Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

Instrumentation and Measurement

Chapter One

Basic Concepts of Measurement and

Instrumentation

By Tadele Libay July, 2021

 Outline

1.1. Introduction
1.2. The Evolution of Measurement
1.3. Functions of Measurement Systems
1.4. Measurement Units
1.5. Methods of Measurement
1.6. Elements of Measurement System
1.7. Measurement Systems and Measurement Devices
1.8. Overview of Variables that are Measured
1.9. Classification of Measuring Instruments

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 1.1. Introduction

 Measurement techniques have been of immense importance ever since the

start of human civilization, when measurements were first needed to regulate
the transfer of goods in barter trade to ensure that exchanges was fair.

 The industrial revolution during the nineteenth century brought about a rapid
development of new instruments and measurement techniques to satisfy the
needs of industrialized production techniques. Since that time, there has been
a large and rapid growth in new industrial technology.

 This has been particularly evident during the last part of the twentieth
century, encouraged by developments in electronics in general and computers
in particular. This, in turn, has required a parallel growth in new instruments
and measurement techniques.

 Measurement systems have important vital applications in our everyday

lives, whether at home, in our vehicles, offices or factories. 3
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 We use measuring devices in buying our fruits and vegetables.
We assume that the measuring devices are accurate, and we
assume that we are all referring to the same units (e.g., kilogram,
meter, liter…). The consequence of inaccurate measuring
devices in this case leads to financial losses on our part.

 We check the temperature of our homes and assume that the

thermostats reading the temperature are accurate. If not, then the
temperature will be either too high or too low, leading to
inconvenience and discomfort.

 We pay for our electricity in units of kWh and we assume that

the electricity meter is accurate and faithfully records the correct
number of electricity units that we have used. We pay for the
water we consume in liters, and we also assume that the water
meter is correctly measuring the flow of water in liters. In this
case as well, the error will lead to financial loss.
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Length Temperature

Weight

Speed

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 The accuracy of the measurement systems mentioned above is very importa
nt, but is more critical in some applications than others. For example, a phar
macist preparing a medication is reliant on the accuracy of his/her scales to
make sure he/she includes the correct amounts of ingredients in the medicati
on. Another example is the manufacturing of present-day integrated circuits
and photo-masks that requires a high degree of accuracy. Certain chemical r
eactions require high accuracy in the measurement and control of temperatu
re.

 The massive growth in the application of computers to industrial process co

ntrol and monitoring tasks has spawned a parallel growth in the requirement
for instruments to measure, record and control process variables. As modern
production techniques dictate working to tighter and tighter accuracy limits,
and as economic forces limiting production costs become more severe, so th
e requirement for instruments to be both accurate and cheap becomes ever h
arder to satisfy. This latter problem is at the focal point of the research and d
evelopment efforts of all instrument manufacturers.
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 1.2. The Evolution of Measurement
Here is a list of steps of progress in measurement, which we define somewhat
arbitrarily, according to human needs as these emerged throughout history:

 The need to master the environment (dimensional and geographical aspects);

 The need to master means of production (mechanical and thermal aspects);
 The need to create an economy (money and trade);
 The need to master and control energy (electrical, thermal, mechanical, and
hydraulic aspects);
 The need to master information (electronic and optoelectronic aspects)

In addition to these is the mastery of knowledge which has existed throughout

history and is intimately connected:
 Measurement of time;
 Measurement of physical phenomena;
 Measurement of chemical and biological phenomena.
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 Definition

Measurement is the process of a quantitative comparison between a

predefined standard and an unknown magnitude.

There are two requirements that must be met:

 The standard which is used for comparison must be accurately

defined and commonly accepted (determination of how many
times as that of the standard)

 The procedure and apparatus employed for obtaining the

comparison must be provable.

