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MODULE 1

JOURNALISM PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

WHAT IS JOURNALISM?

Watch the video link Introduction to Journalism.

Questions:
1. What is Journalism?
2. What are the steps involved in the science of journalism?
3. What are the important information journalism is concerned gathering with?
4. What are the two channels through which information can be conveyed or
distributed to the public?
5. What are the three types of journalism?
6. What are the six (6) obligations of journalist?
7. What are the eight (8) roles and duties of journalists?
8. What are the challenges in the profession?

FIVE CORE PRINCIPLES OF JOURNALISM

Watch the video link Five Core Principles of Journalism and learn about the principles of
journalism.

1. Truth and Accuracy

Journalists cannot always guarantee ‘truth’, but getting the facts right is the cardinal
principle of journalism. We should always strive for accuracy; give all the relevant facts
we have and ensure that they have been checked. When we cannot corroborate
information we should say so.

2. Independence
Journalists must be independent voices; we should not act, formally or informally, on
behalf of special interests whether political, corporate or cultural. We should declare to
our editors – or the audience – any of our political affiliations, financial arrangements or
other personal information that might constitute a conflict of interest.

3. Fairness and Impartiality

Most stories have at least two sides. While there is no obligation to present every side in
every piece, stories should be balanced and add context. Objectivity is not always
possible, and may not always be desirable (in the face for example of brutality or
inhumanity), but impartial reporting builds trust and confidence.
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4. Humanity
Journalists should do no harm. What we publish or broadcast may be hurtful, but we
should be aware of the impact of our words and images on the lives of others.

5. Accountability
A sure sign of professionalism and responsible journalism is the ability to hold ourselves
accountable. When we commit errors we must correct them and our expressions of
regret must be sincere not cynical. We listen to the concerns of our audience. We may
not change what readers write or say but we will always provide remedies when we are
unfair.

Questions:
1. How do we make sure that what we report is the truth?
2. Do journalists have to take side? What happens when a journalist take side in a
story? What are the repercussions when a journalist is obviously taking side in
the story? How does this affect the journalist?
3. How do we make sure we observe fairness; that we are not bias? What do we
gain when we observe impartiality in our reporting?
4. What does it mean by the term obscene? Can journalist show bloody and horrific
images? Why do you say so? What does it mean by the word desensitize? Do
you think it is possible to happen if we keep on bombarding the public with
dreadful, shocking, horrible stories and pictures?
5. How do we assure the public of our accountability for the stories we report?
How far can you go in the name of journalism? Are you ready to go to jail?; or be
persecuted?; or to put your family in danger?
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FUNCTIONS OF JOURNALISM

1. Providing information — Providing information is one of the main primary

functions of journalism. Take for example the Covid-19 situation. Journalists
would provide the audience with regular information about the number of infected,
deaths and recovery. This information should flow seamlessly every day to the
consumers.

2. Education — Again educating the viewers about Covid-19 is also another

function of journalism. The consumers should be made aware of how to avoid
transmission of the virus. From the benefit of repeatedly washing your hands to
the usage of masks, this education is provided by journalists repeatedly.

3. Guidance — Journalism also guides individuals by suggesting to them what they

can do and what now. There would be many people saying different things, and
you would never know what is right and wrong. Journalism guides you through the
path that is the most suitable for you. Or at least gives you the right options that
you can choose from.

4. Interpret — Suppose a famous scientist speaks about how a combination of two

particular medicines can curb down the effect of Covid-19. He may speak in
complete medical language that might not be very easy to comprehend for the
general public. It is the duty of journalists to break down the information in
layman’s language for the consumers to understand. Or you may also take an
example of a budget presented by the Government. A layman may not
understand the advantages or risks presented by the new budget. It is the duty of
the journalists and media to discuss with the experts and present before the
audience the advantages and disadvantages of the budget.

5. Entertainment — Journalism also provides us with entertainment. Especially in

television journalism. Documentaries, short films, informative films are all part
of journalism.

