ANONUEVO, MA. KRIZIA JOY P.

13, JULY
2021

ME-2A SIR. ESTIALBO

TOPIC 1: MEASURING DEVICES

In this topic I have learned about the principle of operation of various measuring instrument
used on board ship such as mechanical and electronic pressure measuring instruments and
measuring devices of level, flow, temperature, liquid and gas, analytical, tachometers and
humidity. All of these instruments are used for measuring various properties. But what is the
significance of them? Measuring devices make our lives better and safer, they give us accurate
measurements, there is a saying that “without measurement there is no control”. Therefore,
having accurate measurements will prevent potential equipment issues. In basic Control
Engineering, accuracy and precision is needed to our machineries onboard to ensure that they
are working at safely manner. Proper maintenance is needed to ensure that our value
and parameter that we read are all in normal and to avoid any further damage to our
machineries. It is part of our Marine Automation in which it helps the crew to monitor
parameters timely and mannerly so that they can give a good decision on any situations.
A measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity. In the physical sciences,
quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing
physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events
are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under
study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring instruments, and formal test
methods which define the instrument's use, are the means by which these relations of numbers
are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and
measurement uncertainty. These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and
stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual instrumentation is
widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments. Measurement is
quantitative comparison between a known quantity and an unknown quantity. You cannot have
data or information without any reference to compare it. Measurement helps you to quantify
the physical properties. In engineering, it can help you with manufacture or various parts
thereby ensuring proper fit between components. Measurements can also allow us to make
decisions based on the outcome of the measurement. By this reasoning measurements are
extremely important because they shape the way we think and interact every day.

TOPIC 2 & 3: ON-OFF, PROPORTIONAL, INTEGRAL, AND DIFFERENTIAL MODE OF CONTROL

AND PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

In this topic I have learned about various mode of controls like on-off controls,
proportional controls, integral controls, and differential controls. Aside from mode of controls, I
also learned about various process control systems like range, feedback, feed forward, ratio,
cascade, and split. What is the significance of them? Automatic control systems are also seen
as a way to reduce labor operating and supervisory cost, while maintaining product quality.
Automatic control systems are derived only if they can be relied upon to control the product
continuously for long periods without attention and to shut-down the process automatically
and rapidly in the event of an accident. Control is very important because it helps to check the
errors and to take the corrective action so that deviation from standards is minimized and
stated goals of the organization are achieved in desired manner.
One of the major functions of control systems is to provide protection for both the
circuit components and the motor. Fuses and circuit breakers are generally employed for circuit
protection, and over load relays are used to protect the motor. While on the process control, is
commonly used for mass producti on. Due to its precise nature, it enables the
automati on of industrial processes. With the proper informati on and equipment, a
small staff of operati on personnel can operate even the most complex processes
from a central control room. process control is not automati on. Instead, the two
work together to perform effi ciently. Without automati on, plant operators have to
physically monitor outputs to determine the best setti ngs to use with producti on
equipment. By using automated sensors, data can be collected and stores to make
more eff ecti ve decisions. Manipulati ng substances to produce a product is a very
demanding (and potenti ally hazardous) process. Even the smallest of changes can
yield drasti c diff erences in the end results. Improper boiler pressure, for example,
could aff ect the infl ow of air and the outf low of exhaust gases — threatening the
safety of workers. Proporti ons, temperature, fl ow, turbulence and many other
factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce the desired end
product with a minimum of raw materials and energy.

TOPIC 4: COMPUTE SOFTWARE FOR CONTROL SYSTEM

In this topic I have learned about the use of computer software for control system.
Automation and control of processing equipment by highly sophisticated computer control
systems is the standard at process facilities. It provides for closer control of the preprocess
conditions and therefore increased efficiencies. Increased efficiencies allow higher production
outputs. It also thought to reduce operator manpower requirements. However, other
personnel are still needed to inspect and maintain the automatic controlling system. All process
control systems should be monitored by operators and have the capability for backup control
or override by human operators.
Computers are now extensively used for measurement and control in process and
manufacturing industries. It has brought not only new possibilities but also new challenges to
measurement and control engineers. The development of digital computer technology has,
extensively increased the use of computers for measurement and control application. The basic
objective of computer-based measurement and control is to acquire the information from field
devices (input), and compute a logical decision to manipulate the material and energy flow of
given process in a desired way to get optimal output. Digital computer control applications in
the process industries may be of passive or active type. Passive application involves only
acquisition of process data (data acquisition / data logging) whereas active application involves
acquisition and manipulation of data and uses it for (real time) process control. Process control
computers now have the capability to implement sophisticated mathematical models. Plant
managers and engineers can be provided with comprehensive information concerning the
status of plant operations to aid effective operation. With the use of microprocessor-based
instruments and new emerging techniques, it is possible for automatic tuning of controller
parameters for best operating performance. The expert systems and advanced control
techniques such as model based predictive control, are being applied with the help of
computers for optimization of the process operation.

