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MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
AND CONDITION
MONITORING
MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
AND CONDITION
MONITORING

JUAN CARLOS A. JAUREGUI CORREA

Autonomous University of Queretaro
Queretaro, Mexico

ALEJANDRO A. LOZANO GUZMAN

National Polytechnic Institute
Queretaro, Mexico
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Introduction

Conditioning monitoring is an evolution of predictive maintenance or pro-

active maintenance. The origin is difficult to define, but predictive mainte-
nance has made enormous progress over the last few decades. Nowadays, it
has been addressed as one of the most innovative solutions for anticipating
failures in machinery and is being used by a wide variety of industrial sectors.
Prediction maintenance could be applied to a large industrial sector when
the cost of vibration sensors was competitive. This advantage reduced the
cost of failures in comparison with the investment in the measurement
equipment and analysis system. In the beginning, the systems were rudimen-
tary and required specialized personnel to collect data and make the analysis.
The convergence of high-precision accelerometers and the ability to process
the Fourier transform with the FFT algorithm allowed the development of
rapid tools that can make a diagnosis on the actual condition of machines.
Previously, vibration sensors were applied in just a few types of equipment
due to their cost and the need for specialized personnel. These first concepts
were complemented with other emerging technologies such as ultrasonic,
thermography, acoustic sensors, and directional microphones.
The first application of predictive maintenance was made by the Royal
Air Force in the United Kingdom. It was found that the rate of failure
increased after the repair or inspection of machines, even following the
maintenance plans. This phenomenon was named the “Waddington
Effect,” which led to condition monitoring. It was decided to adjust the
maintenance programs and align them to the physical condition and fre-
quency of use to reduce the Waddington effect. The process required the
analysis of much data, but the launch of this program reduced the number
of failures. Conditioning monitoring systems evaluate the vibration data and
determine the condition of the machine based on the analysis of amplitude
and frequency. The original signal has raw data that have to be treated to
produce a reference baseline. Sampling the evolution of the data during
operation indicates the condition of the machine and, in the case of a failure,
the data will present significant changes. Conditioning monitoring systems
have increased the reliability of machinery because they include new sensors
while also using fast processing hardware and better algorithms for the signal
process. The application of artificial intelligent programs in conditioning

vii
viii Introduction

monitoring systems has increased the reliability of modern machinery,

allowing more extended periods between maintenance. These complex sys-
tems can anticipate failures in most of the components that constitute mod-
ern machines. The analysis data is also linked to purchasing programs and the
supply chain, enabling the reduction of spare part inventories.
Conditioning monitoring systems depend on the diagnosis of machin-
ery, equipment, and machine trains. The principal source of data for the
diagnosis comes from measuring mechanical vibrations. Traditionally, the
study of the mechanical vibrations has been considered tedious work
without an immediate application in engineering practice in the industry,
but that could not be further from reality. The vibratory phenomenon is,
practically, present in all machines and mechanical systems of any industrial
facility or structure. The force that excites any structure comes from the
movement of mechanical components. The variations in the homogeneity
of the materials are among the causes of vibrations. Other sources of
vibrations are the imperfections in the machining process, the manufactur-
ing tolerances, and the clearance for assembly of the machines. A machine
will vibrate if it operates in an overloaded state, if it is working below its
design parameters, if it lacks maintenance, or if it has excessive wear. The
intention of measuring vibrations is to have enough information to analyze
the conditions of a machine train and to keep the vibration levels of the
machines within acceptable values. Also, with proper interpretation, these
vibrations can provide a great deal of information regarding the operating
conditions of the equipment and mechanical systems.
The development of electronics, computers, and software provides great
storage capacity and information processing, which make possible the
application of vibration analysis in an industrial environment. However,
it is necessary to have an in-depth knowledge of the operating principles
of the measuring devices. The measuring systems generate large amounts
of data that must be analyzed, taking into account the theoretical back-
ground (theory of vibrations) and the analysis tools. The combination of
these elements potentializes the application of Conditioning Monitoring
Systems. Otherwise, one can easily become a “black box” user without
being able to interpret the causes and effects that mechanical vibrations have
in the different mechanical systems.
This book has two main objectives: To provide a maintenance engineer
with the necessary tools to make proper use of his/her measuring equip-
ment, and to introduce both engineering students and recently qualified
engineers in the practical implementation of vibration analysis in the
Introduction ix

predictive maintenance of machinery. The mathematical developments

highlight the principal concepts for understanding the theory, emphasizing
the ideas of the vibration theory as well as their importance in the practice of
predictive maintenance.
In particular, the book addresses the technicians and engineers who need
to apply their knowledge in a practical way to conditioning monitor a
machine train. Likewise, it will also be useful for actual technicians to sup-
port their observations and decisions theoretically concerning machinery
and equipment maintenance.

General considerations

The idea that the maintenance of the machinery is fundamental to increase

the productivity in an industrial plant is a concept that, finally, is being well
taken among engineers. This is surprising considering the number of indus-
trial executives who have ignored the impact that maintenance has in the
quality and quantity of the products they manufacture. The results are evi-
dent because the maintenance practices are increasing and improving, along
with the consequent reduction of costs and incidences in production.
Three maintenance administration techniques can be identified: The
failure of the equipment or corrective maintenance, the scheduled regular
intervals (preventive maintenance), and associating maintenance with the
analysis of the performance of the equipment (predictive maintenance).
The first of the aforementioned techniques is simple and direct: When a
machine fails, it has to be fixed. In a plant where this maintenance technique
is put into practice, money is spent only on spare parts when the machine
stops operating. However, in general it is the most expensive technique
for the costs involved due to the lack of production and the negative effects
this failure causes in the operation of the rest of the plant. In fact, a total lack
of maintenance is unusual in most companies, considering that some basic
lubrication and minor adjustment activities are made in the machines. How-
ever, this minimal maintenance also requires having the capacity to fix all
machines of the plant while also getting spare parts and technical assistance
within a minimum emergency time, which increases the costs of both the
technical advice and spare parts.
A more rational approach to plant maintenance is constituted thanks to
so-called preventive maintenance, which bases its methodology on the sta-
tistical behavior of the different pieces of equipment of industrial processes
x Introduction

or in a given mechanical system. There is a lot of information that shows that

mechanical systems, especially those in industrial plant machines, are more
susceptible to fail at the beginning of their lifespan due to installation errors
and inherent mismatches to their manufacture. This period is known as set-
tlement. Immediately, the failure rate decreases considerably.

