EngEd 312 Content of IMs For Week 1 4

Overview on the Nature of Literature
Lesson 1 and its Genres
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Develop an awareness of the school’s and college vision, mission, PEO’s, PO’s, CO’s, course
requirement, classroom polices, and the grading system.
2. Explain the purposes and genres under the literature umbrella; and
3. Identify notable authors appropriate for literature study in K to 12 English Literature.
1.2 Literature as a Significant Human Experience
The human experience in literature contains themes about life and society that
are relatable to readers. Foregrounding distracts the reader and forces them to re-
examine what they know about a topic through unconventional language choices.
In our lives, literature allows us to look back in time and discover about life on
Earth from those who walked before us and bring together a superior appreciation of
culture through history, manuscripts, and speeches.
As a foundation of humanity’s cultures, beliefs, and traditions, literature serves as
a manifestation of existence, a result of art, and a window to an ideology. All we
experience and learned within our society recorded orally or in written were from a
literature.
Literature is truly the reflection of life and human experiences. It permits us to
revive their reminiscences and allows the reader to unveil the same experience with the
writer. Literature allows the reader to realize all through a person’s lapses and succeeds
over his defeat. For these reasons, “Literature is the reflection of human experience”
quote is true.
According to an author, “literature, is a body of written works. The name has
traditionally been applied to those imaginative works of poetry and prose distinguished
by the intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetic excellence of their
execution”.
“Good literature is based on ideas that are startling, unexpected, unusual,
weighty, or new”. Great literature reveals things we never saw or experience before.
Literature not only teaches us about life and helps us understand our emotions
and our values but also entertains us. It sets the foundation for human relationships, the
complications, the barriers, the ties that bind. Literature enriches us, deepening our
understanding of others, of the world, of ourselves...
“One of the elements that sets literature apart from writing purely for the purpose
of entertainment and diversion is its commentary on the human condition”. The human
experience in literature contains themes about life and society that are relatable to
readers. Let's examine some themes about the human experience and discuss some
Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

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techniques that authors use to convey their messages to readers about the human
condition.
There are endless themes related to the human experience, to name some:
• Parent/child relationships - Trust and respect become more of a two-way street as

your child gets older.
- Children who have a healthy relationship with their parents are more likely to develop
positive relationships with other people around them. They can establish secure
bonds and friendships with peers.
- A secure attachment with parents helps promote a child's cognitive, emotional, and
social development.
• Death - Themes like betrayal, vengeance, greed, honor, justice, courage, and failure
are almost always portrayed in conjunction with death.
- Within "The Story of An Hour" by Kate Chopin, she talks about death and illustrates
the significance of it. This story implies that death may actually be a blessing under
certain circumstances. The narration begins with Louise getting informed that her
husband had past away in an accident. She's no ordinary women, but someone with
heart disease
• Loneliness - Loneliness is one of the many things that people experience in life.
- Perhaps one of the most widely cited literary examples of loneliness are to be found
in the 20th century novel “Of Mice and Men” by Nobel Prize-winning American author
John Steinbeck who recounts the poignant tale of George Milton and Lennie Small.
The characters in this novel are intrigued and envious of the special friendship shared
by George and Lennie because they do not have that in their life. The setting of the
novel is destined for loneliness.
• Conformity - means “behavior in accordance with socially accepted conventions or

standards”, while rebellion means “the action or process of resisting authority,
control, or convention.”
- In some cases of conformity, a person's desire to fit in with a social group can interfere
with the ability to make moral or safe decisions. One example is when a person drinks
and drives because friends do it, or because friends assure that person he or she can
safely do so.
- There are three types of conformity: compliance, identification, and internalization.
- The two major motives in conformity are: 1) normative influence, or the tendency to
conform to gain social acceptance; and 2) informational influence, which is based on
the desire to obtain useful information through conformity and achieve a correct or
appropriate result.
• Growing Up - is very often described as a search for one's identity. Any story that
features a character experiencing an inner conflict, trying to decide what kind of
person to be, can be related to the theme of Identity.
- In other words it's basically who you are and what you define yourself as being. The
theme of identity is often expressed in books/novels or basically any other piece of

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literature so that the reader can intrigue themselves and relate to the characters and
their emotions.
- Identity (self-views) relates to our basic values that determine the choices we make
(e.g., relationships, career). The meaning of an identity includes expectations for self
about how one should behave.
• Aging - Adult themes of aging involve: life crises and life review, retirement concerns,
illness, mourning and death, and occasional instances of epic courage. New trends in
society affect the conventions of fiction, but several of the intergenerational themes
in adult fiction have antique roots.
- The Stone Angel by Margaret Laurence

Wonderful Canadian novel about aging (and dying) with dignity and grace: the 90-
year-old protagonist tells the story of her life while relating events in the present, and
can reflect on her pride, which has been her strength and her weakness, and on the
people she loves. Once you meet Hagar you will never forget her. Written when the
author was in her late ’30’s — amazing! [Ellen J]
- Gilead by Marilynne Robinson
- Olive Kitteridge by Elizabeth Strout
• Human rights - This year's Human Rights Day theme is "Recover Better - Stand Up for
Human Rights". It is linked to the Covid-19 pandemic with the focus on the need to
building a back better by ensuring human rights are the centre of the recovery efforts.
- Human rights include the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture,
freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and many more.
- Types of Human Rights: Individual (civil) rights. ...Rule of law. ...Rights of political
expression. ...Economic and social rights. ...Rights of communities.
• Charity - As the name implies, Charity is a feature-rich WordPress theme specifically

designed for charitable organizations.
- WordPress non-profit, charity, donation, and fundraising themes allow these

organizations with a limited budget to set up an outstanding and professional website
without much effort.
- These non-profit WordPress themes have integrated features like sponsor sections
and donation buttons.
• Equality – Information about the University's work in the areas of disability, gender,
race, religion and belief, sexual orientation, and transgender.
- Disability. Information about the University's support for disabled staff and
initiatives to promote a more inclusive workplace. ...
- Gender. Information about the University's work to promote gender equality. ...
Gender Stereotypes and Sexism. Violence against Women. Equal Access of
Women to Justice. Balanced Participation in decision-making.
- Race. Race. ...
- Religion and belief. ...
- Sexual Orientation. ...
- Transgender.

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• Materialism - Materialism is a form of philosophical monism that holds that matter is
the fundamental substance in nature, and that all things, including mental states and
consciousness, are results of material interactions. ...
o Materialism is closely related to physicalism—the view that all that exists is
ultimately physical.
o In fact, The Great Gatsby's central theme tells us that materialism is the main
source of moral downfall, distorted reality, and the society's plutomania (excessive
or abnormal desire for wealth). Fitzgerald reveals it by illustrating the weak moral
code, the distorted reality, and the plutomaniac nature of human beings that
money elaborates on.
- Materialism is traditionally divided into three historical forms: naïve or spontaneous

materialism, mechanistic or metaphysical materialism, and dialectical materialism.
- An example of materialism is explaining love in terms of material things.
- Another example of materialism is valuing a new car over friendships. Constant
concern over material possessions and wealth; a great or excessive regard for worldly
concerns.
- Mainly, materialism is the attitude of someone who attaches a lot of importance to
money and wants to possess a lot of material things. ... the rising consumer
materialism in society at large.
- Materialism is the belief that only physical matter exists, and that there is no spiritual
world.
- Though Thales of Miletus (c. 580 bce) and some of the other pre-Socratic philosophers
have some claims to being regarded as materialists, the materialist tradition in
Western philosophy really begins with Leucippus and Democritus (father of
materialism), Greek philosophers who were born in the 5th century bce.
1.2 Literary Purpose
Literature is often viewed as a collection of made-up stories, designed to entertain us, to

amuse us, or to simply provide us with an escape from the “real” world. To develop an
understanding of the importance of literature as a vital source of cultural knowledge in
everyday life is one of the primary goals.
- Literature may be considered a vehicle for the exploration and discovery of our
world and the culture in which we live.
- It allows us to explore alternative realities, to view things from the perspective of
someone completely different to us, and to reflect upon our own intellectual and
emotional responses to the complex challenges of everyday life.
- It is possible to develop an in-depth understanding of the ways that we use
language to make sense of the world.
Common Purposes of Literary Authors
Literary scholars, Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royle once said, “Stories are
everywhere,” and therefore, “Not only do we tell stories, but stories tell us: if stories are
everywhere, we are also in stories.” From the moment each one of us is born, we are
surrounded by stories — oftentimes these stories are told to us by parents, family
members, or our community. Some of these stories are ones that we read for ourselves,

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and still others are stories that we tell ourselves about who we are, what we desire, what
we fear, and what we value.
According to A DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS AND LITERARY THEORY , a

metaphor is “a figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another.”
“Time is money” or “The administration is a train wreck.” These expressions are
metaphors that describe one less clearly defined idea, like time or the administration of
an institution, in relation to a concept whose characteristics are easier to imagine.
Robert Burns, the Scottish poet, in his poem - “A Red, Red Rose,” famously
announces, “O my Luve is like a red, red rose/That’s newly sprung in June.” The
association of romantic love with red roses is so firmly established in our culture that one
need only look at the imagery associated with Valentine’s Day to find evidence of its
persistence. The knowledge we gain from literature can have a profound influence on our
patterns of thought and behavior.
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their book METAPHORS WE LIVE BY , they
outline a number of metaphors used so often in everyday conversation, for example, the
understanding that “Happy is up” or that “Sad is down.” Likewise, we might think
“Darkness is death” or that “Life is light.” Here we can see that metaphors help us to
recognize and make sense of a wide range of very complex ideas and even emotions.
Metaphors are powerful, and as a result they can even be problematic.
The author Toni Morrison has argued that throughout history the language used
by many white authors to describe black characters often expresses ideas of fear or dread
— the color black and black people themselves come to represent feelings of loathing,
mystery, or dread. Likewise, James Baldwin has observed that
whiteness is often presented as a metaphor for
safety. INDIGENOUS RACES OF THE EARTH - book published in
1857, demonstrates how classical ideas of beauty and
sophistication were associated with an idealized version of
white European society whereas people of African descent
were considered to be more closely related to apes.
Figure 1 — “Races and Skulls” by Nott, Josiah, and George R. Giddon,

Wikimedia Commons is in the Public Domain, CC0An illustration
demonstrating the racist belief that people of African descent were as
distinct from so-called “Caucasians” as the Chimpanzee.
➢ An author's purpose is his reason for or intent in writing. An author's purpose may be:
- to amuse the reader,
- to persuade the reader,
- to inform the reader, or
- to satirize a condition.
➢ The literary purpose is used to entertain and to give aesthetic pleasure. The focus is
on the words themselves and on a conscious and deliberate arrangement of the words
to produce a pleasing or enriching effect.
- When you read a novel or a poem, or when you watch a movie or a TV comedy, or
when you listen to a song, you are experiencing the literary purpose. When you tell
a joke or write a love poem, you are using the literary purpose.
➢ A writer often expresses a worldview when using the literary purpose.
- The writer might comment on human nature or behavior.

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- The reader gains insight to the human condition by understanding the writer's
ideas.
➢ When used as a secondary purpose, the literary purpose enhances the primary
purpose through figurative or poetic or playful language and often a sense of human
struggle. Literary writing is usually fictional, and it makes use of figurative or symbolic
language.
➢ When literary purpose is the primary purpose, the writing should be fictional. As a
secondary purpose, literary writing can be found in combination with the expressive
or persuasive purpose. Because literary writing is figurative, it is seldom found in
combination with referential writing, which is literal.
Literary Forms and Parts
Most works of literature may be understood to be composed of three major aspects:

content, form, and context . Be able to see how each of these key aspects are
interconnected and work together to create sophisticated works of literature
➢ Content includes the themes, ideas, and the subject matter of a specific poem, story,
or play.
➢ Form is a broad term that encompasses all the specific literary or rhetorical elements
that make up how a poem, story, or play is written.
- Sentence-level literary devices, such as metaphor, simile or personification.
- The overall structure and style of a work, such as whether a poem is written in a
specific pattern, as in a sonnet, or whether a story is narrated from a specific point
of view, such as the first-person perspective.
- Analyzing the form of a literary work means analyzing the structure and the use of
language. Increasing your understanding of different types of literary structures,
literary devices, and rhetorical strategies can become a very useful toolkit for
writing effective analyses
➢ Context. Every work of literature was created in a specific historical and literary
context. Likewise, almost all literary works will refer to elements of other literary
works. Analyzing how the literary, social, and cultural dynamics of that specific context
may have influenced the writing of the literary work — or perhaps how it was
published and received in its time — adds another important layer of understanding.
However, interpretations of literary texts also change over time as the expectations
and values of readers change.
Kinds of Literary Writing
• novels, short stories, poems • parodies and satire

• plays and musicals • memoirs and thoughtful essays
• movie and TV scripts
Features and Characteristics
- Focus is on the conscious, deliberate use and arrangement of words.

- Purpose: to entertain; to give aesthetic pleasure
- Main Characteristics:
o usually, fiction that displays a sense of reality

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otension or conflict
oartistic unity (a main idea is conveyed)
ofigurative language (similes, metaphors, irony, symbolism, analogy)
- Minor Characteristics:
o first-person or third-person pronouns (usually)
o Style: informal/colloquial/vulgar
When You Use the Literary Purpose to Write
1.Think about what you want to say. Pay attention to the words you choose.
2.Play with language to produce pleasure or emotional release for the reader.
3.Use figurative language.
4.Use sensory appeals.
5.Include some sort of problem or tension, along with a resolution of that problem.
6.Try to give some essential meaning or idea to the reader.
Example:
She waited on the porch, swinging slowly to and fro, as the western sky melted from orange to gray to
black. She heard the whine of the truck tires out on the highway and, farther, the lonesome song of the
Sunset Limited, whisking people away to exotic places like Houston or beyond. A teasing breeze swept over
her, coaxing her auburn hair across her face, and as she pushed the hair away, her finger burned with the
tear that had pooled in her eye. Soon the lid could hold no more, and the tear blazed a trail down her lightly
powdered face. He said he would be there an hour before, and still he did not come. Had he been in a wreck,
or had he, like all the others before, only played with her trusting heart?
When You Analyze the Literary Purpose in Another's Writing
1. Identify the purpose you are analyzing, in this case literary writing.
2. Directly identify the characteristics (at least three) of the literary purpose used by
the writer, such as a sense of reality in a work of fiction, a problem or tension,
artistic unity that lends a central idea, figurative or playful language.
3. Give an example of each characteristic you identify. Tie the example directly to
the characteristic.
4. Provide a summative conclusion that the presence of the characteristics
demonstrates the use of the purpose.
Example of analysis above
The writer uses the literary purpose to present a fictional slice-of-life scene. One key characteristic of
literary writing, a sense of reality, is evident in the writer's use of common images that reflect everyday life,
such as the character swinging on the porch and listening to the sound of traffic out on the highway. Another
characteristic of literary writing appears as the writer introduces a problem, the fact that the character is
waiting for some person to appear; the tardiness of the person produces sadness and doubt in the
character. The writer has also used another key characteristic, figurative language, in suggesting that the
sky is melting, that a breeze is teasing her, and that her tear is blazing a trail. The presence of these various
characteristics demonstrates the writer's effective use of the literary purpose.
Notes on this analysis:

- 1st sentence: identifies the purpose.
- 2nd sentence: identifies a characteristic of literary writing and includes a related
example.
- 3rd sentence: identifies another characteristic of literary writing and includes a
related example.
- 4th sentence: identifies a third characteristic of literary writing and includes a
related example.

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- 5th sentence: gives a summative conclusion and concise evaluation.
Literary Examples
The Boys and the Frogs

Primary Purpose: Literary
Main Patterns: Narration, Description
A fable, like a parable, is a fictional piece of writing that attempts to deliver a

life lesson. What is the life lesson in the following fable? It first appeared
in Fifty Famous Fables by Lida Brown McMurry (1853-1942). This book was
published in 1910 by B.F. Johnson Publishing Company in Richmond, Virginia.
"Let us go to the pond and have some fun," said George. "What fun can we have
there?" asked Frank. "The pond is nothing but an old mudhole. We can not swim in such water."Down at
the pond the sun shone warm, and an old mother frog and her children were sunning themselves on a log.
Now and then, one plunged into the water with a chug! and then crawled out on the bank. That was a happy
time in frog land.
In the midst of their play, they heard a sound which made the mother frog tremble. It was only a boy's
laugh, but as soon as the mother heard it she said, "Into the water, every one of you. The giants are coming;"
and they all jumped into the water.
The giants had armed themselves with pebbles. Each one had a pocketful. As soon as they caught sight
of the frogs, they cried, "Now for some fun!" Before the mother frog could reach the water, a stone hit her
on one of her feet. The one-sided battle had begun. Every time a little frog peeped out of the water to get
a breath of air or to look at the two giants, whiz! flew a pebble right toward it, and it never cared to look at
its enemies again.
The mother became very angry. She lifted her head boldly above the water. "Cowards!" she cried. "If
we could sting, would you fight us? If we could bite, would you be here? You have great sport tormenting
us, because we cannot fight for ourselves. You are cowards! cowards!"And all the little frogs echoed,
"Cowards! cowards!"
Metamorphosis
In 1916, Franz Kakfa (1883-1924) wrote his surreal novella, The

Metamorphosis, about a young man who awakens to find himself
transformed into a giant cockroach. The first three paragraphs of the novella
follow. This translation was done by Ian Johnston of Malaspina University-
College, Nanaimo, BC. You can find the complete text at
http://www.mala.bc.ca/~Johnstoi/stories/kafka-E.htm.
One morning, as Gregor Samsa was waking up from anxious dreams, he discovered that in bed he had
been changed into a monstrous verminous bug. He lay on his armour-hard back and saw, as he lifted his
head up a little, his brown, arched abdomen divided up into rigid bow-like sections. From this height the
blanket, just about ready to slide off completely, could hardly stay in place. His numerous legs, pitifully thin
in comparison to the rest of his circumference, flickered helplessly before his eyes.
"What's happened to me," he thought. It was no dream. His room, a proper room for a human being,
only somewhat too small, lay quietly between the four well-known walls. Above the table, on which an
unpacked collection of sample cloth goods was spread out—Samsa was a travelling salesman—hung the
picture which he had cut out of an illustrated magazine a little while ago and set in a pretty gilt frame. It
was a picture of a woman with a fur hat and a fur boa. She sat erect there, lifting up in the direction of the
viewer a solid fur muff into which her entire forearm had disappeared.

