FUEL

Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting with oxygen or air,
produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily contain one or several of
the combustible elements: carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In the process of combustion, the
chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy. Examples are Wood, charcoal, coal,
kerosene, petrol, diesel, producer gas, oil gas etc.

To utilize the energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to transform the fuel from its one
state to another, i.e. from solid to liquid or gaseous state, liquid to gaseous state, or from its
chemical energy to some other form of energy via single or many stages. In this way, the energy
of fuels can be utilized more effectively and efficiently for various purposes.
During the process of combustion, carbon, hydrogen, etc., combine with oxygen with liberation of heat.
The combustion reaction can be explained as

𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 94 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠
2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 68.5 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠

The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly on the amount of Carbon and Hydrogen.

Characteristics of a Good Fuel

It should ignite easily. Temperature of the fuel at which ignition starts and continues to burn
without further addition of heat is called ignition temperature. It should be moderate for a good
fuel.

Very low ignition temperature leads to fire hazard and very high ignition temperature disfavors
the starting of fire.

It should give out a lot of heat, i.e. its specific heat should be high.

It should not give out harmful combustion products such as CO, SOx, H2S. This property
depends on the nature of elements present in the fuel.

It should be inexpensive, readily available, easy to store and transport.

It should have low ash content because ash reduces the calorific value of the fuel, causes
hindrance to the flow of air and heat, reduces the specific heat and leads to unwanted disposable
problems.

It should have low moisture content

Classification of Fuels
Fuels may broadly be classified on the basis of the
physical state
✓ solid fuel (e.g. wood, coal etc),
 ✓ liquid fuel (e.g. crude petroleum, natural gasoline etc) and
✓ gaseous fuel(e.g. natural gas, coal gas etc) and
Occurrence
Primary or natural fuels – which occur naturally (e.g. wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc);
also referred as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are those, which have been derived from fossil remains
of plant and animal life.They are found in the earth’s crust.
Secondary or manufactured fuels – which are derived from naturally occurring ones (e.g.
charcoal, petroleum coke, coal tar, water gas etc).
None of these classifications, however, gives an idea of the qualitative or intensive value of
the fuels, i.e. their power of developing the thermal intensity or calorimetric temperature
under the normal condition of use.

Primary and secondary fuels may also be divided into 3 classes namely solid, liquid and gaseous
fuels.
Table 1 : Natural and Manufactured Fuels

Natural Fuels Manufactured Fuels

Solid Fuels
Wood, Coal Oil shale Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw Charcoal Coke Briquettes

Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum Coal tar
Shale-oil Alcohols, etc.

Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas Coal gas Producer gas Water gas Hydrogen Acetylene
Blast furnace gas Oil gas

Various advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels are:

Advantages:
✓ Handling and transportation of solid fuels are easy.
✓ Cheap and easily available.
✓ Have a moderate ignition temperature
✓ Can be stored conveniently without any risk.
Disadvantages:
✓ During burning, solid fuels produce a large amount of ash and disposal of ash is a big
problem.
✓ Calorific value of solid fuel is comparatively low.
✓ Since a lot of air is required for complete combustion, its thermal efficiency is not so
high.
✓ Large space is required for storage.
✓ Combustion is a slow process and it cannot be easily controlled.
Various advantages and disadvantages of liquid fuels are:
Advantages:

✓ Do not yield any ash after burning.

✓ Require comparatively less storage space.
✓ Calorific value of liquid fuel is higher than that of solid fuels.
✓ Their combustion is uniform and easily controllable.
Disadvantages:

✓ Comparatively costlier than solid fuels.

✓ Give unpleasant odour during incomplete combustion.
✓ Some amount of liquid fuels run away due to evaporation during storage.
✓ Special type of burners are required for effective combustion.

Various advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels are:

Advantages:

✓ Can be easily transported through pipes.

✓ Do not produce any ash or smoke during burning.
✓ Have high calorific value than the solid fuels.
✓ Have high thermal efficiency.
Disadvantages:

✓ Highly inflammable and hence, chances for fire hazards are high.
✓ Since gases occupy a large volume, they require large storage tanks.

Various terms related to study of fuels and combustion

A systematic study of fuels and combustion requires a prior knowledge of certain frequently
used terms.
Proximate analysis
Proximate analysis of a fuel indicates moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash content of
the fuel in terms of percentage by weight.
Moisture means the water expelled from the fuel by specified methods without causing any
chemical change in the fuel.
Volatile matter is the total loss in weight minus the moisture when fuel is heated out of
contact with air at a sufficiently high temperature under specified conditions.
Ash is the inorganic residue left when the fuel is completely burnt in air under specified con-
ditions. It is different from the original mineral matter associated with the coal because of
changes that take place during incineration.
Fixed carbon is the residue obtained by subtracting the sum of the percentages by weight of
moisture, volatile matter and ash from 100. It is essentially carbon containing minor amounts of
nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen.
Ultimate analysis
Ultimate analysis of a fuel gives its elementary composition. It is the analysis in terms of the
percentage by weight of the elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur which
constitute the pure fuel, free from moisture and inorganic constituents.
Combustion
It is the process by which heat is liberated from fuel by its high temperature reaction with an
oxidant which is usually oxygen present in the air. The quantity of heat evolved by the
combustion of unit quantity of fuel is its calorific value or heating value. There are different
ways of expressing the calorific value.

Gross calorific value (higher heating value) at constant volume is quantity of heat liberated
by combustion of a unit quantity of fuel at constant volume in oxygen saturated with water
vapour, the original material and final products of combustion being at a reference temperature
of 25°C, and water obtained from the fuel being in liquid state.

Gross calorific value at constant pressure is similar to the former expression except that the
combustion takes place at constant pressure and not at constant volume. In the laboratory
determination, solid and liquid fuels are burnt at constant volume and gaseous fuels are burnt at
constant pressure. In ovens and furnaces, however, the combustion takes place at constant
pressure.

The difference in the two corresponding values is small. For coal, calorific value at constant
pressure exceeds calorific value at constant volume by about 5.5 kcal/kg

Net calorific value (lower heating value) at constant volume is the quantity of heat
evolved when unit quantity of a fuel is burnt at constant volume in oxygen saturated with water
vapour; the original material and final products of combustion being at a reference temperature
of 25°C, and the water obtained from the fuel being in the vapour state.