Acknowledgments

Achieving knowledge and spreading it is perhaps one of the most significant

aspects of our society. The social impact of exchanging ideas and points of
view allowed us to create this book. We appreciate the effort and support
provided by diverse professionals, most of whom are researchers and special-
ists who helped enrich our analysis with their contributions and recommen-
dations. We must also recognize the institutional support given to us, for
welcoming and stimulating our research and scientific proposal, to the
Universidad Autónoma de Queretaro and the Instituto Politecnico
Nacional.
In particular, we express our gratitude to Luis Huerta Ishikawa for his
thoughtful comments regarding the material of the book. Likewise, to
Ricardo Santamaria Holek for his wise initiative to integrate and publish
the present work. Also, we want to thank Frank Beker Rubio for his effort
in reviewing the quality of the translation. Finally, we thank Rodolfo Vega
Hernandez for his support in translating the original material to English.

Juan Carlos A. Jauregui Correa

Alejandro A. Lozano Guzman
 CHAPTER ONE

Fundamentals of mechanical
vibrations

General considerations
The basis for most conditioning monitoring systems is the analysis of
vibration signals. Thus, a fundamental part to understand the causes and effects
of vibrations is the study of oscillatory movements and the interactions among
the different components of a machine or a set of machines. These oscillatory
movements, in the context of design and machinery analysis, are known as
mechanical vibrations or, more generically, vibrations. The essence of con-
ditioning monitoring is the analysis of the relationship between the input sig-
nal (the source of vibration) and the output response (the output signal), and
the evolution of the dynamic behavior of the machine. In most cases, the
machinery can be considered as a lineal system, although there are some par-
ticular cases that will be analyzed in other chapters, and the output signal will
be a linear response of the excitation forces. Even though a machine is a com-
plex system composed of a large number of mechanical elements, its dynamic
response can be represented as a simple lumped-mass system.
The presented approach highlights the basic concepts of mechanical
vibrations, leaving the mathematical developments for further consultation.
There are a great number of excellent textbooks devoted to the study of
mechanical vibrations, presenting solution methods for movement equa-
tions of the different cases; from these textbooks, only the essential concepts
are summarized. The material presented in this book is organized to under-
stand the basis for the application of a conditioning monitoring system and
the interpretation for the diagnosis of machinery.
At the same time, a link is established between the merely practical and
the empirical study of vibrations and the formal study of the basic concepts of
the mechanical vibrations theory. The concepts presented in this chapter
will allow the maintenance engineer to analyze and predict causes and effects
in the operation of the machines.

Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring © 2020 Elsevier Inc. 1

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819796-7.00001-9 All rights reserved.
2 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

Among the concepts presented in this chapter, the definition of mechan-

ical vibrations will be divided into deterministic and random vibrations. The
deterministic vibrations represent regular movements whose waveform can
be known in time, whereas random vibrations do not repeat regularly.
However, this chapter presents the fundamentals of the study of the mechan-
ical vibration, considering that they are deterministic, suggesting that the
movement is harmonic, that is, that it regularly repeats in time.
Random vibrations are usually found in the vibration analysis for condi-
tioning monitoring. However, through spectral analysis techniques, random
signals are studied by applying the defined concepts for the harmonic
vibrations.
In order to analyze the vibratory phenomena, it is necessary to represent
the movements so that the characteristics of the vibrations can be identified
as either deterministic or random. The simplest representation of a machine
is made by idealizing its vibratory movements as a mass in motion supported
by a spring and a viscous damper (Fig. 1.1). The mass is considered a single
particle and the spring is considered an element that obeys Hook’s law,
where k is the stiffness constant of the spring, m is the mass of the particle,
and the viscous constant c is the damping of this movement. The force gen-
erated by oscillating this spring is given by Fr ¼ kx, where x is the displace-
ment that the mass m suffers. The force generated by this damper is given by
Fa ¼ cv, where c is the damping coefficient and v is the speed of the mass
motion m. The external forces applied to the mechanical system formed
by the mass, the spring, and the damper are represented by F(t).

Fig. 1.1 Conceptual model of the vibratory system.

Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 3

F(t)

x(t)

mg
kx(t) ·
cx(t)
Fig. 1.2 Representation of the acting forces on a vibratory system.