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Gregor's glance then turned to the window. The dreary weather—the rain drops were falling audibly
down on the metal window ledge—made him quite melancholy. "Why don't I keep sleeping for a little while
longer and forget all this foolishness," he thought. But this was entirely impractical, for he was used to
sleeping on his right side, and in his present state he could not get himself into this position. No matter how
hard he threw himself onto his right side, he always rolled onto his back again. He must have tried it a
hundred times, closing his eyes so that he would not have to see the wriggling legs, and gave up only when
he began to feel a light, dull pain in his side which he had never felt before.
Eldorado

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) is one of the best-known authors in

American literary history. Like many of his poems and short stories,
Poe's life and death were mysterious. "Eldorado" is a poem that is
more optimistic than most of Poe's work.
Eldorado
Gaily bedight, And, as his strength
A gallant knight Failed him at length,
In sunshine and in shadow, He met a pilgrim shadow --
Had journeyed long, "Shadow," said he,
Singing a song, "Where can it be --
In search of El Dorado. This land of El Dorado?"
But he grew old -- "Over the Mountains
This knight so bold -- Of the Moon,
And -- o'er his heart a shadow Down the Valley of the Shadow,
Fell as he found Ride, boldly ride,"
No spot of ground The shade replied --
That looked like El Dorado. "If you seek for El Dorado."
The Declaration of Independence in American

Main Patterns: Narration, Classification, Evaluation
H.L. Mencken (1880-1956), sometimes called "The Sage of

Baltimore," was a famous American newspaper writer, an often
offensive wit, a critic, and an iconoclast. He often took a dim
view of the intellectual capability of the average American. The following selection is his
"translation" of the Declaration of Independence into common language. It was first
published in the Baltimore Evening Sun, November 7, 1921. Mencken's piece can be
regarded as satire or parody.
Mencken provided the following foreword to his article:

"The following is my own translation, but I have had the aid of suggestions from various other
scholars. It must be obvious that more than one section of the original is now quite unintelligible
to the average American of the sort using the Common Speech. What would he make, for example,
of such a sentence as this one: "He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual,
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of
fatiguing them into compliance with his measures"? Or of this: "He has refused for a long time,
after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise." Such Johnsonian periods are
quite beyond his comprehension, and no doubt the fact is at least partly to blame for the neglect
upon which the Declaration has fallen in recent years. When, during the Wilson-Palmer saturnalia

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of oppressions, specialists in liberty began protesting that the Declaration plainly gave the people
the right to alter the goverment under which they lived and even to abolish it altogether, they
encountered the utmost incredulity. On more than one occasion, in fact, such an exegete was
tarred and feathered by the shocked members of the American Legion, even after the Declaration
had been read to them. What ailed them was that they could not understand its eighteenth
century English. I make the suggestion that its circulation among such patriotic men, translated
into the language they use every day, would serve to prevent, or, at all events, to diminish that
sort of terrorism."
The Declaration of Independence in America
When things get so balled up that the people of a country got to cut loose from some
other country, and go it on their own hook, without asking no permission from nobody, excepting
maybe God Almighty, then they ought to let everybody know why they done it, so that everybody
can see they are not trying to put nothing over on nobody.
All we got to say on this proposition is this: first, me and you is as good as anybody else,
and maybe a damn sight better; second, nobody ain't got no right to take away none of our rights;
third, every man has got a right to live, to come and go as he pleases, and to have a good time
whichever way he likes, so long as he don't interfere with nobody else. That any government that
don't give a man them rights ain't worth a damn; also, people ought to choose the kind of
government they want themselves, and nobody else ought to have no say in the matter. That
whenever any government don't do this, then the people have got a right to give it the bum's rush
and put in one that will take care of their interests.
Of course, that don't mean having a revolution every day like them South American
yellow-bellies, or every time some jobholder goes to work and does something he ain't got no
business to do. It is better to stand a little graft, etc., than to have revolutions all the time, like
them coons, and any man that wasn't a anarchist or one of them I.W.W.'s would say the same.
But when things get so bad that a man ain't hardly got no rights at all no more, but you might
almost call him a slave, then everybody ought to get together and throw the grafters out and put
in new ones who won't carry on so high and steal so much, and then watch them. This is the
proposition the people of these Colonies are up against, and they have got tired of it, and won't
stand it no more. The administration of the present King, George III, has been rotten from the
start, and when anybody kicked about it he always tried to get away with it by strong-arm work.
Here is some of the rough stuff he has pulled:
He vetoed bills in the Legislature that everybody was in favor of, and hardly nobody was
against. He wouldn't allow no law to be passed without it was first put up to him, and then he
stuck it in his pocket and let on he forgot about it and didn't pay no attention to no kicks.
When people went to work and gone to him and asked him to put through a law about
this or that, he gives them their choice: either they had to shut down the Legislature and let him
pass it all by himself, or they couldn't have it at all.
He got the judges under his thumb by turning them out when they done anything he
didn't like, or by holding up their salaries, so that they had to knuckle down or not get no money.
He made a lot of new jobs and give them to loafers that nobody knows nothing about, and the
poor people had to pay the bill, whether they could or not.
Without no war going on, he kept an army loafing around the country, no matter how
much people kicked about it. He let the army run things to suit their self and never paid no
attention whatsoever to nobody which didn't wear no uniform. He let grafters run loose from God
knows where, and give them the say in everything, and let them put over such things as the
following:
Making poor people board and lodge a lot of soldiers they ain't got no use for, and don't
want to see loafing around.
When the soldiers kill a man, framing it up so that they would get off.
Interfering with business.
Making us pay taxes without asking us whether we thought the things we had to pay taxes
for was something that was worth paying taxes for or not.
When a man was arrested and asked for a jury trial, not letting him have no jury trial.

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Chasing men out of the country, without being guilty of nothing, and trying them
somewheres else for what they done here.
In countries that border on us, he put in bum governments, and then tried to spread
them out, so that by and by they would take in this country too, or make our own government as
bum as they was.
He never paid no attention whatever to the Constitution, but he went to work and
repealed laws that everybody was satisfied with and hardly nobody was against and tried to fix
the government so that he could do whatever he pleased.
He busted up the Legislatures and let on he could do all the work better by himself.
Now he washes his hands of us and even goes to work and declares war on us, so we don't
owe him nothing, and whatever authority he ever had he ain't got no more.
Every time he has went to work and pulled any of these things, we have gone to work and
put in a kick, but every time we have went to work and put in a kick he has went to work and did
it again. When a man keeps on handing out such rough stuff all the time, all you can say is that he
ain't got no class and ain't fitten to have no authority over people who have got any rights, and
he ought to be kicked out.
When we complained to the English, we didn't get no more satisfaction. Almost every day
we give them plenty of warning that the politicians over there was doing things to us that they
didn't have no right to do. We kept on reminding them who we was, and what we was doing here,
and how we come to come here. We asked them to get us a square deal, and told them that if
this thing kept on we'd have to do something about it and maybe they wouldn't like it. But the
more we talked, the more they didn't pay no attention to us. Therefore, if they ain't for us they
must be agin us, and we are ready to give them the fight of their lives, or to shake hands when it
is over.
Therefore be it resolved, That we, the representatives of the people of the United States
of America, in Congress assembled, hereby declare as follows: That the United States, which was
the United Colonies in former times, is now a free country, and ought to be; that we have throwed
out the English King and don't want to have nothing to do with him no more, and are not taking
no more English orders no more; and that, being as we are now a free country, we can do anything
that free countries can do, especially declare war, make peace, sign treaties, go into business, etc.
And we swear on the Bible on this proposition, one and all, and agree to stick to it no matter what
happens, whether we win or we lose, and whether we get away with it or get the worst of it, no
matter whether we lose all our property by it or even get hung for it.
Why use literature in teaching?
There are many good reasons for using literature in the classroom. Here are a few:
• Literature is authentic material. It is good to expose learners to this source of

unmodified language in the classroom because the skills they acquire in dealing
with difficult or unknown language can be used outside the class.
• Literature encourages interaction. Literary texts are often rich is multiple layers
of meaning and can be effectively mined for discussions and sharing feelings or
opinions.
• Literature expands language awareness. Asking learners to examine

sophisticated or nonstandard examples of language (which can occur in literary
texts) makes them more aware of the norms of language use (Widdowson, 1975
quoted by Lazar 1993).
• Literature educates the whole person. By examining values in literary texts,

teachers encourage learners to develop attitudes towards them. These values and
attitudes relate to the world outside the classroom.

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• Literature is motivating. Literature holds high status in many cultures and
countries. For this reason, students can feel a real sense of achievement at
understanding a piece of highly respected literature. Also, literature is often more
interesting than the texts found in coursebooks.
1.3 Prose vs. Poetry vs. Drama

ILO: Students will be able to explain major differences between poems, prose, and drama.
Genres of literature: prose, poems, and drama. Poems/Poetry are written in lines and
stanzas instead of sentences and paragraphs. While Prose is made up of sentences and
paragraphs without any metrical (or rhyming) structure. Drama is a piece of writing that
tells a story; it is performed on a stage and uses dialogue.
PROSE POETRY DRAMA
Prose is not about rhyming or Poetry is art. Drama is a Greek word

using ornamental words. which means “action”.
• Either written down or spoken
• It is simple but expressive. orally, poetry is characterized • It refers to a play
The language is quite direct by an imaginative and attractive performed on the stage,
or straightforward. expression of one’s thoughts. television, or radio.
• It expresses the feelings in a • It is metrical, which means that • It is composed in verses

way which is easy to read poems are metered or or prose to tell a story
and understand. structured. The structure or the involving emotions or to
meters give it a pattern. portray a character.
• There are no verses or
stanzas, sentences take their • This pattern makes it easier and • The actors act out an
place in prose. smoother to read. event playing different
characters.
• There are rules which are
• It is straightforward.
followed while writing poetry
• The characters may use
(not mandatory though). Some
• Authors sometimes dabble poetry or prose in their
examples are rhyme schemes,
between the two to give a dialogue.
meters, number of verses etc.
good combination.
Shakespeare uses both in • One can easily distinguish
some plays. between the verses and
stanzas.
• Short stories, novels, plays
etc usually fall under this
type of literature.
A. Prose V/S Poetry
Prose is a form of written or spoken language that usually exhibits a natural flow of speech
and grammatical structure, having ordinary language and sentence structure. A related
narrative device is the stream of consciousness, which also flows naturally but is not
concerned with syntax.
The word "prose" first appears in English in the 14th century. It is derived from the Old
French prose, which in turn originates in the Latin expression prosa oratio (literally,
straightforward, or direct speech).
Examples of works written in prose: works of philosophy, history, economics, etc..,

journalism, and most fiction (an exception is the verse novel) It differs from most

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traditional poetry, where the form has a regular structure, consisting of verse based on
metre and rhyme.
However, developments in 20th century literature, including free verse, concrete poetry,
and prose poetry, have led to the idea of poetry and prose as two ends on a spectrum
rather than firmly distinct from each other. The American poet T. S. Eliot noted, whereas
"the distinction between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and
prose is obscure."
Prose (History)
Latin was a major influence on the development of prose in many European countries:
Cicero (106 – 43 BC) - the great Roman orator. It was the lingua franca among literate
Europeans until quite recent times, and the great works of Descartes (1596 – 1650),
Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677) were published in Latin.
Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of:
Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac
Newton (d. 1727).
Qualities (Prose v/s Poetry)
Prose Poetry
- lacks the more formal metrical structure of the verses - traditionally, has more formal metrical structure of
- comprises full grammatical sentences (other than in the verses
stream of consciousness narrative), and paragraphs - involves a metrical or rhyming scheme
- Some works of prose make use of rhythm and verbal - Verse is normally more systematic or formulaic
music
- prose is closer to both ordinary, and conversational
speech
In Molière's play Le Bourgeois gentilhomme the character Monsieur Jourdain asked for
something to be written in neither verse nor prose, to which a philosophy master replies:
"there is no other way to express oneself than with prose or verse", for the simple reason
that "everything that is not prose is verse, and everything that is not verse is prose".
American novelist Truman Capote, in an interview, commented as follows on prose style:

I believe a story can be wrecked by a faulty rhythm in a sentence— especially if it occurs toward the
end—or a mistake in paragraphing, even punctuation. Henry James is the maestro of the semicolon.
Hemingway is a first-rate paragrapher. From the point of view of ear, Virginia Woolf never wrote a
bad sentence. I don't mean to imply that I successfully practice what I preach. I try, that's all.
Prose types
➢ Non-fiction is any document or media content

that intends, in good faith, to present only truth
and accuracy regarding information, events, or
people.
- Nonfictional content may be presented either objectively or subjectively.
- Primary and Secondary sources are used in non-fiction texts.
- Sometimes taking the form of a story, nonfiction is one of the fundamental
divisions of narrative writing — in contrast to fiction, which offers information,
events, or characters expected to be partly or largely imaginary, or else leaves
open if and how the work refers to reality.

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- Prose non-fiction is intended to present facts and opinions to inform or influence
readers.
- Examples: essays, biographies, autobiographies, magazine and newspaper articles,
history books, speeches, etc.
➢ Prose Poem, Prose poetry is poetry written in prose form instead of verse form, while
preserving poetic qualities such as heightened imagery, parataxis (the placing of
clauses or phrases one after another without coordinating or subordinating
connectives), and emotional effects.
- It resembles prose in its lack of line breaks, but still is image-driven and with other
poetic attributes such as meter, rhythm, rhyme, imagery, metaphors, sounds, and
the powerful lyrical language we associate with poetry.
- Example of prose poetry is Leslie Anne Mcilroy's "Big Bang" (2nd Place Prize in
Bacopa 2016's Poetry genre), described by Kaye Linden as "not only playful in form
but edgy and courageous... clever handling of a highly creative and unique theme
in which each planet of the solar system is personified" (the word Syzygy, from
ancient Greek "yoked together," in the first of 12 stanzas in "Big Bang" refers to
the alignment of sun, moon, earth, as in an eclipse): Date with Syzygy, Sex with
Mercury, Im with Venus, Dancing with Mars, Ring Toss with Jupiter, Reconnecting with
Saturn, Coffee with Uranus, Cocktails (or Not) with Neptune, Lunch with Pluto, Making
Out with Earth, Email with the Moon, Dinner with the Sun (such is an allusion prose poem)
More than once, the sun and the moon doing things they've never, trading light for dark,
all eclipse and aerial acrobatics. The stars, blinking with confusion, bumping into clouds in
broad daylight, dawn and dusk dancing in drag, roosters crowing at twilight and me, here
at the window, waiting for a universe.
➢ Alliterative Prose, in literature, alliteration is the conspicuous repetition of identical

initial consonant sounds in successive or closely associated syllables within a group of
words, even those spelled differently.
- As a method of linking words for effect, alliteration is also called head rhyme or
initial rhyme.
o For example, "humble house", "potential power play", "picture perfect",
"money matters", "rocky road", or "quick question".
o A familiar example is "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers".
- "Alliteration" is from the Latin word littera, meaning "letter of the alphabet"; it
was first coined in a Latin dialogue by the Italian humanist Giovanni Pontano in
the 15th century.
- Alliteration is used poetically in various languages around the world, including
Arabic, Irish, German, Mongolian, Hungarian, American Sign Language, Somali,
Finnish, Icelandic.
➢ Those found in works of fiction. Literature broadly is any collection
of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings
specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction,
drama, and poetry.
- In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include
oral literature, much of which has been transcribed.
Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and
transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also
have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.

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1. A Prose Poem – is a composition in prose that has some of the qualities of a poem.
2. Haikai prose – combines haiku and prose. Haibun is a prosimetric literary form
originating in Japan, combining prose and haiku. The range of haibun is broad and
frequently includes autobiography, diary, essay, prose
poem, short story and travel journal. Haiku is a type of
short form poetry originally from Japan. Traditional
Japanese haiku consist of three phrases that contain a
kireji, or "cutting word", 17 on in a 5, 7, 5 pattern, and a
kigo, or seasonal reference. Similar poems that do not
adhere to these rules are generally classified as senryū.
3. Prosimetrum – is a poetic composition which exploits a combination of prose (prosa)
and verse (metrum); in particular, it is a text composed in alternating segments of prose
and verse. It is widely found in Western and Eastern literature.
- While narrative prosimetrum may encompass at one extreme a prose story with
occasional verse interspersed, and at the other, verse with occasional prose
explanations, in true prosimetrum the two forms are represented in more equal
measure.
- A distinction is sometimes drawn between texts in which verse is the dominant form
and those in which prose dominates; there the terms prosimetrum and versi prose
are applied respectively.
- In the countable sense, a verse is formally a single metrical line in a poetic composition.
However, verse has come to represent any division or grouping of words in a poetic
composition, with groupings traditionally having been referred to as stanzas.
4. Purple prose – is prose that is so extravagant,

ornate, or flowery as to break the flow and draw
excessive attention to itself.
- In literary criticism, purple prose is overly ornate
prose text that disrupts a narrative flow by
drawing undesirable attention to its own
extravagant style of writing. This
diminishes the appreciation of the prose
overall.
- Purple prose is characterized by the
excessive use of adjectives, adverbs, and
metaphors. When it is limited to certain
passages, they may be termed purple
patches or purple passages, standing out
from the rest of the work.
- Purple prose is writing that is unnecessarily
wordy, uses metaphors and other
figurative language badly, and draws
attention to itself. It sticks out as
overelaborate in a way that detracts from the
story.
B. POETRY is that form of literature, which is aesthetic by nature, i.e. it has a sound,
cadence, rhyme, metre, etc., that adds to its meaning.

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➢ Poetry is typically reserved for expressing something special in an artistic way. The
language of poetry tends to be more expressive or decorated, with comparisons,
rhyme, and rhythm contributing to a different sound and feel.
➢ Poetry typically contains a metrical scheme and often some element of rhyme.
➢ Poetry, literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience or
a specific emotional response through language chosen and arranged for its meaning,
sound, and rhythm.
A poem is a composition that uses words to evoke emotions in an imaginative way.

Although poetry is a form of self-expression that knows no bounds, it can be safely divided
into three
Main Genres of Poetry: lyric poetry, narrative poetry, and dramatic poetry.
2. Lyric Poetry uses song-like and emotional words to describe a moment, an object, a
feeling, or a person.
- Lyric poems do not necessarily tell a story but focus on the poet’s personal
attitudes and state of mind. They use sensory language to set the scene and
inspire emotions in the reader.
- When you read a lyric poem, you are transported to a different time or place.
Writing lyric poems is an effective way to illustrate your perspective and share a
special moment with others.Examples
➢ Elegy - a reflective
poem to honor the
dead.
➢
➢ Haiku - a seventeen-
syllable poem that
uses natural imagery
to express an
emotion.
➢ Ode - an elevated poem that pays tribute to a

person, idea, place, or another concept. The
example of an ode below focuses on the
speaker’s thoughts of death and morality as he
studies an urn.
Ode on a Grecian Urn
by English Romantic poet John Keats
"O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede

Of marble men and maidens overwrought,
With forest branches and the trodden weed; Structure
Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought of an
As doth eternity: Cold Pastoral! Ode
When old age shall this generation waste,
Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe
Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou say'st,
"Beauty is truth, truth beauty,-that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know."

