Matters & Measurements

Atomic structure & Periodic Table

Giới thiệu về Hóa học
Cấu tạo nguyên tử & Bảng hệ thống
tuần hoàn

Lecturer: Tu Binh Minh

VNU Hanoi University of Science
 Introduction: Teacher

Từ Bình Minh (Tu Binh Minh)

Affiliation: Hanoi University of Science, Vietnam National University Hanoi
E-mail: tubinhminh@gmail.com
Age: 49
Academic title: Associate Professor
Ph.D. : Ehime University, Japan
Post doctoral experience: Switzerland, Japan, Hong Kong
Teaching: Chemistry, Analytical and environmental chemistry
Invited lecturer in English: Vietnam Japan University (VJU); University of Science and Technology of
Hanoi – USTH (Vietnam – France University).
Research: analytical and environmental chemistry: advanced techniques for determination of inorganic
and organic environmental contaminants and their occurrence and impacts on environmental quality
and human health
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tu-Minh (Research Gate)
https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dFDtZ6IAAAAJ&hl=en (Google Scholar)
 Introduction: Branches of Chemistry

Atom & molecules, bonds, periodic table, stoichiometry,

General chemistry prediction of reaction products, thermodynamics, nuclear
chemistry, electrochemistry, chemical kinetics,

Equilibrium, Chemical kinetics, electrochemistry,

Physical chemistry thermochemistry, quantum and photochemistry

Coordination chemistry, Magnetochemistry, Organometallic chemistry,

Bioinorganic chemistry, Bioorganometallic chemistry, Cluster chemistry,
Inorganic chemistry Crystallography Solid-state chemistry, Metallurgy Ceramic chemistry,
Materials science
Stereochemistry, Organic reaction, structures, reactions and properties of organic
Organic chemistry compounds, Retrosynthetic analysis, Enantioselective synthesis, Total synthesis,
Pharmacology

Analytical chemistry Instrumental chemistry, separation methods, Chromatography,

spectrophotometry, electrochemistry methods
 Introduction: Syllabus and assessment

Syllabus
* 15 weeks:
Week 1 – 5: General chemistry: atomic, molecular structure, bonds, chemical kinetics, solutions (pH, buffer,
titration); and analytical chemistry: analytical techniques for medicine applications
Week 6 – 12: Organic chemistry: introduction to different groups of organic compounds, proteins, enzymes.
Week 13- 15: Nuclear chemistry: application of nuclear radiation in medicine

* Week 7: Mid-term exam; Week 16: final exam

* 5 laboratory practicum sessions (with video demonstration): 03 groups: week: 4,8,10,12,14.

Assessment (% mark):
Mid-term exam: 30 %
Lab practicum report: 30 %
Final exam: 40 %
 CONTENTS

1) Matters – Vật chất

a. States of matter – các trạng thái của vật chất
c. Classification of matter – phân loại vật chất
2) Measurement – Phép đo
3) Atomic structure and Periodic Table :
a. Elements & structure of atom – nguyên tố & cấu tạo nguyên tử
b. Periodic Table – Bảng tuần hoàn
c. Electronic structures & configurations – cấu hình điện tử
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
• To understand the practical definition and the role of Chemistry subject
• To understand the basic concept of the most important composition of
matters: atom and molecular
• To comprehend how to identify and classify elements
• To describe basic feature of periodic table
• To understand electronic structure of an atom
 Required readings

• 1. Janice G. Smith. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 2010 by The

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
• Part 1.1 – 1.5, from page 1-15.
• Part 2.1 – 2.6 from page 33-55
 Nomenclature – Thuật ngữ
English Tiếng Việt
1 Matter Vật chất
2 Pure/mixture Đơn chất/Hỗn hợp
3 Element/compound Nguyên tố/Hợp chất
4 Atom/molecular Nguyên tử/Phân tử
5 Periodic table Bảng tuần hoàn
6 Electron shells, energy level Vỏ electron, mức năng lượng
7 Building block elements, major Nguyên tố chính, đa lượng, vi lượng
elements, trace elements
8 Proton, electron, neutron Proton, điện tử, hạt nhân
9 Chemical bonds Liên kết hóa học
 1. Matter and measurement
• Chemistry is the study of matter—its composition, properties, and
transformations
• What is matter? Matter is anything that has mass and takes up volume.
• In other words, chemistry studies anything that we touch, feel, see, smell,
or taste, from simple substances like water or salt, to complex substances like
proteins and carbohydrates that combine to form the human body.
• Some matter—cotton, sand, an apple, and the cardiac drug digoxin—is
naturally occurring, meaning it is isolated from natural sources.
• Other substances—nylon, Styrofoam, the plastic used in soft drink bottles,
and the pain reliever ibuprofen—are synthetic, meaning they are produced
by chemists in the laboratory.
States of Matter