The equation of motion is obtained by considering Newton’s second law

F ¼ ma and the sum of forces acting on the mass m. For this case, the acting
forces are those shown in Fig. 1.2, having:
kx  cv + F ðtÞ  mg + Fest ¼ ma (1.1)
In this formula, Fest is the force produced by the mass weight m (g, acceler-
ation of gravity), and a is the acceleration produced in the system, simplified
in such a way as:
ma + kx + cv ¼ F ðt Þ (1.2)
Considering the notation
v ¼ lim ðΔx=Δt Þ Δt ! 0; dx=dt ¼ x_
a ¼ lim ðΔv=Δt Þ Δt ! 0; dv=dt ¼ d2 =dt2 ¼ x€
The equation of motion is
mx€ + c x_ + kx ¼ F ðtÞ (1.3)
This expression is the equation of motion of one degree of freedom with
forced vibration and damping. The concept of “degree of freedom” refers
to the minimum number of coordinates necessary to define the kinematics of
a mechanical element. In this case, the system has one degree of freedom
because it is only required to know the displacement x to determine the
position of the mass m.
The solution of the second-order differential equation has two elements,
the homogenous solution and the particular solution. The homogenous
4 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

solution represents the free vibration movement and the particular solution
corresponds to the forced vibration of the mass.
The characterization of the oscillatory movement of the mass m is
obtained by defining the equation of movement according to the frequency
( f ) and the amplitude (x).
The oscillation frequency is the number of times per unit of time the move-
ment repeats and its amplitude is the magnitude of the maximum displacement.
According to the previous, it can be inferred that f ¼ n/t, where n is the
number of cycles completed in an interval t. If n ¼ 1, it is said that t ¼ T is the
oscillation period, meaning that f ¼ 1/T given in cycles/second (cycles/s) or
Hertz, abbreviated with Hz. Due to the fact that a harmonic oscillation
repeats regularly, it can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.3, where it can
be seen that for a cycle to be complete, the period must be T ¼ 2π/ω. In
this expression, ω is the angular frequency, that is, the angle that runs
through the vector A per time unit. Taking into account the previously
mentioned, the relation between ω and f is given by ω ¼ 2πf.
Considering the amplitude and speed values with which the movement
(x0 y v0) starts and which are generically known as initial conditions, the
phase angle can be defined as ϕ ¼ tan1(v0/x0ω).
Fig. 1.4 Illustrates the points of reference that define the peak amplitude,
the peak to peak, the average value, and the root mean square (RMS) in a
periodic signal and a random signal (without apparent order).
The peak-to-peak value indicates the end-to-end total displacement of
the vibration. This value is required when, for example, with the maximum
force in a machine part, it is presented with the maximum amplitude. The
peak value is useful to indicate short-term impacts, without considering
the history of the vibration. When it is required to know the average value
of the vibration, the following expression is used:

Fig. 1.3 Representation of a harmonic oscillation.

Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 5

Fig. 1.4 Definition of the peak values, peak to peak, average, and the root mean square
in a vibration signal.

ðT
xprom ¼ 1=T xdt (1.4)
0

The average of a sinusoidal function is always zero; therefore, its value has
minimum contribution for the analysis of a vibration signal, and it is useless
for a conditioning monitoring system. There is another measurement of the
average amplitude of a sinusoidal signal, namely the root mean square
(RMS), which is given by the following expression:
 ðT 1=2
xRMS ¼ 1=T x dt2
(1.5)
0

This formula is related to the evaluation of the vibration in the time and with
the energy content of the vibratory wave. For a sine wave of unitary ampli-
tude, the RMS value is 0.707 of the peak amplitude.
The simplest case is the free vibration of a particle without damping.

Free vibration
Assuming there is an undamped motion with no external excita-
tion, there would be an equation of the form mx€ + kx ¼ 0 in such a way
that:

x€ + ω2n ¼ 0 (1.6)
where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ωn ¼ k=m (1.7)
6 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

This last expression is known as natural frequency. It is the frequency that the
mass m would oscillate after applying an excitation with minimum excitation
energy and without damping.
The solution of the differential equation is of the form

xðtÞ ¼ αeλt (1.8)

Using Euler’s numbers, the solution of this equation can be transformed into
x ¼ x0 cos ðωn t + ϕÞ (1.9)
where x0 and ϕ depend on the initial conditions.
At t ¼ 0,x ¼ x0 , x_ ¼ x_ 0 , therefore
x_ 0
tan ðϕÞ ¼  (1.10)
x0 ωn
As can be seen, the free movement of the vibratory system is harmonic.
The natural frequency, which as a damping absence is equal to the res-
onance frequency, is a fundamental characteristic of the vibratory systems.
Therefore, in a conditioning monitoring system, it is a fundamental param-
eter that can be determined from the vibration measurements because most
of the vibratory effects being presented in the machines will be associated
with the natural frequency. Even though the operating conditions of a
machine are set away from the natural frequencies, it determines the ampli-
tude response of a machine.

Damped free vibration

_
In this case, the damping of the system is considered with the term c x,
where c is the damping coefficient and x_ is the displacement speed. Consid-
ering again Fig. 1.3 and the sum of forces is:
mx€ + c x_ + kx ¼ 0 (1.11)
that can be expressed as
x€ + ðc=mÞx_ + ðk=mÞx ¼ 0 (1.12)
Using the definitions,
k=m ¼ ω2n (1.13)

ξ ¼ c=2mωn (1.14)
Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 7

with ξ defined as the damping factor (the definition of this factor is derived
from the solution of the second-order differential equation, and it is also
known as the critical damping factor), the equation of motion remains as

x€ + 2ξω2n x_ + ω2n x ¼ 0 (1.15)

The solution of this equation depends on both the value of the damping
factor ξ and the initial conditions x(0) and x_ ð0Þ. There are three possible
solutions: overdamping (ξ > 1), underdamped (ξ < 1), and critical damping
(ξ ¼ 1).
In case the displacement and initial speed are x(0) ¼ 0 and x_ ð0Þ ¼ v0 , the
solution of the equation for the overdamped case is:

v0 h 1=2 i
ξωn t
xðtÞ ¼  1=2 e senh ξ2
 1 ωn t (1.16)
ξ2  1 ωn

Fig. 1.5 shows the variations as a function of the initial speed (Fig. 1.5A), the
natural frequency (Fig. 1.5B), and the damping factor (Fig. 1.5C).