6. Awareness — Lastly, creating awareness about a government scheme, a new

product, advertisements, etc. are also functions of journalism
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DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF JOURNALISTS

By Ellie Williams Updated June 29, 2018

Journalists educate the public about events and issues and how they affect their lives.
They spend much of their time interviewing expert sources, searching public records
and other sources for information, and sometimes visiting the scene where a crime or
other newsworthy occurrence took place. After they've thoroughly researched the
subject, they use what they uncovered to write an article or create a piece for radio,
television or the internet.

Reporting Duties

Before journalists can write about a subject, they must first gather information. They
usually conduct several interviews with people involved in or having knowledge of the
subject. They may also go to the scene of an event, such as a crime or an accident, to
interview witnessees or law enforcement officers and to document what they see. In
addition, they often search public records or other databases to find information and
statistics to back up their stories. Researching a story is often similar to conducting an
investigation, and journalists must sometimes ask difficult questions. They may have
to invest a lot of time tracking down information and people relevant to the story.

Working with People

Even though a news article bears a single journalist's byline, the process requires
significant collaboration. How good a journalist's story is often depends on how adept
he is at communicating and working with others. For example, journalists take
instruction from their editors regarding what angle to approach when writing a story,
how long the story should be and whom to interview. They also need strong people
and communication skills so they can persuade sources to talk to them. Journalists
frequently approach people they don't know, whether when reporting from the scene
or calling to request an interview. If they're uncomfortable around strangers, they'll
make others uncomfortable as well, making it less likely that people will want to be
interviewed.

Legal Responsibilities

In addition to serving the public interest, journalists must also follow the law, especially
regarding the confidentiality and privacy of the people they interview or write about.
For example, while journalists often tape record their interviews to ensure accuracy,
federal and state laws generally make it illegal to record a conversation without the
permission of the other party. In this case, journalists must tell their sources they're
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recording the interview before it begins. Journalists must also understand the laws
regarding libel and invasion of privacy. If a journalist is careless when reporting
criminal allegations against a person, for example, he could face a defamation lawsuit
if the accusations are proved untrue.

Ethical Responsibilities

Some aspects of a journalist's job are not subject to any kind of law but are just as
important. Journalists must strive to present an accurate, well-balanced explanation of
the stories they cover. For example, they have an obligation to present all sides of an
issue, and to conduct extensive research and talk to several sources knowledgeable
about the subject. If they present only popular opinion, or if they conduct minimal
research without fully exploring the subject, they don't give readers and viewers the
information they need to understand the implications of the event or issue. Journalists
must also be honest with the people they interview, telling them before talking to them
what the article is about and that they plan to quote them in the piece.

References
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics: Reporters, Correspondents, and Broadcast News
Analysts
Online Journalism Review: Responsibility in Journalism

THE ROLE AND INFLUENCE OF MASS MEDIA

Mass media is communication—whether written, broadcast, or spoken—that reaches a

large audience. This includes television, radio, advertising, movies, the Internet,
newspapers, magazines, and so forth.

Mass media is a significant force in modern culture, particularly in America. Sociologists

refer to this as a mediated culture where media reflects and creates the culture.
Communities and individuals are bombarded constantly with messages from a multitude
of sources including TV, billboards, and magazines, to name a few. These messages
promote not only products, but moods, attitudes, and a sense of what is and is not
important. Mass media makes possible the concept of celebrity: without the ability of
movies, magazines, and news media to reach across thousands of miles, people could
not become famous. In fact, only political and business leaders, as well as the few
notorious outlaws, were famous in the past. Only in recent times have actors, singers,
and other social elites become celebrities or “stars.”

The current level of media saturation has not always existed. As recently as the 1960s
and 1970s, television, for example, consisted of primarily three networks, public
broadcasting, and a few local independent stations. These channels aimed their
programming primarily at two‐parent, middle‐class families. Even so, some middle‐class
households did not even own a television. Today, one can find a television in the
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poorest of homes, and multiple TVs in most middle‐class homes. Not only has
availability increased, but programming is increasingly diverse with shows aimed to
please all ages, incomes, backgrounds, and attitudes. This widespread availability and
exposure makes television the primary focus of most mass‐media discussions. More
recently, the Internet has increased its role exponentially as more businesses and
households “sign on.” Although TV and the Internet have dominated the mass media,
movies and magazines—particularly those lining the aisles at grocery checkout stands
—also play a powerful role in culture, as do other forms of media.

