PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE

(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA

Introduction to teachings ◆ Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning or

Teaching & Learning Process respondent conditioning)
Teaching • Is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a
⚫ Refers to the process of impacting knowledge and skills stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response
from a teacher to a learner. It encompasses the activities that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
of educating or instructing. It is an act or experience
that has a formative effect on the mind, character or
physical ability of an individual.
⚫ A working definition of teaching is undertaking certain
ethical tasks or activities the intention of which is to
include learning.
⚫ It is deliberate intervention that involves planning and
implementation of instructional activities and
experiences to meet learner outcome according to a
teaching plan.

Some thought on teaching and learning.

⚫ Clearly, not all learning is dependent on teaching.
However, all teaching regardless of quality is predicted
on learning. -Brown 1993
⚫ Teaching makes learning possible. -Ramsden, 1992
◆ Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)
• Described as a process that attempts to modify
behavior through the use of positive and negative
reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an
individual makes an association between a particular
behavior and a consequence.

Learning
⚫ Process of gaining knowledge or skils by studying,
practicing, being taught, or experiencing something.
(Merriam Webster Dictionary)
⚫ “a persisting change in human performance or ◆ Social Conditioning (Observational Conditioning)
performance potential (brought) about as a result of the • In this theory, people can learn new information and
learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, behaviors by watching’s other people.
1994) • Observing/observe
⚫ “the relatively permanent change in a person’s
knowledge or behavior due to experience” (Mayer,
1982)
⚫ an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to
behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or
other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986)

Learning Theories
Social Conditioning
-a type of learning that occurs when a behavior is observed
and subsequently mimicked.
➢ “it takes a village to raise a child”

CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8 1

 PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA
• Why was Pavlov’s hair so soft?
-Because, he conditioned it.
• I was in psychology class yesterday…
-and we couldn’t stop laughing about how stupid Pavlov’s
dogs were. Then the bell rang and all had lunch.
The “HOWs” of TEACHING
A. Strategies
B. Approach
C. Technique
D. Method
Strategy
• Is the art and science of directing and controlling the
movements and activities of the army. If strategy is good,
we can get victory over our enemies. In teaching this
term is meant those procedures by which objectives of
teaching are realized in the class.
• Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson which
includes structures, instructional objectives and an
outline of planned tactics, necessary to implement the
strategies.
• Teaching is generalized plan of the whole lesson plan.
• In strategy of teaching, realization of objectives is given
more importance than presentation of lesson.
• A strategy does not follow single track all the time, but it
changes according to the demands of the situations such
as age, level, needs, interests and abilities of the
students. Thus, strategy is more comprehensive than
method.
• It is directional in nature. It refers to goal directed
activities of the teachers. This, it is more close to science
than arts.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
➢ Brainstorming- is a large or small group activity that
encourages students to focus on a topic and contribute
to the free flow of ideas.
➢ Case studies- are effective ways to get students to
practically apply their skills, and their understanding of
learned facts, to a real-world situation. They are
particularly useful where situations are complex and
solutions are uncertain.
➢ Debates- structured way of exploring the range of views
on an issue. It consists of a structured contest of
argumentation, in which two opposing individuals or
teams depend and attack a given proposition.
➢ Discussion- discussion lets class members work actively
with the ideas and the concepts being pursued, and
discussion sessions can be an extremely effective in
changing behavior or attitudes. Consequently, teachers
use them frequently in instructional situations.
➢ The flipped classroom- students complete learning
normally covered in classroom in their own time (by
watching videos and/or accessing resources) and
classroom time is dedicated to hands-on activities and
interactive, personalized learning, leading to deeper
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
understanding. Students use class time to apply the
theory and concepts discussed in the videos, and to
utilize techniques including group problem-solving and
team building games, simulations, case study reviews,
and group discussions.
➢ Groupwork- is a method of instruction that gets students
to work together in groups.
➢ Questioning- the art of asking questions is at the heart of
effective communication and information exchange,
which underpins good teaching. If you use questioning
well, you can improve the student learning experience in
a whole range Teaching Setting.
➢ Simulation- are instructional scenario where the learner
is placed in a “world” defined by the teacher. They
represent a reality within which students interact. The
teacher controls the parameters of this “world” and uses
it to achieve the desired instructional results. Students
experience the reality of the scenario and gather
meaning from it.
APPROACH, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE
Approach- is the broadest of the three, making technique the
most specific, and the method found in between approach
and technique.
• Ways in which you try to engage students with the
subject matter (provide students with basic facts, relate
new knowledge to what students already know, build in
interaction, be passionate, be enthusiastic)
• The ways in which you support your students (encourage
questions, set formative assessments, provide
constructive feedback).
• The mode or manner of teaching (lecture, tutorial,
bedside teaching, laboratory work)
➢ Hands on procedure of teaching
• Some understanding of how people learn (learning
theory);
• Some understanding of how to facilitate learning
(qualities of the teacher such as passion, principles for
good teaching practice such as providing timely and
constructive feedback, putting educational theory into
practice).
Types of Teaching Approach
ACCORDING TO THE ROLE OF TEACHER
❖ The executive approach- views the teacher as manager of
complex classroom processes, a person charged with
bringing about certain outcomes with students through
using the best skills and technique available.
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 PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA
❖ The facilitator approach- it places a high value on what
students bring to the classroom setting, it places
considerable emphasis on making use of students’ prior
experience.
❖ The liberationist approach- is rooted in notions of liberal
education, wherein the goal is to liberate the mind to
wonder, to know and understand, to imagine and create,
using the full intellectual inheritance of civilized life.
APPROACH ACCORDING TO NATURE OF LEARNING
Discovery Learning
• takes place in problem solving situations where learner
draws on his own experience and prior knowledge and is a
method of instructions through students interact with
their environment by exploring and manipulating objects,
wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing
experiments.
➢ Students and teachers’ interaction
A. Discovery
1. refers to various instructional design models that
engages students in learning through discovery.
Usually the pedagogical aims are threefold:
1) Promote “deep” learning
2) Promote meta-cognitive skills (develop problem
solving-skills, creativity, etc.)
3) Promote student engagement
• An approach, which capitalizes on the child’s natural
curiosity and urge to explore the environment.
• The child learns by personal experience and
experiment and this is thought to make memory
move vivid and help in the transfer of knowledge to
new situations.
Conceptual Teaching
• Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of
concepts, and the development of logical reasoning &
critical thinking
B. Conceptual
• Choosing and defining the content of a certain discipline
to be taught through the use of or pervasive ideas as
against the traditional practice of determining content by
isolated topics.
• Not a particular teaching method with specific steps to
follow; it is more of a viewpoint of how facts and topics
under a discipline should be dealt with.
• Involves more data collection usually through research
while the discovery approach actively involves students to
undertake experimental and investigate work.
➢ more on experiment and investigation work
(research/collecting data)
Process Writing
• Treats all writing as a creative art which requires time and
positive feedback to be done well. In process writing, the
teacher moves away from being someone who sets
students a writing topic and receives the finished product
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
for correction without any intervention in the writing
process itself.
C. Process
• An approach which provides students with an abundance
of projects, activities, and instructional designs that allow
them to make decisions and solve problems.
• Through this approach students get a sense that learning
is much more than the commission of facts to memory.
Rather, it is what children do with that knowledge that
determines its impact on their attitudes and aptitudes.
Unified Teaching
• this approach lends itself smoothly to a unified teaching-
learning concept of education. The information handler,
being a teacher, a student or another educational
environment, is at the center of this education model. The
main inherent characteristics of this model are extreme
flexibility, integration, ease of interaction, and being
evolutional.
D. Unified
• It is based on a breakdown of knowledge to integrated
modules of information. The basic level of breakdown is
to be used in education to buildup concepts, while the
higher ones are to be used to buildup complex concepts
of knowledge, including those of experts. Key to the
success of this breakdown is the relational integration of
the information leading to the concept under
consideration.
• This approach lends itself smoothly to a unified teaching-
learning concept of education. The information handler,
being a teacher, a student, or another educational
environment, is at the center of this educational model.
• The main inherent characteristics of this model are
extreme flexibility, integration, ease of interaction, and
being evolutional.
APPROACH ACCORDING TO TEACHER-STUDENT
INTERACTION
Teacher-centered approach
• it is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and
information onto their students.
2. Direct Instruction
-relies on explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-
led demonstration
➢ Formal Authority
• Formal authority teachers are in a position of power
and authority because of their exemplary knowledge
and status over their students. Classroom
managements styles are traditional and focus on rules
and expectation.
➢ Expert
• Expert teachers are in possession of all knowledge and
expertise within all classroom. Their primary role is to
guide and direct learners through the learning process.
Students are viewed solely as the receptors of
knowledge and information (“empty vessels”)
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 PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA
➢ Personal Model
• Teachers who operate under the “Personal Model”
style are those who lead by example, demonstrating to
students how to access and comprehend information.
In this teaching model, students learn through
observing and copying the teacher’s process.
Student-centered approach
• Student learning is continuously measured during teacher
instruction.
1. Inquiry-Based Learning
- focuses on student investigation and hands-on
learning.
- teacher’s primary role is that of a facilitator,
providing guidance and support for students through
the learning process.
➢ Facilitator
• Facilitators place a strong emphasis on the teacher-
student relationship. Operating under an open
classroom model, there is a de-emphasis on teacher
instruction, and both student and educator undergo the
learning process together. Student learning loosely
guided by the teacher, and is focused on fostering
independence, hands -on learning, and exploration
➢ Personal Model
• Teachers who operate under the Personal Model” style
are those by example, demonstrating to students how
to access and comprehend information. In this teaching
model, students learn through observing and copying
the teacher's process.
➢ Delegator
• Teachers act as a "resource to students, answering
questions and reviewing their progress as needed.
Teachers play passive role in student's learning students
are active and engaged pinicipants in their learning. The
main goal of a Delegator is to foster a sense of
autonomy in the learning process.
2. Cooperative Learning
-emphasizes group work and a strong sense of
community
-“Think-Pair-Share”
➢ Group Work
➢ Facilitator
• Facilitator place a strong emphasis on the teacher-
student relationship. Operating under an open
classroom model, there is a de-emphasis on teacher
instruction, and both student and educator undergo the
learning process together. Student learning loosely
guided by the teacher, and is focused on fostering
independence, hands-on learning, and exploration.
➢ Delegator
• Teachers act as a “resource” to students, answering
questions and reviewing progress as needed. Teachers
play a passive role in students learning; students are
active and engage participants in their learning. The
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
main goal of a delegator is to foster a sense of
autonomy in the learning process.
Method- on the other hand, is an organized, orderly,
systematic, and well-planned procedure aimed at facilitating
and enhancing students learning.
• Method of teaching is directly related to the presentation
of the lesson. Which a teacher should use, depends on the
nature of the subject, and the tact of the teacher.
FOUR METHODS OF PRESENTING THE SUBJECT MATTER.
1. Telling Method; lecture method, Discussion method,
Story telling method, and so on.
➢ math problem/solving
➢ laboratory procedure
2. Doing Method; Project method, Problem solving method,
Textbook method, and so on.
3. Visual Method; Demonstration method, Supervised study
method, and so on.
4. Mental Method; Inductive, Deductive, Analysis, Synthesis
method, etc.
Instructional Media
• Instructional media encompasses all the materials and
physical means an instructor might use to implement
instruction and facilitates students’ achievement of
institutional objectives.
• May include traditional materials such as chalkboards,
handouts, charts, slides, overheads, real objects, and
video tapes or film, as well newer materials and methods
such as computers, DVDs, CD-ROMs, the internet, and
interactive video conferencing.
Why use instructional media?
• A good aid is like a window, it should not call attention to
itself, it should just let in the light. In general, you should
use media whenever, in your best judgement, it can
facilitate learning or increase understanding of your
material.
• Of course, communicating to facilitate learning can be
challenging process, often requiring creative efforts to
achieve a variety of implicit instructional goals (University
of Saskatchewan, n.d.
Among the implicit goals that media can help achieve are the
following:
1. Attractive attention
2. Developing interest
3. Adjusting the learning
4. Promoting acceptance of the idea
Types of Instructional Media
✓ Projected Media
• Instructional materials that require projection and
electricity in their using process.
3. Slides, filmstrips, and overheads.
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 PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA
• Use to: allow all students to view the same
material at the same time. Offer the students
other perspectives on the material.
✓ Non-projected Media
• Instructional materials that do not require the
process of projection before its operation can take
place.
4. Photographs, diagrams, and displays
• Use to: Illustrate concepts, enhance direct
instruction, encourage students to look at data in
diverse ways.
✓ Audio Media
• Cassettes and compact discs
• Use to: Allow students to hear other
languages/dialects, allow auditory learners to
review the lessons, encourage creativity through
music.
✓ Motion Media
• Videos, computer mediated instruction, and
television
• Use to: offer supplemental instruction, experience
concepts in a manner that is not available in “real
life”
✓ Hyper Media
• Computer networks, software, and the internet
• Use to: offer resources beyond the library,
develop computer and word processing skills,
offer interactive learning.
5. google
✓ Gaming Media
• Computer games
• Use to: provide a playful environment for learning,
structure learning through rules, motivational for
tedious or repetitive content, uses problem
solving skills.
Health Education
• Health education is a social science that draws from the
biological, environmental, psychological, physical and
medical sciences to promote health and prevent disease,
disability and premature death through education-driven
voluntary behavior change activities.
• Health education is the development of individual,
group, institutional, community, and systemic strategies
to improve health knowledge, attitudes, skills, and
behavior.
• Simply, it is the profession of educating people about
health for attainment of positive health.
CONCEPT OF HEALTH EDUCATION
Concept of health
• The word health is derived from Hal, which mean “hale
(strong, healthy), sound (body, family and environment),
whole.” Hahn and Payne describe health in terms of six
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
interacting and dynamic dimensions- physical,
emotional, social, intellectual, spiritual and occupation.
Health
• “Soundness of body or mind that condition in which its
are duly and efficient discharged.”
-Oxford Dictionary
• WHO has given a comprehensive definition of health in
its preamble to constitution in 1984. According to WHO,
“Health is a state of complete
AIMS OF HEALTH EDUCATION
1. Health promotion and disease prevention
2. Early diagnosis and management
3. Utilization of available health services
6. Health Center
PRINCILES OF HEALTH EDUCATION
1. Credibility: message should be conveyed by the
trusting people
2. Interest: firstly, we should find the need of the
community in order to create interest
3. Participation: choice interest topic
4. Motivation: firstly, convey the message in order to
change the behavior
5. Comprehension: firstly, find the capacity of the
people which need the baseline data
6. Reinforcement need repeat follow up
7. Learning by doing
8. Known to unknown: starts what knowledge they
have up to the knowledge they don't have
9. Setting an example
10. Good human relations: build rapporting to the
community’s people
11. Feedback: should give to the community what
change occur, how many people developed
knowledge and many others.
12. Leaders
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH EDUCATION
▪ Inform people about health, illness, disability, and
ways in which they can improve and protect their
own health, including more efficient use of the
delivery system;
▪ Motivate people who want to change to more
healthy practices;
▪ Help them to learn the necessary skills to adopt and
maintain healthful practices and lifestyles;
▪ Foster teaching and communication skills in all those
engaged in educating consumers about health;
▪ Advocate change in the environment that facilitate
healthful conditions and healthful behavior; and
▪ Add to knowledge via research and evaluation
concerning the most effective ways of achieving the
above objectives.
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 PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA
Technique- encompasses the personal style of the teacher in
carrying out specific steps of the technique process.
