatures. thisis isnot
temperatures. noteconomic Although
economic ininthe the short
thisshortis term,
not
term, it it
economic in
can produce roads
can produce roadsthe with
with less
short maintenance
lessterm, requirements.
it can produce
maintenance roads with
requirements. The addition
Theless of
maintenance
addition PET has reduced
of PET requirements.
has reduced modified modified
The addition of
asphalt binder oxidation
PET and
has has proved
reduced to
modified be promising
asphalt
asphalt binder oxidation and has proved to be promising in anti-ageing action [37]. in
binder anti-ageing
oxidation action
and [37].
has proved to be promising in
anti-ageing action [37].
3.3.
Design
Design Methods
Methods
3. Design Methods
There are two
There are two ways ways totoblend
blend plastic
plastic withwith asphalt mixtures: (1) dry and (2)(2)wet. The dry process
There are two ways to asphalt mixtures:
blend plastic with(1) dry
asphalt and mixtures: wet. The
(1) dry dry andprocess
(2) wet. The
requires adding
requires adding the the PET
dryPET in the
in the
process final segment
final segment
requires adding the of the
of PET mixing
the in mixing process
the final process
segment and after
andofafter introducing
introducing
the mixing process andandand after
incorporating the asphalt
incorporating the introducing binder
asphalt binder with
andwith the aggregate,
incorporating
the aggregate, as
the asphalt shown
as shown in
binderinwith Figure
Figure 5. Meanwhile,
the aggregate,
5. Meanwhile, as shown the wet
the wetin Figure 5.
process
processcombines
combinesthe thePETPETmaterial
Meanwhile, the with
material wet
with thetheasphalt
process combines
asphalt binder
binder theandandblends
PET material
blends it.it.Then,
with
Then, a a“plastic-modified
the asphalt binder and blends
“plastic-modified
asphalt
asphaltbinder”
binder”is isapplied
it. Then,
applied toto
athetheheated
heatedaggregates,
“plastic-modified asphalt
aggregates, asasbinder”
shown
shownin Figure
Figure6.to6.However,
isinapplied the heatedstudies
However, studieshave
aggregates, have as shown
noted that it is not feasible to introduce PET as an additive into asphalt
noted that it is not feasible to introduce PET as an additive into asphalt mixtures via the wet process as an
in Figure 6. However, studies have noted that it mixtures
is not via
feasible the
to wet
introduceprocess PET
because
becausePET PEThas hasa aadditive
melting
meltingpoint
into
point ofofaround
asphalt mixtures
around 250 250°C, °C,so
via thesoitwet
itis isquite
quitedifficult
process because
difficult forPET
for it itto tomaintain
has amaintain
melting a apoint of
around 250 ◦ C, so it is quite difficult for it to maintain a homogenous mixture. The mixture
homogenous
homogenousmixture. mixture.The Themixture
mixturewill willalso
alsotend tendtotoseparate
separatefrom fromthe theasphalt
asphaltbinder binder[38]. [38].On Onthe the
contrary, in a study will also tend
conducted by to
thisseparate
process. from
The the asphalt
results binderthat
showed [38].the On the contrary,
micronized PET in mixtures
a study conducted
contrary, in a study conducted by this process. The results showed that the micronized PET mixtures
could by this process. The results showedmixtures that the micronized PET mixtures could improve the
couldimprove
improvethe themechanical
mechanicalperformance
performanceofofasphalt asphalt mixturesif ifcompared comparedtotoconventional conventionalones, ones,
due mechanical performance of asphalt mixtures if compared to conventional ones, due to the
duetotothe
thefine
finePET
PETparticles
particles
fine PET
which
whichare
particles
easy
are
whicheasyto tomix
are mixwith
easy with
to
asphalt
mix asphalt
with
binder
binder[39].
asphalt [39].
binder
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
[39].
ininthe
Meanwhile, thedrydry
in the dry
process,
process,it ithas
hasbeen
been proved
provedit totohelp enhance the performance ofofasphalt mixtures [35,40].
[35,40].Table Table2 2 [35,40].
process, hashelp
beenenhance
proved the performance
to help enhance the asphalt
performance mixtures of asphalt mixtures
presents
presents thethesummary
summary of PET blending process byby the dry and wet method.
Tableof2PET blending
presents process
the summary ofthePETdry and
blending wet method.
process by the dry and wet method.
Figure 5. Dry process.Figure 5. 5.

Figure Dry process.
Dry process.
Figure 6. Wet process.Figure 6. 6.