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➢ Sonnet - a descriptive fourteen-line poem with a specific rhyme scheme. Sonnets have
something called a volta (twist or turn), in which the rhyme scheme and the subject
of the poem suddenly change, often to indicate a response to a question, a solution
to a problem, or the resolving of some sort of tension established at the beginning of
the poem. Most often associated with themes of love and romance.
Types of Sonnet
How Do I Love Thee (Sonnet 43)
(by Elizabeth Barrett Browning's) 1. Petrarchan or Italian – oldest-14th century by Francesco
"How do I love thee? Let me count the ways. Petrach w/ an octave (eight lines of verse in iambic
pentameter) and then a sestet (six lines) and rhyme scheme is
I love thee to the depth and breadth and height
abba abba; in the sestet can vary a little but is typically cde cde
My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight or cdc dcd. "How Do I Love Thee?" Sonnet 43
For the ends of Being and ideal Grace 2. Shakespearean or English sonnet -16th-century English poet
I love thee to the level of everyday's and playwright William Shakespeare w/ 10 syllables long
Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light. written in iambic pentameter. The structure can be divided
I love thee freely, as men strive for Right; into three quatrains (four-line stanzas) plus a final rhyming
I love thee purely, as they turn from Praise. couplet (two-line stanza) and w/ rhyme scheme of abab cdcd
efef gg. "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day?" sonnet 18
I love thee with the passion put to use
3. Spenserian sonnet, by Edmund Spenser himself- 16th-century
In my old griefs, and with my childhood's faith English poet. Spenserian sonnet carries over the latter rhyme
I love thee with a love I seem to love from the previous quatrain in a chain rhyme: abab bcbc cdcd
With my lost saints, - I love thee with the breath, ee….” Amoretti” sonnet 111
Smiles, tears, of all my life! - and, if God choose, 4. Several other sonnet structure types do exist: Spenserian
I shall but love thee better after death." sonnet; Miltonic sonnet; Terza rima sonnet; and Curtal
sonnet
The author focuses on the theme of love and uses figurative language to express its immeasurability.
2. Narrative Poetry. A narrative poem tells a story. Also

known as epic poetry, narrative poetry is often set to music
as ballads. Narrative poems are usually of human interest
and include epics, or long stories.
➢ allegory - a narrative poem that uses an extended
metaphor to make a point.
Example:
1. Seuss wrote The Sneetches as an allegory for racism and other forms of prejudice. The story is all about
creatures who are treated as inferior because they don’t have stars on their bellies. Like all Dr. Seuss stories,
it’s written in a child-friendly, playful style, but it still contains an important political message.
2. George Orwell’s Animal Farm is one of literature’s most famous
allegories. The surface story is about a group of farm animals who rise
up, kick out the humans, and try to run the farm themselves. The hidden
story, however, is about the Russian Revolution, and each of the
characters represents some figure from that revolution. The pigs
represent Communist leaders like Stalin, Lenin, and Trotsky, the dogs
represent the KGB, the humans represent capitalists, the horses
represent the working class, etc.
➢ Ballad - narrative poetry set to musicBallads derive from the

medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were
originally "dance songs". Ballads were particularly
characteristic of the popular poetry and song of Britain and
Ireland from the Late Middle Ages until the 19th century.
➢ burlesque - a mock-epic poem that tells an ordinary story in a
melodramatic way Burlesque show, stage entertainment,
developed in the United States, that came to be designed
for exclusively male patronage, compounded of slapstick
sketches, dirty jokes, chorus numbers, and solo dances usually
billed as “daring,” or “sensational,” in their female nudity.

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➢ epic - a lengthy poem that tells a story of heroic adventures
If the story changes over the course of the poem, it’s a narrative poem.
The rhyme scheme and meter may change between narrative poems,
but all narrative poems tell a story from the perspective of a third-
person narrator.
Homer’s The Odyssey is one of the oldest and most famous epic poems.
The epic is an
"SPEAK, MEMORY—
example of poetry that tells a story Of the cunning hero,
through poetic language. It tells the The wanderer, blown off course time and again
story of heroic (but cursed) Odysseus After he plundered Troy's sacred heights.
and his crew as they battle monsters, Speak of all the cities he saw, the minds he grasped,
outwit witches, and make their way The suffering deep in his heart at sea
As he struggled to survive and bring his men home
home to his waiting wife. But could not save them, hard as he tried—
The fools—destroyed by their own recklessness
When they ate the oxen of Hyperion the Sun,
And that god snuffed out their day of return."
Paul Revere’s Ride
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s epic tale, “Paul

Revere’s Ride,” tells the story of American
Revolution hero Paul Revere and his historic
ride. It captures the tension of the night and
the thrill of the early Revolution. "Paul Revere's
Ride" is an 1860 poem by American poet Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow that commemorates
the actions of American patriot Paul Revere on
April 18, 1775, although with significant
inaccuracies. It was first published in the January 1861 issue of The Atlantic Monthly.
“Paul Revere’s Ride”
"Listen, my children, and you shall hear Hang a lantern aloft in the belfry-arch
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, Of the North-Church-tower, as a signal-light,—
On the eighteenth of April, in Seventy-Five: One if by land, and two if by sea;
Hardly a man is now alive And I on the opposite shore will be,
Who remembers that famous day and year. Ready to ride and spread the alarm
He said to his friend, “If the British march Through every Middlesex village and farm,
By land or sea from the town to-night, For the country-folk to be up and to arm."
1. Dramatic Poetry
Dramatic poetry, also known as dramatic monologue, is meant to be spoken or acted. Like
narrative poetry, dramatic poetry tells a story. You’re most likely to find dramatic poetry
in the form of dramatic (or even comedic) monologues or soliloquies written in a rhyming
verse. Many dramatic poems appear as:
monologue - a speech given by one character to another, or by one character to the
audience (also known as dramatic verse when not in poetic form)
soliloquy - a speech given by one character to himself or herself; a dramatic
representation of inner monologue.

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dramatic poetry narrative poetry
- is written from the perspective of a character in the - is told by a narrator
story - tends to set the scene and describe what's
- tends to lead with a main character entering the scene happening
and speaking
Example: My Last Duchess

Here is an excerpt from the opening of Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess." "My Last
Duchess" is a poem by Robert Browning, frequently anthologized as an example of the
dramatic monologue because it’s told from a character’s point of view. It first appeared
in 1842 in Browning's Dramatic Lyrics. The poem is composed in 28 rhyming couplets of
iambic pentameter.
"That's my last Duchess painted on the wall,

Looking as if she were alive. I call
That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf's hands
Worked busily a day, and there she stands.
Will't please you sit and look at her? I said
"Fra Pandolf" by design, for never read
Strangers like you that pictured countenance,
The depth and passion of its earnest glance,
But to myself they turned (since none puts by
The curtain I have drawn for you, but I)
And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst,
How such a glance came there; so, not the first
Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, 'twas not
Her husband's presence only, called that spot
Of joy into the Duchess' cheek; perhaps
Fra Pandolf chanced to say, "Her mantle laps
Over my lady's wrist too much," or "Paint
Must never hope to reproduce the faint
Half-flush that dies along her throat."
The Dream Called Life

Following is an excerpt from a dramatic poem titled "The Dream Called Life" by Pedro
Calderon de la Barca (1600-1681). The scene is immediately set with one word - dream.
After that, we enter a swirl of emotion as the writer tells us a story.
"A DREAM it was in which I found myself.
And you that hail me now, then hailed me king,
In a brave palace that was all my own,
Within, and all without it, mine; until,
Drunk with excess of majesty and pride,
Me thought I towered so big and swelled so wide
That of myself I burst the glittering bubble
Which my ambition had about me blown
And all again was darkness. Such a dream
As this, in which I may be walking now,
Dispensing solemn justice to you shadows,
Who make believe to listen; but anon
Kings, princes, captains, warriors, plume and steel,
Ay, even with all your airy theater,
May flit into the air you seem to rend ..."
The elements of poetry include meter, rhyme, form, sound, and rhythm (timing).
Different poets use these elements in many ways. Some poets do not use rhyme at all.
Some use couplets, while others may rhyme the second and fourth lines only...in a stanza.

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Elements of a Poem
These elements may include, voice, diction, imagery, figures of speech, symbolism and
allegory, syntax, sound, rhythm and meter, and structure.
Key Characteristics of Poetry
Writing poetry is a subjective art form that affords its authors freedom to express
themselves in ways both traditional and innovative.
- Poems do not have to rhyme, nor do they have to follow any structure or include
any style.
- poems do feature a few key characteristics:
o These are stylistic choices that can vary from piece to piece but must
nonetheless be made by every poet.
➢ Figurative Language
Figures of speech, or figurative language, are ways of describing or

explaining things in a non-literal or non-traditional way.
For example,
- a metaphor describes something by likening it to something
else: "His touch was a lightning strike." The author doesn't
mean that the touch was literally a lightning strike, but rather
that it produced feelings of heightened excitement and
charged emotions.
- Other figures of speech may include hyperbole, which is a frequently humorous
exaggeration that hints at a larger truth. The quote "I ran faster than a cheetah" is
an example of hyperbole. The mention of object to symbolize or represent
something else is also hyperbole.
Types of Figures of Speech
1. Metaphor and Simile – both used as means of comparing things that are essentially
alike
- Simile is a comparison expressed by the use of word or phrase such as like, as, than,
similar to, resembles or seems. Example: She is as innocent as an angel.
o Metaphor is an implied comparison (figurative term is substituted for an identified
with the literal term. Example: She is an angel.
- assert the identically of dissimilar things
- transform people, places, objects and ideas into whatever the poet imagines them
to be.
2 Types of Metaphor
a. Metonymy – something is named to replace something closely related to it

- city hall is used to stand for municipal authority
- Mark Antony’s speech in Julius Caesar in which he asks of his audience: “Lend me
your ears.”
- Metonymy has the effect of creating concrete and vivid images in place of
generalities, as in the substitution of a specific “grave” for the abstraction “death”;
Crown for a King

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b. Synecdoche – the whole is replaced by the part or by the part by the whole.
“hired hands” for workmen or, less commonly, the whole represents a part, as in the use
of the word “society” to mean high society; “The western wave was all aflame,” in which
“wave” substitutes for “sea.”
2. Personification – is the attribution of human characteristics to an animal, an object, or

a concept
- a subtype of metaphor, an implied comparison in which the figurative term of the
comparison is always a human being, taking on a human form/trait
o Lightning danced across the sky.
o The wind howled in the night.
o The car complained as the key was roughly turned in its ignition.
o Rita heard the last piece of pie calling her name.
o My alarm clock yells at me to get out of bed every morning.
3. Apostrophe – closely related to personification and is characterized by the addressing

of someone absent, dead or nonhuman as if that person or thing were present and
alive and could reply to what is being said. When a character in a literary work speaks
to an object, an idea, or someone who doesn't exist as if it is a living person. This is
done to produce dramatic effect and to show the importance of the object or idea.
Examples of Apostrophe:
o Oh, rose, how sweet you smell and how bright you look!
o Car, please get me to work today.
o Oh, trees, how majestic you are as you throw down your golden leaves.
Examples of Apostrophe from Literature and Song
o Feet, don't fail me now.
o Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are.
o Then come sweet death, and rid me of this grief. Edward II, Marlowe
4. Paradox – an apparent contradiction which may be a situation or a statement

- Contradiction usually comes from one of the words used figuratively
o Save money by spending it.
o If I know one thing, it's that I know nothing.
o This is the beginning of the end.
5. Hyperbole – or overstatement, is simply exaggeration – but exaggeration based on

truth
o He's running faster than the wind.
o This bag weighs a ton.
o That man is as tall as a house.
6. Verbal Irony – saying the opposite of what one means

o sarcasm (saying “Oh, fantastic!” when the situation is actually very bad)
o Socratic irony (pretending to be ignorant to show that someone else is
ignorant: "I'm confused, I thought your curfew was at 11. ...
o understatement (saying "We don't get along" after having a huge fight with
someone)
Sarcasm – simply a bitter or cutting speech, intended to hurt feelings or amuse
others
o In literature, sarcasm is typically referred to as verbal irony, which describes
the occasion when people say the opposite of what they really feel or mean.

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o Sarcasm is an ironic or satirical remark tempered by humor. Mainly, people use it to
say the opposite of what's true to make someone look or feel foolish.
For example, let's say you see someone struggling to open a door and you ask them,
"Do you want help?" If they reply by saying, "No thanks. I'm really enjoying the
challenge," you'll know they're being sarcastic.
o Sarcasm is all about the context and tone of voice, which is why it works better
verbally. It's something you'll know when you hear it.
o Sarcastic jokes can also be used for comedic relief. For example, "I walked into my
hotel room and wondered if the interior decorators thought orange was the new
black." The main gist of sarcasm is that the words are not meant to be taken
literally.
o Sarcasm is a literary device that uses irony to mock someone or something or
convey contempt and is generally viewed as cruel and emotionally cutting to its
subject.
o Sarcasm is related to satire or farce, which is a well-known genre of literature and
the dramatic arts. Sarcasm can come in all different types. Some are easier to catch
on to than others.
o self-deprecating - where you poke fun at yourself - an overstated sense of inferiority
and worthlessness, as in the following example:
“Can you work overtime this weekend, Larry?”“Yeah, sure. I was just going to get married
this weekend, but she probably would have left me anyway.”
o deadpan - sarcasm given in serious tone (can be harder to pick up on)

It is stated with no emotion whatsoever, so it’s difficult to tell if the statement is
serious or in jest. For example,
“Are you coming to the brunch this weekend?”
“No, I have to participate in a satanic ritual. It’s my turn to perform the sacrifice.”
o brooding - saying the opposite of what you mean in an irritated tone
It is when the speaker says something polite and subservient but is clearly irritated,
as in the following example:
“Could you please bring out another plate of ham, James?”
“Sure, I live to serve you.”
o Polite sarcasm is subtle, and a little too polite. It often comes across as genuine, but
then the listener realizes it is insincere.
“Can you work overtime this weekend?”
“Sure! I can’t wait! I’ll bring a party pizza!”
o Obnoxious sarcasm is usually bitter and spoken in a whiny tone of voice; for
example:
“Do you need help with your research paper??”
“Nope. I'm a better researcher than Einstein and Hawking combined.”
o Manic sarcasm is spoken with unnatural exuberance, and may sound a bit crazy. For
example,
“Can you pick up the kids from their second birthday party this weekend?”
“YES!! I absolutely can’t WAIT to do that! Can we do it again next weekend???”
7. Irony – used without either sarcastic or satirical intent

Example: The teacher comes to class and announces that he has some bad news for
the class and proceeds to say that everybody got excellent grades in the subject
➢ Descriptive Imagery
Imagery is something concrete, like a sight, smell, or taste.

Imagery describes what the poet sees, hears, or otherwise
senses, be it a literal image or one that exists in his mind. Visual imagery, which describes
what the poet sees, is the most common type of image in poetry. It creates a picture that
the reader or listener can see in his mind.

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➢ Punctuation and Format
The punctuation and format of the poem deal with

how it is arranged on the page and how the author
intends for you to read it.
For example, if a poem has frequent line breaks and

short stanzas, it forces you to read it in a different
rhythm than if it were arranged in longer stanzas with
fewer breaks.
➢ Sound and Tone
Poets use different sounds and tones throughout poetry to change the way it sounds. For
example, the poet may use alliteration, which is when multiple consecutive words start
with the same letter.
For example, he may write, “Pretty pugs playfully prance on the promenade.” The poet
may choose his letters to give the poem a soft or sharp sound, as well.
For example, choosing words that use “soft” consonants like f, m and w produces a
different sound than words with “hard” consonants like d, k, t and z.
➢ Choice of Meter
The meter of a poem is the rhythm or pattern of speech with which you read it, and it
doesn’t happen by accident. Poets use different meters to give their poetry different
rhythms, which have technical names like iambic pentameter or spondaic heptameter.
These names function like measurements for poetry – a poem’s rhythm and meter can be
broken down and analyzed according to measurements like these.

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How to Analyze Poem
1. Read. Have your students read the

poem once to themselves and then aloud, all the way through, at LEAST twice.
- Feel free to play a recording of the poem or show a video of someone reading
the poem, too.
- talk to your class about their first impression and immediate responses, both
positive and negative.
- discuss the poem’s structure and rhythm.
For example, are the lines short and meant to be read slow? Or, does the
poem move fast, and if so, why?
2: Title. Think about the title and how it relates to the poem. Titles often provide
important clues about what is at the heart of a piece. Likewise, a title may work
ironically or in opposition to a poem. Questions to talk about and consider are:
- Does the title immediately change how you think about it?
- Does the poem’s title paint a picture that gives a specific time frame, setting
or action?
- Does it imply multiple possibilities?
3: Speaker. Understanding the speaker is at the center of a poem may help the
piece appear more tangible to students because they’re able to imagine a person
behind the language. Questions to consider are:
- Who “tells” the poem?
- Does the poem give any clues about the speaker’s personality, the point of
view, age, or gender?
- Who is the speaker addressing?
- Does the speaker seem attached or detached from what is said?
4: Mood and Tone. It’s important to address the attitude or mood the poem is
attempting to convey. Some can be brooding or grieving; others may have a song -
like cadence and rhyme.
- Discuss the attitude each speaker or characters give off.
- Moreover, talk about if there places where the poem’s tone may switch and
why. This is also a good time to talk syntax and the effect certain words have
on us.
5: Paraphrase. Since you discussed figurative language, mood, setting, and

speaker—there’s no better time than to apply what you’ve learned line-by-line.
- Paraphrasing may seem self-explanatory. However, keep in mind this is not
about skipping lines or condensing. Instead, you should lead students’ line-

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by-line and translate figurative language or unclear phrases into simpler
terms that will not get in the way of analyzing the poem later.
6: Theme. The core of what the poem is about by identifying its theme.
- The theme of a poem relates to a universal truth, issue, or conflict.
- To determine the theme, look over all of your analysis and connect the dots:
o What is the subject?
o Who is the speaker?
o What situation are they in?
o How do they feel about the subject?
o What is the mood?
Rules for Writing Good Poetry
Here are some guidelines for those looking to take their poetry writing to the next level.
1. Read a lot of poetry. If you want to write poetry, start by reading poetry. Dissect an
allegory in a Robert Frost verse. Ponder the underlying meaning of an Edward Hirsch
poem. Retrieving the symbolism in Emily Dickinson’s work. Do a line-by-line analysis
of a William Shakespeare sonnet. Simply let the individual words of a Walt Whitman
elegy flow with emotion.
2. Listen to live poetry recitations. The experience of consuming poetry does not have
to be an academic exercise in cataloging poetic devices like alliteration and
metonymy. It can be musical—such as when you attend a poetry slam for the first
time and hear the snappy consonants of a poem out loud. By listening to the sounds
of good poetry, you discover the beauty of its construction—the mix of stressed
syllables and unstressed syllables, alliteration and assonance, a well-placed internal
rhyme, clever line breaks, and more.
3. Start small. A short poem like a haiku or a simple rhyming poem might be more
attainable than diving into a narrative epic. Don’t mistake quantity for quality; a
pristine seven-line free verse poem is more impressive than a sloppy, rambling epic
of blank verse iambic pentameter, even though it probably took far less time to
compose.
4. Don’t obsess over your first line. If you don’t feel you have exactly the right words
to open your poem, don’t give up there. Keep writing and come back to the first
line when you’re ready. The opening line is just one component of an overall piece
of art.
5. Embrace tools. If a thesaurus or a rhyming dictionary will help you complete a poem,
use it. Just be sure you understand the true meaning of the words you insert into
your poem. Some synonyms listed in a thesaurus will deviate from the meaning you
wish to convey.
6. Enhance the poetic form with literary devices. Like any form of writing, poetry is
enhanced by literary devices. Develop your poetry writing skills by inserting
metaphor, allegory, synecdoche, metonymy, imagery, and other literary devices
into your poems. This can be relatively easy in an unrhymed form like free verse and
more challenging in poetic forms that have strict rules about meter and rhyme
scheme.