GOOD TEACHING
THE TEACHER
▪HALLMARKS OF GOOD TEACHING
a. Professional competence
b. Interpersonal relationship
c. Teaching/ Evaluation practices
d. Availability to students
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
▪The teacher who enjoys teaching shows genuine interest in
patient, and displays confidence in his or her professional
abilities.
▪The teacher who is creative and stimulating and can excite
student’s interest and can demonstrate clinical skills with
expertise is also valued.
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
ASPECTS:
1. The teacher who aims at excellence develops thorough
knowledge of subject matter and polishes skills throughout
his or her career.
2. He or she expands and maintains through reading
research,clinical practices, and continuing education.
3. Learners need to know that they can trust the clinical
expertise of the teacher.
4. Part of building trust is for the teacher to also admit to
errors and weaknesses in practice.
5. A teacher who portrays excellent clinical skills, judgment,
and honesty becomes a positive role model for learners.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS
❖As in all relationships, it is important that teachers listen to
learners and try to see the world through their eyes
❖First approach: Respect learners to care about their
concerns
❖Second approach: Accept learners as they are, whether or
not you like them
❖Third approach: Honest communication contributing to
healthy relationships with learners
❖Fourth approach: Clearly identifying the learner’s
responsibilities in the learning process.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP
This skill is demonstrated by:
1. taking interest in learners,
2. Being sensitive to their feelings and problems
3. Conveying respect for them
4. Alleviating their anxieties
5. Being accessible for conferences
6. Being fair
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
7. Permitting learners to express differing point of view
8. Creating a n atmosphere in which they feel free to ask
questions
9. Conveying sense of warmth
TEACHING PRACTICES
▪Teaching practices- defined as the mechanics, methods, and
skills in classroom and clinical teaching.
❑Students value a teacher who has a thorough knowledge of
the subject matter and can present material in an interesting
clear and organized manner.
TEACHING/EVALUATION PRACTICES
▪Jacobson (1966): defined teaching practices as the
mechanics, methods and skills in classroom and clinical
teaching.
▪Teaching subject matter in a stimulating way and inspiring
learner interest hinge on several factors such
as:
▪Teacher’s style
▪Personality
▪Personal interest on the subject
▪Use of variety of teaching strategies
EVALUATION PRACTICES
▪Evaluation practices valued by students include:
✓clearly communicating expectations
✓providing timely feedback on student progress
✓correcting students tactfully
✓being fair in the evaluation process
✓giving tests that are pertinent to the subject matter.
AVAILABILITY TO STUDENTS
▪Allied health science students, expect the instructor to be
available to them when needed. This may take the form of
being there in the ff:
✓stressful clinical situations
✓physically helping students
✓giving appropriate amounts of supervision
✓freely answering questions and;
✓acting as a resource person during clinical learning
experiences.
TEACHER/MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST’S AND ROLES IN
GUIDANCE
▪The concept of guidance, which associated it with the daily
activity of the classroom teacher, gives a greater
responsibility to him. It means that the teacher who is
dealing with children should be given in-service education for
discharging his responsibilities in personal, educational and
vocational guidance.
▪make sure the young person has a voice in setting learning
targets
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 PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA
AS A MOTIVATOR
▪A teacher, who mechanically assigns each hour's work
without guiding learners to see the larger sequence of which
it is a part, can serve dooms and will usually have little
intrinsic appeal. This is the teacher who then feels a need for
the carrot or the stick. He deprives students of opportunity to
carry their existing motivations into the classroom
in ways that could help their learning.
WAYS TO MOTIVATE THE LEARNERS
▪There are 2 type of Motivation:
1. Intrinsic Motivation
2. Extrinsic Motivation
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
▪Intrinsic motivators include fascination with the subject, a
sense of its relevance to life and the world, a sense of
accomplishment in mastering it, and a sense of calling to it.
▪Students who are intrinsically motivated might say things
like the following:
▪“Literature interests me.”
▪“Learning math enables me to think clearly.”
▪“I feel good when I succeed in class.”
Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-
sustaining.
▪ Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also typically
efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often
focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.
▪Disadvantages: On the other hand, efforts at fostering
intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behaviour and can
require special and lengthy preparation.
▪Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may be
needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to
know what interests one’s students in order to connect these
interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to
know one’s students. Also, it helps if the instructor is
interested in the subject to begin with!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
▪Extrinsic motivators include parental expectations,
expectations of other trusted role models, earning
potential of a course of study, and grades (which keep
scholarships coming).
▪Students who are extrinsically motivated might say things
like the following.
▪“I need a B- in statistics to get into business school.”
▪“If I flunk chemistry, I will lose my scholarship.”
▪“Our instructor will bring us donuts if we do well on today’s
quiz.”
▪Advantages:
Extrinsic motivators more readily produce behavior changes
and typically involve relatively little effort or preparation.
Also, efforts at applying extrinsic motivators often do not
require extensive knowledge of individual students.
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
▪Disadvantages:
On the other hand, extrinsic motivators can often distract
students from learning the subject at hand. It can be
challenging to devise appropriate rewards and punishments
for student behaviors. Often, one needs to escalate the
rewards and punishments over time to maintain a certain
effect level.
▪Also, extrinsic motivators typically do not work over the long
term. Once the rewards or punishments are removed,
students lose their motivation.
Effects of Motivation on Learning Styles
▪Deep learners respond well to the challenge of mastering a
difficult and complex subject. These are intrinsically
motivated students who are often a joy to teach.
▪Strategic learners are motivated primarily by rewards.
✓They react well to competition and the opportunity to best
others.
✓They often make good grades but won’t engage deeply
with a subject unless there is a clear reward for doing so.
They are sometimes called“bulimic learners,” learning as
much as they need to do well on a test or exam and then
promptly forgetting the material once the assessment is over.
✓Handle strategic learners by avoiding appeals to
competition. Appeal to their intrinsic interest in the subject
at hand. Design your assignments (tests, papers, projects,
etc.) so that deep engagement with the subject is necessary
for success on the assignments. Do so by requiring students
to apply, synthesize, or evaluate material instead of merely
comprehending or memorizing material.
▪Surface learners are often motivated by a desire to avoid
failure.
✓They typically avoid deep learning because it they see it as
inherently risky behavior.
✓They will often do what it takes to pass an exam or course,
but they won’t choose to go beyond the minimum required
for fear of failure.
✓Handle surface learners by helping them gain confidence in
their abilities to learn and perform.“Scaffold” course material
and assignments by designing a series of activities or
assignments that build on each other over time in complexity
and challenge. Encourage these learners often and help them
reflect on what they’ve learned and what they’ve
accomplished.
STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING STUDENTS
▪Following are some research-based strategies for motivating
students to learn:
❑Become a role model for student interest. Deliver your
presentations with energy and enthusiasm. As a display of
your motivation, your passion motivates your students. Make
the course personal, showing why you are interested in the
material.
❑Get to know your students. You will be able to better tailor
your instruction to the students’ concerns and backgrounds,
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 PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
(PSTM221)
BARCELON, AIRISH MARIA
and your personal interest in them will inspire their personal
loyalty to you. Display a strong interest in students’ learning
and a faith in their abilities.
❑Use examples freely. Many students want to be shown
why a concept or technique is useful before they want to
study it further. Inform students about how your course
prepares students for future opportunities.
❑Use a variety of student-active teaching activities. These
activities directly engage students in the material and give
them opportunities to achieve a level of mastery.
❑Teach by discovery. Students find as satisfying as reasoning
through a problem and discovering the underlying principle
on their own.
❑Cooperative learning activities are particularly effective as
they also provide positive social pressure.
❑Set realistic performance goals and help students achieve
them by encouraging them to set their own reasonable goals.
Design assignments that are appropriately challenging in
view of the experience and aptitude of the class.
❑Place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading. Tests
should be a means of showing what students have mastered,
not what they have not. Avoid grading on the curve and give
everyone the opportunity to achieve the highest standard
and grades.
❑Be free with praise and constructive in criticism. Negative
comments should pertain to particular performances, not the
performer. Offer nonjudgmental feedback on students’ work,
stress opportunities to improve, look for ways to stimulate
advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep and
goats.
❑Give students as much control over their own education
as possible. Let students choose paper and project topics
that interest them. Assess them in a variety of ways (tests,
papers, projects, presentations, etc.) to give students more
control over how they show their understanding to you. Give
students options for how these assignments are weighted.
Ways to motivate the Learners:
1. Fine-tune the challenge. We’re most motivated to learn
when the task before us is matched to our level of skill: not
so easy as to be boring, and not so hard as to be frustrating.
Deliberately fashion the learning exercise so that students
are working at the very edge of your abilities, and keep
upping the difficulty as they improve.
2. Start with the question, not the answer. Memorizing
information is boring. Discovering the solution to a puzzle is
invigorating. Present material to be learned not as a fait
accompli, but as a live question begging to be explored.
3. Encourage students to beat their personal best. Some
learning tasks, like memorizing the multiplication table or a
list of names or facts, are simply not interesting in
themselves. Generate motivation by encouraging students to
compete against themselves: run through the material once
to establish a baseline, then keep track of how much they
improve (in speed, in accuracy) each time.
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
4. Connect abstract learning to concrete situations. Adopt
the case-study method that has proven so effective for
business, medical and law school students: apply abstract
theories and concepts to a real-world scenario, using these
formulations to analyze and make sense of situations
involving real people and real stakes.
5. Make it social. Put together a learning group, or have
students find learning partners with whom they can share
their moments of discovery and points of confusion. Divide
the learning task into parts, and take turns being teacher and
pupil. The simple act of explaining what they’re learning out
loud will help them understand and remember it better.
6. Go deep. Almost any subject is interesting once you get
inside it. Assign the task of becoming the world’s expert on
one small aspect of the material they have to learn— then
extend their new expertise outward by exploring how the
piece they know so well connects to all the other pieces they
need to know about.
SOME OTHER WAYS TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS
▪Use several senses
▪Actively involve the patients or clients in the learning
process
▪Provide an environment conductive in learning
▪Assess the extent to which the learner is ready to learn
▪Determine the perceived relevance of the information
▪Repeat information
▪Generalize information
▪Make learning a pleasant experience
▪Begin with what is known; move toward with what is
unknown
▪Present information at an appropriate rate
SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE IN
UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
▪Encourage student-faculty contact
▪Encourage cooperation among students
▪Encourage active learning
▪Give prompt feedback
▪Emphasize time on task
▪Communicate high expectations
▪Respect diverse talents and ways of learning
MEDICAL TECHNOLOGISTS AS TEACHERS
▪should have a formal preparation
▪expertise is important to prepare next generation
Good Teaching Practice: Roles and Function of a Teacher
Roles of a Teacher
1. As a Manager
2. As a Counsellor
3. As a Motivator
4. As a Leader
5. As a Model
6. As a Public Relations Specialist
7. As a Parent-Surrogate
8. As a Facilitator
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9. As an Instructor
As a Manager
✓ Responsible for the effective management of the
class from start to finish
✓ Carries systematic activities throughout the day
✓ Expected to maintain order in the classroom
As a Counsellor
✓ Teachers are expected to respond constructively
when problems crop up concerning student
behaviour.
✓ Teachers provide guidance and assistance if
students experience problems.
As a Motivator
✓ Teachers encourage and motivates learners to study
well and behave properly in and outside the
classroom.
✓ Teacher is good at motivating learners to make
them listen, participate, and understand
instructions.
As a Leader
✓ Teacher directs, coaches, supports, and delegates
depending on the needs of the situation
✓ To be a good leader, you must be a good follower
As a Model
✓ Teacher should look his best all the time, master his
lessons, show interest in the learner’s welfare, show
his good behaviour, and include good work and
attitudes.
✓ Teacher should be fair in dealing with students and
exhibit good judgement when situation calls for it.
As a Public Relations Specialist
✓ Teacher deals with people outside the school with
credibility.
✓ Teacher must have a good public relations to make a
good name for his school.
As a Parent-Surrogate
✓ In school, the teacher is the parent of the learners.
✓ Adding to main functions of developing the learners
intellectually, the teacher is also expected to train
the learners socially and emotionally and to look
after their physical and mental well-being.
✓ Teacher guarantees that the individual rights of the
learners in education and safety is respected.
As a Facilitator
✓ The learners must be given the chance to discuss
things under the close supervision and monitoring of
the teacher.
✓ Teacher prepares guidelines which will serve as the
focus of discussion and activities.
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
As an Instructor
✓ The main function of the teacher is instruction.
✓ Teachers make decisions as to what to teach, what
instructional materials to use what method to
employ in teaching a particular content, and how
best to evaluate the intended learning.
THE TEACHER
✘ HALLMARKS OF GOOD TEACHING
a. Professional competence
b. Interpersonal relationship
c. Teaching/ Evaluation practices
d. Availability to students
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
✘ The teacher who enjoys teaching shows genuine
interest in patient, and displays confidence in his or
her professional abilities.
✘ The teacher who is creative and stimulating and can
excite student’s interest and can demonstrate
clinical skills with expertise is also valued.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS
❖ As in all relationships, it is important that teachers
listen to learners and try to see the world through
their eyes
❖ First approach: Respect learners t care about their
concerns
❖ Second approach: Accept learners as they are,
whether or not you like them
❖ Third approach: Honest communication
contributing to healthy relationships with learners
❖ Fourth approach: Clearly identifying the learner’s
responsibilities in the learning process.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP
This skill is demonstrated by:
1. taking interest in learners,
2. Being sensitive to their feelings and problems
3. Conveying respect for them
4. Alleviating their anxieties
5. Being accessible for conferences
6. Being fair
7. Permitting learners to express differing point of view
8. Creating an atmosphere in which they feel free to
ask questions
9. Conveying sense of warmth
TEACHING PRACTICES
✘ Teaching practices- defined as the mechanics,
methods, and skills in classroom and clinical
teaching.
❑ Students value a teacher who has a thorough
knowledge of the subject matter and can present
material in an interesting clear and organized
manner.
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TEACHING/EVALUATION PRACTICES Barriers