Net calorific value is, therefore, less than gross calorific value by an amount corresponding to
heat of condensation of water vapour, which at 25°C is 583.5 kcal/kg. For hydrogen this is equal
to 5,252 kcal/kg or 468.9 kcal/Nm3 of hydrogen. On approximation, the following formula is
used in calculating the net calorfic value from gross calorific value of solid and liquid fuels:
CN = CG - 52.5H (1)

where, CN and CG are the net and gross calorific value in kcal/kg., respectively, and H is the
percentage of hydrogen in the fuel, including hydrogen present in moisture and in water of
hydration of minerals for fuels like coal.
For a gaseous fuel, the formula is
CN = CG - 4.7V (2)
Where, CN and CG are equal to net and gross calorific value in kcal/Nm3, respectively, V is
volume percentage (as H2) of total hydrogen of the gaseous fuel, including the hydrogen
obtainable from other combustible components as well as water vapour in the gas.

Net calorific value at constant pressure is the same as above, except that the
combustion takes place at constant pressure and not at constant volume.
Ignition point/ignition temperature/spontaneous ignition temperature:
It is the minimum temperature at which a fuel ignites in an oxidizing atmosphere without the
help of any external source of fire.It is a characteristic property of the fuel and also depends
upon other factors like the atmosphere (oxygen or air), method of heating and nature of
container.
Flash point and Fire point:
These are characteristic properties of liquid fuels. Flash point is the minimum temperature at
which the fuel gives enough vapors to produce a flash in the atmosphere when an external point
source of fire is brought to it.
Fire point is the minimum temperature at which vapours of the fuel produce a continuous flame
instead of just a flash in momentary contact with a fire source. Fire point is therefore higher than
the flash point. Both these temperatures indicate the fire risk of a liquid fuel. For highly volatile
liquid fuels, the flash and fire points are much lower than the ignition temperature.

Rank of coal
It is well recognized that coal is derived from vegetable matter by a natural process giving rise to
a transition series of solid fuels. The vegetable matter first decomposes and forms peat.
Subsequently the peat is progressively converted into lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite.
The process of conversion of lignite to anthracite is known as metamorphism or coalification.
The position of a coal in this metamorphic series is its rank, or degree of metamorphism, or
degree of maturity.

Carbonisation of coal
It is the process of heating coal without contact with air to a sufficiently high temperature. So
that the coal undergoes decomposition and yields a residue which is richer in carbon content
than the original fuel.

A similar but much slower process takes place in nature also. The natural process is
distinguished by the term coalification. Like coal, many other organic substances are also
subjected to the process of carbonisation.
Gasification
It is the process of converting solid or liquid fuels into gaseous fuels. Carbonization is essentially
a partial gasification process.In addition to the main gaseous fuel, some liquid products are also
obtained during gasification.The gaseous product may be directly used as a fuel or may be used
as a raw material for the production of chemicals, fertilizers and liquid fuels.

Cracking
It is essentially a thermal decomposition process carried out with or without a catalyst, in which
larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones with rearrangement of atoms and
groups.The process is disproportionate in nature and forms some complex molecules also.
Cracking is universally practiced in petroleum refining and is also employed in petrochemical
industries on a wide scale. When cracking is performed in the presence of hydrogen and suitable
catalysts, the process is called hydrocracking.

Caking and coking

Some coals are capable of producing a lump or cake from a powdery state by carbonization.
These coals are called caking coals and the phenomenon is known as the caking of coal. When
carbonization of coal is carried out in a commercial coke oven at about 1,000°C, and the
resultant lumpy product is sufficiently hard and strong as judged by standard tests, the solid
product is called coke, and the process is known as the coking of coal.

While the process of caking is general, the process of coking is specific. All coking coals are
necessarily caking but only some of the caking varieties fall under the category of coking.
The main use of hard coke is in the feedstock of blast furnace.

Orsat analysis
Composition of a gaseous fuel may be determined by analysis in a standard apparatus known as
the Orsat apparatus. Orsat analysis normally reports the percentage quantities of carbon dioxide,
oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen. Provisions can also be made for using Orsat apparatus
for more complex analysis, namely, ascertaining the quantities of hydrogen, methane and
unsaturated hydrocarbons. Data of Orsat analysis are always reported on dry basis. Moreover,
sulphur dioxide is reported along with carbon dioxide.
Flue gas
It is the gaseous product of combustion of fuels in ovens and furnaces. When combustion is
complete, it consists of carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen and excess oxygen. If the fuel
contains sulphur, flue gas will also contain sulphur dioxide, and will be reported with carbon
dioxide. The term 'flue gas' is derived from flues that lead the gases from oven and furnaces to
chimneys.
Basis for reporting results of analysis
Since fuels are heterogeneous in nature, it is essential to report the analytical data on accepted
basis.
The following forms of basis are in vogue, especially for solid fuels which are extremely
heterogeneous substances.
✓ run-of-mine (rom)
✓ as-received
✓ air-dried
✓ dry
✓ dry-and-ash-free (daf)
✓ dry-and-mineral-matter-free (dmmf)
✓ moist-mineral-matter-free or, simply, mineral-free
Coal as obtained from a mine is known as run of mine coal. When the data are expressed on this coal as
a whole, the basis is termed 'rom‘.

During the handling of coal in transit, it’s moisture and mineral matter changes. Coal also undergoes
other changes. Therefore when the customer analyses the coal after it is received, the data expressed
on this coal as a whole is termed as-received.

The data on an as-received basis may often be identical to that on an air-dried basis, because the coal
undergoes air drying by exposure to the atmosphere during transit.

For getting accurate and comparable results, the air-dried data are obtained after exposing the coal to
an artificial but standard atmosphere at 40°C with 60% relative humidity.

The considerations for any of the other basis are as follows:

Coal consists of moisture, mineral matter and pure coal. When the effect of moisture content on the
analytical data is removed, it is expressed as dry coal.

Similarly the effect of mineral matter is excluded by reporting the data on a mineral-free basis, taking
the pure coal plus moisture as the whole.

However, when it is necessary to calculate the data of the pure coal only, the effects of moisture and
mineral matter are excluded by using dry-and-mineral-matter-free (dmmf) basis. This basis is also
known as unit coal basis.
Since it is difficult to determine the mineral matter content of coal, the dry-and-ash-free (daf) basis is
often used in place of the dmmf basis.

For low ash coals the use of daf basis is justified in assessing the properties of pure coal.

For high ash coals (ash content >10%), the difference between the dmmf basis and the daf basis is
appreciable and the use of the latter leads to erroneous results.

This is particularly so for Indian coals which are high in ash.