What role does mass media play?

Legislatures, media executives, local school officials, and sociologists have all debated
this controversial question. While opinions vary as to the extent and type of influence
the mass media wields, all sides agree that mass media is a permanent part of modern
culture. Three main sociological perspectives on the role of media exist: the
limited‐effects theory, the class‐dominant theory, and the culturalist theory.

A. Limited-effects theory

The limited‐effects theory argues that because people generally choose what

to watch or read based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible
influence. This theory originated and was tested in the 1940s and 1950s. Studies
that examined the ability of media to influence voting found that well‐informed
people relied more on personal experience, prior knowledge, and their own
reasoning. However, media “experts” more likely swayed those who were less
informed. Critics point to two problems with this perspective. First, they claim that
limited‐effects theory ignores the media's role in framing and limiting the
discussion and debate of issues. How media frames the debate and what
questions members of the media ask change the outcome of the discussion and
the possible conclusions people may draw. Second, this theory came into
existence when the availability and dominance of media was far less widespread.

B. Class-dominant theory

The class‐dominant theory argues that the media reflects and projects the view
of a minority elite, which controls it. Those people who own and control the
corporations that produce media comprise this elite. Advocates of this view
concern themselves particularly with massive corporate mergers of media
organizations, which limit competition and put big business at the reins of media
—especially news media. Their concern is that when ownership is restricted, a
few people then have the ability to manipulate what people can see or hear. For
example, owners can easily avoid or silence stories that expose unethical
corporate behavior or hold corporations responsible for their actions.

The issue of sponsorship adds to this problem. Advertising dollars fund

most media. Networks aim programming at the largest possible audience
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because the broader the appeal, the greater the potential purchasing audience
and the easier selling air time to advertisers becomes. Thus, news organizations
may shy away from negative stories about corporations (especially parent
corporations) that finance large advertising campaigns in their newspaper or on
their stations. Television networks receiving millions of dollars in advertising from
companies like Nike and other textile manufacturers were slow to run stories on
their news shows about possible human‐rights violations by these companies in
foreign countries. Media watchers identify the same problem at the local level
where city newspapers will not give new cars poor reviews or run stories on
selling a home without an agent because the majority of their funding comes from
auto and real estate advertising. This influence also extends to programming. In
the 1990s a network cancelled a short‐run drama with clear religious
sentiments, Christy, because, although highly popular and beloved in rural
America, the program did not rate well among young city dwellers that
advertisers were targeting in ads.

Critics of this theory counter these arguments by saying that local control
of news media largely lies beyond the reach of large corporate offices elsewhere,
and that the quality of news depends upon good journalists. They contend that
those less powerful and not in control of media have often received full media
coverage and subsequent support. As examples they name numerous
environmental causes, the anti‐nuclear movement, the anti‐Vietnam movement,
and the pro‐Gulf War movement.

While most people argue that a corporate elite controls media, a variation
on this approach argues that a politically “liberal” elite controls media. They point
to the fact that journalists, being more highly educated than the general
population, hold more liberal political views, consider themselves “left of center,”
and are more likely to register as Democrats. They further point to examples from
the media itself and the statistical reality that the media more often labels
conservative commentators or politicians as “conservative” than liberals as
“liberal.”

Media language can be revealing, too. Media uses the terms “arch” or
“ultra” conservative, but rarely or never the terms “arch” or “ultra” liberal. Those
who argue that a political elite controls media also point out that the movements
that have gained media attention—the environment, anti‐nuclear, and anti‐
Vietnam—generally support liberal political issues. Predominantly conservative
political issues have yet to gain prominent media attention, or have been
opposed by the media. Advocates of this view point to the Strategic Arms
Initiative of the 1980s Reagan administration. Media quickly characterized the
defense program as “Star Wars,” linking it to an expensive fantasy. The public
failed to support it, and the program did not get funding or congressional support.