✘ Jacobson (1966): defined teaching practices as the ✗ Factors that impede the ability to deliver
mechanics, methods and skills in classroom and educational services
clinical teaching. ✗ Factors that negatively affect the ability of the
✘ Teaching subject matter in a stimulating way and learner to pay attention and process information
inspiring learner interest hinge on several factors Teaching Learning
such as: Lack of time Lack of time to learn
✗ Teacher’s style Lack of expertise of Illness, stress
✗ Personality educational background
✗ Personal interest on the subject Lack of motivation Low literacy, low
✗ Use of variety of teaching comprehension
strategies Lack of budget allocation Negative influence
for educational programs
AVAILABILITY TO STUDENTS Personal characteristics
✘ Allied health science students, expect the instructor Lack of support and
to be available to them when needed. This may take ongoing positive
the form of being there in the ff: reinforcement
✓ stressful clinical situations Lack of willingness to learn
✓ physically helping students Inconvenience
✓ giving appropriate amounts of supervision
✓ freely answering questions and; Professional Attributes
✓ acting as a resource person during clinical learning ✓ A professional teacher perceives himself as someone
experiences. who can effect change or learning because he is an
expert in what he teaches and in how he teaches.
TEACHER/MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST’S AND ROLES IN ✓ Teacher has the collection of best teaching practices
GUIDANCE and can use these to instruct students in classrooms
and to work with adults in school setting.
✘ The concept of guidance, which associated it with
✓ Teacher has disposition and skills to approach all
the daily activity of the classroom teacher, gives a
aspects of his work in a reflective, collegial and
greater responsibility to him. It means that the
problem-solving manner.
teacher who is dealing with children should be given
✓ Teachers has a view of learning to teach as a lifelong
in-service education for discharging his
process and dispositions and skills for working
responsibilities in personal, educational and
towards improving his own teaching as well as
vocational guidance.
improving schools.
✘ make sure the young person has a voice in setting
“Once a teacher, forever a student”.
learning targets
• Personal Attributes
Definitions of Teaching
• Passion
✘ Organized, purposeful, and deliberate efforts
• Humor
designed to bring about certain desirable ends in an
• Values & Attitude
individual.
• Patience
✘ It is an action of a person imparting skill, knowledge, • Enthusiasm
or even a value to another. • Commitment
✘ It is an attempt to assist students in acquiring or
changing some skill, knowledge, ideal attitude, or 1. Passion
appreciation. ✓ Passionate teachers exude spontaneity in
✘ Is a process or set of actions to induce learning and ministering to the needs of the students especially
eventually to succeed in learning. those experiencing learning difficulties.
✓ It drives them to care for their students corrected
Learning with appropriate reformative action.
✗ Defined as a change in behavior that can be 2. Humor
observed or measured and occur anytime as a result ✓ Teacher’s humor connects them with their student
of exposure to a stimuli like a magnet.
✗ Acquisition of knowledge and skills consciously such ✓ They enjoy as a group, thus promote a spirit of
that behavior is altered in some way togetherness.

