ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

(ENEG-520/ENVE-520)

LESSON 4:
POLLUTION AND POLLUTANT PATHWAYS
OBJECTIVES
• By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
• distinguish between point sources and non-point sources of
pollution
• identify the variety and sources of the major air, water and soil
pollutants
• explain how air, water, and soil pollutants impact human health
and cause damage to natural ecosystems
• describe potential pollutant pathways for contaminants in the
environment
• evaluate exposure pathways of various pollutants in the
environment
 Pollution

• Pollution: Any change in the physical, chemical, or biological

characteristics of the air, water, or soil that can affect the health,
survival, or activities of human beings or other forms of life in an
undesirable way.
• Pollution can be natural or man-made (anthropogenic).
• Natural pollution - caused by natural sources
• Volcanic eruptions
• Soil erosion
• Ultraviolet rays/radiation
 Pollution

• Anthropogenic pollution - caused by human activities

• burning of fossil fuels
• chemical manufacture
• mining
• use of fertilizers and pesticides
• waste disposal into water bodies
 Sources of Pollution
• Pollution always has a source and a recipient.
• Source: where the pollution comes from
• i.e. where it is released into the environment
• Recipient: where the pollution ends up
• part of the environment, people or animals that become
contaminated or damaged.
• Sources of pollution are classified as:
• Point sources
• Nonpoint sources
• Point sources are single, identifiable sources
• Examples:
• Industrial discharge pipes
• Smokestacks of power plants or industrial plants

Point source pollution

• Nonpoint sources are poorly defined and scattered over broad areas
• Examples:
• agricultural runoff (from farm animals and croplands)
• urban runoff (from streets, parking lots, and lawns)
• atmospheric deposition (from air pollutants washed to or deposited as dry
particles on Earth)
• It is much easier and cheaper to identify and control or prevent pollution from
point sources than from widely dispersed nonpoint sources
 Pollutants
• Pollutant: a substance present in the environment in concentrations
that are harmful to the environment and living things
• Includes substances (e.g. smoke), chemicals e.g. gases, metals, salts
or factors e.g. heat, noise, etc.
• Pollutants can be classified into different types based on:
• their existence in nature
• their natural disposal
• their persistence after they are released into the environment
 Classifications of Pollutants
• Depending upon their existence in nature, pollutants are of two
types:
1. Quantitative pollutants
• Substances which normally occur in nature but become pollutants
when their concentration increases beyond the normal tolerance
limits (threshold level).
• Examples: 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑁𝑂2
2. Qualitative pollutants
• These do not occur in nature and are man-made
• Examples: insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, dichloro-diphenyl-
trichloroethane (DDT) etc.
 Classifications of Pollutants
• On the basis of their natural disposal, pollutants are classified as:
1. Biodegradable pollutants
• Pollutants which quickly degrade in nature by natural means like
heat, light or the microorganisms present in nature
• e.g. plant and animal matter, sewage
2. Non-biodegradable pollutants
• Pollutants which do not degrade in nature or degrade very slowly
• e.g. metals, plastics, glass, mercury, aluminium cans, DDT, etc.
 Classifications of Pollutants
• Based on the form in which they persist after being released into the
environment, pollutants are categorized as:
1. Primary pollutants
• Pollutants which persist in the form in which they are added to the
environment
• e.g. 𝑆𝑂𝑥 , 𝑁𝑂𝑥 , CO, 𝐶𝑂2 , etc.
2. Secondary Pollutants
• Pollutants that are produced by the combination of primary pollutants
in the atmosphere.
• e.g. 𝑂3 derived from reaction with sunlight, 𝑁𝑂𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂2,
PATHWAYS OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