C. Culturalist theory
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The culturalist theory, developed in the 1980s and 1990s, combines the other
two theories and claims that people interact with media to create their own
meanings out of the images and messages they receive. This theory sees
audiences as playing an active rather than passive role in relation to mass
media. One strand of research focuses on the audiences and how they interact
with media; the other strand of research focuses on those who produce the
media, particularly the news.

Theorists emphasize that audiences choose what to watch among a wide range
of options, choose how much to watch, and may choose the mute button or the
VCR remote over the programming selected by the network or cable station.
Studies of mass media done by sociologists parallel text‐reading and
interpretation research completed by linguists (people who study language). Both
groups of researchers find that when people approach material, whether written
text or media images and messages, they interpret that material based on their
own knowledge and experience. Thus, when researchers ask different groups to
explain the meaning of a particular song or video, the groups produce widely
divergent interpretations based on age, gender, race, ethnicity, and religious
background. Therefore, culturalist theorists claim that, while a few elite in large
corporations may exert significant control over what information media produces
and distributes, personal perspective plays a more powerful role in how the
audience members interpret those messages.

The Functions of the Mass Media

Almost everyone gets his or her information about world, national, and local affairs
from the mass media. This fact gives both print and broadcast journalism important
functions that include influencing public opinion, determining the political agenda,
providing a link between the government and the people, acting as a government
watchdog, and affecting socialization.

A. Public opinion

The mass media not only report the results of public opinion surveys conducted by
outside organizations but also increasingly incorporate their own polls into their news
coverage. More important, newspapers and television help shape public opinion as well.
Research has shown that the positions people take on critical issues are influenced by
the media, especially when the media air divergent views and provide in-depth analysis.

B. Political agenda

The term political agenda is broader in scope than the term public opinion, and it

refers to the issues people think are the most important and that the government needs
to address. A person's perception of such matters as crime, civil rights, the economy,
immigration, and welfare are affected by the manner and extent of media coverage.
Studies indicate that a correlation exists between the significance people assign a
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problem and the frequency and amount of space or time newspapers, magazines, and
television give to it.

C. Link between the government and the people

The mass media is the vehicle through which the government informs, explains, and
tries to win support for its programs and policies. President Duterte’s SONA uses radio
and TV in this manner. Ideally, the mass media networks should not give the president
desired airtime if they believe the purpose is essentially political. If they do grant the
time, the opposition party usually has the opportunity to rebut what the president says or
present its own views on a topic immediately after the president speaks.

D. Government watchdog

From muckraking early in the century to today's investigative reporting, an important

function of the mass media is to bring to the attention of the people evidence of
corruption, abuse of power, and ineffective policies and programs. SSS, Philhealth and
other national issues would have remained just another burglary buried in the back
pages of any newspaper had some media people and credible witnesses not dug into
the story. Although the media are often accused of having a "liberal bias", all
presidential administrations face close scrutiny from print and broadcast journalists.

E. Socialization

The mass media, most significantly through its news, reporting, and analysis, affects
what and how we learn about politics and our own political views. Along with family,
schools, and religious organizations, television also becomes part of the process by
which people learn society's values and come to understand what society expects from
them. In this regard, the impact comes primarily from entertainment programming.
Television's portrayal of minorities and women, family relations, and the place of religion
in people’s life is considered to be a powerful influence on our attitudes.

Some people believe that people, especially children, imitate behavior observed in
media communications. They are, therefore, concerned about the quantity of sex and
violence on TV. This theory of behavior may be naive, and certainly it lacks consistent
or weighty scientific evidence.

PRESSURES ON JOURNALISTS

Journalists are professional people, trying to work within a code of professional ethics.
This includes the need to be fair to all parties involved in any news story.