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✓ A clean joke will always elicit rapport in a learning Knowles’ 5 Assumptions Of Adult Learners
environment. Self-Concept
3. Values and Attitude ► As a person matures his/her self concept moves
✓ Values connotes standards, code of ethics and from one of being a dependent personality toward
strong beliefs one of being a self-directed human being.
✓ Teachers are models of values Adult Learner Experience
✓ Examples of values a teacher is expected are: ► As a person matures he/she accumulates a growing
- open-mindedness reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing
- fairness and impartiality resource for learning.
- sincerity and honesty Readiness to Learn
4. Patience ► As a person matures his/her readiness to learn
✓ It refers to teacher’s uncomplaining nature, self- becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental
control and persistence. tasks of his/her social roles
✓ Teachers calmly endure their students’ limitations Orientation to Learning
and difficulties ► As a person matures his/her time perspective
5. Enthusiasm changes from one of postponed application of
✓ Refers to eagerness and excitement knowledge to immediacy of application. As a result
✓ Enthusiastic teachers are full of energy and his/her orientation toward learning shifts from one
dynamism where students look forward to any of subject- centeredness to one of problem
activity they participate in with them. centeredness.
✓ It is an irresistible feeling that intensifies the Motivation to Learn
student’s momentum to reach a desired goal. ► As a person matures the motivation to learn is
6. Commitment internal
✓ A solemn promise to perform the duties and
responsibilities mandated by laws and code of ethics Adult Learning vs Childhood Learning
of the profession. Childhood Learning (pedagogy)
✓ It is unwavering pledge to perform all teaching and ✓ Rote memory
learning activities with consistency and selflessness ✓ Repetition
to the best interest of the students under their care. ✓ Testing as feedback
✓ Committed teachers are caring and dedicated ✓ Gathering building blocks
✓ Vertical and additive
WAYS TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS Adult Learning (andragogy)
✓ Conceptual
✘ Use several senses
✓ Contextual
✘ Actively involve the patients or clients in the
✓ Continuous
learning process
✓ Horizontal and integrated
✘ Provide an environment conductive in learning
✘ Assess the extent to which the learner is ready to Comparison of Pedagogy to Andragogy
learn
ASSUMPTIONS PEDAGOGY ANDRAGOGY
✘ Determine the perceived relevance of the
information
✘ Repeat information Learn what the Need to know
NEED TO
✘ Generalize information teacher wants why they need to
KNOW
them to learn learn something.
✘ Make learning a pleasant experience
✘ Begin with what is known; move toward with what is Perception of
Feel responsible
unknown being dependent
SELF CONCEPT for their own
✘ Present information at an appropriate rate on the teacher
learning.
for learning
Adult Learning Theory-Andragogy
The teacher’s
Adults learn from
Andragogy ROLE OF experience, not
each other’s
✓ Term used by Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913 – EXPERIENCE the children’s is
experience.
1997) what counts.
✓ synonymous to adult education Must be ready Ready to learn
✓ the art and science of adult learning READINESS TO
when the when they feel
Pedagogy LEARN
teacher says they the need to know.
✓ Child learning