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7. Try telling a story with your poem. Many of the ideas you might express in a novel,
a short story, or an essay can come out in a poem. A narrative poem like “The Waste
Land” by T.S. Eliot can be if a novella. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe expresses just
as much dread and menace as some horror movies. As with all forms of English
language writing, communication is the name of the game in poetry, so if you want
to tell short stories in your poems, embrace that instinct.
8. Express big ideas. A lyric poem like “Banish Air from Air” by Emily Dickinson can
express some of the same philosophical and political concepts you might articulate
in an essay. Because good poetry is about precision of language, you can express a
whole philosophy in very few words if you choose them carefully. Even seemingly
light poetic forms like nursery rhymes or a silly rhyming limerick can communicate
big, bold ideas. Just choose the right words.
9. Paint with words. When a poet paints with words, they use word choice to
figuratively “paint” concrete images in a reader’s mind. In the field of visual art,
painting pictures of course refers to the act of representing people, objects, and
scenery for viewers to behold with their own eyes. In creative writing, painting
pictures also refers to producing a vivid picture of people, objects, and scenes, but
the artist’s medium is the written word.
10. Familiarize yourself with myriad forms of poetry. Each different form of poetry has
its own requirements—rhyme scheme, number of lines, meter, subject matter, and
more—that make them unique from other types of poems. Think of these structures
as the poetic equivalent of the grammar rules that govern prose writing. Whether
you’re writing a villanelle (a nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a
quatrain, with a highly specified internal rhyme scheme) or free verse poetry (which
has no rules regarding length, meter, or rhyme scheme), it’s important to thrive
within the boundaries of the type of poetry you’ve chosen, versatility is still a
valuable skill.
11. Connect with other poets. Poets connect with one another via poetry readings and
perhaps poetry writing classes. Poets in an artistic community often read each
other’s work, recite their own poems aloud, and provide feedback on first drafts.
Good poetry can take many forms, and through a community, you may encounter
different forms that vary from the type of poem you typically write—but are just as
artistically inspiring. Seek out a poetry group where you can hear different types of
poetry, discuss the artform, jot down new ideas, and learn from the work of your
peers. A supportive community can help you brainstorm ideas, influence your state
of mind as an artist, and share poetry exercises that may have helped other
members of the group produce great poetry.
C. DRAMA.
A literary composition that tells a story, usually of human

conflict, by means of dialogue and action to be performed by
actors; play; now often specif., any play that is not a comedy.
(Dictionary defined).Hamlet; Romeo & Juliet; etc are examples
of drama.
Henrik Ibsen is famously known as the Father of Modern

Drama, and it is worth recognizing how literal an assessment
that is.

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Drama in literature refers to the performance of written dialogue and stage action. It’s
a literary genre that allows actors to act out a writer’s words directly to an audience.
But there’s more than one type of literary genre – and chances are, you’ve seen
examples of them all. Here are some explanations and examples of different types of
drama in literature.
Different Types of Literary Drama
Drama in literature refers to the performance of written dialogue and stage action. It’s
a literary genre that allows actors to act out a writer’s words directly to an audience.
But there’s more than one type of literary genre – and chances are, you’ve seen
examples of them all. Here are some explanations and examples of different types of
drama in literature. There are four types of drama, they are comedy, tragedy,
tragicomedy, and melodrama.
➢ Comedies are usually humorous plays. But being funny isn’t the only way to define
a comedy! The elements of a comedy include:
- Lighthearted tone
- Clever wordplay or turns of phrase
- Serious topics addressed in a humorous way
- Comical misunderstandings
- Happy ending
- Silly, offbeat characters
- Often ends with a wedding, especially in romantic comedies
One of the most famous examples of a comedy is William Shakespeare’s Much Ado
About Nothing. Beatrice and Benedick transition from foes to lovers with clever banter
and more than a few silly misunderstandings. And, like all proper Shakespearean
comedies, it ends with a wedding!
Much Ado About Nothing is a comedy by William Shakespeare thought

to have been written in 1598 and 1599. The play was included in the
First Folio, published in 1623. The play is set in Messina and centers
around two romantic pairings that emerge when a group of soldiers
arrive in the town
➢ A farce is a type of broad comedy. It depends less on a narrative storyline and more
on physical humor, sight gags, silly jokes. Here are the parts of a farcical comedy:
- Exaggerated humor
- Slapstick gags
- Nonsensical storyline
- Improbable events
- One or two settings
- Humor is often crude and inappropriate
- example of farce Waiting for Godot
For a film reference, think of anything by Monty Python or National

Lampoon. On the stage, the absurd humor in Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (pictured above) is a
farcical commentary on life, religion, and human relationships.
➢ Operas are dramas in which the characters sing each line rather than speaking. The
entire production is set to a musical score. You can tell you’re watching an opera if it
includes these attributes:

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- Musical soliloquies known as arias
- Plot-driving passages that can be non-melodic
- A libretto (text) set to a musical score
- Subject matter that is tragic, comic, or melodramatic
- Can incorporate an element of dance, but typically relies on singing
performances
- Elaborate sets, costume design, and production
One of the most famous operas of all time is Giacomo

Puccini’s La Boheme. It tells the tragic story of Rodolfo,
Mimi, and the world of French Bohemia. Set to one of
opera’s most memorable scores, the story reveals itself
over the course of a year.
➢ Melodrama. When you hear drama, you probably think of melodrama. Melodramas
tell a serious story in serious ways. It includes the following:
- Character tropes such as heroes, heroines, villains, mentors, etc.
- Sweeping stories of romance or serious topics
- Larger-than-life plots and circumstances (or very small stories told in big ways)
- Exaggerated character reactions
- Clear literary themes
- Flawed characters who must overcome their faults in order to
reach their resolution
- Ending that is sometimes happy, sometimes unhappy
Consider Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House when referring to a melodrama. Nora’s over-
the-top reactions place the play right into the definition of melodrama. The ending
is a mix of both happiness and hope for Nora, and sadness and despair for Torvald.
➢ Musical Drama. Significant differences between opera and musical drama checklist:
- Periods of standard storyline interrupted by songs
- Characters often singing in unison to express feelings
- Songs as plot-changing devices
- Dramatic or comedic storylines
- Catchy, distinctive musical score
- Often lots of singing and dancing
- musical drama Phantom of the Opera
Many musicals, such as Les Miserables or Phantom of the Opera, (pictured above) are
adapted from longer literary works. Both musical dramas express their themes directly
through song and progress the plot with musical numbers. They simplify their source material by
putting the most important characters and story elements on the stage.
➢ Tragedy. Just from the word tragedy, you can assume that the ending
will be sad. But there is more to a tragedy than a play with no happy
ending. You can tell if a play is a tragedy if it includes:
- A protagonist with a tragic flaw
- Circumstances that quickly get out of control – and not in a funny
way
- Darker themes than a melodrama, such as human suffering, hatred, or poverty
- Features the downfall of a previously heroic or well-liked character
- An irredeemable ending that results in one or more characters’ deaths
- Reaches a tragic catharsis

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Shakespeare has any number of tragedies to choose from. But few can rival Othello for its cruel villain, its
hero’s tragic downfall, and its desperately sad ending. Othello loses everything he has ever loved or
wanted because he can’t trust that he deserves the life he has.
➢ Tragicomedy. When you combine

the elements of a comedy and a
tragedy, you get a tragicomedy!
Tragicomedies are more complex
than a drama with a few jokes, or a
comedy with a serious scene. Some
ways to tell if you’re watching a
tragicomedy are if it has:
- A serious storyline told in a
humorous, sardonic, or snide
way
- Tragically flawed characters whose actions don’t result in death
- An ambiguous theme
- Broad characters who act in classically comical ways
- Neither a happy nor a comic ending
Classic dramas mainly dealt in clear-cut comedy, tragedy, or melodramatic styles.

But many modern dramas are considered complex enough to be tragicomedies.
Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire has enough elements of a comedy to
keep it out of the tragedy genre – but no one can claim than Blanche DuBois is
anything but a tragically flawed character. It is the quintessential modern
tragicomedy.
Purpose of drama
Drama is used in expressing the need for social change, communicating a universal
theme, recreating, and interpreting information, ideas, and emotions.
- Sharing the human experience
o expressing the need for social change, communicating a universal theme,
recreating, and interpreting information, ideas, and emotions.
- Passing on tradition and culture
o narratives, storytelling, folktales, religious ritual and ceremony
Importance of drama?
In Drama, students can explore intellectual, social, physical, emotional, and moral
domains through learning which involves thought, feeling and action. Drama fosters
self-discipline, confidence and teamwork and develops skills in interpreting,
researching, negotiating, problem solving and decision making.
Elements of drama?
The first four, character, plot, theme, and dialogue remain the same, but the following
additions are now also considered essential elements of drama. Drama is created and
shaped by the elements of drama, which are listed as: role, character and relationships,
situation, voice, movement, space and time, language and texts, symbol and metaphor,
mood and atmosphere, audience, and dramatic tension.

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Atmosphere: the interaction between the audience and the mood of a drama
performance.
Character: a person or individual in the drama that may have defined personal qualities
and/or histories. Flat characters (or two dimensional characters) demonstrate a lack of
depth or change in the course of a drama event. Rounded characters (or three
dimensional characters) feature more elaborate and complex traits and histories and
are changed by dramatic action in the drama event.
Dramatic tension: drives the drama and keeps an audience interested. The tension
comes when opposing characters, dramatic action, ideas, attitudes, values, emotions
and desires are in conflict creating a problem that needs to be resolved (or unresolved)
through drama.
Language and texts: referring to the use of spoken or written words that observe
conventions and language registers that communicate ideas, feelings, and other
associations. Texts refer to the use of published texts, online materials, and other
compositions the reference of which adds meaning to the drama.
Metaphor: creating an image or idea of one thing by saying it is something else. For
example, ‘He is a lion of a man.’ In drama, the use of metaphor can be more subtle such
as a metaphor of a mouse created through a character having a squeaky voice and small
darting movements. Design and stylistic elements can also be metaphors for
characterization or provide meaning in terms of theme.
Mood: describes the feelings and attitudes, often combined of the roles or characters
involved in dramatic action often supported by other Elements of Drama as well as
design elements. The mood is the emotional impact intended by the playwright, director
and/or other members of the creative team.
Relationships: refers to the qualities of the connection between two or more characters
or roles. That relationship may be fixed (largely unchanged by the dramatic action) or
variable (challenged or changed by the dramatic action). The relationship may be
cooperative (as in a friendship), adversarial (as in enemies), neutral (neither positive nor
negative) or non-existent (as in total strangers). Those relationships will be defined by
shared interests, common objectives, cultural values and/or human need.
Role: a performer can present in performance a role that represents an abstract

concept, stereotyped figure, or person reduced to a particular dominant trait
(occupation, human condition, or social vocation) that lacks depth or a backstory
normally present in a ‘Character’.
Situation: the condition or circumstances in which a character or characters are

presented often at the opening of a performance.
Space: the place where dramatic action is situated and the qualities of that place
including temperature, features, light levels, population levels and other environmental
factors that may be presented to or imagined by the characters/audience.
Symbol: symbolic parts of the scenography or design represent and add further
meaning to themes, narrative, emotion, mood and atmosphere. Different colours are

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symbolic. Other symbols might be found in a sound effect, music, style, images. Some
symbols are literal while others infer meaning.
Time: both the time of day, time of the year and time in history or the future. Time also
reflects changes in time within a scene or drama event. Time also refers to the flow of
time over the length of a drama event: fragmented time, cyclical time, linear time and
so forth.

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1.4 Fiction vs. Non-Fiction
Comparison Chart
Basis for
Fiction Nonfiction
comparison
Meaning Fiction is any narrative which does not Nonfiction implies that form of prose
contain facts or real events, rather it is which discusses true events, facts, and
based on imagination. information.
Nature Subjective Objective
Flexibility Yes No
Directness Readers are supposed to follow and There must be a direct presentation of
understand the abstractly presented the information.
theme.
Purpose To entertain the readers. To educate or inform the readers.
References May or may not be given Must be given
Perspective Narrator or Character Author
FICTION
Fiction refers to literature created from the imagination. Mysteries, science fiction,
romance, fantasy, chick lit, crime thrillers are all fiction genres.
- Fictional writings could inspire, or change the perspectives towards life, engage in the
story, surprise with the twist and turn and scare or amaze with the ending.
Examples of classic fiction include
- To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee,
- A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens,
- 1984 by George Orwell and
- Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
Fiction is the form of any work that deals, in part or in whole, with information or events
that are not real, but rather, imaginary and theoretical-that is, invented by the author,
though it may be based on a true story or situation.
Types of literature in the fiction genre include:
1. Fable 6. Prose Satire

2. Myth 7. Novel
3. Legend 8. Short Story
4. Fairy Tale 9. Novelette
5. Folktale 10. Novella

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Elements of Fiction
Plot and Structure

Cause Effect
The old man died. Then, the old woman died in grief.
This shows a set of actions to illustrate a plot. “The old man died; then the old woman
died in grief.”
- The statement presents that one thing (grief) controls or overcomes the other (the desire
to live).
- Motivation and causation enter the sequence to form a plot.
- If the second statement is simply “The old woman died,” motivation and causation are
absent.
- In a well plotted story, things precede or follow each other because effects follow causes.
Plot is the logical sequence of events. It contrasts the development of actions. This
means to say one event controls or overcomes another event. In a good story, nothing
is irrelevant or accidental, everything is related and causative.
Conflict presents the connected pattern of causes and effects which a character
(protagonist) must face and try to overcome (often the antagonist). It brings out
complications that make up most stories.
- It is the opposition of two people. Their conflict may be in the form of envy, hatred,
anger, argument, avoidance, gossip, lies, fighting, and many other forms and
actions.
- It may also occur between groups. Conflicts may also be between an individual
and lager forces like natural objects, ideas, modes of behavior, and public opinion.
- Conflict is the major element of plot because opposing forces arouse curiosity,
cause doubt, create tension, and produce interest.
- Dilemma is a natural conflict for an individual person who is placed in a difficult
and impossible choice.
Structure describes how the writer arranges and places materials based on the general
ideas and purpose of the work.
- Plot is concerned with the conflict or conflicts, structure defines layout- the way
the story is shaped.
- To study the structure is to study the arrangements (e.g. relationships between
two people from their first introduction to falling in love or move from countryside
to falling in love) and the purposes for which they are made.
- Stories and plays follow a pattern of development as follows:
Exposition – refers to the layout of the materials of the story --- the main characters,
their backgrounds, their characteristics, interests, goals, limitations, potentials and
basic assumptions.
Complication – refers to the major conflict. The major participants are the protagonist
and antagonist, together with whatever ideas and values they represent (e.g. good –
evil, freedom-suppression, or love-hate).

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Crisis – refers to a decision or action undertaken to resolve the conflict. This is the
point of the greatest curiosity and tension. It is closely followed by climax which is
often considered to be the same.
Climax – is the consequence of the crisis. It is the peak of the story because is it the
stage where a decision, an action, an affirmation or denial, or realization has to be
made. It is also the logical conclusion of the preceding actions for there are no new
developments that follow it.
Resolution or Denouement – is the relaxation of tension and uncertainty. Most

authors untie things as quickly as possible to avoid losing the interest of the readers.
Formal Real Structure

Structure -most stories depart from forma
is an ideal structure to real structure
pattern example is a suspense story keeps
that the protagonist ignorant, but
moves provide the readers with abundant
from details to increase tension about
beginning the outcome
to end. -contains structural variations to
increase the story’s impact
example a story may revolve
around such conflicts as poverty,
age and environment; at the end
new conflict would arise
➢ Characters told in stories who are drawn from life and who can either be good or bad.
The action and speech reflect their environments which comprise the social, economic,
and political conditions that affect their lives. In modern fiction has accompanied the
development of psychological interest in human beings – that they are not evil by
nature; that they are not free of problems; that they make mistakes in their lives; but
they are important and interesting, and, therefore, worth writing about.
Character Traits
Trait is a quality of mind or habitual mode of behavior such as escaping from a problem,
attracting attention, lying consistently, or avoiding eye contact.
Characters may also me ambitious, arrogant, lazy, serene, careful or careless, generous
or selfish, quiet or noisy and so on.
Types of Characters
1. Round Characters
- they recognize change with or adjust to circumstances
- benefits from experience and changes are reflected in (realization of a new
condition)
- often called the hero or heroine, and thus, the protagonist – moves against the
antagonist
- dynamic - undergo change and growth (e.g. simple wife to successful career
woman after she was deprived and exploited by a domineering husband for
twenty years)
2. Flat Characters
- do not grow because they may be stupid, insensitive, or lacking in knowledge and
insight
- static not dynamic

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- highlight the development of round characters
- usually minor characters, though not all minor characters are necessarily flat
- may be prominent in detective stories where they focus more on performance
than on characters
Shock character refers to characters in these repeating situations (e.g. insensitive
father, the interfering mother, the greedy politician, the resourceful detective and the
submissive or nagging wife)
- stay flat as they only perform their roles and exhibit conventional and unindividual
traits
Stereotypes are stock characters possess no attitudes, except those of their class.
- they appear to have been cast from the same mold (e.g. that all Muslims are
terrorists or that all Hispanic people belong to a gang)
Presentation of Characters (STEAL)

1. Speech (Dialogue)
What does the character say? How does the character speak?
Example:
“Hey, we can have lots of fun at camp this summer! I love being outside!”
(shows the character is upbeat and happy)
2. Thoughts
What is revealed through the character’s thoughts and feelings?
Example:
I wish it would stop raining. I am tired of sitting inside!
(shows the character is not happy about the situation)
3. Effect on Others
What is revealed through the character’s effect on other people?
How other characters feel or behave in reaction to the character?
Example:
The boy glared at his sister as she ate his dessert.
(shows that the character is upset about his sister’s behavior and inability to think
of others)
4. Actions
What does the character do? How does the character behave?
Example:
The girl rode the lawn mower through the house and into the garage.
(shows the girl is not concerned with rules or safety)
5. Look or Description (Physical Description)
What does the character look like? How does the character dress?
Example:
The little girl left the game with slumped shoulders and a frown on her face.
(shows the little girl is not enjoying herself and is upset)
➢ Setting. In many novels and short stories, setting is crucial. Some critics have
considered setting as main character. Characters can be shaped by their environment.
Word choice and sensory imagery, which are important for a mood, must also be
created. In literature, values and behavior can often be traced to setting, just in real
life. Setting is the natural, manufactured, political, cultural, and temporal
environment –including everything the characters know and own.