Figure Wet process.
Wet process.
Table 2. Blending process.
Mixing Mode Binder Grade Reference

Dry Process 80–100 [36,40–42]
Dry Process 60–70 [38,43,44]
Dry Process PG58-16 [45]
Wet Process 40–50 [46]
Wet Process 60–70 [47,48]
4. PET Waste as Additive in Asphalt Mixtures

This section investigates the differences in the mechanical properties (e.g., fatigue
damage, rutting deformation, and moisture sensitivity) of asphalt mixtures as a result
of adding recycled PET waste. These properties are derived from the results of past
investigations [38,45,49]. In previous studies, PET waste material was mostly applied to
asphalt mixtures using the dry process [34] or used as a replacement to the fine aggregates
in the mixture to enhance pavement resistance to permanent deformation [50]. The PET
was also added to asphalt mixtures using the wet process to decrease moisture sensitivity
and to increase resistance to fatigue [39]. Also, PET has also been used as an asphalt binder
modifier to obtain high resistance to fatigue and permanent deformation [51]. Additionally,
the aminolysis product of PET has also been used to modify the asphalt binder, while
proving to be a good anti-stripping agent [16].
4.1. Laboratory Fatigue of PET Modified Asphalt Mixtures

Fatigue cracking is one of the significant damages to asphalt pavements that lead to
failure. Because repetitive traffic loading could cause pavements to be prone to fatigue
due to the reduction in strength, stiffness, and ending in fracture [52–54]. Therefore, the
primary attribute that determines the service life of the pavement is fatigue life [55]. The
asphalt pavement components become strained when subjected to cumulative stress and
tension. These strains are elastic, viscoelastic, or plastic. Tensile plastic strains reduce
fatigue life and cause the quality of the asphalt pavement to deteriorate [56]. Several factors
affect fatigue life behavior, such as asphalt binder type, filler content, stiffness, air void
percentage and asphalt content. Additional factors that also have been noted to affect
fatigue performance of some mixtures include the angularity and gradation of aggregate
and temperature of construction. The lack of adequate cohesion between two different
pavement layers causes layer interface separation. This inadequate bonding contributes
to not homogeneous structural movement, which inevitably shortens the life cycle of the
asphalt pavement due to surface slippage and cracking from the bottom of the upper
separated asphalt pavement layer [57]. Table 3 summarizes the fatigue performance of
asphalt mixtures that have been added with PET waste.
Moghaddam et al. [36] studied the fatigue characteristic of an SMA mixture by in-
troducing PET particles. Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test (ITFT) results are reported for each
percentage of PET content. Figure 7 presents the relationship between stress, or strain and
fatigue life (Nf). The findings indicate that the addition of a high amount of PET to the as-
phalt mixtures improved the fatigue life of the pavement compared to traditional mixtures.
The high fatigue life could be attributed to certain causes such as the improved elastic
property of the PET-reinforced asphalt mixture and stress reduction due to the addition
of the PET particles. In another investigation, Moghaddam, et al. [41] evaluated different
percentages of PET waste. The researchers concluded that because PET particles have a
high melting temperature, the particles would not melt and would still be rigid in the
asphalt mixture. The study found that fatigue life increased by increasing the percentage
of PET. Also, a high level of PET improved the mixture’s flexibility. Additionally, the crack
creation and propagation in the asphalt mixture was delayed compared to conventional
mixtures. Modarres and Hamedi [38] observed the impact of recycled PET particles on
the fatigue life of asphalt mixtures at 5 and 20 ◦ C and the results have been shown in
Figure 8 based on at first and second fatigue life definition (N1&N2). They found that the
PET-modified asphalt mixture had improved fatigue properties and flexibility compared to
the traditional mixture, at 5 and 20 ◦ C. Additionally, it was noted that fatigue life increased
when the test temperature was reduced. In another study, Mohd et al. [58] investigated the
impact of adding recycled PET as a replacement for the fine aggregates in asphalt mixtures
based on the change in fatigue properties. They noted that the asphalt mixture with 5%
and 15% PET had more resistance to fatigue damage than traditional asphalt.
Table 3. The fatigue performance of PET waste-added asphalt mixtures.
Author/Year Main Finding

PET passed a sieve of 2.36 mm; Fatigue test at three stress levels (250 kPa, 350 kPa, and 450 kPa) at 20 ◦ C. Added
Moghaddam high percentages of PET to asphalt mixtures and observed improved fatigue life compared to traditional
et al. (2012) mixtures. For example, fatigue life increased to 124.8% at 250 kPa stress level using 1% PET when the number of
load cycles to failure (Nf) increasing from 27,571 cycles to 61,981 cycles.
PET passed a sieve of 2.36 mm; Indirect tensile fatigue test at three stress levels (250, 350, and 450 kPa) at 20 ◦ C.
Moghaddam
The mixtures with a PET particle content of up to 1% had the highest fatigue life, reaching double that of
et al. (2013)
conventional mixtures at lower stress levels.
PET particles (0.425–1.18 mm); Fatigue test at 5 and 20 ◦ C. PET-modified asphalt mixture with content up to 10%
Modarres and
had improved fatigue properties and flexibility. Additionally, the findings showed that the fatigue life increased
Hamedi (2014)
with a reduction in the test temperature.
Mohd et al. PET as fine aggregate replacement (3.36–1.18 mm) mm; Indirect tensile fatigue test. It was noted that the asphalt
(2016) mixture with 5% and 15% PET content showed more resistance to fatigue damage.
Silva et al. Micronized PET; Fatigue test. Asphalt binder modified with micronized PET had a 25% improved fatigue life
(2017) compared to that of the traditional mixtures.
PET fibers added at different lengths (1 cm and 2 cm) and a diameter of 30 µm; crumb PET (0.425–1.180 mm);
Dehghan and
4-point bending test was conducted via a universal testing machine at initial strain levels (300, 500, and
Modarres
700 microstrain). PET fiber and crumb PET, if introduced at a suitable percentage, could enhance resistance
(2017)Sustainability 2020, 12, x FORdamage.
PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
against fatigue
(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Relationship
Figure between fatigue
7. (a) Relationship between lifefatigue
(Nf) and
lifestress at different
(Nf) and stress at%different
of PET; (b) Relationship
% of between fatigue life
PET; (b) Relationship
(Nf) and strain at different
between fatigue %
lifeof(Nf)
PETand
[36].strain at different % of PET [36].
(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Relationship between fatigue life (Nf) and stress at different % of PET; (b) Relationship
between fatigue life (Nf) and strain at different % of PET [36].
1,000,000
100,000
10,000
1000
Figure 8. Result Resultlife