TOPIC 5: FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

In this topic, I have learned about different kinds of final control devices like control
valve, metering pump, solenoid valve, servo motor, and stepper motor. A final control element
is defined as a mechanical device that physically changes a process in response to a change in
the control system setpoint. Final control elements relevant to actuators include valves,
dampers, fluid couplings, gates, and burner tilts to name a few. Final control elements are an
essential part of process control systems, allowing an operator to achieve a desired process
variable output by manipulating a process variable setpoint. Current trends in industry focus on
improving quality and efficiency in an effort to reduce process costs. Many industrial facilities
are recognizing the bottom-line savings found from improved process control performance
through precise and consistent control of final control elements.
Therefore, devices that complete the control loop. They link the output of the
controlling elements with their processes. Some final control elements are designed for specific
applications. Final Control Elements–Control Valves. Process control engineers tend to treat
final control elements in the same way they treat measurement devices–with absolute
indifference. To most of them, a valve is a valve is a valve. Its job is to open and close according
to what the controller tells it and it does just that. The problem is, in a shocking number of
cases, it does not. Control valves and dampers, being mechanical devices, are subjected to a lot
of mechanical issues like wear and tear – deterioration with time.

TOPIC 6: INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

 In this topic, I have learned about standard symbols of various instruments, and I am
able to explain the plotted symbols in the diagram. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams are
schematic representations of pipelines, equipment, instrumentation, and control systems found
in process environments such as Oil Refineries, Chemical Plants, Paper Mills, and Cement
Plants, etc. The symbols contained in P&IDs represent the equipment in the process such as
actuators, sensors, and controllers. Process equipment such as valves, instruments, and
pipelines are identified by codes and symbols.

As well as devices and pipelines, a P&ID will commonly contain information on vents,
drains, and sampling lines as well as flow directions, control I/O and Interconnection
References. The Instrumentation codes listed in P&IDs follow a standard format, after some
practice in reading P&IDs you will know these codes by heart, but in the meantime, there are
many resources on the web where you can download these tables for reference. The first letter
of the code identifies the parameters that are being controlled or monitored for example Flow,
Temperature, Level or Pressure.

TOPIC 7: MAIN ENGINE COOLING AND VISCOSITY SYSTEM PI&D

In this topic, I have learned about the instruments used with such symbols, P&ID of a
main engine cooling system and viscosity control system. Although there is an abundance of
free sea water available, marine diesel engines do not use it directly to keep the hottest parts of
the engine cool. This is because of the corrosion which would be caused in the cooling water
spaces, and the salts which would be deposited on the cooling surfaces interfering with the
heat flow. Instead, the water circulated around the engine is fresh water (or better still, distilled
water) which is then itself cooled using sea water. This fresh water is treated with chemicals to
keep it slightly alkaline (to prevent corrosion) and to prevent scale formation. Of course, if
distilled water, which some ships can make from sea water using evaporators, is used then
there is a reduced risk of scale formation. The cooling water pump which may be engine driven
or be a separate electrically driven pump pushes the water around the circuit. After passing
through the engine, where it removes the heat from the cylinder liners, cylinder heads, exhaust
valves and sometimes the turbochargers, it is cooled by seawater and then returns to the
engine. The temperature of the cooling water is closely controlled using a three-way control
valve. If the water is allowed to get too cold then it will cause thermal shocking which may lead
to component failure and will also allow water and acids to condense on the cylinder bores
washing away the lubricating film and causing corrosion. If it gets too hot then it will not
remove the heat effectively causing excessive wear and there is a greater danger of scale
formation.

For this reason, the cooling water outlet temperature is usually maintained at about 78-
82°C. Because it is at a higher temperature than the cooling water used for other purposes
(known as the LT cooling), the water for cooling the engine is known as the HT (High
Temperature) cooling water. Cooling can be achieved by using a dedicated cooler or by mixing
in some of the water from the LT cooling circuit. The LT cooling water is then cooled in the sea
water coolers. The temperature is controlled using cascade control which monitors both the
inlet and outlet temperatures from the engine. This allows a fast response to any change in
temperature due to a change in engine load. To make up for any leaks in the system there is a
header tank, which automatically makes up any deficiency. Vents from the system are also led
to this header tank to allow for any expansion in the system and to get rid of any air (if you are
familiar with a domestic central heating system then you will see the similarities). The header
tank is relatively small, and usually placed high in the engine room. It is deliberately made to be
manually replenished, and is fitted with a low-level alarm. This is so that any major leak would
be noticed immediately. Under normal conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and if it
needs topping up, then the amount logged.

