Toxic Organic

Compounds
Lecture 01
 Contaminant
• All matter in one form or another can become contaminant when found out
of its usual environment or at concentrations above normal
• There are more than 3000 natural and human-made chemicals that are toxic
enough and are produced in sufficient quantities to be a potential
environmental hazard.
 Types of contaminants
• Three basic categories of contaminants
• Organic
• Inorganic
• Radioactive
 Organic Contaminants
• Organic contaminants are compounds primarily composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and potentially other elements.
• Gas or liquid-phase organic contaminants may include volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) in the form of solvents, chemical precursors and
intermediates, petroleum compounds, etc.
• Solid organic compounds may include sludges, still bottoms, resins,
chemicals, waxes, paper, plastic, wood, foodstuffs, etc.
 Inorganic contaminants
• Inorganic contaminants include toxic metals and different types of nutrients
and salts, which generally occur in the form of dissolved anions and cations.
• Some inorganic contaminants have infinite lifetimes: For example, cadmium
will always stay cadmium; it can be attenuated by adsorption or other
processes, but no natural process actually reduces the total mass of
cadmium.
• Other compounds, such as nitrate (NO3-) or ammonia (NH4+), can be
transformed (degraded) into other compounds, such as N2 or N2O gas.
 Radioactive Contaminants
• Radioactive contaminants are radioactive substances deposited or present on
surfaces or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their
presence is unintended or undesirable
• In the environment, radioactive contaminants are usually introduced through
anthropogenic activities. Naturally occurring radioactive elements are not harmful
because of their low concentration.
• Anthropogenic activities, such as nuclear weapons testing, nuclear waste disposal,
nuclear power plant emissions, and spillage during plant operations, such as nuclear
fuel mining and nuclear testing fallout, are causes of contamination of the
environment by radionuclides
Type Examples
Organic Contaminants
Petroleum Hydrocarbons Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, Polycyclic aromatics
Chlorinated Solvents Trichloroethane, tetrachloroethane, Carbon tetrachloride
Pesticides DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane), 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), atrazine
Polychlorinated biphenyls insulating fluids, plasticizers, pigments
(PCBs)
Pharmaceuticals/food Drugs, surfactants, dyes
additives/cosmetics
Gaseous compounds Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Inorganic Contaminants
Inorganic “salts” Sodium, calcium, nitrate, sulphate
Heavy/trace metals Lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury, arsenic
Radioactive Contaminants
Solid Elements Uranium, strontium, cobalt, plutonium
Gaseous elements Radon
 Sources of Organic Contaminants
• The major point sources are municipal landfills and industrial waste
disposal sites, toxic chemicals spewing from pipes at industrial facilities,
sewage treatment plants, accidental spills, and leaks of petroleum
products of dense industrial organic.
• Non-point sources include atmospheric deposition*, contaminated
sediments, and many land activities that generate polluted runoff, such
as agriculture and onsite sewage disposal
 Sources: Agricultural Activities
• Large inputs of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are applied to generate optimum
yield.
• Most pesticides are organic compounds and are often applied in agricultural systems
• Synthetic pesticides, designed to be very toxic to plants and pests, have deleterious
effects at very low concentrations.
• Synthetic pesticides are broadly classified as insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides.
• Fumigants are gaseous pesticides typically used to control insects.
 Sources: Agricultural Activities
• The first generation* of organic pesticides had multiple chlorine groups inserted
into their structures to give them a broad spectrum of biotoxic effects.
• The chlorine groups also made them very difficult to degrade, making them very
persistent
• The next generation** of pesticides were aimed to decrease the persistence of these
chemicals in the environment by making them even more water soluble
• This class of pesticides seldom bioaccumulate in humans or animals and have short
life spans (days) in the environment.
 Major classes of organic pesticides and their
potential pollutant properties.
Class/Elemental Composition Common Examples Pollutant Properties
Organochlorines DDT Persistent
Organophosphates Chlorpyrifos Mobile in the soil environment
Carbamates Carbaryl Very mobile in the soil environment
Triazines Atrazine Very mobile in the soil environment
Plant insecticides Pyrethroids Toxic to fish
Fumigants Dicholropropene Toxic to animals, Volatile
 Sources: Industrial and Manufacturing
Activities
• There are numerous sources of industrial chemical contaminants, the result
of controlled or uncontrolled waste disposal and releases into the
environment.
• Industrial wastes may contain contaminants classified as hazardous and
nonhazardous.
• This classification primarily separates wastes containing high concentrations
of pollutants versus wastes that contain low concentrations.
Industrial Wastes and Sources of Contaminants

• Liquid wastes with high concentrations of hydrocarbons and solvents

• Industries: Chemical manufacturing, electronics manufacturing, plastics manufacturing.
• Types of pollutants: Chlorinated solvents, hydrocarbons, plastics, plasticizers, metals,
catalysts, cyanides, sulfides.
• Wastewaters containing organic chemicals
• Industries: Paper processing, tanneries, food processing, industrial wastewater treatment
plants, pharmaceuticals.
• Types of pollutants: Various organic chemicals
 SOURCES: MUNICIPAL WASTE
• Municipal wastewater treatment plants produce wastes that contain many
potential contaminants
• Chlorine-disinfected reclaimed water can contain significant trace amounts
of disinfection byproducts such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids.
• There is growing concern that pharmaceuticals that are excreted in urine and
disposed of in wastes may end up in water-supply resources. Many of these
compounds are not fully treated in current wastewater treatment systems.
 SOURCES: MUNICIPAL WASTE
• Stormwater* runoff picks up pollutants as it flows over the ground surface. In
urban areas, stormwater runoff will flow over a variety of surfaces, including
driveways, sidewalks, and streets, acquiring pollutants such as dirt, debris, and
hazardous wastes such as insecticides, pesticides, paint, solvents, used motor oil, and
other auto fluids
• In agricultural areas, stormwater runoff may include dirt, debris, excess nutrients,
pesticides, bacteria, and other pathogens.
• Stormwater will either flow into a sewer system or directly into a lake, stream, river,
wetland, or coastal water.
 SOURCES: SERVICE-RELATED
ACTIVITIES
• The service industries that produce substantial amounts of waste include dry
cleaners and laundry plants, automotive service and repair shops, and fuel stations.
• Dry cleaning uses solvents in the cleaning process that are considered as hazardous
waste. These solvents include tetrachloroethene, petroleum solvents, and 1, 1, l-
trichloroethane.
• Petroleum-based fuels, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and aviation fuels, are common
sources of contamination at automotive, train, and aviation fuel stations.
 SOURCES: RESOURCE
EXTRACTION/PRODUCTION
• Mineral extraction (mining) and petroleum and gas production are major
resource-extraction activities that provide the raw materials to support our
economic infrastructure
• Petroleum and natural gas extraction pose environmental threats such as
leaks and spills that occur during drilling and extraction from wells, and air
pollution as natural gas is burned off at oil wells.
 Produced Water
• Produced water is the wastewater created when water is injected into oil and
gas reservoirs to force the oil to the surface, mixing with formation water
(the layer of water naturally residing under the hydrocarbons).
• At the surface, produced water is treated to remove as much oil as possible
before it is reinjected, and eventually when the oil field is depleted, the well
fills with the produced water.
• Even after treatment, produced water can still contain oil, lowmolecular-
weight hydrocarbons, and chemicals used to increase hydrocarbon extraction.