(A) (B)

(C)
Fig. 1.5 Variations of an overdamped vibration for different values of initial speed (A),
natural frequency (B), and damping factor (C).
8 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

(A) (B)
Fig. 1.6 Variations of a critically damped vibration for typical values of initial conditions
(A) and natural frequencies (B).

Fig. 1.6 shows the solution for the critical damping condition, where
x(t) ¼ v0te ωnt (this solution is a particular case for solving a second-order dif-
ferential equation when the characteristic polynomial has two identical
roots, also known as the critical damping condition). Fig. 1.6A represents
the response when the system is excited at different initial conditions, and
Fig. 1.6B shows the response of different systems with different natural
frequencies.
For the underdamped case,

xðt Þ ¼ ðv0 =ωd Þeξωn t senωd t, (1.17)

with
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ωd ¼ ωn 1  ξ2 (1.18)

This solution is found by solving a second-order differential equation with a

characteristic polynomial with two complex roots. This is the most useful
solution because it represents most of the dynamic problems found in
mechanical systems. Fig. 1.7A shows the variations of this solution as a func-
tion in the initial speed, Fig. 1.7B corresponds to the solution as a function of
the damping factor, and Fig. 1.7C shows the effect of different system
parameters (different natural frequencies). The expression ωd is known as
the frequency of the damped free vibration, whose value will be lower when
the damping factor of the system is higher.
The development of the previous equations is useful when identifying
system parameters. The dynamic response of a mechanical system can be
obtained by hitting the equipment with an instrumented hammer and mea-
suring the vibrations with an accelerometer. The test results will produce a
Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 9

(A) (B)

(C)
Fig. 1.7 Variations of an undamped vibration for typical values of the initial speed (A),
damping factor (B), and natural frequency (C).

similar graphic to those displayed in Fig. 1.7. From the analysis of the
response, it is possible to evaluate the dynamic parameters, first determining
the logarithmic decrement in order to find ξ. Fig. 1.8 presents the concept of
the logarithmic decrement, which allows the damping of systems to be eval-
uated considering the decrease in amplitude between two consecutive cycles
of a vibration. Considering the expressions x(t) for a damped free vibration
for either of the two consecutive cycles, if it takes place involving the times t1
and (t1 + T), the following relation can be established:

x
T=2πωd
x1

x2
t
t1 t2

Fig. 1.8 Logarithmic decrement.

10 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

x1 eξωn t1
¼ ξω ðt + T Þ ¼ eξωn T (1.19)
x2 e n 1
Where
x1
ln ¼ ξωn T ¼ δ (1.20)
x2
In this formula, δ represents the logarithmic decrement.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
For the damped free vibration, ωn is substituted by ωn ¼ ωd = 1  ξ2
and T ¼ 2π/ωd, making it possible to establish the relation
δ
ξ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (1.21)
ð2π Þ2 + δ2

With the previous expressions, it is possible to obtain the damping of a sys-

tem by measuring the amplitude of vibration of two consecutive cycles
because knowing the logarithmic decrement can clear up the damping
factor from the previous expression. In addition, by using the expression
ξ ¼ c/2mωn the damping coefficient c can also be obtained. However, it’s
important to remark that the value of the damping coefficient of a system
only depends on the damper while with the damping factor, it is determined
by the parameters of the mechanical system.

Forced vibration
Every machine is subjected to external excitations, which are
related to the operating conditions and the mechanical configuration
of each component. For conditioning monitoring systems, this character-
istic boosts the prediction of failures at a component level. Thus, it is
important to deeply understand the response of a mechanical system to
a forced excitation. The simplest system is a one-degree-of-freedom
mass-spring system (a simple linear pendulum of a single-degree-
of-freedom oscillator has the same dynamic response). The most illustra-
tive case is when the excitation force is represented as a simple harmonic
excitation. The response of a one-degree-of-freedom system to a har-
monic excitation is presented next. An essential part of the study of
mechanical vibrations is the knowledge of the response of the system
to an external excitation. In the case of the machinery, the main source
of this external excitation comes from the power supply to the machine
Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 11

through the motors used for its operation. This means that, once the
machine starts up, forced vibrations will occur. However, the total elim-
ination of these vibrations is impossible because the very operation of the
engines in industrial conditions is subject to the variation of their com-
ponents, tolerances, mismatches, imbalances, variations in the power sup-
ply, and wear of parts; in other words, countless causes. The purpose,
therefore, is to keep these vibrations at tolerable levels. With vibration
monitoring for predictive maintenance, the intention is to identify the
source of any change in the tolerable levels of forced vibration before
they exceed the reference levels of normal operation.
Here, the response of a one-degree-of-freedom vibratory system to a
harmonic excitement is studied, providing the basis for the spectral analysis
application to the study of the forced vibration in machinery.
In the previous section, the solution for the homogenous equation,
mx€ + c x_ + kx ¼ 0, was presented. This suggests the concept of the system
response to an external excitation. However, it should be taken into
account that the complete solution of the nonhomogeneous equation
mx€ + c x_ + kx ¼ F ðt Þ is the sum of the solution of the homogeneous equa-
tion, called the transitory solution, plus the solution of the nonhomogeneous
equation, called the permanent state solution, which will be present as long
as the excitation is present F(t).
From Fig. 1.4, the equation of motion is obtained by the sum of forces:
mx€ + c x_ + kx ¼ F ðtÞ (1.22)
According to this expression, F(t), the force of external excitation, displaces
the stiffness spring k in a harmonic way. The excitation force is always pro-
portional to the stiffness coefficient, thus:
F ðt Þ ¼ k  f ðtÞ ¼ kA cos ðωtÞ (1.23)
Here, f(t) is the displacement function of the external force of the ampli-
tude A and the frequency ω. Dividing between m and considering the
established relations c/m and k/m in the previous section, the equation
of motion is:

x€ + 2ξωn x_ + ω2n x ¼ ω2n Acos ðωtÞ (1.24)

For a harmonic motion, it is assumed that the solution of the previous
equation is:
xðtÞ ¼ X cos ðωt  ϕÞ (1.25)
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—Act II, Scene II, Lines 29-104.
 HAMLET’S DECLARATION OF FRIENDSHIP

Hamlet. What ho! Horatio!