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Types of Setting
1. Nature and the Outdoors

- natural surroundings (hills, valleys, mountains, meadows, fields, trees, lakes,
streams),
- living creatures (birds, dogs, horses, snakes)
- and the conditions in which things happen (sunlight, darkness, calm, wind, rain, storm,
heat, cold)
- may influence characters and action
2. Objects and Buildings

- Authors include details about buildings and objects to reveal qualities of characters
and make fiction lifelike
- Houses, both interiors and exteriors are common possessions
- Some possessions that bear connotative messages are: walking sticks, fences, park
benches, toys, automobiles, necklaces, hair ribbons and so on.
3. Cultural Conditions and Assumptions

- these influence character
example:
In “Nanking Store,” the characters live in a conservative-Chinese-Filipino community
that finds a husband’s inability to produce children unacceptable, yet blames the wife
for it.
• Setting helps create atmosphere or mood (e.g. taking a walk in a forest needs just
the statement that there are trees; however, if you find description of shapes,
light and shadow, animals, wind and sounds, the author is creating an mood the
action)
• Descriptions of bright colors may contribute to happy mood while darker or
shaded colors may suggest gloom or hysteria
• References to smells and sounds bring the setting to life by asking additional
sensory responses from the reader
Examples of descriptive setting

• A ray of sunshine glistened off of the glass of my freshly squeezed orange juice.
• As I sat in my bedroom the smell of burning pine began to waft up through the sill.
I peered outside my window and mom waved. I saw dad and grandpa chopping
wood in the crisp afternoon as my brother fueled the fire pit. I peered to the right
and caught my sister devilishly running into the leaves I had raked earlier and
figured it was time to join the rest of the family.
➢ Point of View - is an outlook from which the author tells what happened.
- Refers to the position of the voice that the authors adopt for their works.
- It supposes a living narrator or persona who tells stories, presents arguments, or
expresses attitudes such as love, anger, or excitement.
Types of Point of View
1. Participant or First Person Point of View – the story is told by someone within the
story using such first person, pronouns as I, me, we, my, our, us.
- This perspective can take the reader into the story, and the author can speak to
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- What is known here is what one character sees, hears, thinks, feels, says, etc. The
character tells the story
- Sometimes, the first person narrator tells a story that focuses on another character
- The narrator still says “I” but the reader feels that the story is about some other figure
(e.g. “Nanking Store”)
- The story depends upon the curiosity and sympathetic imagination of the narrator
who describes his or her examination of various information relating to major
character, such as: what they have done, said, heard and thought (first hand witness),
what others have told them (second hand testimony and hearsay), what they are able
to find (hypothetical or imaginative information) and what they are able to imagine
a character or characters as doing or thinking, given certain conditions.
2. Third Person Point of View – is used when the author steps out of the story and
watches what happens from the point of view of one of the characters within the story
- also called a limited point of view because the readers only know what the character
sees, says and hears
- author uses the third-person pronouns such as he, she, it, they and them
- the teller is not a character in the tale
- it is the omniscient point of view since the author plays the creator of his/her story,
reader sees not only what the characters say or do, but the reader is also told about
what is happening in their hearts and minds
- author can comment on all the characters and shows the reader information
Types of Third Person Point of View
2.1 Omniscient Point of View – narrator relates the story using the third person,
whose knowledge and prerogatives are unlimited
- storyteller is free to enter the minds of and hearts of his or her characters and tell
the readers what they are thinking and feeling
- storyteller can interpret the characters’ behavior, comment significance of the story
he or she is telling, knows all and he or she can tell us little or more as he or she pleases
Ex. “Linda was inwardly angry, but gave no sign. Peter continued chatting, but he
sensed Linda’s anger.”
2.2 Neutral Omniscience – the narrator recounts deeds and thoughts, but does not
judge
- actions and thoughts of characters speak for themselves and are free to the readers’
interpretations
- the narrator doesn’t explain the thoughts or actions of characters but simply telling
things as they are
2.3 Editorial Omniscience – the narrator recounts as well as judges

- the writer may come between her reader and her story by offering too many
interpretations of events
2.4 Selective Omniscience – author may only limit his or her omniscience to the minds
of few characters
➢ Idea or Theme.
Idea – refers to the result(s) of general and abstract thinking and may also mean
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- In literary study, the consideration of ideas relates to meaning, interpretation,
explanation and significances
- Must be phrased as assertions (e.g. one might say that the idea in “The Fence” is
hatred, but it would be difficult unless the assertion is made such as this: “the story
demonstrates the idea that hatred destroys a meaningful and happy life.”
Theme – the major idea in the story. Also called as major or central idea
- The theme of a fable is its moral, of a parable is its teaching and of a piece of fiction
id its view about life and how people behave
- Not presented directly at all, one must extract it from the characters, action and
setting that make up the story. One must figure out the theme oneself
How to Find Ideas

1. Pause after finishing a passage.
2. Ask: What did the main character learn?
3. Jot down your ideas.
Example:
Alexis learned to be strong from her mother.
She learned to think of others in a time of danger. – very important life’s lesson
She learned that having a puppy made her very happy.
A Dog’s Tale. The theme of this passage is remembering always to think of others before
you think of yourself.
➢ Images. Image – is a sensory impression used to create meaning in a story (e.g.

“thrust her own pretty head into the street, letting the wind play with the pink ribbons
of her cap.”)
Types of Images
1. Visual – the most frequent type of imagery used to recreate a certain image.
• The crimson liquid spilled from the neck of the white dove, staining, and matting
its pure, white feathers.
• The shadows crisscrossed the rug while my cat stretched languidly in one of the
patches of sun.
2. Auditory – is the mental representation of any sound and it is vital in imagining and
feeling a situation.
• "At the next table a woman stuck her nose in a novel; a college kid pecked at a
laptop. Overlaying all this, a soundtrack: choo-k-choo-k-choo-k-choo-k-choo-k--
the metronomic rhythm of an Amtrak train rolling down the line to California, a sound
that called to mind an old camera reel moving frames of images along a linear track,
telling a story." (excerpt from 'Riding the Rails')
3. Kinesthetic – is a broader term used to describe the sense of movement or tension.
• "The clay oozed between Jeremy's fingers as he let out a squeal of pure glee."
• "Tossing their heads in sprightly dance" (from 'Daffodils' by W. Wordsworth)
4. Olfactory – is related to smell and this imagery helps summon and deliver the smells
to the reader.
• "I was awakened by the strong smell of a freshly brewed coffee."
• "Gio's socks, still soaked with sweat from Tuesday's P.E. class, filled the classroom
with an aroma akin to that of salty, week-old, rotting fish"

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5. Gustatory – illustrates and recreates the tastes, of food or many other things.
• "Tumbling through the ocean water after being overtaken by the monstrous wave,
Mark unintentionally took a gulp of the briny, bitter mass, causing him to cough
and gag."
• "I have eaten the plums that were in the icebox and which you were probably
saving for breakfast
6. Tactile – appeals to the sense of touch by presenting attributes like hardness,

softness, or hot and cold sensations.
• 'The bed linens might just as well be ice and the clothes snow.' From Robert
Frost's "The Witch of Coos"
• "When the others went swimming my son said he was going in, too. He pulled
his dripping trunks from the line where they had hung all through the shower
and wrung them out. Languidly, and with no thought of going in, I watched him,
his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up
around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the swollen belt,
suddenly my groin felt the chill of death." From E.B.White's, 'One More To The
Lake'
7. Organic – concentrates on recreating internal sensations like hunger, thirst, fear or

fatigue.
• 'It's when I'm weary of considerations, and life is too much like a pathless wood.'
From Robert Frosts "Birches"
➢ Symbols – these could be images or objects that stand for something other than
themselves and they do not just represent their own concrete qualities, but the idea
or abstraction that is associated with them or implied by them.
- If an image in a story is repeatedly and begins to carry multiple layers of meaning
- These are often objects, or may be parts of a landscape, like a river
- Some are universal, like water for cleansing but others are more culturally based
(e.g. a black cat in African societies is seen as good luck)
- Writers use pre-existing cultural associations as well as meanings drawn from the
context of the story to create multiple levels of meaning (e.g. Faith’s pink ribbons
carry cultural connotations of innocence and purity, but the fact that the wind
plays with the ribbons in one key image also brings to mind temptation, alluring
chaos, the struggle with natural forces)
Example:
In Alice and Wonderland, a white rabbit appears and Alice follows him down the rabbit hole
that leads to Wonderland. The white rabbit is a herald—a character archetype that signifies
the first challenge or the call to adventure. This is the change in the main character’s life that
marks the beginning of the story.
NONFICTION
Non-fiction (also spelled nonfiction) is any document or media content that intends, in
good faith, to present only truth and accuracy regarding information, events, or people.
Nonfictional content may be presented either objectively or subjectively.
- Nonfiction is the widest form of literature which contains informative, educational,

and factual writings. It is a true account or representation of a particular subject. It

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claims to portray authentic and truthful information, description, events, places,
characters or existed things.
- Although, the statements and explanation provided may or may not be exact and so
it is possible that it provides a true or false narrative of the subject which is talked
about. Nevertheless, the author who created the account often believes or claim it to
be true, when it is being created.
- When a nonfictional work is created, the emphasis is given to the simplicity, clarity,
and straightforwardness. It encompasses essays, expository, memoirs, self-help,
documentaries, textbooks, biographies and autobiographies, newspaper report and
books on history, politics, science, technology, business, and economics.
- The main purpose of reading nonfictional books is to learn more about a subject and
increase the knowledge base.
Common literary examples of nonfiction include: expository, argumentative, functional,

and opinion pieces; essays on art or literature; biographies; memoirs; journalism; and
historical, scientific, technical, or economic writings (including electronic ones).
- Rhetorical modes describe the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds
of language-based communication, particularly writing and speaking. Four of the
most common rhetorical modes are narration, description, exposition, and
argumentation. The first codification of these rhetorical modes was by Samuel P.
Newman in A Practical System of Rhetoric in 1827.
- An opinion piece is an article, usually published in a newspaper or magazine, that
mainly reflects the author's opinion about a subject. Opinion pieces are featured in
many periodicals.
- Journals, photographs, textbooks, travel books, blueprints, and diagrams are also
often considered nonfictional.
- Including information that the author knows to be untrue within any of these works
is usually regarded as dishonest.
- Other works can legitimately be either fiction or nonfiction, such as journals of self-
expression, letters, magazine articles, and other expressions of imagination.
- Some fiction may include nonfictional elements. Some nonfiction may include
elements of unverified supposition, deduction, or imagination for the purpose of
smoothing out a narrative, but the inclusion of open falsehoods would discredit it as
a work of nonfiction.
- The publishing and bookselling business sometimes uses the phrase "literary
nonfiction" to distinguish works with a more literary or intellectual bent, as opposed
to the greater collection of nonfiction subjects.
• Fiction and nonfiction sound similar, but they mean very different things in writing
Fiction genres include myths, crime thrillers, fairy tales, science fiction, dystopia, and romance
novels. Famous examples of fiction books include:
- Charlie and the Chocolate Factory: Mr. Wonka’s factory isn’t real, even though
there are some cool candy factories around the world.
- Frankenstein: Real scientists do create some weird things, but a monster like
Frankenstein isn’t one of them.
- Harry Potter series: There is no verifiable wizard community hiding behind magical
walls.

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- Moby Dick: The book was inspired by a true event, but the story and characters
are totally made up.
- Where the Wild Things Are: Max and his mom could be real people, but Max’s trip
is not factual.
Nonfiction genres include biographies, cookbooks, travel guides, history books, and
self-help books.
- Dr. Seuss’s ABC: Although the book includes wacky words, it presents the actual
English alphabet and words that truly start with each letter.
- I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings: This is an autobiography written by author Maya
Angelou about her actual life.
- Mastering the Art of French Cooking: This cookbook presents real French cooking
techniques and recipes.
- Miriam Webster Children’s Dictionary: An educational dictionary presents real
words and their accepted definitions.
- What Color is Your Parachute?: This self-help book and job-hunting guide is
updated every year to share real job market information and job search tips.
Creative Nonfiction uses a lot of imagination to present the facts. Events are shared as
they happened, but creative elements are used in the way the story is told.
Examples of creative nonfiction genres include memoir and narrative journalism.
- Dandelion Wine: Ray Bradbury’s semi-autobiographical novel takes real
childhood memories and turns them into an imaginative story steeped in truth.
- Into the Wild: Author John Krakauer wrote the book based on a few years in the
life of a man who abandoned the world to live off the grid using creative license to
share the story.
- Hidden Figures (picture book): The true story of how a few Black women impacted
the space program is shared in a kid-friendly way that reads more like a story than
a biography.
Main Differences Between Fiction and Nonfiction
Fiction Nonfiction
- The number facts in a work of - The number of facts presented in a work of
fiction don’t change the genre. nonfiction directly impacts its credibility
- Fiction is usually more elaborate - Nonfiction is usually less elaborate
- Fiction writing needs no references - Nonfiction writing needs references, even just
- Fiction is meant to tell a story a sworn firsthand account.
mostly for entertainment - Nonfiction is meant to share something
believed to be true.
Similarities Between Fiction and Nonfiction
Nonfiction and fiction writing have many similarities in their structures and elements. They
can both contain characters, a setting, and a plot. Both types of writing can contain
elements of truth or real people, places, and events.

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1.5 A Survey of Authors
a. Filipino Authors
1. Francisco Arcellana 11. Luis G. Dato 21. Peter Solis Nery

2. Francisco Balagtas 12. Edmundo Farolán 22. José Rizal
3. Lualhati Bautista 13. Zoilo Galang 23. Alejandro R. Roces
4. Louis Bulaong 14. Guillermo Gómez 24. Shirley Siaton
5. Carlos Bulosan Rivera 25. Michelle Cruz Skinner
6. Cecilia Manguerra 15. N. V. M. Gonzalez 26. Miguel Syjuco
Brainard 16. Jessica Hagedorn 27. Jason Tanamor
7. Linda Ty Casper 17. Nick Joaquin 28. Lysley Tenorio
8. Gilbert Luis R. Centina III 18. F. Sionil José 29. Edilberto K. Tiempo
9. Rin Chupeco 19. Resil Mojares
10. Gilda Cordero-Fernando 20. Virginia R. Moreno
Francisco “Kiko” Balagtas(Baltasar/Baltazar) y de la Cruz (April 2, 1788 –

February 20, 1862) at Barrio Panginay, Bigaa, Bulacan, Captaincy General of
the Philippines, Spanish Empire, was a prominent Filipino poet during the
Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. He got a Citizenship of Spanish
(1812 Spanish Constitution granted Filipino natives Spanish citizenship).He is
widely considered one of the greatest Filipino literary laureates for his impact on Filipino
literature. The famous epic Florante at Laura is regarded as his defining work. His
mentor was José de la Cruz, otherwise known as Huseng Sisiw. His works were: Florante
at Laura or Pinagdaanang Buhay ni Florante at Laura sa Kaharian ng Albanya, an awit
(metrical narrative poem with dodecasyllabic quatrains [12 syllables per line, 4 lines per
stanza]); Balagtas' masterpiece; La India elegante y el negrito amante – a short play in
one part; and Orosman at Zafira – a comedia in three parts
José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda (June 19, 1861 –
December 30, 1896) was a Filipino nationalist and polymath during the tail
end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. He is considered the
national hero of the Philippines. An ophthalmologist by profession, Rizal
became a writer and a key member of the Filipino Propaganda Movement,
which advocated political reforms for the colony under Spain. He was the
author of the novels Noli Me Tángere (1887) and El filibusterismo (1891), etc.; several
poems "A la juventud filipina" (To the Philippine Youth, 1879) and Mi Ultimo Adios
(1896) - "Adiós, Patria Adorada" (literally "Farewell, Beloved Fatherland"), etc.; and
essays "El amor patrio", 1882 essay and "Sobre la indolencia de los filipinos" (The
Indolence of Filipinos), 1890, etc. Rizal wrote mostly in Spanish, the lingua franca of the
Spanish East Indies, though some of his letters (for example Sa
Mga Kababaihang Taga Malolos) were written in Tagalog.
As a political figure, José Rizal was the founder of La Liga Filipina, a
civic organization that subsequently gave birth to the Katipunan
led by Andrés Bonifacio, a secret society which would start the
Philippine Revolution against Spain that eventually laid the
foundation of the First Philippine Republic under Emilio Aguinaldo.

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Zoilo Galang was a Filipino writer from
Pampanga. He is credited as one of the
pioneering Filipino writers who worked with
the English language. He is the author of the
first Philippine novel written in the English
language, A Child of Sorrow, published in 1921.
He became known for his publications written
in English. He is known for being responsible
for the first publication of several Philippine
works in English: A Child of Sorrow (1921) –
first Philippine novel in English; Tales of the Philippines (1921) – first volume of Philippine
legends and folk tales written in English; Life and Success (1921) – first volume of
Philippine essays in English; The Box of Ashes and Other Stories (1924) – first volume of
Philippine short stories in English. His essays were also published in The Best Thing in the
World and Master of Destiny (both published in 1924): He also worked to get 20 volumes
of encyclopedia featuring Philippine-related subjects in 1957. The publication of such
collection was hindered due to its manuscript being burned during World War II yet they
were successfully able to publish the 3rd edition after the fires. Copies of the volumes are
found throughout the world in major libraries to this day. He also worked as a writer of
history publications for use of elementary students such as Leaders of the Philippines
(1932), Important Characters in Philippine History (1939), Mario and Minda (1940), Hero
of Tirad Pass and Others (1949), Mr. Perez, Teacher (1950) at Home, School and
Community (1950).
Carlos Sampayan Bulosan was an English-
language Filipino novelist and poet who
immigrated to America on July 1, 1930. He
never returned to the Philippines and he
spent most of his life in the United States. His
best-known work today is the semi-
autobiographical America Is in the Heart, but
he first gained fame for his 1943 essay on The Freedom from Want. He also wrote “The
Laughter of My Father”.
Luis G. Dato. Born: 4 July 1906 and Died: January 29, 1985 (1926 – 1975),
he was a Filipino poet, writer, educator and politician for a Period: 1926 –
1975. He was from Baao, Camarines Sur. He was one of the first Filipinos
to write and publish works in English. Among his poems are "The Spouse",
"Day on the Farm" and "Among the Hills". In 1927, his "Mi Ultimo
Pensamiento" was the first good English translation, in rhymes, of José
Rizal's "Mi último adiós". His Notable works: Manila A Collection of Verse,
My Book of Verses, Land of Mai. Notable awards Outstanding Catholic Poet 1965, Lifetime
Achievement Award in the Premio Tomas Arejola para sa Literaturang Bikolnon 2006.

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Nicomedes "Nick" Marquez Joaquin was a Filipino writer and journalist
best known for his short stories and novels in the English language. He
also wrote using the pen name Quijano de Manila. Joaquin was conferred
the rank and title of National Artist of the Philippines for Literature. He
has been considered one of the most important Filipino writers, along with José Rizal and
Claro M. Recto. Unlike Rizal and Recto, whose works were written in Spanish, Joaquin's
major works were written in English despite being a native Spanish speaker.
Lualhati Torres Bautista (born December 2, 1945) is a Filipino writer,
novelist, liberal activist and political critic. Her most popular novels
include Dekada '70; Bata, Bata, Pa'no Ka Ginawa?; and ‘GAPÔ. Two
of Bautista's short stories won the Palanca Awards, namely "Tatlong
Kwento ng Buhay ni Juan Candelabra" ("Three Stories in the Life of
Juan Candelabra"), first prize, 1982; and "Buwan, Buwan, Hulugan mo Ako ng Sundang"
("Moon, Moon, Drop Me a Dagger"), third prize, 1983. Bautista's venture as a
screenwriter produced several critically acclaimed works. Her first screenplay was Sakada
(Seasonal Sugarcane Workers), 1976, which exposed the plight of Filipino peasants. Her
second film was Kung Mahawi Man ang Ulap in 1984, which was nominated for awards in
the Film Academy of the Philippines. She has written a lot more literatures including
novels, screenplays, teleplays, etc. In 1991 Bautista with Cacho Publishing House,
published a compilation of short stories entitled Buwan, Buwan, Hulugan Mo Ako ng
Sundang: Dalawang Dekada ng Maiikling Kuwento.
Resil Barretto Mojares is a Filipino historian and critic of Philippine
literature best known as for his books on Philippine history. He is
acclaimed by various writers and critics as the Visayan Titan of Letters,
due to his immense contribution to Visayan literature. He was
recognized in 2018 as a National Artist of the Philippines for Literature
- a conferment which represents the Philippine state's highest recognition for artists.
Peter Solis Nery is a Filipino poet, fictionist, author, and filmmaker. Writing
in Hiligaynon, he is a Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature Hall of
Fame Awardee, the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Literary Grant,
and the All-Western Visayas Literary Contest winner. In 2015, he became the
first Filipino author to be invited to the Sharjah International Book Fair in the
United Arab Emirates. Writing in English, Filipino, and Hiligaynon, he has authored at least
20 books, and has written screenplays. He wrote and edited newspapers in Iloilo City
before becoming a nurse in the United States.
Alejandro Reyes Roces was a Filipino author, essayist, dramatist and a
National Artist of the Philippines for literature. He served as Secretary of
Education from 1962 to 1965, during the term of Philippine President
Diosdado Macapagal. Roces wrote books such as "Of Cocks and Kites"
(1959), "Fiesta" (1980), and "Something to Crow About" (2005). He won a
number of awards for his works: the Patnubay ng Sining at Kalinangan Award, the Diwa
ng Lahi Award, the Tanging Parangal of the Gawad CCP Para sa Sining, and the Rizal Pro
Patria Award. Of Cocks and Kites earned him the reputation as the country's best writer
of humorous stories. It also contained the widely anthologized piece “My Brother's
Peculiar Chicken”.