Figureof8.fatigue of fatigue life of
of asphalt asphaltatmixtures
mixtures first andatsecond
first and second
fatigue lifefatigue life definition
definition (N1&N2)(N1&N2)
at 5 and 20at and 20 ◦ C [38].
°C5 [38].
Additionally,
Additionally, Silva et al. [39]Silva et al. an
assessed [39]asphalt
assessed an asphalt
mixture mixture
reinforced reinforced
with micronizedwithPET.
micronized
The
PET. The impact of PET on fatigue properties showed that
impact of PET on fatigue properties showed that the Asphalt binder modified with micronized the Asphalt binder modified
PET
with micronized PET had a 25% improved fatigue life compared to that of the traditional
had a 25% improved fatigue life compared to that of the traditional mixture. Hence, fatigue cracking
mixture. Hence, fatigue cracking was also reduced. Dehghan and Modarres [43] examined
was also reduced. Dehghan and Modarres [43] examined the effect of recycled PET fibers on the
the effect of recycled PET fibers on the fatigue life of asphalt mixture. Figure 9 shows the
fatigue life of asphalt mixture. Figure 9 shows the effect of 1 & 2-cm fibers on the fatigue life of HMAs
effect of 1 & 2-cm fibers on the fatigue life of HMAs at initial strain level of (300, 500 and
at initial strain 700)
levelmicrostrain.
of (300, 500 and
The700) microstrain.
results show thatThe theresults
optimum show that the
fatigue wasoptimum
achieved fatigue wasand
with 1%
achieved with 2% 1%PET
andfiber
2% PET fiber with 1 and 2 cm lengths, and crumb PET,
with 1 and 2 cm lengths, and crumb PET, respectively. The addition of respectively. The fiber
addition of fiber content up to 1.5% increased the fatigue life, then the increase in fiber content to 2.0%tohad
content up to 1.5% increased the fatigue life, then the increase in fiber content
2.0% had a reverse impact
a reverse and and
impact result in a in
result decrease in fatigue
a decrease life life
in fatigue for for
both lengths
both studied
lengths at initial
studied at initial
stain level of 300 microstrain.
stain level of 300 Moreover,
microstrain.the mixture
Moreover, withthe2 mixture
cm fiber with
length performed
2 cm much
fiber length better
performed
than the mixture muchwith the 1than
better cm fiber length with
the mixture at initial
the 1stain levelslength
cm fiber of (500at and 700)
initial microstrain
stain at alland
levels of (500
PET fiber content,700)except
microstrain
0.5%. at all PET fiber content, except 0.5%.
Previous studies have shown that the incorporation of PET into the asphalt mixture
has increased the elasticity of the mixture, which makes the mixture more flexible and pre-
venting cracks initiation and spread in mixtures because of cyclic loading [36,41]. Besides,
adding a higher content of PET contributed to lower stiffness and longer fatigue life. This
may be due to the higher energy absorbency of the PET particles which resulted in better
performances against replicated loading conditions [38].
4.2. Rutting Performance of Asphalt Mixtures Modified with PET Waste

Rutting deformation is one of the most basic damages affecting asphalt mixtures. This
damage influences the serviceability of asphalt pavements [59]. Load from vehicle wheels
might result in rutting deformation such as imprints, paths, and ruts [60]. Several factors
cause rutting deformation such as the type and gradation of aggregate, the binder type and
content, the air void in the asphalt mixture, temperature, and the applied loading on the
pavement layers [59,61]. Besides, different traffic conditions (e.g., slow traffic, heavy load,
and high traffic density) also lead to different rutting performance [62,63]. Moreover, the
lower values of the softening point of the unmodified binder produced asphalt pavement
layers to be more susceptible to rutting deformation during the summer season [64]. As
shown in Figure 10, there are two types of rutting deformation in a flexible pavement:
(i) consolidation rutting, which occurs along the wheel path with excessive consolidation of
the pavement due to reduced air voids in the asphalt pavement layers; and (ii) permanent
deformation, which happens due to the base or subgrade. The top two inches of the asphalt
pavement
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR is more
PEER REVIEW sensitive to rutting deformation [65]. The rutting performance
9 of 19 of PET
particle-reinforced asphalt mixtures is shown in Table 4.
(a) (b)