Horatio. Here, sweet lord, at your service.

Hamlet. Horatio, thou art e’en as just a man

As e’er my conversation coped withal.

Horatio. O, my dear lord,—

Hamlet. Nay, do not think I flatter;

For what advancement may I hope from thee
That no revenue hast, but thy good spirits,
To feed and clothe thee? Why should the poor be flatter’d?
No, let the candied tongue lick absurd pomp,
And crook the pregnant hinges of the knee
Where thrift may follow fawning. Dost thou hear?
Since my dear soul was mistress of her choice
And could of men distinguish, her election
Hath sealed thee for herself; for thou hast been
As one, in suffering all, that suffers nothing,
A man that fortune’s buffets and rewards
Hast ta’en with equal thanks: and blest are those
Whose blood and judgment are so well commingled
That they are not a pipe for Fortune’s finger
To sound what stop she pleases. Give me that man
That is not passion’s slave, and I will wear him
In my heart’s core, ay, in my heart of hearts,
As I do thee.

—From Act III, Scene 2.

OTHELLO’S APOLOGY
[The speech calls for great dignity, ease, and power, in both speech
and manner.]
Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors,
My very noble and approved good masters,
That I have ta’en away this old man’s daughter,
It is most true; true, I have married her:
The very head and front of my offending
Hath this extent, no more. Rude am I in my speech,
And little bless’d with the soft phrase of peace;
For since these arms of mine had seven years’ pith,
Till now some nine moons wasted, they have used
Their dearest action in the tented field,
And little of this great world can I speak,
More than pertains to feats of broil and battle,
And therefore little shall I grace my cause
In speaking for myself. Yet, by your gracious patience,
I will a round unvarnish’d tale deliver
Of my whole course of love; what drugs, what charms,
What conjuration, and what mighty magic,—
For such proceeding I am charg’d withal,—
I won his daughter.
...
Her father loved me; oft invited me;
Still question’d me the story of my life,
From year to year,—the battles, sieges, fortunes,
That I have pass’d.
I ran it through, even from my boyish days,
To the very moment that he bade me tell it:
Wherein I spake of most disastrous chances,
Of moving accidents by flood and field,
Of hair-breadth scapes i’ the imminent deadly breach,
Of being taken by the insolent foe
And sold to slavery, of my redemption thence
And portance in my travels’ history:
...

This to hear
Would Desdemona seriously incline:
But still the house-affairs would draw her thence;
Which ever as she could with haste despatch,
She’d come again, and with a greedy ear
Devour up my discourse: which I observing,
Took once a pliant hour, and found good means
To draw from her a prayer of earnest heart
That I would all my pilgrimage dilate,
Whereof by parcels she had something heard,
But not intentively: I did consent,
And often did beguile her of her tears,
When I did speak of some distressful stroke
That my youth suffer’d. My story being done,
She gave me for my pains a world of sighs:
She swore, in faith, ’twas strange, ’twas passing strange,
’Twas pitiful, ’twas wondrous pitiful:
She wish’d she had not heard it, yet she wish’d
That heaven had made her such a man: she thank’d me,
And bade me, if I had a friend that loved her,
I should but teach him how to tell my story,
And that would woo her. Upon this hint I spake:
She loved me for the dangers I had pass’d;
And I lov’d her that she did pity them.
This only is the witchcraft I have used.

THE SEVEN AGES

[This is a succession of purely imaginative ideas which the voice
should touch lightly. In this speech one meets always the question of
impersonation: shall the mewling infant, the whining schoolboy, the
sighing lover and the rest be imitated by the reader? It is in better
taste not to impersonate these seven characters beyond certain
almost imperceptible hints which the gayety of Jaques’s mind might
naturally throw off.]

All the world’s a stage,

And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages. At first the infant,
Mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms:
And then the whining schoolboy, with his satchel
And shining morning face, creeping like snail
Unwillingly to school. And then the lover,
Sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad
Made to his mistress’ eyebrow. Then a soldier,
Full of strange oaths and bearded like the pard,
Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel,
Seeking the bubble reputation
Even in the cannon’s mouth. And then the justice,
In fair round belly with good capon lined,
With eyes severe and beard of formal cut,
Full of wise saws and modern instances;
And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts
Into the lean and slipper’d pantaloon,
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side;
His youthful hose, well saved, a world too wide
For his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice,
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all,
That ends this strange eventful history,
Is second childishness and mere oblivion,
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.

—“As You Like it,” Act II, Scene 7.

SOLITUDE PREFERRED TO COURT LIFE

Duke S. Now, my co-mates and brothers in exile,

Hath not old custom made this life more sweet
Than that of painted pomp? Are not these woods
More free from peril than the envious court?
Here feel we but the penalty of Adam.
The season’s difference, as the icy fang
And churlish chiding of the winter’s wind,
Which, when it bite and blows upon my body,
Even till I shrink with cold, I smile and say
’Tis no flattery; these are counselors
That feelingly persuade me what I am.
Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head;
And this our life, exempt from public haunt,
Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything.
I would not change it.

Amiens. Happy is your grace,

That can translate the stubbornness of fortune
Into so quiet and so sweet a style.

...

Duke S. Come, shall we go and kill us venison?

And yet it irks me the poor dappled fools,
Being native burghers of this desert city,
Should in their own confines with forked heads
Have their round haunches gor’d.

—“As You Like It,” Act II.