Coal

Coal is a fossil fuel. It is a combustible, sedimentary, organic rock, which is composed

mainly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is formed from vegetation, which has been
consolidated between rock strata and altered by the combined effects of pressure and heat
over millions of years to form coal seams.
The build-up of silt and other sediments, together with movements in the earth’s crust
(known as tectonic movements) buried these swamps and peat bogs, often to great depths
causing the plant material to be subjected to high temperatures and pressures. Millions of year
of deep burial engendered such physical and chemical changes which transformed the
vegetation into peat and then into coal.
The quality of each coal deposit is determined by temperature and pressure and by the
length of time in formation, which is referred to as its ‘organic maturity’. Initially the peat is
converted into lignite or ‘brown coal’ – these are coal types with low organic maturity. In
comparison to other coals, lignite is quite soft and its colour can range from dark black to
various shades of brown.
Many more millions of years of continuous effects of temperature and pressure produced
further transformation of lignite, progressively increasing its organic maturity into the range
known as ‘sub- bituminous’ coals.
Further chemical and physical changes have caused these coals to become harder and
blacker, forming the ‘bituminous’ or ‘hard coals’. Under the right conditions and progressive
contrivance of organic maturity, finally results in the formation of anthracite.
Coal is vital for sustainable development. It is the most widely used energy source for electricity
generation and an essential input for steel production. Coal is an essential resource for meeting the
challenges facing the modern world.
There are two theories proposed for the mode of accumulation of the plant materials to transform into
coal. 1) In-situ theory- 2) Drift theory

In-situ (Autochthonous) Theory of Coal Formation

The popular theory is that the plants which compose the coal were accumulated in large freshwater
swamps or peat bogs during many thousands of years. This theory which supposes growth-in-place of
vegetable material is called the autochthonous theory. According to this theory, the coal seams are
observed where once forest grew. As the land was sinking slowly, the accumulated vegetation matters
went under water slowly and did not decompose and get destroyed. In the course of time, the rate of
sinking of land was increased and coal forest was submerged under water. Again, land along with the
coal forest emerged out of water after sufficient time and this cycle went on again and again, which is
responsible of formation of coal strata and seams.

Evidences :

• Relative purity & constancy in thickness and composition of coal seams (i.e no major transport)

• Presence of erect & rooted fossil tree trunks with roots in the Underclays

• Underclays below coalsare generally poor in alkalies, lime etc.

• Wide lateral extent of coal belts

Accumulations of vegetable matter and associated mineral matter, generally clays and sands, are
balanced by the subsidence, or motion of the Earth’s surface, in the area on which these materials are
accumulating. Hence, coal formed like this has bands of coal and inorganic sedimentary rocks arranged
in a sequence.

Drift Theory (Allochthonous) of Coal formation

This theory suggests that coal strata accumulated from plants which had been rapidly transported and
deposited under flood conditions. Because this theory assumes transportation of vegetable debris it is
called the allochthonous theory.

According to this theory, the plant material was transported with the flowing water from one place to
another, and finally got deposited in a place of swamps, lakes, seas & estuaries having suitable condition
like supply of sediments. The coal seams of India are of drift origin.

Evidence :

• High Ash-content of coals

• Scarcity of plant fossils in roof of coal seams

• Digitation / Splitting of coal seams

• Lateral transition of coal to carbonaceous shales

• Peat / Brown coals are presently forming in river deltas (eg. Ganga, Mississippi etc.)
• Fish remains in coals suggest open waters (coastal / marine)

Indian coals are formed according to drift theory in general.

Coal and its varieties (or) Ranking of Coal

The stages in the formation of coal from plant debris are as follows:

Plant debris (Wood) → Peat → lignite → sub-bituminous → bituminous coal → anthracite coal

As plant debris is exposed to the heat and pressure of burial, it changes in composition and
properties. The process of coal formation may be complete or may be stopped at any stage
giving rise to coal of varying maturity which is implied by the term ‘Rank’ of the coal.

Thus, the "rank" of a coal is a measure of how much change has occurred. Sometimes the term
"organic metamorphism" is used for this change.

In the series from peat to anthracite each member is more mature or of higher rank than the one
which precedes in the series. Thus the anthracite coal is of higher rank than bituminous coal.
Bituminous coal is of higher rank (more mature) than lignite.

With the progress of coal forming reaction, moisture content and oxygen content reduces;
percentage of carbon and calorific value increases with the rank.
 Stages in coal formation
PEAT
Although peat is used as a source of energy, it is not usually considered a coal .The formation of
peat is the first step in the formation of coal. With increasing depth of burial and increasing
temperature, peat deposits are gradually changed to lignite.

With increased time and higher temperatures, these low-rank coals are gradually converted
to subbituminous and bituminous coal and under certain conditions to anthracite.

Peatification is influenced by several factors, including the nature of the plant material
deposited, the availability of nutrients to support bacterial life, the availability of oxygen, the
acidity of the peat, and temperature.

Some wetlands result from high groundwater levels, whereas some elevated bogs are the result
of heavy rainfall. Although the rate of plant growth in cold regions is very slow, the rate of
decomposition of organic matter is also very slow.

Plant material decomposes more rapidly in groundwater rich in nutrients than in elevated bogs
with heavy rainfall. The presence of oxygen (aerobic conditions) is necessary for fungal and
microbial activity that promotes decomposition, but peat is formed in waterlogged soils with
little or no access to oxygen (anaerobic conditions), largely preventing the complete
decomposition of organic material.

Larger deposits of peat are found in former USSR,Germany, Poland, Finland, USA, Sweden,
Norway, Ireland, Canada,Indonesia, Scotland.Former USSR has 60%of total reserves of peat. In
the republic of Ireland peat is principal fuel.

The only significant deposit of true peat in India is in swamps of the Nilgiri hills in south. Peat
like material also occurs at depth of 5 to 10 meter on two sides of Hoogly river in and around
Calcutta.

Proximate and ultimate analysis of peat

Proximate analysis, % air dried

Moisture Ash Volatile Matters Fixed carbon
15-25 3-10 50-55 25-30
Ultimate analysis, % d.m.m.f.
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur
55-60 6-6.5 30-35 1.5-2 0.6-1
Calorific value, d.m.m.f. 4500-5000 kcal/kg

Air dried- the coal as obtained from mine is known as the run of mine coal. When the data
are expressed on this coal as a whole, the basis is termed as ‘ROM’.
When the coal is transported from one place to another, then during it’s handling moisture and
mineral matter changes. Therefore when the customer analyses the coal at his end, the data
expressed on this coal as a whole is termed ‘as received’.

The data on an ‘as received’ basis may often be identical to that on air dried basis because coal
undergoes air drying by exposure to the atmosphere during transit. For getting accurate and
comparable results the air dried data are obtained after exposing the coal to an artificial but
standard atmosphere of 40 0C and 60% relative humidity.