(c)
Figure Figure
sensitive
9. (a) 9. (a)
to
Fatigue Fatigue
rutting
life lifestrain
at initial at initial
deformation strain
[65].
of 300 of 300rutting
The
microstrainmicrostrain with PET
performance
with PET length 1 cmlength
ofand
PET21cm;
cm andFatigue
2 cm; (b)
lifeFatigue
particle-reinforced
(b) asphalt
at initial strain of
life
500 microstrain at
mixtures with initial strain
PET length
is shown of
in Table500 microstrain with PET length 1 cm and 2 cm; (c) Fatigue life at initial strain
1 cm4.and 2 cm; (c) Fatigue life at initial strain of 700 microstrain with PET length 1 cm and
2 cm [43]. of 700 microstrain with PET length 1 cm and 2 cm [43].
Previous studies have shown that the incorporation of PET into the asphalt mixture has
increased the elasticity of the mixture, which makes the mixture more flexible and preventing cracks
initiation and spread in mixtures because of cyclic loading [36,41]. Besides, adding a higher content
of PET contributed to lower stiffness and longer fatigue life. This may be due to the higher energy
absorbency of the PET particles which resulted in better performances against replicated loading
conditions [38].
4.2. Rutting Performance of(a)

Asphalt Mixtures Modified with PET Waste (b)
Rutting
Figure
Figure deformation
10. 10.
(a) (a) is one
Consolidations
Consolidations of the
rutting
rutting most
in basic
flexible
in flexible damages
pavement;
pavement; (b) (b)affecting asphalt
Instability
Instability in mixtures.
rutting
rutting in flexible
flexible This damage
pavement
pavement [65].
[65]. the serviceability of asphalt pavements [59]. Load from vehicle wheels might result in
influences
Ahmadinia et al. [40] found that adding PET to stone mastic asphalt (SMA) mixtures
rutting deformation such as imprints, paths, and ruts [60]. Several factors cause rutting deformation
produced lessperformance
permanent of deformation (rutting) than unmodified mixtures and increased
such as the typeTable 4. The rutting
and gradation of aggregate, the a PET particle-modified
binder type and content, asphalt mixture.
the air void in the asphalt
with adding a high content of PET. The same result was reported by Taherkhani and
mixture, temperature, and the applied loading on the
Author/Year Mainpavement layers [59,61]. Besides, different
Arshadi [45] as displayed in Figure 11.Finding
The result shows the values of MQ versus PET
traffic conditions (e.g., slow traffic,
PET particles
content. heavy
Moreover, sizetheload,
1.18 andshowed
mm
study highPortland
with traffic
that density)
theCement also
in lead
fine-graded oftoPET
(SMA); different
wheel rutting
tracking
particles yielded more
performance [62,63]. significant
Moreover,
test. performance than the coarse-graded PET particles. Mohd etbinder
the lower values of the softening point of the unmodified al. [50] studied
Ahmadinia
produced asphaltet al.
pavement layers to berut
more susceptible to rutting deformation during the summer
theThe
rutting deformation
minimum of
depth and asphalt
of the mixturemixture
was with the addition
obtained with 4% of (5%
PET. to
As25%
a PET) by
(2012)
season [64]. As shown in Figure 10, there are two types of rutting deformation in a flexible pavement:
result, a stiffer mixture and improved resistance to rutting deformation
(i) consolidation rutting, which
were occurs along the wheel path with excessive consolidation of the
achieved.
pavement due to reduced PETair voids insize
particles the(1.18–2.36
asphalt pavement
mm) Withlayers;CementandPortland;
(ii) permanent
Repeated deformation,
load axial
which happens due to test. the base or subgrade. The top two inches of the asphalt pavement is more
Mohd et al. (2013)
Modified mixtures, specifically at 20% PET content, exhibited better rutting
weight of asphalt. At 20% PET content specifically, the study found that rutting resistance
and recovery significantly improved compared to the unmodified traditional mixture.
Therefore, the addition of PET particles to replace the fine aggregate in the asphalt yielded
favorable results. Moghaddam et al. [42] assessed the rutting characteristics of asphalt
pavement with PET flakes as an additive. Based on the permanent strain of all specimens
under different stress levels and temperatures, a higher PET content resulted in mixtures
with better resistance to rutting deformation. The reason is that PET is a semi-crystalline
material. The study concluded that the addition of PET particles enhanced the properties
of the asphalt mixture. First, the melted PET particles improved the adhesion between the
asphalt binder and the aggregate. Secondly, solid PET particles could absorb some of the
impact from applied loading.
Table 4. The rutting performance of a PET particle-modified asphalt mixture.