THE POTION SCENE

Scene: Juliet’s Chamber

(Enter Juliet and Nurse, who bears wedding garments.)

Juliet (looking at garments).

Ay, those attires are best; but, gentle nurse,

I pray thee, leave me to myself to-night;
For I have need of many orisons
To move the heavens to smile upon my state,
Which, well thou knowest, is cross and full of sin.
 (Enter Lady Capulet.)

Lady Capulet.

What are you busy, ho? need you my help?

Juliet.

No, madam; we have cull’d such necessaries

As are behoveful for our state to-morrow:
So please you, let me now be left alone,
And let the nurse this night sit up with you;
For, I am sure, you have your hands full all,
In this so sudden business.

Lady Capulet (crossing and kissing Juliet on the forehead).

Good night;
Get thee to bed and rest, for thou hast need.

(Exit Lady Capulet with nurse.)

Juliet (looking after them).

Farewell! God knows when we shall meet again.

I have a faint cold fear thrills through my veins,
That almost freezes up the heat of life:
I’ll call them back again to comfort me. (Runs to R.)
Nurse! What should she do there?
My dismal scene I needs must act alone.
Come, vial. (Takes vial from bosom.)
What if this mixture do not work at all?
Shall I be married then to-morrow morning?
No, no! (draws dagger) this shall forbid it.

(Lays dagger on table.)

Lie you there. (To vial.)

What if it be a poison, which the friar
Subtly hath ministered to have me dead,
Lest in this marriage he should be dishonored
Because he married me before to Romeo?
I fear it is; and yet, methinks, it should not,
For he hath still been tried a holy man.

(Puts vial in bosom.)

How if, when I am laid into the tomb,

I wake before the time that Romeo
Come to redeem me? there’s a fearful point!
Shall I not then be stifled in the vault,
To whose foul mouth no healthsome air breathes in,
And there die strangled ere my Romeo comes?
Or, if I live, is it not very like,
The horrible conceit of death and night,
Together with the terror of the place,—
As in a vault, an ancient receptacle,
Where, for these many hundred years, the bones
Of all my buried ancestors are packed;
Where bloody Tybalt, yet but green in earth,
Lies festering in his shroud; where as they say,
At some hours in the night spirits resort; ...
O, if I wake, shall I not be distraught,
Environed with all these hideous fears?
And madly play with my forefathers’ joints?
And pluck the mangled Tybalt from his shroud?
And, in this rage, with some great kinsman’s bone,
As with a club, dash out my desperate brains?
O, look! methinks I see my cousin’s ghost
Seeking out Romeo, ...
Stay, Tybalt, stay!—
Romeo, I come! (Drawing out vial—then cork.)
This do I drink to thee.

(Throws away vial. She is overcome and sinks to the floor.)

—From “Romeo and Juliet,” Act IV, Scene 3.

 BANISHMENT SCENE
SCENE III, A ROOM IN THE PALACE
(Enter Celia and Rosalind.)
Cel. Why, cousin; why Rosalind;—Cupid have mercy;—Not a
word?
Ros. Not one to throw to a dog.
Cel. No, thy words are too precious to be cast away upon curs,
throw some of them at me; come, lame me with reasons.
Ros. Then there were two cousins laid up; when the one should be
lamed with reasons, and the other mad without any.
Cel. But is all this for your father?
Ros. No, some of it for my father’s child: O, how full of briars is this
working-day world!
Cel. They are but burrs, cousin, thrown upon thee in holiday
foolery; if we walk not in the trodden paths, our very coats will catch
them.
Ros. I could shake them off my coat; these burrs are in my heart.
Cel. Hem them away.
Ros. I would try; if I could cry hem, and have him.
Cel. Come, come, wrestle with thy affections.
Ros. O, they take the part of a better wrestler than myself.
Cel. Is it possible, on such a sudden, you should fall into so strong
a liking with old Sir Rowland’s youngest son?
Ros. The duke my father lov’d his father dearly.
Cel. Doth it therefore ensue, that you should love his son dearly?
By this kind of chase, I should hate him, for my father hated his
father dearly; yet I hate not Orlando.
Ros. No ’faith, hate him not, for my sake.
Cel. Why should I not? Doth he not deserve well?
 Ros. Let me love him for that; and do you love him, because I do:
Look, here comes the duke.
Cel. With his eyes full of anger.
(Enter Duke Frederick, with Lords.)
Duke F. Mistress, despatch you with your safest haste, and get
you from our Court.
Ros. Me, uncle?
Duke F. You, cousin, within these ten days if thou be’st found so
near our public court as twenty miles, thou diest for it.
Ros. I do beseech your grace, let me the knowledge of my fault
bear with me: if with myself I hold intelligence, or have acquaintance
with mine own desires; if that I do not dream, or be not frantic (as I
do trust I am not), then, dear uncle, never so much as in a thought
unborn, did I offend your highness.
Duke F. Thus do all traitors, if their purgation did consist in words,
they are as innocent as grace itself: let it suffice thee, that I trust thee
not.
Ros. Yet your mistrust cannot make me a traitor: tell me, whereon
the likelihood depends.
Duke F. Thou art thy father’s daughter, there’s enough.
Ros. So was I, when your highness took his dukedom; so was I,
when your highness banish’d him: treason is not inherited, my lord:
or, if we did derive it from our friends, what’s that to me? my father
was no traitor: then, good my liege, mistake me not so much, to think
my poverty is treacherous.
Cel. Dear sovereign, hear me speak.
Duke F. Aye, Celia; we stay’d here for your sake. Else had she
with her father rang’d along.
Cel. I did not then entreat to have her stay, it was your pleasure,
and your own remorse; I was too young that time to value her, but
now I know her; if she be a traitor, so am I: we still have slept
together; rose at an instant, learn’d, play’d, eat together;

And wheresoe’er we went, like Juno’s swans,

Still we went coupled, and inseparable.