Dry and mineral matter free basis(d.m.m.f.)

Coal consists of moisture + mineral matter + pure coal
When the effect of moisture content on analytical data is removed, it is expressed as dry coal
basis. Similarly if the effect of mineral matter is excluded, the data is said to be on mineral
matter free basis. However when it is necessary to calculate the data of the pure coal only, the
effects of moisture and mineral matter are excluded and the data is said to be on d.m.m.f. basis.
Since it is difficult to determine the mineral matter of the coal, the dry and ash free (d.a.f.) basis
is often used in place of d.m.m.f..

USES OF PEAT
Dried peat burns readily with a smoky flame and a characteristic odour. The ash is powdery and
light, except for varieties that have a high content of inorganic matter.

Peat is used for domestic heating purposes as an alternative to firewood and forms a fuel suitable
for boiler firing in either briquetted or pulverized form.

Peat is also used for household cooking in some places and has been used to produce small
amounts of electricity.

In horticulture, peat is used to increase the moisture-holding capacity of sandy soils and to
increase the water infiltration rate of clay soils. It is also added to potting mixes to meet the
acidity requirements of certain potted plants. Given that peat harvesting is destructive
to wetland habitats, its use as a soil amendment has been discouraged by conservationists.

Peat can be used in water filtration and is sometimes utilized for the treatment of urban runoff,
wastewater, and septic tank effluent. It is also used to soften aquaria water and to mimic habitats
for freshwater fish.

LIGNITE
Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is a soft, brown, combustible, sedimentary rock formed
from naturally compressed peat. It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its relatively
low heat content.

Lignite is characterised by high moisture content ranging from 30 to 50%.On exposure to the
atmosphere the brown colour darkens and the moisture content educes to an equilibrium value of
12 to 20%. On drying lignite shrinks and breaks up readily in an irregular manner. Hence it can’t
be transported far from the mine.

Lignite has a carbon content from as low as 20–25 percent up to 60–70 percent, a high inherent
moisture content sometimes as high as 75 percent, and an ash content ranging from 6–19
percent, compared with 6–12 percent for bituminous coal

Lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas and liquid
petroleum products than higher-ranking coals. Unfortunately, its high moisture content and
susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can cause problems in transportation and storage.

It is also likely to ignite spontaneously as it adsorbs oxygen readily and therefore needs proper
attention, if it is to be stored in open.

Processes which remove water from brown coal reduce the risk of spontaneous combustion to
the same level as black coal, increase the calorific value of brown coal to a black coal
equivalent fuel, and significantly reduce the emissions profile of 'densified' brown coal to a level
similar to or better than most black coals. However, removing the moisture increases the cost of
the final lignite fuel.

Because of its low energy density and typically high moisture content, brown coal is inefficient
to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared with higher coal grades.

An environmentally beneficial use of lignite can be found in its use in cultivation and
distribution of biological control microbes that suppress plant disease causing microbes. The
carbon enriches the organic matter in the soil while the biological control microbes provide an
alternative to chemical pesticides.
There are extensive deposits of lignite in the former USSR, USA, East Germany
Australia, Canada, India. Indian lignite deposits occur in the Tertiary sediments in the
southern and western parts of peninsular shield particularly in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala,
Gujarat & Rajasthan and also in Jammu & Kashmir.

The total known geological resources of lignite as on 01.04.2019 is about 45.759 billion tonnes,
of which 79% resources are located in Tamil Nadu with about 36.230 billion tonnes.

The composition and properties of lignite vary widely like peat. The immature varieties of
woody brown coals can’t be easily distinguished from mature peat. Likewise more mature brown
coals cannot be easily distinguished from sub-bituminous coal.

The proximate analysis, ultimate analysis and calorific values of typical lignite of India are given
hereunder:

Proximate analysis, % air dried

Moisture Ash Volatile Matters Fixed carbon
Neyveli 10-30 5-0 40-45 30-35
lignite(Tamilnadu)
Palana(Rajasthan) 25-37 4-8 35-40 30-38
Umarsar(Gujarat) 18-19 15-16 33-34 30-31
Ultimate analysis, % d.m.m.f.
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur
Neyveli 70-73 4.6-5.5 22-26 0.6-1.0 0.6-1.5
lignite(Tamilnadu)
Palana(Rajasthan) 72-75 4.5-5.5 21-23 0.8-0.9 2.0-2.5
Umarsar(Gujarat) 68-69 5.0-5.5 23-24 0.8-1.0 1.5-2.0
Calorific value, kcal/kg
Air dried d.m.m.f.
Neyveli 4000-5500 6500-6600
lignite(Tamilnadu)
Palana(Rajasthan) 3800-4900 6900-7000
Umarsar(Gujarat) 4500-5000 6500-7300

Neyveli lignite is used in the generation of electricity in thermal power stations and for the
production of carbonised briquettes which are used as smokeless fuel. Other important uses of
lignite are in gas production and metallurgical furnaces. The tar obtained by low temperature
carbonisation of lignite is a valuable raw material for production of synthetic petroleum and
other liquid fuels. Lignite is extensively used in the manufacture of producer gas.
NLC India Limited (NLC) (formerly Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited) is a 'Navratna'
government of India company in the fossil fuel mining sector in India and thermal power
generation. It annually produces about 30 million tonnes of Lignite from opencast mines
at Neyveli in the state of Tamil Nadu in southern India and at Barsingsar in Bikaner
district of Rajasthan state.
The lignite is used at pit head thermal power stations of 3640 MW installed capacity to produce
electricity. Its joint venture has a 1000 MW thermal power station using coal. Lately, it has
diversified into renewable energy production and installed 1404 MW solar power plant to
produce electricity from photovoltaic (PV) cells and 51 MW electricity from windmills.
It was incorporated in 1956 and was wholly owned by the government of India. It is under the
administrative control of Ministry of Coal.

BITUMINOUS COAL
Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the basis of its carbon content into three types as:
i) Sub- bituminous coal, ii) Bituminous coal and iii) semi-bituminous coal.

SUB-BITUMINOUS COAL
Sub-bituminous coal is a type of lower grade coal which contains 35%-45% carbon. The
properties of this type are between those of lignite, the lowest grade coal, and those
of bituminous coal, the second highest grade of coal. Sub-bituminous coal is primarily used as a
fuel for steam-electric power generation.
Sub-bituminous coals may be dull, dark brown to black, soft and crumbly at the lower end of the
range, to bright jet-black, hard, and relatively strong at the upper end. They contain 15-30%
inherent moisture by weight and are non-coking (undergo little swelling upon heating).