PET particles size 1.18 mm with Portland Cement in (SMA); wheel tracking test. The minimum rut depth of the
Ahmadinia
mixture was obtained with 4% PET. As a result, a stiffer mixture and improved resistance to rutting deformation
et al. (2012)
were achieved.
PET
Sustainability particles
2020, sizePEER
12, x FOR (1.18–2.36
REVIEW mm) With Cement Portland; Repeated load axial test. Modified mixtures, 11 of 19
Mohd et al.
specifically at 20% PET content, exhibited better rutting resistance and recovery than the unmodified
(2013)
control mixture.
content of PETPET. Theasame
passed sieve result
of 2.36 was
mm;reported by Taherkhani
Dynamic creep and Arshadi
test under different stress[45] as(300
levels displayed
and 400in Figure
kPa), at different
Moghaddam 11. The result shows the ◦values ◦ of MQ versus
◦ PET content. Moreover, the study showed that the fine-
temperatures 10 C, 25 C, and 40 C. Asphalt mixtures with more PET content had better resistance against
et al. (2013)
graded of permanent deformation.
PET particles yielded more significant performance than the coarse-graded PET particles.
Moghaddam Mohd etPET passed
al. [50] a sievethe
studied of 2.36 mm;deformation
rutting Static and dynamic
of and load test. Modified
asphalt mixturemixtures
with theunder staticof
addition loading
(5% to had more
permanent deformation than the control while under dynamic loading, the samples deformed and then
25% PET)
et al. (2014) by weight of asphalt. At 20% PET content specifically, the study found that rutting
underwent some recovery time to return to its original state.
Ziari etresistance
al. andparticles
Small recovery significantly
of PET improved
(10 × 2.5, 20 × 2.5, 30 ×compared to the unmodified
2.5 mm); Dynamic creep test. Thetraditional mixture.
results showed that PET
(2016)Therefore, the addition
particles of PET
could absorb theparticles to replace
stresses resulting thedynamic
from fine aggregate
load andin the asphalt
delayed ruttingyielded favorable
deformation.
results. Coarse PET particles (1.18–2.36 mm) and fine PET particles (0.297–0.595 mm); Marshall Quotient test. The results
Teherkhani and Moghaddam et al. [42] assessed the rutting characteristics of asphalt pavement with PET
revealed that MQ increases with an increase in PET content up to 4% for mixtures containing fine and
flakes as an additive. Based on the permanent strain of all specimens under different stress levels and
Arshadi (2017)
coarse-graded PET particles, after which the tendency reverses.
El-nagatemperatures,
and a higherofPET
Small particles PET;content
Wheel resulted in mixtures
tracking test. withadded
PET particles betterinresistance to rutting
any percentage deformation.
helped reduce the rut depth
The reason
Ragab (2019) is that
of the asphaltPET is a semi-crystalline material. The study concluded that the addition of PET
mixture.
Moghaddam particles PET passed the
enhanced a sieve of 2.36 mm;
properties Adaptive
of the asphalt neuro FuzzyFirst,
mixture. inference system. PET
the melted The rutting performance
particles improvedofthe the asphalt
mixture was highly affected by the PET content and environmental conditions.
adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregate. Secondly, solid PET particles could absorb Furthermore, accumulative
et al. (2015)
strain decreased after PET was added to the asphalt mixture.
some of the impact from applied loading.
Figure
Figure 11. 11. Marshall
Marshall Quotient
Quotient values
values versus
versus PETPET content
content [45].
[45].
Moghaddam
Moghaddam et al. [34] evaluatedetrutting
al. [34] performance
evaluated rutting
underperformance
both staticunder both static
and dynamic and dynamic
loads.
loads. Figure 12 shows the results of static and dynamic tests, respectively.
Figure 12 shows the results of static and dynamic tests, respectively. Under static loading conditions, Under static
mixtures with higher PET content showed higher rutting deformation than the control and the results
indicated that the modified mixtures did not perform as well under static applied loads except the
modified mixtures 1% PET have the lowest amount of permanent deformation. On the other hand,
the permanent deformation decreases under dynamic loads compared to the control mixture and the
Figure 11. Marshall Quotient values versus PET content [45].
Moghaddam et al. [34] evaluated rutting performance under both static and dynamic loads.
Figure 12 shows the results of static and dynamic tests, respectively. Under static loading conditions,
mixtures with higherloading
PET content showed
conditions, higher rutting
mixtures deformation
with higher thanshowed
PET content the control andrutting
higher the results
deformation
indicated that the modified
than themixtures
control anddidthe
not perform
results as well
indicated under
that static applied
the modified loads
mixtures didexcept the as well
not perform
modified mixtures 1%under
PETstatic
haveapplied loads
the lowest except of
amount thepermanent
modified mixtures 1% PET
deformation. Onhave the lowest
the other hand,amount of
permanent
the permanent deformation deformation.
decreases On the other
under dynamic loadshand, the permanent
compared deformation
to the control decreases
mixture and the under
dynamic loads compared to the control mixture and the mixtures modified
mixtures modified with PET and the deformed mixture still recovered back to its original state. with PET and
the deformed mixture still recovered back to its original state.
(a) (b)
Figure 12. (a) Permanent strain of asphalt mixtures under static loads; (b) Permanent strain of asphalt mixtures under
dynamic loads [34].
Ziari et al. [44] used various PET particle sizes to assess the rutting performance of
an asphalt mixture. The study noted that permanent deformation reduced when PET was
added. Additionally, PET particles can absorb the stresses resulting from dynamic loads
and delayed rutting deformation. El-naga and Ragab [47] employed a recycled PET as an
additive to evaluate the rutting properties of an asphalt mixture. The results showed that
any amount of PET used in asphalt mixtures would increase the pavement resistance to
rutting damage. Moghaddam et al. [66] applied specialized software to assess the rutting
properties of an asphalt mixture added with PET. The experimental and ANFIS-predicted
Root–Mean–Squared Error (RMSE) were compared. It was noted that the PET content
and environmental conditions greatly affect the rutting behavior of the asphalt mixture.
Furthermore, accumulative strain decreased with the addition of PET to the asphalt mixture.
Moreover, from the results, ANFIS was found more accurate for predicting the rutting
deformation behavior of the asphalt mixture rather than experimental means.
Experiments have shown that using PET in SMA results in higher resistance to rutting
deformation compared to dense-graded mixtures. It is due to the nature of its skeleton
composition of coarse aggregate and a higher asphalt binder content, while at the same
time offering stronger contact between the coarse aggregate. Furthermore, SMA has the
ability to protect the mixture from repeated and heavy traffic loads and high pressure
caused by vehicle tires [40,42]. In addition, the studies showed that using fine-graded
of PET particles more significant performance than the coarse-graded PET particles [45].
The test results indicate that PET particles would absorb the generated stress caused by
the increase in dynamic load which, results in a reduction in permanent deformation [44].
On the other hand, conventional test methods such as Marshall, strength and stiffness
tests which previously used to evaluate the rutting deformation of the asphalt mixture
considered not to be proper criteria for assessing the rutting behavior of the PET-modified
asphalt mixture [34].
4.3. Moisture Sensitivity of Asphalt Mixtures Containing PET