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Edilberto Kaindong Tiempo, also known as E. K. Tiempo, was a Filipino
writer and professor. He and his wife, Edith L. Tiempo, are credited by
Silliman University with establishing "a tradition in excellence in
creative writing and the teaching of literacy craft which continues to
this day" at that university. His novel, Cry Slaughter, published in 1957 was a revised
version of his Watch in the Night novel published four years earlier in the Philippines. Cry
Slaughter had four printings by Avon in New York, a hardbound edition in London, and six
European translations.
Miguel Augusto Gabriel Jalbuena Syjuco (born November 17, 1976)
is a Filipino writer from Manila and the grand prize winner of the 2008
Man Asian Literary Prize for his first novel Ilustrado. He is a Filipino
writer from Manila and the grand prize winner of the 2008 Man Asian
Literary Prize for his first novel Ilustrado. His debut novel Ilustrado
won the Grand Prize for a Novel in English at the 2008 Palanca Awards, the Philippines'
highest literary honor. In November of the same year, Syjuco was also awarded the 2008
Man Asian Literary Prize for Ilustrado (titled after the historical Ilustrado class during the
Spanish colonial period). Ilustrado has been published in 16 languages. In late 2010, the
novel was published in Spanish (Tusquets), Swedish (Natur & Kultur), and Dutch (Mouria).
In 2011, it was published in Serbian (Geopoetika), French (Editions Christian Bourgois),
Catalan (Tusquets), Italian (Fazi), Japanese (Hakusuisha), Czech (Jota), German (Klett-
Cotta), and Brazilian Portuguese (Companhia das Letras). The novel is currently taught in
university and high school literature classes in the Philippines.
(September 6, 1916 – August 1, 2002). He was a Filipino
writer, poet, essayist, critic, journalist and teacher.His
actual writing, however, started when he became a
member of The Torres Torch Organization during his high
school years and continued at UP Diliman. Later he
received a Rockefeller Grant and became a fellow in
Creative Writing at the University of Iowa and at the Breadloaf Writers' Conference from
1956– 1957. Many of his works were translated into Tagalog, Malaysian, Russian, Italian,
and German. Awards received include 2nd place in the 1951 Don Carlos Palanca Memorial
Awards for Literature, with his short story, “The Flowers of May”. Fourteen of his short
stories were also included in Jose Garcia Villa's Honor Roll from 1928 to 1939. His major
achievements included the 1st award in art criticism from the Art Association of the
Philippines in 1954, the Patnubay ng Sining at Kalinangan award from the city government
of Manila in 1981, and the Gawad Pambansang Alagad ni Balagtas for English fiction from
the Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipino (UMPIL) in 1988. The UP conferred upon
Arcellana a doctorate in humane letters, honoris causa in 1989. Francisco Arcellana was
proclaimed National Artist of the Philippines in Literature on June 23, 1990 by then
Philippine President Corazon C. Aquino. Some of his short stories are Frankie, The Man
Who Would Be Poe, Death in a Factory, Lina, A Clown Remembers, Divided by Two, The
Mats, and his poems being The Other Woman, This Being the Third Poem This Poem is for
Mathilda, To Touch You and I Touched Her, among others.

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Escapist Dream is a science fiction novel written by Louis Bulaong
and published on July 26, 2020. The novel is set in a near future
where virtual reality has become a norm and where geeks can use
it to gain superpowers and extraordinary abilities. It was written
by the author as a homage to geek culture from comics, films,
anime and video games. Escapist Dream was written in a smooth flow of thoughts, with
extensive use of conjunctions, in the author’s Filipino-English accent. The book became
known for combining wacky pop culture references with serious psychological themes. In
2021, a sequel entitled Otaku Girl was published by Louis Bulaong, first as a webnovel
(Web fiction is written works of literature available primarily or solely on the Internet. A
common type of web fiction is the web serial. The term comes from old serial stories that
were once published regularly in newspapers and magazines) before being published in
KDP (Kindle Direct Publishing is Amazon.com's e-book self-publishing platform launched
in November 2007, concurrently with the first Amazon Kindle device. Amazon launched
Kindle Direct Publishing (KDP), originally called Digital Text Platform, for authors and
publishers to independently publish their books directly to the Kindle Store).
b. International Well-Known Authors
Homer ~850 BCE

Scholars have debated whether Homer was one single author rather than a
collection of oral stories but it is now thought that such an author existed.
His defining works are The Iliad and The Odyssey. The adventures described
in these two epic poems have shaped our thinking about the ancient Greeks
– their religious and social structures – and have profoundly influenced
subsequent writers, who have used his characters in multiple ways… All of us, whoever we
may be, know something about the siege of Troy, the Trojan Wars, the kidnapping of Helen of
Troy, the heroes, Achilles and Ajax, and the epic journey home of Odysseus (Ulysses to the
Romans). Many of the stories are with us all the time in the form of science fiction novels, stories,
films and television series. Star Trek, with its characters who are able to become invisible, change
human beings into animals and effect so many magical tricks use the stories.
Sophocles 496-406 BCE
Sophocles, an ancient Greek dramatist, wrote plays that have stood as a
model for tragic dramas, both by Greek and Roman writers and into the
modern age, hugely influencing the playwrights of the golden age of
Elizabethan drama in England, as well as modern dramatists. He dramatically changed the
tragic form by adding a third actor, thereby eroding the role of the chorus in the
presentation of the plot… Sophocles was one of the three great Greek tragedians. Of his
eight plays (seven full, one fragmented) that remain today, his most famous is Oedipus
the King (Oedipus Rex), which is known for its impressive construction and use of dramatic
devices. The philosophy of Sophocles is that the dead control and affect our life. - In Greek
tragedy the natural forces are destructive. These forces might be nature, gods or fate.
Man is helpless in facing these powers.

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Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro) 70 BCE – 19 BCE
Virgil was a prolific Roman poet, best remembered for his epic, Aeneid. He
Was to Rome what Homer was to Greece. The national epic of ancient
Rome, Aeneid follows the fortunes of the Trojan refugee, Aeneas. It is the
mythical story of the founding of Rome, a story that has given us our idea of that event
and the history of Rome before the modern period. It has been, and is still, used by writers
as the basis of Western history and values… He composed three of the most famous
poems in Latin literature: the Eclogues (or Bucolics), the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid.
Virgil was regarded by the Romans as their greatest poet, an estimation that subsequent
generations have upheld. His fame rests chiefly upon the Aeneid, which tells the story of
Rome's legendary founder and proclaims the Roman mission to civilize the world under
divine guidance.
The Evangelist, Mark (Author of the Gospel of St Mark) 1st Century CE
He was one of Jesus Christ's original 12 disciples. The identity of Mark is
unknown but his great book, The Gospel of St Mark, was written in about
the year 70 and has had the greatest impact on the world of any book ever
written. It has been translated into more languages than any other book in history, as a
book of the Bible… John Mark, the writer of the Gospel of Mark, also served as a
companion to the Apostle Paul in his missionary work and later assisted the Apostle Peter
in Rome. Three names appear in the New Testament for this early Christian: John Mark,
his Jewish and Roman names; Mark; and John. Mark's Gospel stresses the deeds, strength,
and determination of Jesus in overcoming evil forces and defying the power of imperial
Rome. Mark also emphasizes the Passion, predicting it as early as chapter 8 and devoting
the final third of his Gospel (11–16) to the last week of Jesus' life. The symbol, The Lion of
Saint Mark, representing Mark the Evangelist, pictured in the form of a winged lion, is an
aspect of the Tetramorph. On the pinnacle of St Mark's Cathedral he is depicted as holding
a Bible, and surmounting a golden lion which is the symbol of the city of Venice and
formerly of the Venetian Republic.
Dante (Durante degli Alighieri) 1265-1321
Dante was an Italian poet (considered the Father of Italian language). His
most famous and acclaimed poem is the long narrative, The Divine Comedy,
the story of the narrator’s journey through hell and purgatory to paradise.
It impacts on modern life in that its picture of what hell is like, with its ice
and sulphurous fire, where sinners are tortured in the most horrific way, is the image
Western culture has of hell… Dante is known for establishing the use of the vernacular in
literature at a time when most poetry was written in Latin, which was accessible only to
the most educated readers. His De vulgari eloquentia (On Eloquence in the Vernacular)

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was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular. His use of the Tuscan dialect for
works such as The New Life (1295) and Divine Comedy helped establish the modern-day
standardized Italian language. His work set a precedent that important Italian writers such
as Petrarch and Boccaccio would later follow. Dante was instrumental in establishing the
literature of Italy. His depictions of Hell, Purgatory and Heaven provided inspiration for
the larger body of Western art and literature. He is cited as an influence on such English
writers as Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton and Alfred Tennyson, among many others.
Geoffrey Chaucer 1343-1400
Geoffrey Chaucer (/ˈtʃɔːsər/; c. 1340s – 25 October 1400) was an English
poet and author. Widely considered the greatest English poet of the
Middle Ages, he is best known for The Canterbury Tales. He has been called
the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English
poetry". His verse is still read and enjoyed today and often adapted for theatre
performances. It is full of characters, still recognizable as types we encounter in daily life
in spite of having been inspired by people Chaucer observed more than seven hundred
years ago… Literary critics and historians have tended to partition Chaucer's literary
career into three major periods: the French, the Italian and the English.
Francois Rabelais 1498-1553
Francois Rabelais was a French monk and physician who wrote several
volumes of a huge novel, The Life of Gargantua and Pantagruel, a story
about a giant and his son. Satirical, amusing and over-the- top, it has
influenced the style of writers like James Joyce, Lawrence Sterne and almost any writer
who has attempted novels or plays containing the adventures of comical characters,
including Shakespeare…
Cervantes (Miguel de Cervantes Cortinas) 1547-1616
Miguel Cervantes, a contemporary of Shakespeare, actually dying the
day before the Bard, is without doubt the most important writer in the
history of the modern novel and, indeed, one of the most important in the
history of literature. His novel, Don Quixote, was written at the beginning of the form’s
development but has not been surpassed… His first significant novel, titled
La Galatea, was published in 1585, but he continued to work as a purchasing
agent, then later a government tax collector. Part One of Don Quixote was
published in 1605, Part Two in 1615. Other works include the 12 Novelas
ejemplares (Exemplary Novels); a long poem, the Viaje del Parnaso (Journey
to Parnassus); and Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses (Eight Plays and Eight
Entr'actes). Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda (The Travails of Persiles and
Sigismunda), was published posthumously in 1616.

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John Donne 1572-1631
John Donne must be one of the most interesting writers who ever lived,
both as a poet and a man. His life was a colourful adventure and his poems
are significant feats of language. A Jacobean writer, more or less a
contemporary of Shakespeare, Fletcher and Webster, but very distant from those theatre
writers, both regarding his social class and his literary work…
John Milton 1608-1674
English is often referred to as ‘the language of Shakespeare and Milton.’
Milton’s poetry has been seen as the most perfect poetic expression in the
English language for four centuries. His most famous poem, the epic
Paradise Lost is a high point of English epic poetry. Its story has entered into English and
European culture to such an extent that the details of our ideas…
John Bunyan (1628-1688)
John Bunyan was a Baptist preacher and writer. The book that has made
him a candidate for the category of one of the most influential writers is The
Pilgrim’s Progress, an allegory that has conditioned the way Christians think
about their religious life. It is a novel – the most read novel of all time and the second
most read book, the Bible being the most read. It has been translated into more languages
than any other book, apart from the bible…
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) 1694-1778
François-Marie Arouet (nicknamed ‘Voltaire,’) was a French philosopher,
poet, pamphleteer and fiction writer. Candide, a novel, is the work that has
lasted best, still thriving in the modern world. It is widely taught in French
schools and universities and French departments in universities worldwide… Voltaire’s
Enlightenment Philosophy were: Liberty; Hedonism; Skepticism; Newtonian Empirical
Science; and Toward Science without Metaphysics.
William Blake 1757-1827
Although not highly regarded either as a painter or poet by his
contemporaries William Blake has the distinction
of finding his place in the top ten of both English
writers and English painters. The reason he was
disregarded is because he was very much ahead of his time in
his views and his poetic style, and also because he was
regarded as being somewhat mad, due to behaviour that would
be thought of as only slightly eccentric today…
William Blake's image of the Minotaur to illustrate Inferno, Canto XII,12–28, The
Minotaur XII
Blake's The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed with Sun (1805) is one
of a series of illustrations of Revelation 12.

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Jane Austen 1775 – 1817
The Jane Austen Centre’s website states: ‘Jane Austen is perhaps the best
known and best loved of Bath’s many famous residents and visitors.’ One
wonders at the restraint in that, considering that Jane Austen is
indisputably one of the greatest English writers – some say the greatest after Shakespeare
– and certainly the greatest English novelist and one of the most famous English women
who ever lived… Austen, who died on July 18, 1817, at 41, is known for her six completed
novels, among them the highly adapted Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility.
Originally published anonymously, the works gained recognition among readers and
scholars in the 20th century. Jane Austen's novels: Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park
and Northanger Abbey, had the most significant effect on upper-middle class individuals'
attitude towards education, and her novels made many individuals think about education,
particularly English education, in a groundbreaking new way. Her most popular book
Everyone wins: Northanger Abbey: Funniest; Sense and Sensibility: Most well-rounded;
Pride and Prejudice: Most charming; Mansfield Park: Most psychologically complex;
Emma: Cleverest; and Persuasion: Most beautiful.
Hans Christian Andersen 1805-1875
Hans Christian Andersen was a Danish playwright, travel writer, poet,

novelist and story writer. His fairy tales place him as one of the world’s
greatest writers ever. Written basically for children they transcend age
barriers because of their universal nature: they reach the deepest levels of the human
condition, each story demonstrating something profound about what it means to be a
human being…
Charles Dickens 1812-1870

Charles Dickens was an extraordinary man. He is best known as a novelist
but he was very much more than that. He was as prominent in his other
pursuits but they were not areas of life where we can still see him
today. We see him as the author of such classics as Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great
Expectations, A Tale of Two Cities, Bleak House and many others. All of his novels are
English classics…
Herman Melville 1819-1891
Herman Melville was an American writer of novels, short stories and
poems. He is best known for the novel Moby-Dick and a romantic account
of his experiences in Polynesian life, Typee. His whaling novel, Moby-Dick is
often spoken of as ‘the great American novel’ ’vying with Scott
Fitgerald’s The Great Gatsby and Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn for that title…

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Gustave Flaubert 1821-1880
Gustave Flaubert was a French novelist, most notable for being the leading
exponent of literary realism in French literature. He is known particularly
for Madam Bovary (1857). Flaubert’s influence on subsequent novels is
vast. The critic, James Wood, commented that ‘there really is a time before
Flaubert and a time after him.’ In his exposition of what is now known as literary realism
Flaubert innovated in the areas of brilliant detail, visual effect, unsentimental composure,
and the absence of the superfluous commentary that typified fictional prose before
Flaubert…
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1821-1881
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky was a Russian novelist, journalist, short
story writer, philosopher and essayist. His literary works explore psychology
in the political, social, and spiritual turmoil of 19th-century Russia. His
writings reveal a wide range of philosophical and religious themes. Dostoyevsky is best
known for the novels, The Brothers Karamasov, The Idiot, and above all, Crime and
Punishment…
Jules Verne 1828-1905
Jules Verne was a French poet, playwright and novelist but he earns his
place on this list of great writers because of his futuristic adventure novels.
He has been called the father of science fiction and has had an incalculable
influence on the development of science fiction writing. More interesting, perhaps, is his
place as a prophet or predictor of technology which wasn’t to be invented until long after
his death…
Leo Tolstoy (Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy) 1828-1910
Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian novelist. There is a large
degree of consensus that his two great novels, War and Peace and Anna
Karenina stand on the summit of realist fiction. He has been mentioned
again and again as the greatest novelist who ever wrote, and so he wins a
place in this list of great writers. He is one of the two giants of Russian literature. The
other giant, Dostoyevsky, spoke of him as the greatest of all living novelists…
Emily Dickinson 1830-1886
Unknown as a poet during her lifetime, Emily Dickinson is now regarded by

many as one of the most powerful voices of American culture. Her poetry
has inspired many other writers, including the Brontes. In 1994 the critic,
Harold Bloom, listed her among the twenty-six central writers of Western
civilization. After she died her sister found the almost two thousand poems the poet had
written…

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Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) 1832-1898
Lewis Carroll was an English academic, mathematician, and Anglican
deacon. He is best known for two books, Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland and its sequel, Through the Looking-Glass. He is noted for his
brilliant wordplay, nonsensical logic, and fantasy. He invented the genre of
literary nonsense..
James Joyce 1882-1941
James Joyce was an Irish novelist, best known for his novel, Ulysses, and his
later novel, Finnegans Wake. He is regarded as one of the most influential
and important writers of the 20th century. Ulysses is a seminal work in
which Homer’s Odyssey is paralleled in a range of episodes and literary
styles. Joyce’s collection of short stories, Dubliners, is regarded as one of the best
collections of stories of the century…
Franz Kafka 1883-1924
Franz Kafka was a Czech novelist and short story writer who wrote in the
German language. He is universally regarded as one of the major figures of
20th century literature. His protagonists are isolated figures faced with
surrealistic or bizarre predicaments and incomprehensible bureaucracies. The work
explores themes of alienation, guilt, and anxiety…
T.S. Eliot 1888-1965
Thomas Stearns Eliot was an American-born, British, poet, essayist,
playwright, critic, now regarded as one of the twentieth century’s major
poets. He received more rewards than almost any other writer of the past
two centuries, including the Nobel prize, the Dante Gold Medal, the Goethe Prize, the US
Medal of Freedom and the British Order of Merit… Read more about T. S. Eliot >>
F Scott Fitzgerald 1896-1940
Francis Scott Fitzgerald was an American novelist, widely regarded as one
of the greatest, if not the greatest, American writers of the 20th century.
He is best known for his novel, The Great Gatsby, which vies for the title
‘Great American Novel’ with Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn and Herman Melville’s
Moby-Dick. Fitzgerald’s place on this list is justified by the fact that his great novel is
actually about America…
Jorge Luis Borges 1899-1986
Jorge Luis Borges was an Argentine writer of poems, translations, essays,
literary criticism and, what he is best known for, short fiction. It would be
impossible even for the greatest fans of this Argentine writer to describe or

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explain his writing. The most one can say is that his work has inspired countless writers,
none of whom have come close to capturing the magic of his work…
George Orwell 1903-1950
George Orwell was the pen name of Eric Blair, a twentieth-century writer,
equally at home with journalism, essays, novels, literary criticism and social
commentary. He was famous in all those areas but will be particularly
remembered for two of his novels, Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty Four, both among
the most significant works of literature of the twentieth century and two of the most
influential…
Gabriel Garcia Marques 1927-2014
Gabriel García Márquez was a Colombian novelist, screenwriter, and
journalist, affectionately referred to by the nickname Gabo or Gabito by the
writers and readers of South America, the continent to which he gave a
distinctive voice. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1982, and it is generally
considered that the novel that clinched it was One Hundred Years of Solitude…
1.6 Literature Competencies in English K to 12 Curriculum
Recently, in the basic curriculum, literature is taught mainly as part of language courses,
except for explicitly literature-oriented sessions on novels such as the Noli and Fili.
- Literature is taught as a particular form of language use, what makes a literary text
literary is often ignored.
- Today, literature should be taught as literature and not only as an example of
excellent language.
Role of literature in the new K to 12 Curriculum:

Grade 1-3 Competencies
- “Describe literary elements of text including characters, plot (specific events,
problem and solution), and setting.”
- “Describe characters (eg. Traits, roles, similarities) within a literary selection.”
- “Make simple inferences about thoughts and feelings and reasons for events.”
• Florante at Laura, the Noli, the Fili, and some of the novels included in the 1997 Canon
of Philippine Literature are still going to be read in Junior High School (G7-10) as they
are The Competencies Matrix for G7-10 for English lists skills such as the following:
- “Identify dominant literary devices and figures of speech that add color and
heighten meaning in the reading selection.”
- “Use specific cohesive literary devices to construct basic literary and expository
written discourse such as poetry, drama, fables, parables, myths, legends,
personal essays, biographies and vignettes.”
- “Ascertain the features of the reading selection that clarify its adherence to or
dismissal of a particular tradition of literary production.”
- “Organize an independent and systematic approach to critiquing a reading
selection.”