Like lignite it disintegrates on exposure to atmosphere and is therefore difficult to transport. It is

available in USA, former USSR, Germany, Australia, Canada, India etc.

It has 70-78% carbon, 4.5-5.5% Hydrogen, 20% oxygen (all on dmmf basis); air dried
moisture 10-20%,Volatile matter 40%(dmmf), calorific value 6800-7600Kcal/kg (dmmf).
Their relatively low density and high water content renders some types of sub-bituminous coals
susceptible to spontaneous combustion if not packed densely during storage in order to exclude
free air flow.

BITUMINOUS COAL
Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance
called bitumen or asphalt. It is of higher quality than lignite and Sub-bituminous coal, but of
poorer quality than anthracite.

Bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic and sub metamorphic
compression of peat bog material. Microscopically, three main groups of macerals (individual
organic constituents of coal) can be recognized: vitrinite, liptinite, and inertinite.

Extensive deposits of bituminous coal occur in USA, former USSR, Germany, China,U.K.,
Canada and India. India has several coalfields of which Gondwana coalfields are most
important because more than 98% of coal output in India is from these coalfields. Next to
these are the tertiary coalfields.

The coals of bituminous group vary widely in composition and properties. These coal
have 80-92% carbon, 4-6% Hydrogen, 0.5 to 15% oxygen (all on dmmf basis); air dried
moisture 0.5-14%,Volatile matter 20-45%(dmmf), calorific value 7500-8900 Kcal/kg
(dmmf).

Bituminous coals are graded according to vitrinite reflectance, moisture content, volatile content,
plasticity and ash content. Generally, the highest value bituminous coals have a specific grade
of plasticity, volatility and low ash content, especially with low carbonate, phosphorus,
and sulfur.

Plasticity is vital for coking as it represents its ability to gradually form specific plasticity phases
during the coking process, measured by coal dilatation tests. Low phosphorus content is vital for
these coals, as phosphorus is a highly damaging element in steel making.

Coking coal is best if it has a very narrow range of volatility and plasticity. This is measured by
the free swelling index test. Volatile content and swelling index are used to select coals for coke
blending as well.

Low ash, sulfur, and carbonate coals are prized for power generation because they do not
produce much boiler slag and they do not require as much effort to scrub the flue gases to
remove particulate matter. Carbonates are deleterious as they readily stick to the boiler
apparatus.

Within the coal mining industry, this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts
of firedamp, a dangerous mixture of gases that can cause underground explosions. Extraction of
bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring, good
ventilation and vigilant site management.
Because of its relatively high heat value and low (less than 3 percent) moisture content, its ease
of transportation and storage, and its abundance, bituminous coal has the broadest range of
commercial uses among the coals.

It has long been utilized for steam generation in electric power plants and industrial boiler
plants. In addition, bituminous coals that contain a fairly small amount of sulfur and cake (or
“agglomerate”) easily are the only coals suited for making metallurgical coke—a hard, sponge
like substance of almost pure carbon important for smelting iron ore.

They are also used for carbonisation and gasification whereby coal is converted into solid fuels
like coke and semi-coke, gaseous fuels like producer gas, water gas and coal gas and liquid fuels
like coal tar fuels.

A major problem associated with the burning of bituminous coal is air pollution. Burning
bituminous coal with a high sulfur content releases sulfur oxides into the air.

Under certain conditions, nitrogen present in coal is also released in the form of nitrogen oxides.
When moisture in the atmosphere reacts with these gases, acids such as sulfuric acid are
produced and fall to Earth as wet acid deposition (acid rain)—an agent that can damage
buildings and crops and cause water pollution.

ANTHRACITE
Anthracite, also known as hard coal, is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic
luster. It contains a high percentage of fixed carbon, a low percentage of volatile matter, the
fewest impurities, and the highest energy density of all types of coal and is the highest ranking of
coals.. It does not soil the fingers when rubbed.
Chemically, anthracite may be considered as a transition stage between ordinary bituminous coal
and graphite, produced by the more or less complete elimination of the volatile constituents of
the former.
Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short, blue, and smokeless flame.
Anthracite is used in power generation and in the metallurgy sector. On calcinations it gives
thermo-anthracite which is useful raw material in the production of carbon electrodes and other
carbon articles.
Anthracite accounts for about 1% of global coal reserves, and is mined in only a few countries
around the world. China accounts for the majority of global production; other producers
are Russia, Ukraine, North Korea, South Africa, Vietnam, the UK, Australia, Canada and the
USA.
True anthracites do not occur in India. The coals of Jammu and Darjeeling have properties
approaching those of anthracite and are known as anthracitic coal. There are about 100-150
million tonnes of such coal n above two deposits.
The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15 percent. The calorific
value of anthracite ranges from 6200 to 7900 Kcal/kg on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.

Proximate analysis, %
Moisture Ash Volatile Matters Fixed carbon
2.5 7.0 3.0 87.5
Ultimate analysis, %
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur
86.5 2.5 3.0 0.5 0.5
Calorific value (dry basis) 7700 kcal/kg

Composition of Coal
Coal consists of an organic mass with some quantities of inorganic substances like water and
mineral matter. Coal also contains gases like methane CO2, CO etc. The organic mass is a
mixture of complex organic compounds of C, H, O, N and S. Coal appears heterogeneous even
to the naked eyes. The heterogeneity of coal is much more marked under a powerful microscope.
Coal petrography is the study of coal components by visual methods with or without the help of
a microscope. The components identified with the naked eye are referred to as macroscopic
components or simply macro-components. Similarly microscopic studies identify microscopic
components or micro-components.

Micro-Components(Macerals)
A very large number of macerals of coal have been reported by different investigators. The more
important among them are: vitrinite, liptinite (formerly called exinite), and inertinite

The vitrinite group is the most abundant, constituting as much as 50 to 90 percent of many
North American coals. Vitrinites are derived primarily from cell walls and woody tissues. They
show a wide range of reflectance values (how the coal reflects light; discussed below), but in
individual samples these values tend to be intermediate compared with those of the other
maceral groups.

The liptinite group makes up 5 to 15 percent of many coals. Liptinites are derived from waxy or
resinous plant parts, such as cuticles, spores, and wound resins. Their reflectance values are
usually the lowest in an individual sample. The liptinites may fluoresce (i.e., luminesce because
of absorption of radiation) under ultraviolet light, but with increasing rank their optical
properties approach those of the vitrinites, and the two groups become indistinguishable.