However, journalists cannot operate in a vacuum, doing what they think is right
without pressures being put on them. Journalists face pressure from a variety of
sources, all trying to make the journalist behave in a way which is not the way the
journalist would choose. It is important that you try to resist all these forms of pressure,
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as far as possible. Of course, you will sometimes fail. This is an imperfect world, and
journalists are also imperfect. Nevertheless, you should always try to resist the kinds of
pressure.

Employer

Your employer pays your salary. In return, they expect to say how you will do your job.
This can lead to ethical problems for journalists.

Government media

If you work for a government-owned news organization, then your government will be
your employer. This could make it very difficult for you to report critically on things which
the government is doing.

Ministers will often put pressure on public service journalists to report things which are
favorable to the government (even when they are not newsworthy) and not to report
things which are unfavorable to the government. They can enforce public service
discipline, to make journalists do as the government wants. This is especially difficult to
resist in small developing countries, there may be little or no alternative employment.

It is not only government-owned media where such pressure exists, though.

Commercial media

Commercial media are paid for by a mixture of advertising and sales. To increase sales,
newspapers, radio and television stations sometimes sponsor sporting or cultural
events, and then publicize them. Your boss may demand more coverage for the event
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than it is worth, in order to promote the event as much as possible. You will need to
persuade them of the danger of this - that other events will have to be neglected to give
extra coverage to your sponsored event, and that this will risk losing readers or
listeners.

Advertisers can also bring pressure to bear upon owners and editors. A big advertiser
may threaten to stop advertising unless you run a news report of something good which
the advertiser has just done; or, much worse, it may threaten to stop advertising unless
you ignore a news event which is unfavorable to the advertiser.

Ideally, any news organization should dismiss such threats, and judge each story only
on its news merits. However, this is easier in a large community with a diverse and
developed economy than it is in a small country with a developing economy. When a
commercial news organization is operating on a tiny profit margin, it will not be easy to
turn away a big advertiser, and its owners may feel forced to give in to the pressure.

In some cases, the advertiser may even be the government. In many countries the
government is the biggest advertiser - with job advertisements, calls for tenders, public
announcements and so on - and this can be a way in which governments bring indirect
pressure to bear upon commercial news media.

What should you do about this kind of pressure? The first thing which any junior
journalist should do is to report it to their editor. It will be for the editor to decide what to
do. He or she will need to resist the employer as far as possible, pointing out the
dangers of failing to report the news fully and fairly.  The main danger is that readers or
listeners who already know of the event which is being suppressed, realize that it is not
being reported and so lose confidence in the newspaper, radio or television station
involved. This may, in the long run, result in more serious problems for ministers than
some short-term embarrassment, and may do more long-term damage to your
organization's finances than the loss of one advertiser.

The truth is, though, that your power to resist pressure from your employer is limited.
You can only do your best, and accept that the rest is beyond your control.

Authority

Both government-owned and commercial news media may face pressure from authority
- the government, the police, customs, or some other branch of authority.

Governments can threaten, or make, laws to force all news media to be licensed. This
would give them power to grant licenses only to those news organizations which please
the government. Even the threat to introduce such legislation may be enough to frighten
journalists, and to make them afraid of criticizing the government too much.
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The best way to resist such pressure is to stimulate public debate on the issue of media
licensing. As with any proposed legislation, the news media should encourage public
debate before it comes in, so that leaders have the opportunity to judge public opinion.

If society generally is opposed to licensing of all news media, then a democratically-

elected government will think very seriously before introducing such a thing. On the
other hand, if society wants news media to be licensed by government, then it is
something which journalists will just have to accept, however much they may disagree
with it.

Other forms of authority may bring pressure to bear on you in less official ways. Police
may attempt to confiscate your camera when you are taking photographs which the
police do not like; or they may deny you access to a court room or a public meeting; or
they may order you not to report certain things. Junior journalists should always report
such incidents to their editor.

The editor will best resist this kind of pressure by knowing precisely what he is allowed
to do, and what he is not allowed to do. If he knows that the police are acting outside
their powers, he can politely approach a very senior police officer, or even the Police
Minister, and report the incident. They can then handle it. If the police act outside their
powers and no action is taken, even though it has been reported, then the editor can
publicize the fact in a major news story. It is wise, though, to try to sort out such
problems quietly first, since in this way future relations may be more positive.