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• The last two competencies assume that literary history, literary theory, and literary
criticism will be taught in Junior High.
• In the draft curriculum for Senior High School, there are two subjects explicitly focused
on literature and not on language (they can be taught in any language).
• In the 2nd semester of Grade -11, a course called “Contemporary Regional Philippine
Literature” has been proposed which would focus on “critical discussion and
appreciation of literary texts originally written and/or published in the 21st century in
the region where the school is located”. The course is derived from the current college
course called “Litera-….
• In the 1st semester of Grade-12, a similar course called Contemporary World
Literature” has been proposed , which would focus on “study of international literary
texts originally written and/or published during the 21st century “. This course is
derived from the college current course called “Litera-…
*Literature is given much attention now, simply because literature has proven its worth
in preparing what DepEd calls the “holistically developed Filipino with 21st Century
4 Verifiable types of skills:
1. Information, media and technology skills;
2. Learning and innovation skills;
3. Life and career skills; and
4. Effective communication skills
*Film and television shows, for example, which are major forms of media, all use
literary techniques such as narrative, character, and theme. Newspaper also use
narrative, particularly in feature articles and continuing news stories.
Literary writers are innovators, who continually create literary pieces that have never been
seen or read before. They explore and extend established form of writing. They paraphrase
language with what they have written. Writers are the best users of language. Literature
is the benchmark for all effective communication.Take note that the persons who changed
the world loved literature – Plato, Aristotle, Confucius, Jesus, Muhammad, Rizal, Freud,
Marx, Einstein, Mao.
The College Readiness Standards already approved and disseminated by CHED has a
section on literature. CHED requires that, after 12 years of pre-university education, a
student wishing to enter college should be able to (among others):
1. Analyze themes, structures, and elements of myths, traditional narratives, and
classical contemporary literature.
2. Read a poem with proper pronunciation and appropriate emotion
3. Recite at least ten (10) poems from memory
4. Identify the characters, setting, theme, conflict, and type of a work of fiction
5. Discuss literary devices, such as point of view and symbolism, used in a work of
fiction.”
The importance of literature in a 21st century world
Literature is an endless part of recreation. Our readings reflect human nature and a path
we can discover and interact to others. In reading through a first-person perspective, we
can absolutely engage ourselves into a diverse mind and figure out how others imagine
and understand. Literature is important given that it is an observable fact that today’s
generation are becoming gradually spaced out from human interaction since iPhones,
FaceTime, and other social media have been out surging as distant device for
communicating.

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The following have, in some way or the other, add insights on the importance of literature
as human. (ref. https://www.costercontent.co.uk/blog/writers-corner-importance-
literature. December 28, 2018)
Sparks empathy and understanding
Reading a book is one of the best ways to fully immerse your mind into another person’s
dialogue and experiences. Being able to empathize and understand other people’s
feelings is a key aspect of helping you connect to different regions, races, societies, and
periods of time. They help a person take a closer look at the different facets of living aside
from what they know and live which can change perspectives.
Learn about past lives
History plays a fundamental role in shaping literature, every novel, play, or poem you read
has been influenced by political context, or a period, or a relationship from the time it
was written. Not forgetting the pure history of literature, with the first novel being
penned in 2000 BC - The Epic of Gilgamesh. Being able to read first-hand something from
so long ago is a major aspect of learning the lives of historical figures and times.
Escapism and possibilities
Reading can take us into different realms and see other people’s creative thought
processes. Whether it’s flying into Neverland, wandering through Middle Earth, battling
at Hogwarts, or rafting through the Mississippi River with Huck and Jim - books can take
you anywhere and any place. This is an amazing tool that few entertainment mediums
can truly give you and one of the reasons why literature is so beautiful. Whether you’re
having a bad day, stressed out with work, dealing with new life decisions - books can help
you escape into another world and live somewhere else for a short amount of time.
Novels provide knowledge, entertainment, encourage creativity and offer an escape for
readers - enriching our lives in more ways than one. It’s much more than words in a book,
and even with the increasing popularity of eBooks, Kindles, Wattpad, and online reading
they create a conversation, a unique world, and new perspectives.
Examples of 21st century literature in the Philippines would be the works of Bob Ong,
Ricky Lee, and Bebang Siy. The poems of Maria Cecilia dela Rosa are perfect
examples of 21st century literature as she conveys a different flavor and turn to her
works.
Literature competencies
Spiro (1991) defines literary competence as (1) informed appreciation of literature, (2)
ability to respond appropriately to all literature in the target language, (3) ability to
analyze and define responses in literature, (4) ability to relate literature to one's personal
experience/to empathize with text ...
Brumfit and Carter (1986, p.18) define literary competence as “an interesting
combination of linguistic, socio-cultural, historical, and semiotic awareness”.
Jonathan Culler (2002, p.132), stated that “if someone reading a literature without certain
knowledge of “conventions by which fictions are read” he/she would have no idea how
to comprehend the connection between the ideas presented in a literary work even
though he/ she might understand the sentences. Moreover, Culler (1997, p. 61)
differentiates between what is called poetics and hermeneutics in the study of literature.

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Poetics starts with the meaning of literary work while hermeneutics starts with form. He
further explains that “the modern tradition of criticism” has submerged in hermeneutics
or combined poetics and hermeneutics. He also points out that linguistic model of literary
study should have taken poetics as “the first track” (Culler, 1997, p.61). It is poetics, he
argues, which describes literary competence which focuses on the conventions that make
possible literary structure and meaning:
what are the codes or system of convention that enable readers to identify literary
genres, recognize plots, create characters out of the scattered details provided in
text, identify themes in literary works, and pursue the kind of symbolic interpretation
that allows us to gauge the significance of poems and stories. (p.61).
From this statement, Culler’s definition of literary competence focuses on the reader's
comprehension about the intrinsic elements of a literary work.
In the second language education context, literary competence can be achieved if the
study of literary work falls in between poetics and hermeneutics because second
language learners may have difficulty to understand the symbolism which they are not
familiar with. Symbolism in a literary work is closely related to the culture in which the
author is exposed. Each culture might have certain idioms, symbolism, cultural values,
social structures, roles, relationships, tradition, belief, genres that cannot be found in
other cultures (Lazar, 1993).
Thomson (as cited in Misson, 1994, p.24) mentions the six levels the readers develop
in response to the literary work: “attending willingly, elementary perception an
comprehension, empathizing, analogizing and searching for self- identity, distanced
evaluation of the participants, and reviewing the whole work as the author's creation”.
All these activities involve the process of making sense of the relationships between the
intrinsic elements in a literary work.
Literary competence includes several skills and sub-skills which the teacher should
identify to plan his lessons and to offer his students clear procedures and techniques for
dealing with literary texts. The literary skills high school students would mostly benefit
from are:
1. The ability to recognize and decode:
- Figures of speech such as: metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, epithet,
apostrophe, oxymoron, metonymy
- Narrative and poetic devices such as: plot, story, character, point-of-view, setting;
irony, satire, paradox; assonance, alliteration, rhyme, rhythm
- Specific text features such as: theme, style
- Literary trends such as: Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism
- Literary forms such as: the diary, the epigram, the heroic poem, the mock-heroic
poem, the ode, the sonnet
- Literary genres such as: novel, play, short-story, poem, sketch
2. The ability to use literary notions to interpret the text
3. The ability to produce a personal response to the text
Although the meta-language to which the above-mentioned terms belong seems to be

quite difficult for our students, the literary terminology provides them with tools for
identifying, interpreting, and appreciating the value of the distinctive features in a literary
text. Besides, the learners feel more secure to express personal opinions about the text if
they master the appropriate language.

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The Importance of the Concept of Literary Competence for the Teaching of Literature in
the Context Teaching English To Speakers Of Other Languages (Tesol)
Rosenblatt (as cited in Hall, 2002) argues that in the literary reading events, the reader
is in the stage of creating relationship by bringing his/her personal experience,
memory and mood in giving the meaning of literary work. This stage he argues, does
not suffice since the reader might have intentional fallacy in reading the literary
work and fail to convey the meaning intended by the author. In teaching short story,
the teacher might start the lesson by introducing an intrinsic element which constructs
the short story: the character.
- The teacher can ask the students to recognize 'How many characters are there
in the story?', 'Which one is the main character?', 'Is he/she good or bad?'.
- Then, the teacher can move to another element: plot by asking question 'What
happens to the main character?' and so forth.
Parkinson and Thomas (2000, p.1) states the practice of teaching literature in the
ESL context can range as continuum to what Maley (1989) calls “the use and the
study of literature”. Moreover, Lazar (1993) argues that literary competence is an
essential skill to develop if the study of literature becomes the aim; in contrast, in the
case of using literature as a supporting material for language learning, literary
competence is learned through the exposure of the text.
These varieties in text's preferences also appear in English as a Foreign Language

(EFL) educational context. Reflected on the author’s own teaching practice in EFL
context at Prayoga Language College in Padang, West Sumatera, Indonesia, a literary
work can be used in reading comprehension class or in a literary criticism class.
Three major implications of literary competence for the study of literature in second
language educational context:
1. The importance of setting the purpose in teaching literature (Lazar, 1993 ;
Parkinson& Thomas, 2000; Paran, 2006)
2. The need of considering literature teaching as product versus literature teaching as
process ( Misson, 1994; Carter &McRae, 1996; Culler, 1997)
3. The necessitate of relating literature, language and culture ( Valdes, 1986;
Lazar, 1993)
The Importance of Setting the Purpose in Teaching Literature

Setting the purpose of teaching literature is the first thing to consider in an EFL context.
“Literature as object of study (type A) and literature as topic/resource (type B)”
(Parkinson & Thomas, 2000) require the learners to different level of literary
competence. Paran (2006, p.8) argues that in ESL context “neither of the two extremes
exists on its own, and each always includes something of the other”.
In reflection of the use and the teaching of literary text in Prayoga Language
College in Padang, type A is conducted in courses such as Introduction to Literary Study,
Short Story, Introduction to English Prose, Poetry, Introduction to English Drama,
Literary Criticism, Literature Research Methods and Seminars in Literature. In the

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end of these courses, the students are expected to be able to comprehend a literary
work poetically and hermeneutically.
Abrams' classification of literature theory (from his book, The Mirror and the Lamp:
Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition) and Wellek and Warren's intrinsic/extrinsic
approach (from their book, Theory of Literature), and some literary criticism text
books become the frame work to discuss a literary work. In this practice, students are
given the choice whether to discuss the literary work from poetics or hermeneutics' side.
On the other hand, type B is conducted in courses such as Speaking, Listening, Reading,
and Writing.
The level of literary competence achieved assessment in Type A requires the students to
perform higher order thinking such as analyzing and evaluating the literary work, type B's
assessment only requires the students to recall and understand the literary text. A critical
essay which evaluates or criticizes the literary work is the final assignment for type A
courses while information gap activities are typical in type B's assignments. The level of
communicative competence of the students taking type B are beginner and lower
intermediate while type A is taken by students of upper intermediate and pre- advanced
level.
Hermeneutics is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially the interpretation of biblical texts,
wisdom literature, and philosophical texts. Hermeneutics is more than interpretative principles or methods
used when immediate comprehension fails and includes the art of understanding and communication.
Poetics is the theory of literary techniques involved in composing verse and prose is known as poetics. ...
Poetics goes back to the Greek poietikos, "pertaining to poetry," or literally, "productive or creative." While
poetry is evident in this word, you can use it to describe a deep study of any kind of literary work.
The Need of Considering Literature Teaching as Product versus Literature

Teaching as Process
Considering literature teaching as process is essential in order to improve the students'
literary competence. In process-based teaching, close reading of the literary work is
a must because it needs familiarization of the text's structure in order to grasp the
meaning.
This issue is what Culler (1997) argues that poetics should be given more priority than
hermeneutics so that the readers of literary work are able to appreciate it aesthetically.
“Like the text itself, the meanings are, as it were, pre-given,” Carter and McRae (1996, p.
xxi) argues.
Misson (1994, p.1) also highlights the tendency that theories of literature might shift
the focus of concerning what an individual text means to “concern with textuality, that
is, the concern with “the ways in which readers negotiate with them to produce meaning”
and may cause, he emphasis, “the rejection of the individuality of valued texts”.
Carter & McRae (1996, p. xxi-xxii) refer it to product based teaching, in which the students
may develop “the knowledge about literature” rather than “the knowledge of literature”.
In second language learning context, however; often, a critical analysis in a hermeneutic
approach helps to improve the students' literary competence. Some information about
the era when the literature is published and the author's background help the
students to make a sense when they find out that the language used in literature is

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different from what they find in newspapers or magazines. In short, literature teaching
as process in ESL context should include both hermeneutic and poetic's side in order
to develop students' literary competence.
The extent of the culture imposed in the classroom will depend on the purpose for
which the literature is being used (Lazar, 1993, p.13). In terms of the study of literature
(type A), it's important for the teacher to highlight these features as post-reading
discussion because pre-reading discussion will distract them from the focus of reading of
the literary text. The culture perspective about these specific features will develop their
literary competence.
In terms of using literature as a resource for language teaching (type B), the culture
perspective will enrich students' pragmatic and discourse competence. Valdes
(1986) argues that introducing certain values appeared in the literary work will help
the students' comprehension about the text, but the teacher must be aware that this
process will not make the students label any stereotypes towards one culture just by
reading a piece of literary work.
Types of Context in Writing

1. Cultural Context
Culture refers to the traditions, beliefs, customs, and way of life specific to a particular
group of people. Culture can be associated with a specific nationality, race, geographic
area, or religion, just to name a few examples. Having insight into the culture of the
characters in a novel or other work of writing provides important insights relevant to
interpreting the story or situation.
- A book or story about growing up will be very different if the main character’s
culture is one that values independence and making one’s own way in the world
as opposed to one in which young people are expected to follow in the footsteps
of their parents and grandparents.
- A news story written by a reporter in a country that values free and unbiased
journalism where the legal structure guarantees freedom of the press is likely to
be very different from one in which the government controls the news media or
journalists can be punished for speaking out about certain issues.
2. Historical Context
Historical context refers to what was going on in the world during the timeframe in which
a work is set or was written. It involves factors like economic conditions, societal norms
of the day, major events, technological advancements, etc.
- A research paper or book written about the possibility and potential impact of
pandemics after the Covid-19 pandemic is over will have a very different historical
context than works on the same topic created during an earlier time.
- If you are studying the impact of war on families, knowing when a source was
written is relevant to interpreting the information provided. The perspective of a
book or article written in the World War II era (1939 - 1945) will be very different
from one written during or shortly after Operation Desert Storm (1990-1991).
3. Physical Context
Physical context refers to the setting in which a work of writing takes place. It is the
physical environment in which the story, or an event within the story, occurs.

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- A book about surviving on your own in a huge, densely populated city will be very
different from a book on the same topic that is set in a remote rural location.
- A romance novel that focuses on a relationship that develops between college
students who attend school together has a very different physical context than
one in which partners who live in different cities meet online and maintain a long
distance relationship
4. Rhetorical Context
The rhetorical context refers to the circumstances under which a particular piece of
writing is created. It includes factors such as who the author is, the purpose of or occasion
for the writing, and its intended audience.
- The rhetorical context of a work created for a class assignment that will likely only
be read by the writer’s teacher is very different from an editorial opinion piece on
an issue the author is passionate about that will be published to a broad audience
via a news outlet.
- A press release written by a company’s marketing or public relations department
has a very different rhetorical context than a product review written by an
independent reviewer who is not being paid by the company that manufactures
or sells the product.
5. Cultural context
Beliefs, religion, marriage, food, and clothing are all elements of cultural context that
sometimes need to be provided in order to fully understand an author’s story. For
example, Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck Club includes social context with the writer’s
experience, providing background information to those who are unfamiliar with the
traditions of Chinese-American culture, which is integral in the reader's understanding of
this family’s traditions and beliefs. Without expressing the fears or expectations
embedded in the culture you’re writing about, a divide is created with those unfamiliar,
forming a gap between the reader and writer and potentially losing your audience.
6. Situational context
Situational context is why something is happening based on the event itself. For instance,
someone on a first date might be more nervous than they would be when out with a
friend—or a family may act more aggressively towards one another when they’re playing
a board game than when they’re having a legitimate disagreement. With situational
context, the audience can understand how the circumstances of the event occurring
affect those involved.
Importance of Context in Writing

The role of context is to bridge the gap between authors and their audiences,
strengthening readers’ comprehension and preventing miscommunication of the writer’s
intent. It’s not enough to know that a particular event is occurring—readers also need
context to know why. For example, the themes of William Golding's Lord of the Flies—in
which a group of boys is stranded on a deserted island, becoming increasingly violent as
they grow fearful of a dangerous creature—makes more sense within the context of the
author's experiences in World War II.
Significance: Why Context Matters

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Context adds richness to a work of literature and helps to truly engage readers in the text.
Context is important to writers and readers alike. It is essential to accurately conveying
(writers) and understanding (readers) the meaning of a work of writing.
- When writers include contextual information, they are providing details that make it
easier for readers to process and accurately interpret the text.
- When readers consider factors relevant to the context of the work, whether or not such
factors are specifically stated, they are able to look at the text through the lens of a
relevant perspective.
- Without context, a book, essay, or other text doesn’t provide the reader with a
framework for interpreting the concepts or ideas presented in the work.
Context Is Part of the Story
While context may not be directly woven into the dialogue of a story, it is the backdrop
over which the story takes place. Whether you’re reading or writing a work of literature,
a research paper, an essay, or a fact-based work of nonfiction, don’t overlook the
importance of context. When an author’s words are considered out of context,
misunderstanding is likely to be the result. Now that you are knowledgeable about
context, discover other concepts that help convey meaning in writing, such as
connotation, symbolism, and syntax.
An example of context is the words that surround the word "read" that help the reader
determine the tense of the word. An example of context is the history surrounding the
story of Shakespeare's King Henry IV.
Tips for Providing Context in Your Writing
All writing needs context to cement a reader’s understanding of the text and strengthen
communication. Here are a few tips when including your own context:
1. Get creative. When you include context, you want readers to understand where you
(or your characters) are coming from. This information doesn’t have to be a straight
summary—context can take the form of anecdotes, memories, life experiences, or
relationships. Find creative ways to weave context into your writing to increase
comprehension of your text.
2. Remember your audience. Context is important when considering who your story is
for. If your target audience is first-grade students, your contextual references should
be ones that make sense and are relatable to that age group. Think about who your
story is aimed towards and consider how your language can increase the relevance of
your writing and strengthen your audience’s understanding.
3. Be mindful of overloading. Exposition in the beginning part of the story is how many
writers provide context, but too much can slow down the pacing, muddy the overall
message, or distract from the intended meaning. Heavy exposition (both in fiction and
non-fiction) can lose your readers in extraneous details, many of which will not be
remembered when it comes time to the main story. Include only what is necessary to
understand the setting, premise, and characters, and trust your audience to put
together the rest.
*Literary competence is an important concept for the teaching of literature in second
language educational context since it sets up a clear definition of what the reader must
possess in reading a literary work.