Asphalt pavement failure occurs due to accumulated damage in the various layers
of pavement construction. Moisture damage is considered a common cause of asphalt
failure due to water seeps into the asphalt pavement structure [67,68]. This damage
changes the mechanical properties of the pavement, resulting in reduced performance such
as compromised strength, stiffness, and durability [69]. A material has good adhesion
strength if it can withstand applied loading without failure. The adhesion strength of
an asphalt mixture is determined from the binder used to bind its bitumen-aggregate
structure [70]. Moisture damage usually occurs under two conditions: (i) when the asphalt
binder becomes mastic, or cohesion occurs; and (ii) when the bitumen-aggregate adhesion
reduces. Both conditions occur in the presence of water resulting in stripping phenomenon,
which weakens the adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregate particles,
and thus affecting the chemical composition and alliance of both. Thus, the individual
properties of these materials, as well the properties of asphalt mixture, significantly impact
of road pavement performance [71,72].
Several studies have shown that aggregate surface texture, aggregate porosity, ag-
gregate cleanliness, aggregate absorption sites, aggregate energy, the chemistry of the
asphalt binder, and the bonding and interaction between asphalt binder and aggregate
greatly affect moisture susceptibility [73]. Furthermore, additive material with high surface
energy could increase the surface energy of modified bitumen, thereby improving water
resistance [74]. A summary of the moisture performance of asphalt mixture using PET
waste as additive is shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Moisture performance of asphalt mixtures added with PET waste.