For efficient and complete combustion, residual fuel must be heated before it is burnt.
For correct atomization in the cylinder, the fuel must be at the correct viscosity. If the viscosity
is too high, the fuel droplets will tend to be too large and will take too long to absorb the heat
energy from the compressed air before they start to burn. This will lead to late and incomplete
combustion, lack of power, afterburning and damage or fouling to liner, piston crown, exhaust
valve and turbocharger. If the viscosity is too low, then the droplets will be too small and
combustion will tend to be early and incomplete because the fuel droplets will not have
penetrated far enough into the cylinder to find sufficient oxygen to burn completely. This again
will cause damage and fouling.

TOPIC 8: MAIN ENGINE & P&ID

In this topic, I have learned about the operation of a PID for typical ship’s main engine
system and the different components used in main engine maneuvering system. Main Engine is
responsible for propulsion of the ship and its direction and rotation are controlled from either
bridge or Engine Control Room (ECR) through telegraph and fuel lever control. This control
system is a remote-control type used for both sea voyage and maneuvering of vessel.

The exhaust valve activation is controlled by the FIVA valve. Each open and close
movement, performed by the exhaust valve spindle is measured by the ECS. The actual
mechanical delay is determined and used for the next activation. The ECS tells whether an
exhaust valve is open or closed. The exhaust valves must be closed when the engine has been
stopped for some time.

TOPIC 9: AUTOMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM FLOWCHART

In this topic, I have learned on how to read and create a flowchart for automation and
control systems. A control system typically comprises of a computer or microprocessor, a
control program which handles data from sensors and sends signals to output devices and an
interface box to convert signals between the sensors and the processor. A control system is a
set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behavior of systems. In most
systems there will be an input and an output. This block diagram represents that. Signals flow
from the input, through the system and produce an output.

A flowchart is a diagram that depicts a process, system or computer algorithm. They are
widely used in multiple fields to document, study, plan, improve and communicate often
complex processes in clear, easy-to-understand diagrams. Flowcharts, sometimes spelled as
flow charts, use rectangles, ovals, diamonds and potentially numerous other shapes to define
the type of step, along with connecting arrows to define flow and sequence.

They can range from simple, hand-drawn charts to comprehensive computer-drawn diagrams
depicting multiple steps and routes.

TOPIC 10: CALIBRATION FOR AUTOMATIC CONTROL DEVICES

In this topic, I have learned about the principle of calibration for automatic control
devices. Calibration is the process of comparing the reading of a field device to a calibration
standard to determine whether the device's accuracy meets performance requirements. It can
also include adjusting these devices so that they operate within limits. Calibration is typically
performed when installing a new device, changing the settings of an existing device or
reinstalling a repaired device. Anywhere that process variables such as temperature and
pressure need to be known and process control is required. Calibration checks the accuracy of
the instrument and determines the traceability of the measurement. It can also repair the
device because over time there is a tendency for results and accuracy to drift particularly when
using technologies or measuring parameters such as temperatures, humidity, and pressures. To
be confident in the results being measured there is an ongoing need to maintain the calibration
of equipment throughout its lifetime for reliable, accurate and repeatable measurements. The
goal of calibration is to minimize any measurement uncertainty by ensuring the accuracy of test
equipment. Calibration quantifies and control errors or uncertainties within measurement
processes to an acceptable level. Any equipment used should be calibrated at multiple points
across its working range to ensure reliable information to critical alarms and systems.
Calibration is vitally important wherever measurements are important, it enables users to have
confidence in the results that they monitor, record, and subsequently control. We, engineers
need to have a knowledge about calibration because we're now in the generation of
technologies such as automation or automatic devices. Since it is automatic devices, it doesn't
have brains to think, so we, humans will be the one who will set or calibrate that device in
order for them to perform the required work. The most important reason to calibrate is to
ensure safety. For us, engine crews, control valves have actuators that also require calibration
to adjust for wear and the effects of stiction. Often these valves must be given a partial stroke
test if they have not been actuated regularly.