• Pollutant pathway: a retraceable route of a pollutant from its source,

through the environment, and finally how it reaches the recipient.
• Many different pathways exist depending on the source, recipient and
physical nature of the pollution.
• The pollutants can be in liquid, solid (particulate) or gaseous state.
• Recipients include water, air, soil, animals, plants and humans.
• Emission of pollutants from their respective sources can be accidental
(e.g. shipwrecks) or deliberate disposal of wastes (e.g. sewage,
landfilling) and application of chemical products (e.g. fertiliser, pest
control).
Pollutant pathways
• Contaminant molecules can reside in several phases in the
environment, such as in air (atmosphere and soil gas phase), in water,
and associated with soil particles.
• Water and air are particularly responsible for the migration of
pollutants through the environment once released.
• Pollutants usually reach humans through the consumption of
contaminated and polluted water and food, and breathing polluted
air.
• For any liquid pollutants or solid pollutants suspended in liquid, most
pathways proceed from the source through groundwater and surface
water flow, and then reach the recipient through consumption of the
water, skin contact (if the pollutant is toxic, corrosive or an irritant) or
accidental ingestion (e.g. if you are swimming).
Pollutant pathways
• For most solid pollutants such as soil, sediment or dust, the pollution
pathway is from emission, through the air or physical transport by
human processes (vehicles), and then reaches humans either through
inhalation, ingestion (if the contaminant lands on food), or physical
contact (touching the pollutant).
• Gaseous pollutants such as vapors are normally disperse through the
atmosphere and reach humans through inhalation or occasionally are
absorbed through the skin.
• Gaseous pollutants can also react with other substances in the air to
form ‘secondary’ pollutants (those not directly emitted) such as
ozone and acid rain.
Potential pollutant pathways of gaseous, dissolved or particulate pollutants
• Potential pathways of pesticides in the environment:

• Note that the recipient here is surface water. Other potential recipients
include aquatic biota, terrestrial biota or humans.
Exercise
What do you think might be the pollutant pathway for a solid pollutant
(particulate matter) from the manufacturing industry as a source to
humans as a recipient?

• If the particulate matter is emitted from a chimney, then it is light

enough to travel with air, so will flow through the air until it reaches
humans and will then be inhaled.
 Exposure pathways
• An important concept linked to pollutant pathways is exposure.
• Exposure occurs when you come in contact with a material and that material
enters your body.
• An exposure pathway is the link between environmental releases and local
populations that might come into contact with, or be exposed to,
environmental contaminants.

• This considers any pollutant pathway from the human perspective: How can a
human come into contact with a pollutant or hazardous substance?
Exposure pathways
• A critical early step in the public health assessment process is
evaluating exposure pathways.
• Environmental health professionals use exposure pathways to
evaluate the specific ways in which people might come into contact
with environmental contamination.
• The goal of exposure pathway evaluations is to identify likely site-
specific exposure situations and answer the questions:
• Is anyone at a given site exposed to environmental contamination?
• Under what conditions does this exposure occur?
Elements of exposure pathways
An exposure pathway has 5 elements:
1. The contaminant source or release:
• Sources may include drums, landfills, and many others which may release
contaminants into various media
2. Environmental fate and transport:
• Once released to the environment, contaminants move through and across
different media and some degrade altogether.
• Examples of mediums through which contaminants move include air, water
and soil.
3. Exposure point or area: This is the specific location(s) where people
might come into contact with a contaminated medium
• e.g. residence, business, waterway, residential yard, play ground, water
tap, borehole, food chain, etc.
4. Exposure route: The means by which people physically contact
environmental contamination at the exposure point
• e.g. by inhalation, ingestion, or dermal contact, etc.
5. Potentially exposed populations: Populations that may come or may
have come in contact with contaminants
• Workers, residents, recreational populations, visitors, etc.
Elements of an exposure pathway
Exercise
• Identify five (5) elements of a potential exposure pathway of carbon
dioxide released from a coal power plant.
 Types of pollution
• There are different types of pollution including:
• air pollution
• water pollution
• soil pollution
• noise pollution
• thermal pollution
• light pollution
• radioactive pollution
 Air Pollution
• Air pollution: the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that,
in sufficient concentrations, endanger human health or produce other
measured effects on living matter and other materials
• Major pollutants that account for nearly all air pollution problems:
• CO (58%)
• 𝑁𝑂𝑥 (15%)
• 𝑆𝑂𝑥 , (13%)
• Volatile organic compounds (11%)
• Particulates (3%)
• Air pollutants originate from both natural and anthropogenic sources
• Examples of natural sources of the air pollution:
• Volcanoes (gases, particulates), wind erosion (dust)
• decomposition of dead plants and animals (gases)
• Most natural air pollutants are spread out over the globe and diluted or are
removed by chemical cycles, precipitation, and gravity.
• In areas experiencing volcanic eruptions or forest fires, chemicals emitted
by these sources can however temporarily reach harmful levels.
• Human actions are the major cause of air pollution
• Some of the major anthropogenic sources of selected air pollutants are listed
in the table below:

Major natural and

human-produced
components of
selected air
pollutants
 Effects of air pollution
• 𝑆𝑂𝑥 can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, aggravate lung ailments
such as asthma and bronchitis, etc.
• Fine, suspended particulate materials penetrate deep into the lungs,
causing irritation, scarring, and even tumour growth
• CO binds to haemoglobin, reducing oxygen flow to the brain
• Results in headaches, dizziness, and heart stress
• Toxic particulates e.g. lead, cadmium can cause genetic mutations,
reproductive problems, and cancer
• 𝑆𝑂2 and 𝑁𝑂𝑥 are major contributors to acid rain
 Water pollution
• Any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that
adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for
desired uses can be considered water pollution
• Water pollution can be caused by point sources or non-point sources
• Major point sources of water pollution:
• waste treatment plants, industries, power plants, underground
coal mines, offshore oil wells etc.
• Non-point sources of water pollution:
• Surface run-off from agricultural fields, urban runoff, atmospheric
deposition etc.
• Septic tanks, deep well injection, mining etc. are mainly responsible for
ground water pollution
• Common water pollutants include:
• heavy metals
• certain radioactive isotopes
• heat
• phosphorus, nitrogen, sodium, and other useful (even necessary)
elements
• certain pathogenic bacteria and viruses
• Sediment
 Pollutant Category Example of Sources
Organic matter Raw sewage, agricultural waste, urban garbage

Pathogens Human and animal excrement and urine

Drugs Urban wastewater

Organic chemicals e.g. petroleum products; Agricultural and urban runoff; industrial waste,
Water pesticides; industrial chemicals; cleaning municipal waste water, oil spills
pollutants can solvents, and detergents
Inorganic chemicals (e.g. heavy metals such as Agricultural, urban, and industrial use of heavy
be divided into lead, mercury, arsenic, and nickel; acids such as metals; acids from coal and some metal mines;
several broad sulfuric acid and nitric industrial processes that dispose of acids
categories: acids) improperly; atmospheric precipitation

Nutrients e.g. phosphorus and nitrogen Agricultural and urban land use (fertilizers);
wastewater from sewage treatment

Sediment (rock and mineral fragments including Runoff from construction sites, agricultural
gravel particles, sand, silt, clay, and colloidal runoff, and natural erosion
particles
Heat (Thermal pollution) Warm to hot water from power plants and other
industrial facilities
Radioactivity Contamination by nuclear power industry, military,
and natural sources
 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
• The most serious and Some of the most common waterborne pathogens:
widespread water pollutants
are infectious agents that
cause sickness and death.

• Excrement from humans and

other animals infected with
certain pathogens contains
large numbers of disease-
causing agents or their eggs.

• The main source of these

pathogens is untreated or
improperly treated human
wastes.
 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
Some of the most common waterborne pathogens:
• Worldwide, at least 25 million
people die from water-related
diseases annually.
• Excrement from humans and
other animals infected with
certain pathogens contains
large numbers of disease-
causing agents or their eggs.
• The main source of these
pathogens is untreated or
improperly treated human
wastes.
 Effects of water pollution
• Increasing concentrations of nutrients in surface water bodies
stimulate undesirable plant growth; leads to eutrophication (unit 1)
• Dissolved organic matter is a significant water pollution problem
because it decays in the water.
• As the microorganisms naturally present in water break down the
organic matter, they use up available dissolved oxygen from the
water.
• If too much dissolved oxygen is removed, aquatic organisms die.
 Effects of water pollution
• Water contaminated with chemicals e.g. pesticides, hydrocarbons,
persistent organic pollutants, or heavy metals could lead to cancer,
hormonal problems that can disrupt reproductive and developmental
processes, damage to the nervous system, liver and kidney damage, and
damage to the DNA.
• Acid water pollution also causes significant ecological damage.
• Acidic water is toxic to the plants and animals of an aquatic ecosystem and
fish and other aquatic life may die.
• Acidic water can also seep into and pollute groundwater.
• Acid mine drainage (water with a high concentration of sulfuric acid that
drains from mines) presents a significant water-pollution problem.
 Soil pollution
• Soil pollution: Refers to the presence in the soil of a chemical or
substance out of place and/or present at a higher than normal
concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted organism.
• Soil pollutants can have a natural or anthropogenic origin.
• Soils and rocks are natural sources of:
• Heavy metals e.g. lead (Pb), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), tin (Sn),
and zinc (Zn)
• Non-metals e.g arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and selenium (Se)
• Radioactive gas Radon (Rn)
• Many of the elements naturally occur at low concentrations in soils and are
essential micronutrients for plants, animals and humans
• However, at high concentrations they may cause toxic effects on plant
growth and harm human health
• their non-biodegradable nature causes them to readily accumulate in
tissues and living organisms
• Events such as volcanic eruptions or forest fires can cause natural pollution
when these toxic elements are released into the environment.
• Weathering can also be a source of these elements.
• Even if some elements and compounds occur naturally in soils, human
interventions are the main drivers of soil pollution
 some common soil pollutants of anthropogenic origin
Pollutant(s) Examples of sources