Threats

Many people think they can avoid bad publicity by threatening journalists with violence,
or with legal action. Such threats should always be resisted (unless you are advised by
a lawyer that you are legally in the wrong).

Junior journalists should always report any threat which they have received to their
editor. If the threat was a threat of violence, then the editor should seriously consider
informing the police. It is usually a criminal offence to threaten violence against
somebody, and journalists are protected by such a law as much as anybody else.

If the threat is of legal action, then the editor's response will depend upon the facts of
the case. The editor should know the law well enough to judge whether or not to take
the threat seriously. If he suspects that there may be grounds for legal action, he should
consult a lawyer. Then, if he finds that he or his reporter is in the wrong, of course he
should immediately set things right. If, however, he finds that there is no basis for legal
action, then he and his reporter can happily ignore the empty threat.

Bribes
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Journalists do not usually earn big money. You may therefore be vulnerable to bribery -
somebody offering money (or goods or services) in return for a favorable story being
written, or an unfavorable story being ignored.

To accept a bribe is dishonest. Your honesty is like virginity - it can only be lost once.
Once you have accepted a bribe, you can never again be trusted as a professional
person.

Journalists who are offered bribes will usually be offered them in private. This is so that
the person attempting the bribe can later deny that it ever happened. If this happens,
you should immediately invite somebody else into the room, and then ask the briber to
repeat their offer. They are unlikely to do so but, if they do, you will have a witness. In
any case, report the matter to your editor.
Gifts and freebies
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Commercial companies sometimes try to buy journalists' friendship by giving them small
presents or by giving them the opportunity to travel at the company's expense
(sometimes called freebies).

Often this travel is legitimate. An airline which is introducing a new route to and from
your country may well offer you a free seat on the first flight. You will then have the
opportunity to write from first-hand experience about the service and about the
destination. If the airline is confident that its service is good, and that the destination is
interesting, they will be satisfied that whatever you write will be good publicity for them.

As long as it is understood that you are free to write whatever you like, without the
company that provides the free travel having any influence, such an arrangement is
acceptable. However, if you are offered a ticket in return for writing "something nice"
about the company, this is not acceptable. Poor newspapers, radio and television
stations may be grateful for charity to top up inadequate travel budgets, but they should
never be so poor that they sell their professional honor.

In any case, such offers should never be accepted or negotiated by a junior journalist.
Only the editor should do so, and any offers must be referred to the editor. The editor
can judge whether or not the terms of the offer are acceptable.

Gifts are a difficult area. Small gifts, such as a tie or a bottle of whisky, may be
acceptable, but the gift should not be so big as to buy your loyalty. The golden rule for
each journalist is whether they would care very much if the company decided not to
offer another gift like this in the future. If you do not care whether they offer you such a
gift again, then you have not been bought. If you deeply desire another similar gift, you
are in danger; remove the temptation by telling the company not to send any more.

The former editor of the Hindustan Times, Khushwant Singh, once said that he would
accept a bottle of whisky from anybody, because he would still feel free to criticize
them; but he would not accept a case (12 bottles) of whisky, because he was afraid that
might influence the way he did his job.

In any case, all gifts, however small, should be declared to your editor. If your editor
considers that any gift is too large or too generous to be accepted, you will have to
return it, politely but firmly. People need to know that you and your news organization
have moral and ethical standards, and are prepared to live by them.
Sometimes, executives in companies or government departments will devote a lot of
time and energy to making you into their friend. They may take you out for meals, buy
you drinks or invite you to their home. Beware of this. If it is genuine friendship, there
may be no problem; but it may be an attempt to win your loyalty. It is as bad to run a
story which is just a free advertisement, or to suppress bad news, as a favor to a friend,
as it is to do the same thing in return for a bribe.
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Family

In many societies, a person's first loyalty is to members of their extended family, or clan,
or tribe. This is expected to take priority over all other loyalties, including their loyalty to
the ethical standards of their profession. Thus, a doctor who saved the life of a
traditional clan enemy could meet with disapproval from his own relatives.