The inertinite group makes up 5 to 40 percent of most coals. Their reflectance values are
usually the highest in a given sample. The most common inertinite maceral is fusinite, which has
a charcoal-like appearance with obvious cell texture. The cells may be either empty or filled with
mineral matter, and the cell walls may have been crushed during compaction (bogen texture).
Inertinites are derived from strongly altered or degraded plant material that is thought to have
been produced during the formation of peat; in particular, charcoal produced by a fire in a
peat swamp is preserved as fusinite.
 [By analogy to the term mineral, British botanist Marie C. Stopes proposed in 1935 the
term maceral to describe organic constituents present in coals. The word is derived from the
Latin macerare, meaning “to macerate.” (Mineral names often end in -ite. The corresponding
ending for macerals is -inite.]

There are four types of macro-components in coal namely Vitrain,Clarain,Durain and Fusain.

1. Vitrain, which is characterized by a brilliant black lustre and composed primarily of the maceral
group vitrinite, which is derived from the woody tissue of large plants. Vitrain is brittle and
tends to break into angular fragments; however, thick vitrain layers show conchoidal fractures
(that is, curving fractures that resemble the interior of a seashell) when broken.
2. Clarain, which has an appearance between those of vitrain and durain and is characterized by
alternating bright and dull black laminae (thin layers, each commonly less than 1 mm thick). The
brightest layers are composed chiefly of the maceral vitrinite and the duller layers of the other
maceral groups, liptinite and inertinite. Clarain exhibits a silky lustre less brilliant than that of
vitrain. It seems to have originated under conditions that alternated between those in which
durain and vitrain formed.
3. Durain, which is characterized by a hard granular texture and composed of the maceral groups
liptinite and inertinite as well as relatively large amounts of inorganic minerals. Durains are
usually dull black to dark gray in colour. Durain is thought to have formed in peat deposits
below water level, where only liptinite and inertinite components resisted decomposition and
where inorganic minerals accumulated from sedimentation.
4. Fusain, which is commonly found in silky and fibrous lenses that are only millimetres thick and
centimetres long. Most fusain is extremely soft and crumbles readily into a fine, sootlike powder
that soils the hands. Fusain is composed mainly of fusinite (carbonized woody plant tissue) and
semifusinite from the maceral group inertinite, which is rich in carbon and highly reflective. It
closely resembles charcoal, both chemically and physically, and is believed to have been formed
in peat deposits swept by forest fires, by fungal activity that generated intense heat, or by
subsurface oxidation of coal.

Indian coals are generally dull in appearance. Fusain is present in small amounts, not greater than 5%.
With regard to micro-components vitrinite content is over 50%. Petrographic components of coal have
different chemical and physical properties and they can be partly separated by mechanical and chemical
methods.

Utilization of Coal
Coal as an energy source
Coal is an abundant natural resource that can be used as a source of energy, as a chemical source
from which numerous synthetic compounds (e.g., dyes, oils, waxes, pharmaceuticals,
and pesticides) can be derived, and in the production of coke for metallurgical processes.

Coal is a major source of energy in the production of electrical power using steam generation. In
addition, gasification and liquefaction of coal produce gaseous and liquid fuels that can be easily
transported and conveniently stored in tanks.

After the tremendous rise in coal use in the early 2000s, which was primarily driven by the
growth of China’s economy, coal use worldwide peaked in 2012. Since then coal use has
 experienced a steady decline, offset largely by increases in natural gas use.

Conversion
In general, coal can be considered a hydrogen-deficient hydrocarbon with a hydrogen-to-carbon
ratio near 0.8, as compared with a liquid hydrocarbons ratio near 2 (for propane, ethane, butane,
and other forms of natural gas) and a gaseous hydrocarbons ratio near 4 (for gasoline). For this
reason, any process used to convert coal to alternative fuels must add hydrogen (either directly or
in the form of water).

Gasification refers to the conversion of coal to a mixture of gases, including carbon

monoxide, hydrogen, methane, and other hydrocarbons, depending on the conditions involved.

Gasification may be accomplished either in situ or in processing plants. In situ gasification is

accomplished by controlled, incomplete burning of a coal bed underground while adding air and
steam.

The gases are withdrawn and may be burned to produce heat or generate electricity, or they may
be used as synthesis gas in indirect liquefaction or the production of chemicals.

Coal liquefaction—that is, any process of turning coal into liquid products resembling crude
oil—may be either direct or indirect (i.e., by using the gaseous products obtained by breaking
down the chemical structure of coal).

Four general methods are used for liquefaction:

(1) pyrolysis and hydrocarbonization (coal is heated in the absence of air or in a stream of
hydrogen),

(2) solvent extraction (coal hydrocarbons are selectively dissolved and hydrogen is added to
produce the desired liquids),

(3) catalytic liquefaction (hydrogenation takes place in the presence of a catalyst—for example,
zinc chloride), and

(4) indirect liquefaction (carbon monoxide and hydrogen are combined in the presence of a
catalyst).

Analysis and properties of Coal

To ascertain the commercial value of coal certain tests regarding its burning properties are
performed before it is commercially marketed. The detailed method of analysis and testing vary
from country to country. In India BIS (Bureau of Indian standards) publications give the
standards and detailed procedure.

Two commonly used tests are : Proximate analysis and Ultimate analysis of coal.
Proximate analysis of coal determines the moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon.
Ultimate analysis determines carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur (C, H, O, N and
S) of coal.
The calorific value is the single most important property of all the fuel. It is the quantity of
heat evolved by the combustion of unit quantity of fuel. Combustion is the process by which
heat is liberated from the fuel by its high temperature reaction with an oxidant which is
usually oxygen of the air.

Other chemical and physical properties of coal include solubility, specific gravity, surface
area, porosity, angle of repose, grindability, and specific heat.

MOISTURE IN COAL
Owing to its nature, origin and occurrence, coal is always associated with moisture. When
wet coal is exposed to the atmosphere, the external moisture evaporates but the apparently
dry coal still contains some moisture which can be removed only on heating above l00°C.

External moisture may also be called as accidental or free moisture, while inherent moisture
may be referred to as equilibrium, or air-dried, or hygroscopic moisture. The quantity of
external moisture depends mainly on the mode of occurrence and handling of coal, but the
air-dried moisture is related to the inherent hygroscopic nature of the coal.

The free moisture is easily lost by drainage and evaporation. Except during very wet
weather, the coal which reaches the consumer contains only 2 to 3% free moisture.

Large amounts of free moisture in coal are obviously undesirable from the point of view of
the customer but for certain uses small amount of free moisture may improve the
performance of the coal in an industrial process. Example of this is addition of water to
small dry coal to improve combustion on a boiler grate.