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must or they will 9. “When children and adult experience too much
not be frustration, their behavior ceases to be integrated,
promoted. purposeful and rational. Blindly they act out of their
rage, discouragement or withdrawal. The threshold of
Life-centered or what is ‘too much’ varies; it is lowered by previous
ORIENTATION Subject-centered
task-centered failures.” –Watson
TO LEARNING orientation.
orientation 10. “No school subjects are markedly superior to others for
‘strengthening mental powers.’ General improvement as
Primarily a result of study in any subject depends on instruction
internally designed to build up generalizations about principles,
Externally
MOTIVATION motivated, with concept formation and improvements of techniques of
motivated
some external study, thinking and communication.” – Watson
motivation. 11. “What is learned is most likely to be available for use if it
is learned in a situation much like that in which is to be
Learning Propositions used immediately preceding the time when it is
✓ Based from Book of Andragogy needed.” –Watson
Authors: 12. “Children (and adults even more) remember new
➢ Watson information which confirms their previous attitudes
➢ Knowles better than they remember new information which runs
➢ Holton counter to their previous attitudes. –Watson
➢ Swanson 13. “Adults need to know why they need to learn something
before undertaking to learn it. “ –Knowles, Holton and
1. “Behaviors which are rewarded (reinforced) are most Swanson
likely to occur.” -Watson
2. “Sheer repetition without indications of improvement LEARNING THEORIES
or any kind of reinforcement is a poor way to attempt ✓ Are concepts and propositions that explain why
to learn” –Watson people learn and predict what circumstances they
3. “Threat and punishment have variable and uncertain will learn.
effects upon learning; they may make the punished Major Learning Theories
response more likely or less likely to recur; they may set – Behaviorist Theories
up avoidance tendencies which prevent further – Cognitive Theories
learning.” –Watson – Social Learning Theories
4. “Reward (reinforcement) to be most effective in
learning, must follow almost immediately after the A. Behaviorist Theories
desired behavior and be clearly connected with that • Earliest formal theories for learning, used for
behavior in the mind of the learner.” – Watson children
5. “Learners progress in any area of learning only as far as • Focused on studying thoughts and feelings, fears
they need to in order to achieve their purpose. Often and phobia
they do only well enough to ‘get by’; with increased • Theorists:
motivation they improve.” – Watson 1. John Watson
“Adults are motivated to learn to the extent that they - Defined behavior as a muscle movement
perceive that learning will help them perform tasks or - began studying behaviour because it is more
deal with problems that they confront in their life objective.
situations.” –Knolwes, Holton, Swannon 2. Watson and Guthrie
6. “Forgetting proceeds rapidly at first- then more and - Contiguity theory
more slowly; recall shortly after learning reduces the - Believed that even a skill such as walking is learned
amount forgotten.” Watson through a series of conditioned responses.
7. “Learning from reading is facilitated more by time spent 3. Thorndike and Skinner
recalling what has been read than by rereading.” – - reinforcement theory
Watson - proposed that stimulus-response bonds are
8. “The best way to help pupils from a general concept is to strengthened by reinforcements such as reward or
present the concept in numerous ways and varied punishment.
situations, contrasting experiences with and without the
concept, then to encourage precise formulations of the
general idea in its application in situations different from
those in which the concept was learned.” –Watson