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 1.3. Functions of Measurement Systems

Measurements are made or measurement systems are set up for one or more of the
following functions:

 To monitor processes and operations

 To control processes and operations
 To carry out some analysis

1.3.1. Monitoring
Thermometers, barometers, anemometers, water, gas and electricity meters only
indicate certain quantities. Their readings do not perform any control function in
the normal sense. These measurements are made for monitoring purposes only.
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 Cont’d…

1.3.2. Controlling
The thermostat in a refrigerator or geyser determines the temperature of the relevant
environment and accordingly switches off or on the cooling or heating mechanism to
keep the temperature constant, i.e. to control the temperature. A single system
sometimes may require many controls. For example, an aircraft needs controls from
altimeters, gyroscopes, angle-of-attack sensors, thermo- couples, accelerometers, etc.
Controlling a variable is rather an involved process and is therefore a subject of study
by itself.
1.3.3. Analysis
Measurement are also made to:
 Test the validity of predictions from theories,
 Build empirical models, i.e. relationships between parameters and quantities
associated with a problem, and characterize materials, devices and components.
In general, these requirements may be called analysis.
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 1.4. Measurement Units

 Early systems of measurement were based on whatever was available as a

measuring unit. For purposes of measuring length, the human torso was a
convenient tool, and gave us units of the hand, the foot and the cubit.

 Although generally adequate for barter trade systems, such measurement units
are of course imprecise, varying as they do from one person to the next.
Therefore, there has been a progressive movement towards measurement units
that are defined much more accurately.

 The first improved measurement unit was a unit of length (the meter) defined as
10-7 times the polar quadrant of the earth. A platinum bar made to this length was
established as a standard of length in the early part of the nineteenth century.

 This was superseded by a superior quality standard bar in 1889, manufactured

from a platinum–iridium alloy. 11
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 Since that time, technological research has enabled further improvements to be

made in the standard used for defining length. Firstly, in 1960, a standard meter
was redefined in terms of 1.65076373 x 106 wavelengths of the radiation from
krypton-86 in vacuum.

 More recently, in 1983, the meter was redefined yet again as the length of path
travelled by light in an interval of 1/299792458 seconds.

 In a similar fashion, standard units for the measurement of other physical

quantities have been defined and progressively improved over the years.

 Apart from the major units of length, subdivisions of standard units exist such as
feet, inches, centimeters and millimeters, with a fixed relationship between each
fundamental unit and its subdivisions.
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The latest standards for defining the units used for measuring a range of physical
variables are given in Table 1.1.

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Table 1.2.
(a) Fundamental and derived SI units

(b) Supplementary fundamental units

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(c) Derived units

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 1.5. Methods of Measurement
 Measurement of any quantity involves two parameters: the magnitude of the
value and unit of measurement. For instance, if we have to measure the
temperature we can say it is 10 degree C. Here the value “10” is the
magnitude and “0C” which stands for “Degree Celsius” is the unit of
measurement.

There are two methods of measurement:

• Direct Method
• Indirect method
Direct Method: In the direct method of
measurement, we compare the quantity directly with
the primary or secondary standard. Say for instance, if
we have to measure the length of the bar, we will
measure it with the help of the measuring tape or scale
that acts as the secondary standard. Here we are
comparing the quantity to be measured directly with
the standard.
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 Even if you make theSchool
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of Mechanicaldirectly with
and Industrial the secondary
Engineering - SMiE standard, it is
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 The secondary standards are made from the primary standards, but most of the
times we use secondary standards for comparison since it is not always feasible
to use the primary standards from accuracy, reliability and cost point of view.
There is no difference in the measured value of the quantity whether one is using
the direct method by comparing with primary or secondary standard.

 The direct comparison method of measurement is not always accurate. In above

example of measuring the length, there is limited accuracy with which our eye
can read the readings, which can be about 0.01 inch. Here the error does not
occur because of the error in the standards, but because of the human limitations
in noting the readings.

 Thus, in direct method of measurement there is always some difference, however

small, between the actual value of the quantity and the measured value of the
quantity. 17
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Indirect Method: There are number of quantities that cannot be measured directly
by using some instrument. For instance we cannot measure the strain in the bar due
to applied force directly. We may have to record the temperature and pressure in the
deep depths of the ground or in some far off remote places. In such cases indirect
methods of measurements are used.

 In the indirect method of measurements some transducing devise, called

transducer, is used, which is coupled to a chain of the connecting apparatus that
forms the part of the measuring system. In this system the quantity which is to be
measured (input) is converted into some other measurable quantity (output) by
the transducer.

 The transducer used is such that the input and the output are proportional to each
other.
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 The readings obtained from the transducer are calibrated to as per the relations
between the input and the output thus the reading obtained from the transducer is
the actual value of the quantity to be measured. Such type of conversion is often
necessary to make the desired information intelligible.