A certain minimum of moisture is advantageous from 5 to 12% according to particle size

distribution for getting optimum efficiency of combustion. Also in the coking of the coal the
better results are obtained with 3 to 5% of moisture.
The hygroscopic moisture is more firmly held on the coal surface and in the fine pores. It is
also termed as inherent moisture or air dried moisture.

The value of this moisture obtained for a given coal depends upon the humidity of the
drying air used but if the determination is made at a controlled humidity, the result is typical
of the coal.

In order to get reproducible and correct values of air-dried moisture, it is necessary first to
equilibrate the coal sample in a standard atmosphere of specified temperature and humidity
before the actual determination is done.

In general the value (at 99% humidity) for a series of coal decreases with increasing rank
from 20% with lignites to 10% with bituminous coals of 80% carbon which are non-caking,
to 3 to 4% with strongly caking coals (85% carbon) and 1 to 2% with anthracite. Therefore,
air dried moisture content of a coal is an approximate measure of its rank and other qualities
indicated by rank.

To avoid the effect of variable mineral content, moisture is also expressed in parts
100 parts of organic mass or dmmf coal.

Air-dried moisture
It is usually determined by observing the loss in weight of the coal sample on heating to
about l05°C. In the case of peat and lignite which start decomposing at temperatures below
l05°C, this method is not applicable and the Dean and Stark method is followed.
(Dean and Stark method - Coal is heated with excess of toluene when moisture distills
over as an azeotrope with toluene at 84 0C.The vapours are condensed and separated into
two layers. The amount of water is then read off in the graduated receiver.)

Mineral matter and ash in coal

All coals contain inorganic mineral substances which are converted into ash by chemical
reactions during the combustion of coal. Ash is the weight of residue obtained on complete
combustion. Therefore, ash and mineral matter of coal are not identical. Depending upon
the nature of the source the mineral matter in coal is called Inherent and Extraneous.
The inorganic material of the original vegetable substances is responsible for Inherent
mineral matter.

The Extraneous mineral matter is due to

(i) The substances which got associated with the decaying vegetable materials during its
conversion into coal.
(ii) Rocks and dirt getting mixed up during mining and handling of coal.

The former type of extraneous mineral matter is in a fine state and intimately associated with
the organic mass of the coal. Hence, it is difficult to remove this from coal by mechanical
methods.

The second type of extraneous mineral matter is more amenable to coal cleaning methods. The
inherent mineral matter cannot be removed by any mechanical means.

Fortunately, the inherent mineral matter content is low (about 2%—3% or less) in all coals.
Indian coals suffer from the great disadvantage that the mineral matter content is both high and
an intimately associated type due to its drift origin.

The bulk of the mineral matter of coal is due to clay or shale consisting of alumino- silicates of
different composition. Other major constituents may be calcite (calcium carbonate) and pyrites,
or related matter.

When coal burns, shale and other hydrated minerals lose water of hydration, while sulphides,
sulphates and carbonates usually decompose, or oxidise, leaving their basic radicals free to
combine with excess silica, if any. The net result is a loss of weight so that the ash of coal is
always less than the mineral matter content.

The composition of coal ashes varies widely. Generally about 90% or more of coal ash consists
of silica, alumina, iron oxide and lime. The remaining 10% or less consists mainly of
magnesium, sodium and potassium oxides and titania as basic constituents, and sulphates and
phosphates as acidic constituents. Gallium, germanium, nickel, beryllium, boron and chlorine are
among the trace elements of coal ash.
When heated, coal ash does not melt sharply at any temperature, but begins to soften at a much
lower temperature than that at which it becomes molten and flows. This necessitates the
determination of the fusion range of temperatures in place of an ash fusion point.

The ash fusion characteristic of coal depends on the composition of the ash. Higher alumina and
silica content make the ash refractory, while lime, magnesia, iron oxides and alkali oxides have a
fluxing effect and lower the ash fusion temperatures. The ash of Indian coals is generally
refractory in nature and the fusion range is mostly above 1300 0C.

The quantity of mineral matter or ash has no relation with the rank or maturity of the coal.
Among the macro-constituents of coal, vitrain is of low ash (l% to 2%), clarain is higher (3 to
5%), and durain is still higher (5% to 8%). Fusain may have high ash. The mineral matter does
not contribute to the calorific value of coal. On the contrary it creates many difficulties in the
efficient utilisation of coal.

In a furnace grate the ash may seriously restrict the passage of air and lower the rate of
combustion. High ash leads to large heat losses and carbon losses and creates such problems as
boiler deposits and clinkering. It has been estimated that 1% rise in coal ash is equivalent to
0.3% to 4% fall in boiler efficiency.

High ash is therefore undesirable and harmful. The content of mineral matter should be reduced
by the methods of coal cleaning. This is particularly important for coals used for making
metallurgical grade coke. High ash coke seriously reduces the efficiency of blast furnace
operations. Coal cleaning is vitally important for high-ash Indian coking coals.

Apart from the total percentage of ash, its composition and fusion range also influence the
efficiency of coal utilisation. In general, clinkering troubles are augmented by the lower fusion
temperatures.

On the other hand, coals of refractory ash, for example, Indian coals, are a problem to use in
slagging (partially melted coal ash in a steam boiler)furnaces and slagging gas generators
where ash is removed in the molten state. A non-clinkering ash contains more than 45% of silica
and 35% alumina and less than 15% ferric oxide and 10% calcium oxide.

The coal ash may be used for extracting valuable rare elements. It is reported that certain coal-
based gases produce flue dusts that provide most of Britain’s germanium. Enormous quantities
of fly ash are produced from coal-based thermal power stations all over the world.

Fly ash is useful in the production of cement and concrete, bricks, filling material and
lightweight aggregates. A plant at Ennore in Tamil Nadu produces 70 million bricks annually
from cement, lime and fly ash.

The ash of coal is directly determined in the laboratory by completely burning the coal. It is
necessary to know the accurate content of the mineral matter to determine the content of a pure
organic mass of coal.

Some methods are available for this purpose. The Radmacher and Mohrhauer method essentially
consists of dissolving out the mineral substances by treatment with hydrofluoric acid and
hydrochloric acid, and finding the loss of weight.

Empirical formulae are available for calculating the mineral matter content from the ash values.
The Parr formula is MM = 1.08 A + 0.55 S
and the KMC (King, Maries and Crossley) formula is
MM = 1.09A + 0 5 Spyr + 0.84 CO2 — 1.1 SO3,ash+ SO3,coal + 0.5 Cl

where, MM = mineral matter, A = ash, S= total sulphur, Spyr = pyritic sulphur, C O2 = carbon
dioxide from carbonates, SO3,ash = Sulphate in ash, SO3,coal = sulphate in pure coal and Cl =
chlorine, all in per cent.
The KMC formula is regarded as the standard reference, but it involves too many analytical
steps.