Heavy metals e.g. As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Se, Cr, Zn Agriculture, mining and smelting activities
Pesticides e.g. DDT, Methoxychlor, Chlordane, Dicofol. Agriculture, sanitary pest control of vector-borne
BHC/HCH, Aldrin, Endosulfan, Heptachlor, diseases
Methoxychlor, Chlordane, Dicofol

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) e.g. Incomplete combustion of coal, gas, oil, and garbage;
anthracene, fluoranthene, naphthalene, pyrene, pyrolysis of organic materials by industries and
phenantrene and benzopyrene agriculture; long-term wastewater irrigation; reused
sewage sludge; and fertilizer use in agricultural
production
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) e.g. Agriculture, disease control, manufacturing, industrial
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT, dioxins processes, combustion (municipal and medical waste
(polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and –furans) incineration and backyard burning of household waste)

Pathogenic organisms (bacteria, viruses, parasitic manures; sewage sludges, burial of the dead bodies of
worm eggs) animals and humans
Nutrient-rich wastes (sewage sludges (biosolids), Agriculture, wastewater treatment plants
livestock manures)
 Effects of soil pollution

• Exposure to pathogenic organisms from sewage sludge may cause

various types of diseases.
• Various types of chemicals e.g. acids, alkalis, pesticides, insecticides,
fungicides, heavy metals etc. in industrial discharges affect soil
fertility by causing changes in physical, chemical and biological
properties.
• These chemicals may also accumulate in food chain if absorbed by
trees and plants, ultimately affecting human health.
 Effects of soil pollution

• Heavy metal contamination may also have deleterious effects on

human health.
• Pb in soil is especially hazardous for young children as it causes
developmental damage to the brain.
• High levels of mercury can increase the risk of kidney damage
• Leaching of nutrient-rich wastes into groundwater or transport to
surface water bodies by runoff can cause eutrophication and related
environmental and human health problems.
 Effects of soil pollution

• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons belong to a group of persistent

organic pollutants.
• These organic pollutants are resistant to degradation, and hence can
remain in the environment for long periods of time.
• High content of PAHs in agricultural soils may not only create a risk to
humans through the introduction of these pollutants into the food
chain but also affect a habitat function of soils, which is the basis of
the yield of agricultural products.
• PAHs are one of the most significant environmental contaminants
with mutagenic and carcinogenic properties to all living organisms.
 Effects of soil pollution

• Persistent organic pollutants are chemical substances that persist in

the environment, bioaccumulate through the food chain, and have
adverse effects on human health and the environment.
• Studies have linked POPs exposures to declines, diseases, or
abnormalities in a number of wildlife species, including certain kinds
of fish, birds, and mammals.
• In humans, POPs are responsible for various lethal diseases such as
diabetes, obesity and cancer, as well as endocrine disturbance,
cardiovascular, and reproductive problems.
References
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Cengage Learning.
• Enger, E.D. and Smith, B.F. (2016). Environmental Science: A Study of
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• Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E.A. (2011). Environmental Science: Earth as a Living
Planet. (8th Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Cunningham, W.P. and Cunningham, M.A. (2017). Principles of
Environmental Science: Inquiry and Application. (8th Ed.). Mc Graw-Hill
Education.
• Wright, R.T. and Boorse, D.F. (2017). Environmental Science: Toward a
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