Ahmadinia PET particles 1.18 mm with Portland Cement in (SMA); Indirect tensile strength test. Tensile strength
et al. (2012) and TSR reduced when PET was added to the asphalt mixture.
Viscous PET polyol (VPP) and liquid PET polyol (TLPP); Nicholson stripping test. The study showed
Guru et al.
that anti-stripping resistance dramatically increased when VPP and TLPP were added to the
(2014)
asphalt mixture.
Fine-graded of PET particles (0.297–0.595 mm); Coarse-graded of PET particles (1.18–2.36 mm);
Indirect tensile strength test. The result observes that the addition of 2% PET increased TRS, and vice
Teherkhani
versa. Adding fine PET particles to the asphalt mixture yielded lower TSR values than adding coarse
and Arshadi
PET particles. The results showed that the TSR of the saturated mixtures was greater than the TSR of
(2017)
traditional samples when added with higher PET content (2–4%). The TSR with (2–4%) PET for all
mixtures was higher than the permissible limit.
Devulcanized PET and Portland Cement; Indirect tensile strength test. The result displays that the
Ameri and
moisture damage improved up to 7.5% but this improvement decreased with the addition of a higher
Nasr (2017)
amount of PET.
Silva et al. Micronized PET; Indirect tensile strength test. The asphalt mixture moisture susceptibility was least
(2017) affected by the addition of micronized PET.
Padhan et al. BHETA addition; BAET addition; Hot water stripping test. The resistance against moisture damage
(2018) increased with BAET addition but did not significantly improve when BHETA was added.
Ahmadinia et al. [40] assessed the moisture susceptibility of SMA mixtures modified
with PET particles. The findings of the tensile strength test of the control mixture and
PET-mixtures are displayed in Figure 13. The results show that the addition of PET in
the asphalt mixture reduced the tensile strength and tensile strength ratio (TSR). This
result is attributed to the properties of PET, which is a semi-crystalline material. After
mixing with a binder, PET holds the binder on its surface and reduces the thickness of the
asphalt film that coat aggregates. In turn, the resistance against moisture damage reduces.
Taherkhani and Arshadi [45] concluded that PET modification caused antistripping effects.
The improved resistance to moisture could be due to the impact of the PET stiffening the
asphalt binder when adding in a lower amount. Furthermore, the resistance to moisture
damage increased with the addition of a higher percentage of PET particles (up to 4% PET),
resulting in decreased asphalt binder film thickness as shown in Figure 14.
which is a semi-crystalline material. After mixing with a binder, PET holds the binder on its surface
and reduces the thickness of the asphalt film that coat aggregates. In turn, the resistance against
moisture damage reduces. Taherkhani and Arshadi [45] concluded that PET modification caused
antistripping effects. The improved resistance to moisture could be due to the impact of the PET
stiffening
Sustainability 2021, 13, the
1303asphalt binder when adding in a lower amount. Furthermore, the resistance to moisture 13 of 17
damage increased with the addition of a higher percentage of PET particles (up to 4% PET), resulting
in decreased asphalt binder film thickness as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 13. TSR of asphalt mixtures with different PET content [40].
13. TSR of asphalt mixtures with different PET content [40].
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FORFigure
PEER REVIEW 14 of 19
Figure
Figure 14. Tensile
14. Tensile strength
strength ratio versus
ratio versus PET content
PET content of theofmixtures
the mixtures
[45]. [45].
Figure 14. Tensile strength ratio versus PET content of the mixtures [45].
These findings agree These findings
with those agree with
of Ameri and those of Ameri
Nasr [48], who and Nasrthat
showed [48],PET
whoadditive
showed that PET
Theseasphalt
improved findings additive improved
agree resistance
mixture asphalt
with thoseagainst
of Ameri mixture resistance
and Nasr
moisture [48],
as seen against moisture
who showed
in Figure as
15, but that seen in Figure 15, but the
PET additive
the improvement
improved when
asphalt improvement
mixture resistancedecreased
against when a higher
moisture as seenamount of PET
in Figure 15, was
but added,
the resulting in reduced
improvement
decreased a higher amount of PET was added, resulting in reduced asphalt binder workability.
asphalt
decreased when a higher binder
amount workability.
of PET was added, resulting in reduced asphalt binder workability.
Figure 15. TSR of asphalt mixtures with different PET content [48].
Figure 15.15.
Figure TSR of of
TSR asphalt mixtures
asphalt with
mixtures different
with PET
different content
PET [48].
content [48].
Guru et al. [46] extracted viscous PET polyol (VPP) and liquid PET polyol (TLPP) from recycled
Guru et al.both
[46]as Guru
extracted et al. [46]
viscous PETextracted
polyol viscous
(VPP) andPET polyol
liquid PET(VPP)
polyol and liquidfrom
PET polyol (TLPP) from
PET and used an additive in asphalt mixtures. The study showed that(TLPP)
the additionrecycled
of VPP
PETTLPP
and used recycled PET and used both as an additive in asphalt mixtures. The study showed
VPP that the
and in theboth as an
asphalt additive
mixture in asphalt increased
dramatically mixtures. anti-stripping
The study showed that the
resistance. addition
Additionally, ofSilva
and addition of VPP and TLPP in the asphalt mixture dramatically increased anti-stripping
et al.TLPP in the asphalt
[39] assessed mixture dramatically
a micronized PET-modified increased
binder in anti-stripping resistance. Additionally,
HMA. The micronized Silva
PET had the least
et al. [39]
impact assessed damage
on moisture a micronized PET-modified
in asphalt binderbecause
mixtures, likely in HMA. the The
PET micronized PET had
particles improved thethe least
mastic
impact onvia
cohesion, moisture
binderdamage
rheology,in mechanical
asphalt mixtures, likely
adhesion, because
and surfacethe PET particles
energy. On the improved
other hand, the mastic
Padhan
cohesion, via binder rheology, mechanical adhesion, and surface energy. On the other
et al. [49] evaluated the stripping resistance of an asphalt mixture using amine-based additives. The hand, Padhan
et al. [49]
results evaluated
showed that the stripping
BAET resistance
significantly of an asphalt
improved mixture using
the resistance of theamine-based additives.
asphalt mixtures The
against
resistance. Additionally, Silva et al. [39] assessed a micronized PET-modified binder in