The Parr formula is quite simple. It recognizes only two losses of consequence during
conversion of mineral matter into ash, namely loss of water of hydration (0.08A) and loss in the
conversion of pyrites into oxides.

It further assumes that all the sulphur in coal is in the inorganic form.Indian coals in general are
low in Sulphur and carbonate. A simplified version of the Parr formula is used for these coals:
MM = 1.1A
The formula assumes that the difference in the weights of mineral matter and ash is due to the
water of hydration which is taken to be 10% of the ash value (0.1A)

VOLATILE MATTER AND FIXED CARBON

These represent the volatile and non-volatile products of thermal decomposition of coal under
specified conditions.

Volatile matter does not include the moisture in coal but it contains water that is formed from the
hydrogen and oxygen of coal during the decomposition.

When volatile matter is reported on air-dried and daf (dry and ash-free) basis, it also includes the
part of the mineral matter, for example, water of hydration, which escapes into the gaseous state.
On dmmf basis however, it represents only the volatile products from the organic mass.

Fixed carbon does not include the ash. It is the non-volatile residue of the organic mass.
Furthermore the term ‘fixed carbon’ is a misnomer: It contains the non-volatile parts of other
elements also.

Volatile matter and fixed carbon, both expressed as a percentage on dmmf basis. The higher the
volatile matter, the lower the fixed carbon.

There is a correlation between volatile matter and maturity of coal. With the increase in the
maturity or rank of coal, its volatile matter content decreases. However, there seems to be a
critical value of volatile matter, 32% - 33% dmmf, above which this relationship is not valid.

Different macerals of the same coal yield different amounts of volatile matter. The highest yields
are from the exinites and the lowest the fusinite. Vitrinite occupies an intermediate position.
The physical nature of the residue left after the volatile matter test is an approximate measure of
the caking properties of coal.

CARBON
The carbon of coal is not to be confused with its fixed carbon. In anthracites, the volatile matter
is very small and the values of fixed carbon and total carbon are almost equal.

In other coals, fixed carbon is less than total carbon. The carbon content is determined by
Liebig’s method by completely burning the coal in a current of pure oxygen and finding the
amount of resultant carbon dioxide. Correction is made for the inorganic carbonates.

The carbon content depends on the nature of coal. It increases with increase in the rank .
Among the macerals of the same coal the exinite and vitrinite have almost similar carbon content
while fusinite has higher content.

HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is determined together with carbon by completely burning the coal. From the
knowledge of the weight of water formed, the hydrogen content is calculated. Corrections are
made for the moisture of coal and the water of hydration of minerals.

The content of hydrogen in coals from peat to bituminous stage varies between 4.5% and 6.5%
and is not related to the rank. Beyond the bituminous stage, the hydrogen content sharply
decreases to a value of 1% - 2% in anthracite.

Among the micro-constituents, the exinites are characterized by high hydrogen and the fusinites
by low hydrogen content. Cannel coal and boghead coal also have high hydrogen content. The
hydrogen of coal is responsible for the production of many useful materials, for example,gaseous
hydrogen, methane and coal chemicals in the carbonization and gasification industries.
NITROGEN

The Kjeldahl method is used to determine the amount of nitrogen in coal. The sample is
digested with oleum containing a catalyst when nitrogen is converted into ammonium
sulphate. The ammonia is then estimated and the nitrogen content calculated. The
nitrogen content does not bear any relation to the rank of coal (Table 3.14). In most coals
it is between 1% to 2%. Lower values down to 0.5% and upper values upto 2.5% are also
found. The nitrogen in coal is useful in the carbonization industries which recover a part
of it as valuable by-products list ammonia, ammonium sulphate and pyridine bases.

SULPHUR
Sulphur is commonly present in coal in three forms: pyrites, organic sulphur and sulphate. The
occurrences of sulphides and elementary sulphur in coal have been reported in some cases.
Only organic sulphur should be included in the ultimate analysis. Since most Indian coals
contain 0.7% or less of total sulphur, it is usually shown as sulphur in the ultimate analysis
 without any corrections.

Total sulphur is determined by Eschka method or Bomb method. In the former, the entire
content of sulphur is converted into soluble sulphates by heating the coal with an oxidizing
mixture of magnesium oxide and sodium carbonate and then estimating the sulphate. In the
Bomb method the total sulphur is also converted into the sulphate form during the
determination of calorific value in Bomb ca1orimeter. The pyritic and sulphate sulphur in coal
are determined by the usual methods of analytical chemistry and the organic sulphur is then
calculated by subtracting the inorganic sulphur from the total sulphur.

Although Indian coals are usually low in sulphur (0.7% or less), many coals of the North eastern
coalfields have high sulphur content of around 4%. In general, the coals of most countries of the
world are found to contain between 1 % and 3% sulphur. Higher and lower values are also
reported. It has been found that the high sulphur content is generally due to pyrites. However,
North- Eastern coals form an exception where much of the sulphur is in the organic form.

The sulphur content of coal has no relation to its rank or composition. Although elementary
sulphide, pyritic and organic forms of sulphur contribute to the calorific value of coal, it is an
undesirable constituent. It emits corrosive sulphur dioxide during combustion and obnoxious
hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans during carbonisation and gasification. A part of the sulphur
can be recovered as a by-product in the coking and gas-making industries. Since coke always
retains a considerable part of sulphur in coal, metallurgical industries demand coals of low
sulphur content in coke making.

OXYGEN
The oxygen in coal is usually determined by the method of difference. The carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and sulphur are expressed in per cent on a dmmf basis and their sum is subtracted
from 100. The disadvantage of this procedure is that the errors of all the other determinations
are reflected on the oxygen value. Direct methods are also available for the determination of
oxygen, but these are laborious and time-consuming. The oxygen content of coal has a close
relation to the rank. The former decreases with the increase in the latter (Table 3.14). Among
the macerals of the same coal, vitrinite has the highest oxygen content, fusinite the lowest, and
exinites the intermediate value.

PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus occurs in small quantities in coal. Its determination is important when the coal is to
be used in the production of metallurgical coke. Indian coking coals have normally less than
0.15% phosphorus which is not a problem for common use in iron and steel production. The
coking coals of Giridh are even lower in phosphorus, 0.01 % 0.04%, and suitable for producing
coke for making ferro alloys. There are certain areas in the coalfields of Madhya Pradesh and
North-Eastern India where again the coal contains 0.01% or less of phosphorus.

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