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B. Cognitive Learning Theories
Cognitive Science
✓ is a study of how our brains work in the process of
perceiving, thinking, remembering and learning.
Information Processing
✓ sometimes used to describe a subset of this field of
study.
✓ Explains the way that information is handled once it
enters the sensed and how it is organized and
stored.
Learning (in cognitive perspective)
✓ is an active process in which the learner constructs
meaning based on prior knowledge and view of the
world.
Theorists:
1. Breur
• Learning is a process whereby the novice becomes
expert
2. Feden, 1994
• An active process which the learner constructs
meaning based on prior knowledge and view of the
world
3. Ausubel, 1963
• Developed earliest model of cognitive learning
• The Subsumption Theory of Meaningful Verbal
Learning
• New information is subsumed into existing thought
and memory structures
• Meaningful learning is thought to occur only if
existing cognitive structures are organized and
differentiated.
• Repetition of meaningful material and its use in
various contexts would enhance the retention of
the material
4. Rumelhart, 1980
• Concept of schema or schemata
• “ all knowledge is packaged into units. These units
are schemata.”
Schemata- knowledge structures that store concepts, and the
knowledge of how to use them in memory.
3 Kinds of Learning Based on Schema Theory
a. Accretion
– The learning of facts
– New information is added to existing schemata
– No changes are made to existing knowledge
b. Tuning (schema evolution)
– Existing schema evolve or refined throughout
the lifespan as new situations and issues are
encountered
c. Restructuring (schema creation)
– Development if new schemata by copying an
old schema and adding new elements that are
different to create a new schema
CORONEL, BARBIE H. | BSMLS 2-YA-8
Other Theories/ Models of Information Processes
1. Level of Processing Theory
– Information is processed sequentially, from
perception to attention- to labelling and
meaning
2. The Parallel Distributing Model
– Information is processed by different parts of
the memory system simultaneously rather than
sequential
3. Connectionistic Model
– The information is stored in any places
throughout the brain, forming network of
connections
4. Stage Theory of Information Processing
– Relates to memory activity
– Information is both processed and stored in 3
stages: Sensory, Short-Term Memory and Long-
Term Memory
3 Stages
a. Sensory Memory
– Fleeting or passing swiftly
b. Short-Term Memory
– Needs interest
– Retain indefinitely if rehearsed or
meaningful to us
c. Long-Term Memory
– Use of mnemonic device
Common Concepts of Cognitive Theories
1. Learning
➢ Behaviorist: requisition of knowledge an skills
that changes a person’s behavior
➢ Cognitive theorists: focuses more on the
acquisition of knowledge than on the resulting
behavior
➢ Feden: Domain-Specific Learning
2. Metacognition
➢ Sometimes defined as “thinking about one’s
thinking
➢ A process that learners use to gauge or measure
their thinking while reading, studying or
problem-solving
➢ To know what they know and what they do not
know
➢ Journal writing, group dialogue, problem-based
learning, rationalization of test questions
3. Memory
➢ Sensory, short term and long term
➢ Consolidation
➢ Chunking: information is clustered into patterns
4. Transfer
➢ Ability to take information learned in one
situation and apply it to another
➢ Concepts and principles are used or adopted
not just to one particular situation but to all
other situations as well
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➢ Successful transfer depends on several factors: 5. Discrimination Learning