HMA. The micronized PET had the least impact on moisture damage in asphalt mixtures,
likely because the PET particles improved the mastic cohesion, via binder rheology, me-
chanical adhesion, and surface energy. On the other hand, Padhan et al. [49] evaluated
the stripping resistance of an asphalt mixture using amine-based additives. The results
showed that BAET significantly improved the resistance of the asphalt mixtures against
stripping, thereby improving the adhesion strength between the aggregates and the binder,
unlike the results with the addition of BHETA. This result shows that not all amine-based
additives could improve the resistance of pavement moisture properties. That is, such
properties could depend on the terminal functional group of the additive.
The mixtures that contain fine or coarse graded PET particles showed a higher value of
TSR, this result indicates that PET could be used in the asphalt mixtures as an anti-stripping
agent. The improvement in moisture resistance can also be attributed to the stiffening
of PET modified asphalt mixture at lower PET contents. Furthermore, the ITS results
decreased at higher PET contents due to the reduction of asphalt binder workability and
the reduction in thickness of binder film that covered the aggregate, results in more damage
caused by moisture [45,48]. On the other hand, the resistance to moisture damage is the
least in PET modified asphalt mixtures, this might be due to the increase in cohesion of the
mastic, mechanical adhesion, rheology of the filled binder, and surface energy [39].
5. Future Research Work

There is very limited work done so far on the chemical interaction between PET and
asphalt binder which need to be analyzed further in detail to prove the true compatibility of
material. The wet process can be further evaluated with the various gradation to analyze the
performance of mixture as dry process has been followed so far. The dynamic rheological
properties of the binder could be evaluated in accordance with the Strategic Highway
Research Program (SHRP) to a better understanding of PET material. The modified binder
can also be tested with short term ageing and long-term ageing. The development of proper
modification method is needed to get optimum results for road construction as well as for
industrial scale production. The nano sized PET is recommended to use in asphalt mixture
as wet or dry process to further analyzed the mechanical performance of asphalt mixture.
6. Conclusions
The civil engineering field has increasingly applied recycled PET waste in pavement
construction to reap the economic and environmental benefits. This article provided an
overview of the benefits of reusing solid waste, such as PET waste, to benefit the asphalt
pavement industry. The supply and demand for recycled PET could be leveraged to save
costs and increase waste management efficiency. Besides, new projects could be established
to enhance the commercial feasibility of PET waste for pavement construction. For example,
high quality and eco-friendly asphalt pavements could be developed for the future. On
the other hand, PET has a high melting point temperature of about 250 ◦ C, but if it is
mixed with the asphalt binder via the wet process, PET will not maintain its homogeneity
in the asphalt mixture. Thus, most studies used the dry process to add PET to asphalt
mixtures. These studies focused on using recycled PET flakes in the asphalt mixture as fine
aggregate replacement. The results showed increased resistance to rutting deformation and
fatigue in the modified pavement compared to the unmodified ones. The studies conclude
that replacing the aggregates in asphalt mixtures with PET particles could enhance the
mechanical properties of the asphalt. Almost all studies reported that adding a lower
proportion of PET (2–4%) would result in better resistance against rutting. The addition
of PET particles in asphalt mixtures also increased resistance to fatigue. Besides, lower
PET content also caused better moisture resistance. Moreover, PET had a limited effect on
moisture susceptibility. Generally, the results showed that using optimum PET proportions
significantly enhanced the performance of pavement structures. Finally, using PET waste
as an additive in asphalt mixtures could serve as an environmentally friendly method to

dispose of PET waste while simultaneously producing high quality pavements.
Author Contributions: This article is the result of the joint work by all authors. Designing, carry-
ing out and writing—original draft, M.M.B.Z.; review and editing F.M.J.; conceptualization and
supervision F.M.J., R.M. and S.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

Sustainability 2021, 13, 1303. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031303 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, 1303 2 of 17

Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) - Asphalt Mixture

Figure 1. Research flow. Figure 1. Research flow.

1.1. Waste Polyethylene

Cumulative plastic waste generation and disposal

Million metric tons

Million metric tons

1.2. Methods for Recycling Polyethylene

1.3. Physical and Chemical Properties of PET

Figure 4. PET produced

Property PropertyTest Method Test Method

Figure 5. Dry process.Figure 5. 5.

Figure 6. Wet process.Figure 6. 6.

Table 2. Blending process.

Mixing Mode Binder Grade Reference

4. PET Waste as Additive in Asphalt Mixtures

4.1. Laboratory Fatigue of PET Modified Asphalt Mixtures

Table 3. The fatigue performance of PET waste-added asphalt mixtures.

Author/Year Main Finding

Figure 8. Result Resultlife

4.2. Rutting Performance of Asphalt Mixtures Modified with PET Waste

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

4.2. Rutting Performance of(a)

Table 4. The rutting performance of a PET particle-modified asphalt mixture.

Author/Year Main Finding

4.3. Moisture Sensitivity of Asphalt Mixtures Containing PET

Table 5. Moisture performance of asphalt mixtures added with PET waste.

Author/Year Main Finding

resistance. Additionally, Silva et al. [39] assessed a micronized PET-modified binder in

5. Future Research Work

as an additive in asphalt mixtures could serve as an environmentally friendly method to

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