Journalists, too, face conflicts of loyalty like this. It may not only be pressure from your
family, clan or tribe; it may also be from members of a club or association or church to
which you belong.

For young journalists in small societies, this is often the hardest kind of pressure to
resist. They understand that they should have a loyalty to their professional ethics, but
deep down they are certain that they must not offend the family. To do so, and to be cut
off from the family, would be unthinkable.

It is important, therefore, that you avoid such conflicts of interest whenever possible. If
you are told by your editor to cover a story which involves your own extended family, or
clan, or tribe, you should point out to the editor this conflict of loyalty and ask that the
story be assigned to another reporter.
The hardest job is that of the editor himself. He cannot avoid the clash of responsibility
in this way, and must make the decision either to please his family and sacrifice his
organization's credibility; or to maintain his professional standards and cut himself off
from his family. Neither decision will be easy, but it is to be hoped that senior
journalists in such situations will be able to set an example of professional and ethical
courage to their junior colleagues.
.

Tradition

In societies which are in rapid change from traditional to modern Western ways, there is
often a clash between the way in which things were done in the past and the way in
which the profession says they should be done now.

For example, freedom of speech may itself be a recent imported concept. Traditionally,
it may be that only men of a certain rank had the right to express their views; or that
certain clans had the right to express their views on certain subjects; and it may have
been the case that very few people had the right to question a chief.

All this is very different to a Western-style free Press, in which everybody is encouraged
to speak on every subject, and journalists, however junior, are encouraged to cross-
examine leaders, however senior.
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Tradition will often be used as a weapon to pressure journalists into patterns of

behaviour which go against their professional ethics. Junior journalists should always
report such instances to their editor, and seek guidance.

The way forward will require careful thought. The professional ethics of journalists in
your country may still be developing. They will be influenced by professional journalists'
ethics in other countries, where journalism is more established; but they will also be
influenced by the traditions of your society. Out of a clash of cultures, a new culture may
develop, suitable for your society in the modern world. Only you, and other journalists in
your society, can form these new ethical standards for your society; and you must be
prepared both to listen carefully to other points of view and to act according to your
judgment, while these new standards are emerging.

Personal conviction

Journalists may come under pressure from their own strong beliefs.

For example, a journalist who is deeply opposed to capital punishment may be writing a
story about crime. In the course of gathering the information, they may interview
somebody who calls for the death penalty as the answer to increasing crime. The
journalist may be tempted not to report these comments, and to leave the question of
capital punishment out of the story. This would clearly be unethical.

It is as bad to censor the news to suit your own views as it is to censor the news to
please your family, or clan, or tribe. This is contrary to the most fundamental principle of
free speech - that we may disagree with what somebody says, but that we must fight to
defend their right to say it. See Chapter 57: Fairness for a fuller discussion of this
principle.

It is not only the things you really believe in which may cause problems. Some
journalists accept contracts to advertise products, as a way of earning some extra
money. You must think carefully before you do this.

If you are seen by your readers or listeners to be in favour of a particular product, they
will not believe that you are impartial if you later report a story about that or any rival
products.

It is important for journalists to be impartial. You may know that you have no special
liking for the product which you advertised - you only did it for the money - but your
readers or listeners will not know that.

Codes of ethics

In many countries journalists try to work within a professional code of ethics. This
usually lays down in simple, straightforward terms the kind of things they should and
should not do. Typically such codes contain rules about issues such as honesty,
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fairness, independence and respect for the rights of other people such as interviewees,
victims and readers or listeners.

In most free press democracies, journalist codes of ethics are usually voluntary,
perhaps monitored by a professional association or journalist union. In such cases, the
only real sanctions against journalists who breach the codes are criticism from
colleagues and perhaps loss of membership of the association or union. In some cases
media employers might use the journalist code of ethics to set standards for journalists
they employ, in which case breaches of the codes might lead to discipline or even
sacking.