TOPIC 11: PS, PT, TT, TS CALIBRATION

In this topic, I have learned about calibrating different measuring instruments such as
pressure switch, pressure transmitter, temperature transmitter, and temperature switches. A
pressure switch is a device that operates an electrical contact when a preset fluid pressure is
reached. The switch makes an electrical contact on either pressure rise or pressure fall from a
certain preset pressure level. Pressure transmitters are used to measure the pressure or level of
industrial liquids and gases. The output is transmitted to a control system. Accurate and stable
process measurements ensure the safe, reliable, and profitable operation of your plant.

Temperature transmitter is a device used for to convert RTD and thermocouple signals
into 4-20 mA output signal for connecting to DCS or PLC for running the industry in an efficient
mode.Temperature to be monitored but from the temperature measuring devices
thermocouple and RTD are only able to produce very small signals if this signals are connected
directly to DCS there will be some signal loss for to reduce this signal loss we are connecting the
temperature transmitter for amplify and transmit through the copper type signal cables.

TOPIC 12: CALIBRATION FOR LEVEL SWITCH

In this topic, I have learned about level switch. Level switch is also known as level
sensor, so basically it is a sensor that detects the presence of liquids, powder, or granulated
materials at a specific location. For example, when a tank is supplied with liquid, it overflows. In
order to prevent overflows, a level switch is installed near the top of the tank. Calibrating
sensors ensures that they are operating at the best possible rate and giving the best possible
performance.

Calibrating refers to the method which is used to check the accuracy of an instrument (in this
case, a sensor) compared to the predefined standards. The main purpose of calibrating is to
minimize uncertainty of measurements and to ensure both precision and consistency. A level
switch signals the system whether the level of the measured substance is within expected
parameters or not. If not, then the system will open a valve, start a pump, or take some other
action to modify the level.

TOPIC 13: CALIBRATION FOR PRESSURE INDICATORS

In this topic, I have learned about pressure indicator. Pressure gauge calibration is one
of the simplest calibration procedures. Pressure gauges are pressure indicating instruments.
Normally pressure gauges consist of bourdon tubes as pressure sensing elements. Calibration is
the procedure of comparing a reference with a known error margin against a device (for
example a pressure gauge) under test. If the device doesn’t match the reference, then we
adjust it to match, or at least come close, the desired measuring accuracy. The reference
measurement instrument must be more accurate than the pressure gauge to be calibrated, and
it must also be traceable. To calibrate a pressure gauge, we will need to check the values
throughout the entire measuring range, zero-point, intermediate values, and the full-scale
value.

TOPIC 14: Calibration for thermocouple, Pt 100/ Resistance temperature device (RTD), and
Thermistor

In this topic, I have learned about sensors such as thermocouple, RTD, and thermistor. A
thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different types of
metals, joined together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a
voltage is created that can be correlated back to the temperature. A Resistance Temperature
Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device used to
determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an electrical wire. This wire is
referred to as a temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, an
RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a wide range of
temperatures. Pt100 sensors are the most common type of platinum resistance thermometer.
Often resistance thermometers are generally called Pt100 sensors, even though in reality they
may not be the Pt100 type. Pt refers to that the sensor is made from Platinum (Pt). 100 refers
to that at 0°C sensor has a resistance of 100 ohms (Ω). Thermistors are a type of
semiconductor, meaning they have greater resistance than conducting materials, but lower
resistance than insulating materials. The relationship between a thermistor’s temperature and
its resistance is highly dependent upon the materials from which it’s composed. The
manufacturer typically determines this property with a high degree of accuracy, as this is the
primary characteristic of interest to thermistor buyers. Thermistors are made up of metallic
oxides, binders and stabilizers, pressed into wafers and then cut to chip size, left in disc form, or
made into another shape. The precise ratio of the composite materials governs their
resistance/temperature “curve.” Manufacturers typically control this ratio with great accuracy,
since it determines how the thermistor will function.

TOPIC 15: CALIIBRATION FOR ELECTRONIC CONTROLLERS

A controller is a comparative device that receives an input signal from a measured

process variable, compares this value with that of a predetermined control point value (set
point), and determines the appropriate amount of output signal required by the final control
element to provide corrective action within a control loop. An Electronic Controller uses
electrical signals and digital algorithms to perform its receptive, comparative and corrective
functions. An electronic sensor (thermocouple, RTD or transmitter) installed at the
measurement location continuously sends an input signal to the controller. At set intervals the
controller compares this signal to a predefined set point. An electronic controller is best suited
for applications where large load changes are encountered and/or fast response changes are
required. Different makers have full auto tuning and PID capabilities, and offer a host of
available options, including user selectable inputs and ranges, outputs, setback functions, and
alarms. An economical “on/off” only style is also available for simple control applications.