Duke F. She is too subtle for thee; and her smoothness,

Her very silence, and her patience,
Speak to the people and they pity her.
Thou art a fool: she robs thee of thy name;
And thou wilt show more bright, and seem more virtuous,
When she is gone: then open not thy lips;
Firm and irrevocable is my doom
Which I have pass’d upon her; she is banish’d.

Cel. Pronounce that sentence then on me, my liege;

I cannot live out of her company.

Duke F. You are a fool:—You, niece, provide yourself;

If you outstay the time, upon my honor,
And in the greatness of my word, you die.

(Exeunt Duke Frederick and Lords.)

Cel. O my poor Rosalind: whither wilt thou go?

Wilt thou change fathers? I will give thee mine.
I charge thee, be not thou more griev’d than I am.

Ros. I have more cause.

Cel. Thou hast not, cousin,

Pr’ythee, be cheerful: know’st thou not, the duke
Hath banish’d me his daughter?

Ros. That he hath not.

Cel. No? hath not? Rosalind lacks then the love

Which teaches thee that thou and I art one:
Shall we be sunder’d? shall we part, sweet girl?
No; let my father seek another heir.
Therefore devise with me, how we may fly,
Whither to go, and what to bear with us:
And do not seek to take your charge upon you,
To bear your griefs yourself, and leave me out;
For by this heaven, now at our sorrows pale,
Say what thou can’st, I’ll go along with thee.

Ros. Why, whither shall we go?

Cel. To seek my uncle.

Ros. Alas, what danger will it be to us,

Maids as we are, to travel so far?
Beauty provoketh thieves sooner than gold.

Cel. I’ll put myself in poor and mean attire,

And with a kind of umber smirch my face;
The like do you; so shall we pass along,
And never stir assailants.

Ros. Were it not better,

Because that I am more than common tall,
That I did suit me in all points like a man?
A boar-spear in my hand; and in my heart
Lie there what hidden woman’s fear there will,
We’ll have a swashing and a martial outside;
As many other mannish cowards have,
That do outface it with their semblances.

Cel. What shall I call thee when thou art a man?

Ros. I’ll have no other worse than Jove’s own page,

And therefore, look you, call me Ganymede.
But what will you be call’d?

Cel. Something that hath a reference to my state:

No longer Celia, but Aliena.

Ros. But, cousin, what if we assayed to steal

The clownish fool out of your father’s court?
Would he not be a comfort to our travel?

Cel. He’ll go along o’er the wide world with me;

Leave me alone to woo him: Let’s away
And get our jewels and our wealth together;
Devise the fittest time, and safest way
To hide us from pursuit that will be made
After my flight: Now go we in content,
To liberty, and not to banishment.

—From “As You Like It,” Act I.

CORYDON
By Thomas Bailey Aldrich
SCENE, A ROAD-SIDE IN ARCADY

Shepherd. Good sir, have you seen pass this way

A mischief straight from market-day?
You’d know her at a glance, I think;
Her eyes are blue, her lips are pink;
She has a way of looking back
Over her shoulder, and alack!
Who gets that look one time, good sir,
Has naught to do but follow.

Pilgrim. I have not seen this maid methinks,

Though she that passed had lips like pinks.

Shepherd. Or like two strawberries made one

By some sly trick of dew and sun.

Pilgrim. A poet.
Shepherd. Nay, a simple swain
That tends his flocks on yonder plain
Naught else I swear by book and bell.
But she that passed you marked her well
Was she not smooth as any be
That dwells here—in Arcady?

Pilgrim. Her skin was the satin bark of birches.

Shepherd. Light or dark?

Pilgrim. Quite dark.

Shepherd. Then ’twas not she.

Pilgrim. The peaches side

That next the sun is not so dyed
As was her cheek. Her hair hung down
Like summer twilight falling brown;
And when the breeze swept by, I wist
Her face was in a somber twist.

Shepherd. No that is not the maid I seek;

Her hair lies gold against her cheek,
Her yellow tresses take the morn,
Like silken tassels of the corn,
And yet brown-locks are far from bad.

Pilgrim. Now I bethink me this one had

A figure like the willow tree
Which, slight and supple, wondrously
Inclines to droop with pensive grace,
And still retain its proper place.
A foot so arched and very small
The marvel was she walked at all;
Her hand in sooth, I lack for words—
Her hand, five slender snow-white birds,
Her voice, tho’ she but said “God Speed”—
Was melody blown through a reed;
The girl Pan changed into a pipe
Had not a note so full and rife.
And then her eye—my lad, her eye!
Discreet, inviting, candid, shy,
An outward ice, an inward fire,
And lashes to the heart’s desire.
Soft fringes blacker than the sloe—

Shepherd. Good sir, which way did this one go?

Pilgrim. So he is off! The silly youth

Knoweth not love in sober sooth,
He loves—thus lads at first are blind—
No woman, only womankind.
I needs must laugh, for by the mass
No maid at all did this way pass.
 PART FOUR
Oratoric Reading and the Art of Public Speech
Discussion of forceful speech in making history. Value of forceful
speech. Practice selections.