In some countries where the media are suppressed, the government may try to control
what is written or broadcast by imposing a code of ethics backed by law and policed by
the authorities. These are like any other laws in such countries; breaking them may lead
to punishment, so it is up to journalists themselves to decide whether to obey
oppressive codes or follow the higher principles of journalistic ethics and risk the
consequences.

A good example of a journalist code of ethics in free press democracies is from the
Australian Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA). It states:

AJA CODE OF ETHICS

Respect for truth and the public's right to information are fundamental principles of
journalism. Journalists describe society to itself. They convey information, ideas and
opinions, a privileged role. They search, disclose, record, question, entertain, suggest
and remember. They inform citizens and animate democracy. They give a practical
form to freedom of expression. Many journalists work in private enterprise, but all have
these public responsibilities. They scrutinise power, but also exercise it, and should be
accountable. Accountability engenders trust. Without trust, journalists do not fulfil their
public responsibilities. MEAA members engaged in journalism commit themselves to

 Honesty
 Fairness
 Independence
 Respect for the rights of others

1.  Report and interpret honestly, striving for accuracy, fairness and disclosure of
all essential facts.  Do not suppress relevant available facts, or give distorting
emphasis.  Do your utmost  to give a fair opportunity for reply.

2.  Do not place unnecessary emphasis on personal characteristics, including

race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, age, sexual orientation, family relationships,
religious belief, or physical or intellectual disability.
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3.  Aim to attribute information to its source.  Where a source seeks anonymity,
do not agree without first considering the source’s motives and any alternative
attributable source.  Where confidences are accepted,  respect them in all
circumstances.

4.  Do not allow personal interest, or any belief, commitment, payment, gift or
benefit, to undermine your accuracy, fairness or independence.

5.  Disclose conflicts of interest that affect, or could be seen to affect, the
accuracy, fairness or independence of your journalism.  Do not improperly use a
journalistic position for personal gain.  

6.  Do not allow advertising or other commercial considerations to undermine

accuracy, fairness or independence.

7.  Do your utmost to ensure disclosure of any direct or indirect payment made
for interviews, pictures, information or stories.

8.  Use fair, responsible and honest means to obtain material.  Identify yourself
and your employer before obtaining any interview for publication or broadcast. 
Never exploit a person’s vulnerability or ignorance of media practice.

9.  Present pictures and sound which are true and accurate.  Any manipulation
likely to mislead should be disclosed.

10.  Do not plagiarise.

11.  Respect private grief and personal privacy.  Journalists have the right to
resist compulsion to intrude.

12.  Do your utmost to achieve fair correction of errors.

Guidance Clause

Basic values often need interpretation and sometimes come into conflict. Ethical
journalism requires conscientious decision-making in context. Only substantial
advancement of the public interest or risk of substantial harm to people allows any
standard to be overridden.

Other useful codes can be found at:

The Philippines Press Institute

The Canadian Association of Journalists (CAJ)
The British National Union of Journalists (NUJ)
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The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) website has links to a Declaration of

Principles on the Conduct of Journalists.

Journalism.org, the Pew Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism has links to
several industry and professional codes, mainly in the US.

Ethicnet has links to codes of ethics and practice for most European countries but be
warned, some of them come from countries where independent media are suppressed
and the codes are used by governments to constrain journalists. With a similar
warning, Medialaw.com gives several codes of ethics for Asian countries.

Finally, Al Jazeera provides an example of how a media organisation can develop a

sophisticated professional code of ethics for its journalists.

TO SUMMARISE:

Live by the ethical standards of your profession; resist all forms of pressure to
lower your standards

Report any threats, bribes or other secret pressure to your editor

Do not sell yourself for a gift or freebie

Avoid reporting stories in which you have family interests or other loyalties

What is the difference between law and ethics?

"The law sets minimum standards of behavior while ethics sets maximum standards." 
Ethics provides us with guides on what is the right thing to do in all aspects of life, while
the law generally provides more specific rules so that societies and their institutions can
be maintained.