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Literary Analysis
A literary analysis is a type of argumentative essay where you need to analyze elements
such as the language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author
uses literary devices to create effects and convey ideas.
Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and come
up with a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. As you write, follow the standard
structure of an academic essay:
1. An introduction that tells the reader what your essay will focus on.
2. A main body, divided into paragraphs, that builds an argument using evidence from
the text.
3. A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.
Step-by-Step Literary Analysis
Step 1: Reading the text and identifying literary devices

The first step is to carefully read the text(s) and take initial notes. As you read, pay
attention to the things that are most intriguing, surprising, or even confusing in the
writing—these are things you can dig into in your analysis.
*Literary devices—textual elements that writers use to convey meaning and create
effects. If you’re comparing multiple texts, you can also look for connections between
different texts.
*Language choices - consider what style of language the author uses; word choices.
Figurative language includes things like metaphor (e.g. “her eyes were oceans”)
and simile (e.g. “her eyes were like oceans”). Also, look for imagery in the text—recurring
images that create a certain atmosphere or symbolize something important.
*Narrative voice (point of view) - Who is telling the story?; How are they telling it? Is it
a first-person narrator (“I”) who is personally involved in the story, or a third-person
narrator who tells us about the characters from a distance? Consider the narrator’s
perspective.
*Tone - is the story intended to be comic, tragic, or something else? Are usually serious
topics treated as funny, or vice versa? Is the story realistic or fantastical (or somewhere
in between)?
*Structure - Consider how the text is structured, and how the structure relates to the story
being told. Think about why the author chose to divide the different parts of the text in
the way they did.
• Novels are often divided into chapters and parts.
• Poems are divided into lines, stanzas, and sometime cantos.
• Plays are divided into scenes and acts.
*There are also less formal structural elements to consider.
- Does the story unfold in chronological order, or does it jump back and forth in time?
- Does it begin in medias res—in the middle of the action? Does the plot advance
towards a clearly defined climax?

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*With poetry, consider how the rhyme and meter shape your understanding of the text
and your impression of the tone. Try reading the poem aloud to get a sense of this.
*In a play, you might consider how relationships between characters are built up through
different scenes, and how the setting relates to the action. Watch out for dramatic irony,
where the audience knows some detail that the characters don’t, creating a double
meaning in their words, thoughts, or actions.
Step 2: Coming up with a thesis
Thesis - is the core argument that gives your essay direction and prevents it from just
being a collection of random observations about a text. If given a prompt for your essay,
your thesis must answer or relate to the prompt.
For example:
Essay question example:
Is Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” a religious parable?
Thesis statement should be a statement of why this is or isn’t the case:
Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” is not a religious parable, but a story about
bureaucratic alienation.
If given freedom to choose your own topic; in this case, you’ll have to come up with an
original thesis.
- Consider what stood out to you in the text;
- ask yourself questions about the elements that interested you, and consider how
you might answer them.
- Your thesis should be something arguable—that is, something that you think is
true about the text, but which is not a simple matter of fact.
- It must be complex enough to develop through evidence and arguments across
the course of your essay.
- Say you’re analyzing the novel Frankenstein. You could start by asking yourself:
o How is the character of Frankenstein portrayed? Your initial answer might be
a surface-level description:
- The character Frankenstein is portrayed negatively in Mary
Shelley’s Frankenstein. (too simple to be an interesting thesis)
o After reading the text and analyzing its narrative voice and structure, you can
develop the answer into a more nuanced and arguable thesis statement:
- Mary Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein
in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially
appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s
narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the
thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.
- Remember that you can revise your thesis statement throughout the writing
process, so it doesn’t need to be perfectly formulated at this stage. The aim is to
keep you focused as you analyze the text.
Finding textual evidence. To support your thesis statement, your essay will build an
argument using textual evidence—specific parts of the text that demonstrate your point.
This evidence is quoted and analyzed throughout your essay to explain your argument to
the reader and assess whether they’re convincing.

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Step 3: Writing a title and introduction
To start your literary analysis paper, you’ll need two things: a good title, and an
introduction.
The title. The title should clearly indicate what your analysis will focus on. It usually
contains the name of the author and text(s) you’re analyzing. Keep it as concise and
engaging as possible.
- A common approach to the title is to use a relevant quote from the text, followed
by a colon and then the rest of your title.
- Example title for a literary analysis essay
“Fearful symmetry”: The violence of creation in William Blake’s “The Tyger”
The introduction. The essay introduction provides a quick overview of where your
argument is going. It should include your thesis statement and a summary of the essay’s
structure. A typical structure for an introduction is:
- to begin with a general statement about the text and author, using this to lead
into your thesis statement.
- end with a brief indication of what’s coming up in the main body of the essay. This
is called signposting. It will be more elaborate in longer essays, but in a short five-
paragraph essay structure, it shouldn’t be more than one sentence.
- Example introduction for a literary analysis essay
o Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the
dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations.
o In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of
the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel.
o This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the
character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein
in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on.
o While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the
creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own
telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.
o This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first
volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally
discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the
creature views him.
Step 4: Writing the body of the essay
The body of your essay is everything between the introduction and conclusion. It contains
your arguments and the textual evidence that supports them.
Paragraph structure - A typical structure for a high school literary analysis essay consists
of five paragraphs: the three paragraphs of the body, plus the introduction and
conclusion.
- Each paragraph in the main body should focus on one topic.
- In the five-paragraph model, try to divide your argument into three main areas of
analysis, all linked to your thesis.
- Don’t try to include everything you can think of to say about the text—only
analysis that drives your argument.
- In longer essays, the same principle applies on a broader scale.

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- For example, you might have two or three sections in your main body, each with
multiple paragraphs. Within these sections, you still want to begin new paragraphs
at logical moments—a turn in the argument or the introduction of a new idea.
Topic sentences - To keep your points focused, it’s important to use a topic sentence at
the beginning of each paragraph.
- A good topic sentence allows a reader to see immediately what the paragraph is
about.
- It can introduce a new line of argument and connect or contrast it with the
previous paragraph.
- Transition words like “however” or “moreover” are useful for creating smooth
transitions:…The story’s focus, therefore, is not upon the divine revelation that
may be waiting beyond the door, but upon the mundane process of aging
undergone by the man as he waits. Nevertheless, the “radiance” that appears to
stream from the door is typically treated as religious symbolism.
This topic sentence signals that the paragraph will address the question of religious
symbolism, while the linking word “nevertheless” points out a contrast with the previous
paragraph’s conclusion.
Using textual evidence - A key part of literary analysis is backing up your arguments with
relevant evidence from the text.
- This involves introducing quotes from the text and explaining their significance to
your point.
- It’s important to contextualize quotes and explain why you’re using them;
- they should be properly introduced and analyzed, not treated as self-explanatory:
Blake asks “What dread hand” could have created the tiger, subverting the usual
sense of joy in God’s creation and conveying instead a sense of fearful awe.
- It isn’t always necessary to use a quote. Quoting is useful when you’re discussing
the author’s language, but sometimes you’ll have to refer to plot points or
structural elements that can’t be captured in a short quote.
- In these cases, it’s more appropriate to paraphrase or summarize parts of the
text—that is, to describe the relevant part in your own words:
The initial and final sections of the novel consist of Walton’s letters to his sister, and
it is significant that the entirety of Frankenstein’s and the creature’s narratives are
ostensibly transcribed by Walton in these letters.
Step 5: Writing a conclusion
The conclusion of your analysis shouldn’t introduce any new quotations or arguments.
Instead, it’s about wrapping up the essay. Here, you summarize your key points and try
to emphasize their significance to the reader.
- A good way to approach this is to briefly summarize your key arguments, and then
stress the conclusion they’ve led you to, highlighting the new perspective your
thesis provides on the text as a whole:
- Example conclusion for a literary analysis essay
By tracing the depiction of Frankenstein through the novel’s three volumes, I have
demonstrated how the narrative structure shifts our perception of the character.
While the Frankenstein of the first volume is depicted as having innocent
intentions, the second and third volumes—first in the creature’s accusatory voice,

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and then in his own voice—increasingly undermine him, causing him to appear
alternately ridiculous and vindictive. Far from the one-dimensional villain he is
often taken to be, the character of Frankenstein is compelling because of the
dynamic narrative frame in which he is placed. In this frame, Frankenstein’s
narrative self-presentation responds to the images of him we see from others’
perspectives.
This conclusion sheds new light on the novel, foregrounding Shelley’s unique layering of
narrative perspectives and its importance for the depiction of character.
Critical Thinking Analysis
Critical thinking is the ability to objectively analyze information and draw a rational
conclusion. It also involves gathering information on a subject and determining which
pieces of information apply to the subject and which do not, based on deductive
reasoning. The ability to think critically helps people in both their personal and
professional lives and is valued by most employers.
Critical thinking skills examples
There are six main skills you can develop to successfully analyze facts and situations and
come up with logical conclusions:
1. Analytical thinking. Being able to properly analyze information is the most important
aspect of critical thinking. This implies gathering information and interpreting it, but
also skeptically evaluating data.
2. Good communication. Getting people to share their ideas and information with you and
showing your critical thinking are components of success. If you’re making a work-
related decision, proper communication with your coworkers will help you gather the
information you need to make the right choice.
3. Creative thinking. Being able to discover certain patterns of information and make
abstract connections between seemingly unrelated data will improve your critical
thinking. When analyzing a work procedure or process, you can creatively come up
with ways to make it faster and more efficient.

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4. Open-mindedness. Previous education and life experiences leave their mark on a
person’s ability to objectively evaluate certain situations. By acknowledging these
biases, you can improve your critical thinking and overall decision process.
5. Ability to solve problems. The ability to correctly analyze a problem and work on
implementing a solution is another valuable skill.
6. Asking thoughtful questions. In both private and professional situations, asking the right
questions is a crucial step in formulating correct conclusions.
o Open-ended questions
Asking open-ended questions can help the person you’re speaking to provide you
with relevant and necessary information, needs to elaborate on the answer.
o Outcome-based questions
When you feel like another person’s experience and skills could help you work
more effectively.. Asking someone how they would act in a certain hypothetical
situation will give you an insight into their own critical thinking skills and help you
see things you hadn’t thought about before.
o Reflective questions
You can gain insight by asking a person to reflect and evaluate an experience and
explain their thought processes during that time. This can help you develop your
critical thinking by providing you real-world examples.
o Structural questions
An easy way to understand something is to ask how something works. Any
working system results from a long process of trial and error and properly
understanding the steps that needed to be taken for a positive result could help
you be more efficient in your own endeavors.
Valuable critical thinking examples
A company is a sum of the decisions taken by its management and employees. Applying
critical thinking in work situations will improve your performance and the company’s
chances of succeeding.
1. Promoting a teamwork approach to problem-solving
2. Self-evaluating your contributions to company goals
3. Practicing self-reflection, asking yourself why you acted a certain way in a situation or
evaluating a decision to find ways you can improve.
4. Making informed decisions. Consider preparing lists of pros and cons, either mentally
or on paper, and critically evaluate things from someone else’s perspective.
5. Using your time wisely, evaluating how you spend your time can help you discover
tasks and activities that may change how you prioritize your duties.
How to think critically
1. Identify a problem or issue.

2. Create inferences on why the problem exists and how it can be solved.
3. Collect information or data on the issue through research.
4. Organize and sort data and findings.
5. Develop and execute solutions.
6. Analyze which solutions worked or didn’t work.
7. Identify ways to improve the solution.
Being objective is a fundamental part of critical thinking. That means analyzing the
problem without allowing personal bias, emotions, or assumptions to influence how you

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think. A strong critical thinker will only analyze a problem based on the context and facts
collected after conducting thorough and impartial research.
Essential elements of literary texts?

• Literary Text: A story about people, animals, or events that is made up by an author.
• Characters: The people or animals in a story.
• Setting: The time and place, or when and where, a story happens.
• Events: The things that happen in a story.
• Sequence: The order in which events happen.
Teamwork literature
Teamwork is defined by Scarnati (2001, p. 5) “as a cooperative process that allows
ordinary people to achieve extraordinary results”. ... Teamwork replies upon individuals
working together in a cooperative environment to achieve common team goals through
sharing knowledge and skills.
1. Both teamwork and collaboration involve a group of people working together to
complete a shared goal. ... Those collaborating work together as equals, usually
without a leader, to come up with ideas or make decisions together to complete a
goal.
2. Collaboration within a group can help solve difficult problems. Brainstorming is a
good opportunity for the team to exchange ideas and come up with creative ways of
doing things. By working together, teams can find the solutions that work best.
3. Friend and Cook (2010), a model of collaboration consists of five components:
personal commitment, communication skills, interaction processes, program or
services and context and their relationships to one another
4. Teamwork skills are the qualities and abilities that allow you to work well with
others during conversations, projects, meetings or other collaborations. Having
teamwork skills is dependent on your ability to communicate well, actively listen and
be responsible and honest.
Literary text
A literary text is a piece of writing, such as a book or poem, that has the purpose of
telling a story or entertaining, as in a fictional novel. Its primary function as a text is
usually aesthetic, but it may also contain political messages or beliefs.
Benefits of literary text
Literature provides a language model for those who hear and read it. By using literary
texts, students learn new words, syntax and discourse functions and they learn correct
sentence patterns, standard story structures. They develop their writing skills.
Using literary texts in the language classroom can make the students more aware of the
language they are learning, help them develop skills and strategies they can apply in
many different situations and contexts, increase their interest and motivation, and make
the learning of the language a more enjoyable and .

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Characteristics of literary text include characters, setting, plot (problem/solution), and
sequence. These characteristics help the reader understand who is in the story, where
and when the story takes place, what happens in the story, and how the events happen,
etc.
Although literary texts have one common objective and work in the same way, there are
different types of literary texts. Such these types are the narrative text, literary
description, literary recount, personal response text, and finally the review text.
The elements that make up a literary work are closely examined for their meaning and
significance. Some of these elements are theme, character, and plot. Regardless of what
aspect you choose to discuss, your analysis will focus on one controlling idea that, if
writing, can be stated in one direct sentence.

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Lesson 1 (Eng Ed 312) Name: ____________________________________________
Activity No. 2 Program/Year: ____________Date Submitted: ___________
I. Graphically organize to create a concept map, the nature and genres

𝑐𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
of literature.
II. Based from the types of context writing, write a descriptive essay
about the different aspects of the famous Filipino and International
authors, whom literature have greatly influenced Filipino life and
events.
III. Group analysis on literature competencies and choosing of
appropriate texts for literature study in K to 12 English Literature
(focusing on Proper Analysis and Critical Thinking Shown, Teamwork
and Collaboration, and Appropriateness of Literary Texts). Please
follow the suggested procedures below as your guide.
1. Group yourselves into three (3) groupings. Each group shall
choose a particular Grade-level competencies (graders, junior
high, and senior high)
2. Each group shall analyze the competencies intended for their
chosen grade level and choose appropriate texts for literature
study.
3. Present your documentation and analysis (in descriptive essay)
following the critical thinking analysis suggested as beginners on a
sheet of paper (to be found at the end of the module).
4. Each student writes and submits an individual report based on the
group's work on the task/project. (For each item, rate each person
and yourself using the 4-point scale given. Please think hard and honestly
about each of the categories and how you and each group member
performed. It is not necessary that everyone get the highest score on
each item. Different people will have different strengths and different
contributions.) Rating scale is provided for you in a separate sheet.
5. Submission shall be by individual (for item #s 1, 2, and individual
rating scale for item 3) and by group (for item # 3-group analysis).
6. The dateline for activity # 2 will be before the midterm exam
(enough time for you to do your individual and group tasks).

Page 70 of 71
Module
USMKCC-COL-F-050
Rater’s Name: _______________________________
Assessment of: ________________________________
Rating Comments, Examples, Explanations, etc.
Group Participation
Attends meetings regularly and on time.
Time Management & Responsibility

Accepts fair share of work and reliably
completes it by the required time.
Adaptability
Displays or tries to develop a wide
range of skills in service of the project,
readily accepts changed approach or
constructive criticism.
Creativity/Originality
Problem-solves when faced with
impasses or challenges, originates new
ideas, initiates team decisions.
Communication Skills
Effective in discussions, good listener,
capable presenter, proficient at
diagramming, representing, and
documenting work.
General Team Skills

Positive attitude, encourages and
motivates team, supports team
decisions, helps team reach consensus,
helps resolve conflicts in the group.
Technical Skills
Ability to create and develop materials
on own initiative, provides technical
solutions to problems.
Scoring 3 – Better than most of the group in this respect

For each category, award yourself and 2 – About average for the group in this respect
each member of your team a score 1 – Not as good as most of the group in this respect
using this scale. 0 – No help at all to the group in this respect
(adapted from Goldfinch, 1994; Lejk & Wyvill, 2001)

Page 71 of 71
Module
USMKCC-COL-F-050

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Overview on the Nature of Literature

Lesson 1 and its Genres

1.2 Literature as a Significant Human Experience

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

• Parent/child relationships - Trust and respect become more of a two-way street as

• Conformity - means “behavior in accordance with socially accepted conventions or

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

- The Stone Angel by Margaret Laurence

• Charity - As the name implies, Charity is a feature-rich WordPress theme specifically

- WordPress non-profit, charity, donation, and fundraising themes allow these

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

- Materialism is traditionally divided into three historical forms: naïve or spontaneous

1.2 Literary Purpose

Literature is often viewed as a collection of made-up stories, designed to entertain us, to

Common Purposes of Literary Authors

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

According to A DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS AND LITERARY THEORY , a

Figure 1 — “Races and Skulls” by Nott, Josiah, and George R. Giddon,

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

Literary Forms and Parts

Most works of literature may be understood to be composed of three major aspects:

Kinds of Literary Writing

• novels, short stories, poems • parodies and satire

Features and Characteristics

- Focus is on the conscious, deliberate use and arrangement of words.

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

When You Use the Literary Purpose to Write

When You Analyze the Literary Purpose in Another's Writing

Example of analysis above

Notes on this analysis:

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

The Boys and the Frogs

A fable, like a parable, is a fictional piece of writing that attempts to deliver a

In 1916, Franz Kakfa (1883-1924) wrote his surreal novella, The

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

Primary Purpose: Literary

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) is one of the best-known authors in

The Declaration of Independence in American

Primary Purpose: Literary

H.L. Mencken (1880-1956), sometimes called "The Sage of

Mencken provided the following foreword to his article:

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

The Declaration of Independence in America

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

Why use literature in teaching?

• Literature is authentic material. It is good to expose learners to this source of

• Literature expands language awareness. Asking learners to examine

• Literature educates the whole person. By examining values in literary texts,

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

1.3 Prose vs. Poetry vs. Drama

Prose is not about rhyming or Poetry is art. Drama is a Greek word

• It expresses the feelings in a • It is metrical, which means that • It is composed in verses

A. Prose V/S Poetry

Examples of works written in prose: works of philosophy, history, economics, etc..,

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

Qualities (Prose v/s Poetry)

American novelist Truman Capote, in an interview, commented as follows on prose style:

➢ Non-fiction is any document or media content

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

➢ Alliterative Prose, in literature, alliteration is the conspicuous repetition of identical

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies

4. Purple prose – is prose that is so extravagant,

Eng Ed 312: Teaching and Assessment of Literature Studies