HAMLET’S INSTRUCTION TO THE PLAYERS

Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you,—
trippingly on the tongue; but if you mouth it, as many of our players
do, I had as lief the town-crier spake my lines. Nor do not saw the air
too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very
torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you
must acquire and beget a temperance, that may give it smoothness.
Oh! it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated
fellow tear a passion to tatters,—to very rags,—to split the ears of
the groundlings; who, for the most part, are capable of nothing but
inexplicable dumb show and noise. I would have such a fellow
whipped for o’erdoing Termagant; it out-herods Herod. Pray you
avoid it.
—Shakespeare.
 CHAPTER XIII
ORATORIC READING AND THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEECH

Upon this important subject of public speaking, and the

interpretation of the addresses made by others, great men have thus
expressed themselves: Dr. Charles W. Eliot, formerly President of
Harvard University, says: “Have we not all seen, in recent years, that
leading men of business have a great need of a highly trained power
of clear and convincing expression? Business men seem to me to
need, in speech and writing, all the Roman terseness and the French
clearness. That one attainment is sufficient reward for the whole long
course of twelve years spent in liberal study.” Abraham Lincoln
likewise said: “Extemporaneous speaking should be practiced and
cultivated. It is the lawyer’s avenue to the public. However able and
faithful he may be in other respects, people are slow to bring him
business if he can not make a speech.”
Every thinker knows what a vital part eloquence plays in national
as well as individual welfare. If at first thought effective speaking
seems a simple thing and a superficial part of education, on mature
thought and consideration it will be found to be one of the most
complex, vital and difficult problems that education has to meet. And
yet, notwithstanding this complexity of the problem, the teacher is
cheered by the delightful assurance of giving the student a
consciousness of his latent talents and the ability to reveal and make
use of them for the proper influencing of his fellow men.
There is a belief fairly commonly held that only a limited few need
study the art of public speaking. Never was there a greater error or a
more fatal mistake—especially in a republic like ours, where every
man should be vitally interested in public affairs. No single citizen
can afford not to be able to stand before his fellows and clearly,
pleasingly and convincingly present his ideas upon any subject of
local, state, or national importance. It is no more an ornamental
accomplishment than is grammar, penmanship or simple arithmetic.
It should be as universal as “the three r’s.” The hints and selections
that follow are carefully chosen to incite every good citizen to the
acquirement of this useful and practical aid for his own benefit as
well as that of his fellows. All the lessons and analyses that have
gone before in these pages will materially aid in the elucidation of
these brief lessons.
The basis for development in Effective Speaking rests upon one’s
bodily, emotional and mental agencies of expression, and a
knowledge of their respective importance and efficient use. That
which counts most for development is conscientious practice; without
which, progress is impossible.
There are three definite means of communicating thought and
feeling to others: (a) Pantomime: face, hands, body; (b) Vocal: tone
sound; (c) Verbal: words, which are conventional symbols
manifesting mental and emotional states.
The problem, then, is to obtain a harmonious coördination of these
three languages. In other words, the content of the word when
spoken should be reflected in the tone and in the body. Thus speech
becomes effective merely because it receives its just and fair
consideration.
With this general understanding let us take up and master the
successive steps which ultimately lead to a realization of the desired
end.
The first important essential of effective speaking is the Spirit of
Directness. By this is meant natural, unaffected speech. Nothing can
be more important than that the person speaking use in public
address the ordinary elements of Conversation.
Hence, the first step is practice in natural speaking. Commit to
memory Hamlet’s Instructions to the Players given on a preceding
page. Do this not line by line, but the entire selection as a whole.
First: Read it through silently three times to familiarize yourself with
the subject-matter. Second: Read it aloud at least five times. Third:
Speak it conversationally at least five times from memory. In this
practice always be intensely conscious that you are addressing an
individual and not an audience.
 Now take any of the prose or poetic selections from the earlier
pages of this book, memorize them, after studying them as the
instructions require, and speak them directly and naturally, in the
ordinary conversational style.
Sufficient practice in this is the necessary preparation for the next
step, viz., the acquiring of a natural elevated conversational style,
which is merely another name for the higher type of public speaking.
Commit all, or a part, of the following selections, keeping in mind
that in speaking them you are addressing a group of people.

THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS

By Abraham Lincoln
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a
great Civil War, testing whether that nation, or any nation, so
conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a
great battlefield of that war. We are met to dedicate a portion of it as
the final resting place of those who here gave their lives that that
nation might live.
It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a
larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot
hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled
here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The
world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can
never forget what they did here.
It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished
work they have thus far so nobly carried on. It is rather for us to be
here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these
honored dead we take increased devotion to the cause for which
they gave their last full measure of devotion; that we here highly
resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that the Union
shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom, and that the
government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall
not perish from the earth.

By this time you should have mastered Ordinary Conversational

Style; Elevated Conversational Style; and Abandon and Flexibility of
Speech. The next consideration is the importance of Clearness.
Clearness in speech means making prominent central words and
subordinating unimportant words, or phrases. In other words, the
logical sequence of thought must be clearly shown. This is brought
about by a variety of inflections, changes of pitch, pause, etc.
Clearness in speech is dependent upon clearness of Thinking.
It is important now to give full consideration to the subject of
Emphasis. There are more ways than one of emphasizing your
thought. The most common way is by merely increasing the stress of
voice upon a word. This, however, is the most undignified form of
emphasis. It is common to ranters and “soap-box” orators and is one
mark of an undisciplined and uncultured man. Remember that
loudness is a purely physical element, and does not manifest
thought. Such emphasis is an appeal to the brute instinct, and is only
expressive of the lower emotions. But Inflection, Changes of Pitch,
Pause, Movement and Tone-Color—as have been fully explained in
preceding pages—all appeal to the exalted nature of man.
In proportion to the nobleness of an emotion or thought, we find a
tendency to accentuate these above-named elements. Such
methods of emphasis are appropriate to the most disciplined and
cultured man. More than that, they are the surest evidence of a great
personality.
Commit, then make clear to the hearer, the vital thought in the
following:

He have arbitrary power! My lords, the East India Company

have not arbitrary power to give him; the King has no arbitrary
power to give him; your Lordships have not; nor the
Commons; nor the whole legislature. We have no arbitrary
power to give, because arbitrary power is a thing which