 The indirect method of measurements comprises of the system that senses,

converts, and finally presents an analogues output in the form of a displacement
or chart. This analogues output can be in various forms and often it is necessary
to amplify it to read it accurately and make the accurate reading of the quantity to
be measured. The majority of the transducers convert mechanical input into
analogues electrical output for processing, though there are transducers that
convert mechanical input into analogues mechanical output that is measured
easily.

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 1.6. Elements of a Measurement System

Each measurement system consists of five elements. These elements could all be in
one item or could be all in separate five items. Some simple systems might not
contain all of the components. The components of a typical system are shown in
Figure 1.

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Each of these components is discussed in more detail below.

 Sensor: The sensor is the element that gives an output that is proportional to the
input applied to it. In general the output is in an electrical format as this is the
most suitable format for later use (in processing, transmission and storage). The
input format depends on the variable to be measured (e.g., temperature, pressure,
humidity, pH, speed, acceleration, light…). Sensors usually have a near linear
relationship, although this is not always the case.

 Signal Conditioning Element (SCE): This is also referred to sometimes as a

variable conversion element: When the output variable of a primary sensor is in
an unsuitable (or inconvenient) format, a signal conditioning element is used to
convert it to a suitable form. For example, the change in resistance of a strain
gauge cannot be directly measured and thus a deflection type bridge circuit is
used to convert it to a suitable voltage. Bridge circuits are examples of signal
conditioning elements and are discussed in more detail in the coming Chapters.
Another example is the amplification of a very weak signal such as a biomedical
signal (such as that used in an electrocardiogram ECG). 21
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The combination of the sensor and the signal conditioning element (SCE) is called
the transducer. By definition, a transducer is a device the converts from one form of
energy to another. The term ‘transducer’ is sometimes incorrectly used to mean
‘sensor’.

 Signal Processing Element (SPE): This component is needed to improve the

quality of the signal. A very common example is filtering a signal that contains
mains frequency noise (i.e., 50 Hz).

Some of the examples of signal processing elements as used in a measurement

system are:

 Remove the mean value from AC signal (i.e., DC shift).

 Filter out induced noise (example 50 Hz hum/pick-up).
 Convert an analogue signal to a digital format.
 Convert a time signal into voltage (e.g., an ultrasonic level sensor).

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 The combination of the sensor, SCE and SPE is called the transmitter. The output
signal from the SPE could be in a number of formats: voltage, current, frequency
or on/off (such as in a switch). In other words, the information about the variable
to be measured will be contained in the voltage of the output signal, its current or
its frequency

 It could also just be a yes/no output signal (for example as given by a thermostat
that gives a signal stating whether the variable measured is more or less than a set
value). In the case of frequency for example, the value of the measured variable
would be represented as a certain frequency deviation from a certain mean
frequency.

 The voltage and current output usually follow a standard format (e.g. 0-10 V in
case of voltage and 4-20 mA in case of current).

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 Signal Transmission: The signal is then transmitted to the final location where
it is needed. Most modern measurement system could be distributed over a wide
area, and hence transmission in this case is necessary. There are three reasons
why the signal needs to be transmitted to a remote location:

I. Convenience: It is easier for example to locate the final equipment in a warm

office than on a the roof of the building where the transmitter is located.

II. Inaccessibility: The transmitter may sometimes be located in an area that

cannot be accessed or reach. The measured variable could be inaccessible
because it is located in a narrow tunnel if it is located in a high position.

III. Hazardous location: The transmitter might be located in an area that is

accessible, but hazardous to humans. An example of the hazardous situation is
where the measured variable is in a chemical or nuclear plant, or in an area with
very high temperatures.

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Transmission can be done by a number of methods, some of which are:

 Cable Transmission: This is typically done by screened single core or

multicore. This method suffers from the problem of losses and attenuation
especially over long distances and from electromagnetic interference. The cable
is screened to reduce noise interference. Where the distance is long and losses
become excessive, repeaters are needed at regular distances to re-amplify the
signal.

 Fiber Optics: Fiber optic cables are now more widely used. They offer the
following advantages (the first two being most important to measurement
systems):

 They are resistant to interference by electric and magnetic fields.