 The extent to which the material was – The more new chains that are learned, the easier it is
originally learned to forget previous chains
 The ability to retrieve information from – To retain large number of chains, you need to
memory discriminate among them
 The way in which the material was taught 6. Concept Learning
and learned – Learning how to classify stimuli into groups
 The similarity of the new situation to represented by a common concept
original 7. Rule learning
– Rule: chain of concepts or a relationship between
C. Social Learning Theories concepts
• Albert Bandura (1977) – Expressed as “If.... And then ..” relationships
• Observational Learning Theory 8. Problem solving
• Explains that behaviour is the result of an interaction – Highest level of learning
among the person (characteristics, personality etc.) – Applying previously learned rules that relate to
to the environment (physical, social etc) and the situation
behaviour itself. – Process of formulating and testing hypotheses
• People learn as they are in constant interaction with
their environment Learning Styles/Cognitive Styles
• Key components: ✓ The habitual manner in which learners receive and
a. Modelling perceive information, process it, understand it,
b. Attentional processes value it, store it, and recall it.
c. Retention Processes ✓ The way a person processes, internalizes studies,
d. Motivation interprets, and changes new and challenging
materials.
Key Components of Social Learning Theory
a. Modelling Memletic
– Learning occurs as a result of observing other Learning
people’s behavior and its consequences Style
b. Attentional Processes
– This determines which modelled behavior will be
learned
c. Retention Processes Learning
– Refer to the ability to retain modelled behaviors in Style
permanent memory Models
d. Motivation Dunn and
Kolb’s
– Motivation through valued outcomes (rewards) Dunn
Learning
Learning
rather punishing outcomes Style
Style
– Perceived reward is a good motivator
Memletic Learning Style Model
8 Types of Learning ✓ Recognizes that each of us prefers to learn in
Gagne’s Conditions of Leaning different ways.
1. Signal Learning (conditioned response)
– Simplest level of learning
– Person develops a general diffuse reaction to a
stimulus
2. Stimulus-Response Learning
– Developing a voluntary response to a specific
stimulus or combination of stimuli
3. Chaining
– Acquisition of a series of related conditioned
responses or stimulus-response connections
4. Verbal Association
– Type of chaining
– Process of learning medical terminology

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Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model

✓ Most people can learn, and each individual has his
own unique ways of mastering new and difficult
subject matter.

Psychologi
Environm
cal
ental

Physiolog Emotiona
ical l

Sociologi
cal

Learning Other Description Area of the

Style Term Brain
Responsible

Visual Spatial Prefers using Occipital

pictures, images, lobes and
graphs, charts, parietal
logic puzzles, and lobes
spatial
understanding

Aural Auditory- Prefers using Temporal

Musical sound and music lobe
Strand Examples
Right
(music) Environmental Some people study in a cool and quiet
Verbal Linguistic Prefers using Temporal room, while others cannot focus unless
words, both in and frontal they have music playing
speech and in lobes Emotional Some people work best when motivated
writing and encouraged, while some feel
Physical Kinesthet Prefers using Cerebellum motivated when assigned to lead and
ic body, hands, and and motor assume responsibility
sense of touch cortex Sociological A number of people need to work alone
Logical Mathem Prefers using Left parietal when tackling a new and difficult subject,
atical logic, reasoning, lobes while others learn best when working
and systems with colleagues

Social Interpers Prefers to learn Frontal and Physiological Some people prefer to study at night,
onal in groups or with temporal accomplishing more in a quiet
other people lobes and environment; still others find it easier to
limbic complete tasks in the morning as apart of
system the daily routine.

Solitary Intrapers Prefers to work Frontal and Psychological Global learners prefer to work in an
onal alone and use temporal environment with soft lighting and
self-study lobes and informal seating. Analytic learners prefer
limbic to work in an environment with bright
system lighting and formal seating.

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Kolb’s Learning Style ✓ They value brainstorming with a group although

✓ depicts learning as 4 stage cycle beginning with an
intermediate concrete experience during which the
person makes observations and reflections
✓ Then the person develops an abstract theory from
which he or she develops ideas on how to proceed.
✓ Finally, the person actively experiments with actions
to test them out.
✓ The four-stage learning cycle are : social or
accommodating, creative or diverging, intellectual or
assimilating, and practical or converging.
they often listen and observe sharing their own
ideas.
✓ They rely on concrete examples to learn, and trust
their own feelings when making decisions.
✓ They excel in imagination and awareness of
meaning.
✓ Their are feeling oriented and people oriented and
likes working in groups.
Intellectual/Assimilator Learners
✓ Are organized, logical and precise.
✓ They like to learn from lectures, reading, and
contemplation.
✓ They find facts, ideas, and information fascinating
and challenging to people and emotions.
✓ More scientific than artistic.
✓ Their strengths are in inductive reasoning, creating
theoretical models and integrating ideas
✓ They prefer playing with ideas to actively and
applying it
✓ They are more concerned with ideas than with
people.

Kolb then hypothesized that learners need 4 abilities to be

effective:
1. Concrete Experience (CE) abilities: Leaning from
actual experience
2. Reflective Observation (RO) abilities: Learning by
observing others
3. Abstract Conceptualization (AC) abilities: Creating
theories to explain what is seen
4. Active Experimentation (AE) abilities: Using
theories to solve problems.

Social/Accomodator Learners
✓ Are leaders
✓ They learn best by analyzing and solving a problem
as a group using their own intuition and information
from other people rather than from books and
lectures.
✓ They look for new experiences; often take risks and
employ hands on methods to accomplish their goals.
✓ They actively accomplish things often using trial-
and-error methods to solve problems.
✓ They may be impatient with other people and act
on intuition and are a risk taker.

Creative/Diverger Learners
✓ Are imaginative.
✓ They have an open mind to new ideas and offer
multiple perspectives.

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