 They have low losses over long distances (as opposed to copper cable that
might need repeaters at long distances, e.g., 2 km).
.
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 They have a large bandwidth and can offer high speeds (up to TeraHz). This is
not much of an issue in low speed sampling system used in most measurement
systems and is more relevant to high speed communication and data systems.
 They offer electrical isolation (galvanic isolation) between the transmitter and
receiver. In some cases this is necessary for safety reasons.
The main disadvantage of fiber optic systems is their high cost. They also need
special equipment for installation, testing and repair and they require highly trained
and specialized technicians.

 Wireless Transmission: This removes the need for cabling and can be very
attractive in cases where the transmitter is placed in inaccessible or remote
locations. However, it does suffer from the problem of obstacles interrupting the
connection (e.g., reinforced concrete) and from attenuation. Most transmitter
manufacturers offer wireless versions of their systems nowadays. Many of the
home weather stations are equipped with a wireless connection.

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 Display, Recording or Analysis: D/R/A or use in automatic feedback systems:

This is where the final signal is utilized. One of the following actions is taken:

 It is either fed into the automatic feedback system.

 The signal is displayed, recorded or analyzed: The signal can either be
displayed on a screen or industrial display, it could be recorded on a hard-
disk for example over a period of days or months and it could be analyzed to
understand trends or draw conclusions.

Both actions can be taken simultaneously as well: We can feed the signal into an
automatic feedback system and display it on a screen or record it.

Not all measurement system will contain all of the five elements. In some cases
it is difficult to identify the boundaries between different elements.

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 As an example a simple measurement system is the mercury-in-glass

thermometer. In this case all the items are within the same instrument and it is in
fact difficult to separate one component from another. The system only contains a
sensor (effectively the mercury in the tube) and a display component (the scale on
the glass). There is neither an SCE, SPE or transmission system.

 On the other hand, an example of a complicated system is a computer controlled

remote system in a chemical plant. In this case the five components can be clearly
identified. The system is distributed, and thus the transmission element in this
case is necessary due to the distance between the variable of the process to be
measured and the receiver (e.g., a computer). The computer receiving the signal
would display it, record it and keep available for later analysis if needed. The
signal could also be fed into an automatic control system (e.g., temperature
control of the chemical reaction).

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 Example

Example 1. Piston Pressure Gage:

Piston: Primary sensing element.

Spring: Variable conversion element
Piston rod: data transmission element
Linkage: Variable manipulation element
Pointer and Scale: Data presentation element
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1.7. Measurement Systems and Measurement Devices

 A measurement system is the generic term of an instrument or a complex system.

A person using a thermometer to measure his body temperature represents a
measurement system. This system is made of: the human observer, the
thermometer and the measured variable (temperature) from the process (the
human body).

 It is important to note that the human observer is part of the measurement system
in this example. If the observer makes an error in reading the temperature from
the thermometer scale, then an error results from the whole measurement system.

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 1.8. Overview of Variables that are Measured
 The following is a selection of the most widely measured quantities:

I. Electrical parameters: The basic seven parameters are: voltage, current,

resistance, capacitance, inductance, frequency and phase shift. Other electrical
parameters that are effectively derived from the 7 above in terms of
measurement are: power and power factor.
II. Magnetic parameters: One of the magnetic parameters that can be directly
measured is the magnetic flux density.
III. Environmental variables: such as: Temperature, pressure and humidity.
IV. Mechanical measurements: such as: Mass, force, torque, length, area,
volume/capacity, angle and surface roughness.
V. Fluid measurements: such as: Viscosity, level measurement and flow
measurement.
VI. Motion measurement : such as: Translational motion and rotational motion.
VII. Others: Sound pressure, gas sensing and PH in solutions.

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 1.9. Classification of Measuring Instruments
1. Basic classification of measuring instruments:

I. Mechanical instruments:- They are very reliable for static and stable
conditions. The disadvantage is they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurement of dynamic and transient conditions.
II. Electrical instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating the output of
detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. The electrical system
normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating device.
III. Electronic instruments:- These instruments have very fast response. For
example a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable to follow dynamic and
transient changes of the order of few Nano seconds (10-9 sec).

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 Thank You

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