• There are 3 common states of

matter: solid, liquid and gas
• Matter is characterized by its
physical properties and chemical
properties.
• Physical properties are those
that can be observed or
measured without changing the
composition of the material.
• Chemical properties are those
that determine how a substance
can be converted to another
substance.
Physical and chemical properties
Classification of matter

• Matter consists of
pure substances and
mixture
• Pure substance: a
single component and
has constant
composition
• Mixture: composed
by more than one
component. Can be
different depending
on the sample

13
 Element and compound – nguyen to & hop chat

A pure substance is classified either as an element or a compound

- An element is a pure
substance that cannot
be broken down into
simpler substances by
a chemical reaction.

- A compound is a
pure substance
formed by chemically
combining (joining
together) two
or more elements.
Classification of matter
 Measurement unit
§ In the United States, most measurements are made with the English system, using
units like miles (mi), gallons (gal), pounds (lb), and so forth. A disadvantage of this
system is that the units are not systematically related to each other and require
memorization. For example, 1 lb = 16 oz, 1 gal = 4 qt, and 1 mi = 5,280 ft.

§ Scientists, health professionals, and people in most other countries use the metric
system, with units like meter (m) for length, gram (g) for mass, and liter (L) for
volume.
In 1960, the International System of Units was formally adopted as the
uniform system of units for the sciences. SI units, as they are called, are based
on the metric system, but the system encourages the use of some metric units
over others. SI stands for the French words, Système Internationale.
 Atom and Periodic Table – bảng tuần hoàn

Element: a pure substance that cannot broken down into simpler substances
by a chemical reaction; and is identified by a symbol (with one or two letter)
Example: well known element: Oxygen, nitrogen: composition of the air;
Aluminum (Al); Zinc (Zn) in soft drink can; Gold (Au), Silver (Ag): precious
metals in jewelry …
Not well known: Th, Ir, rare earth element
Common elements and their symbol
 The Periodic Table
Groups of elements have similar properties, and that these elements could be arranged in a schematic way called the periodic
table . The position of an element in the periodic table tells us much about its chemical properties.
The elements in the periodic table are divided into three groups—metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
The solid line that begins with boron (B) and angles in steps down to astatine (At) marks the three regions corresponding to
these groups. All metals are located to the left of the line. All nonmetals except hydrogen are located to the right. Metalloids
are located along the steps.

Metals like silver, sodium, and mercury are shiny

substances that conduct heat and electricity

Metalloids like silicon, arsenic, and boron have properties

intermediate between metals and nonmetals

Nonmetals like carbon, sulfur, and bromine are poor

conductors of heat and electricity.
 Elements of life
§ Building-block elements: 96% mass of the human body.
Hydrogen and oxygen are the elements that form water,
the most prevalent substance in the body. Carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen are found in the four main types of
biological molecules—proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and
nucleic acids
§ Major minerals or macronutrients, smaller amounts (0.1–
2% by mass). Sodium, potassium, and chlorine are present
in body fluids. Magnesium and sulfur occur in proteins,
and calcium and phosphorus are present in teeth and
bones. Phosphorus is also contained in all nucleic acids,
such as the DNA
§ Trace elements or micronutrients are required in the daily
diet in small quantities, usually less than 15 mg. Each trace
element has a specialized function that is important for
proper cellular function. For example, iron is needed for
hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in red blood
cells, and myoglobin, the protein that stores oxygen in
muscle. Zinc is needed for the proper functioning of many
enzymes in the liver and kidneys, and iodine is needed for
properthyroid function.
 Structure of Atom
All matter is composed of the same basic building blocks called atoms. An atom is much too
small to be seen even by the most powerful light microscopes. An atom is composed of three subatomic
particles.
A proton, symbolized by p, has a positive (+) charge.
An electron, symbolized by e–, has a negative (–) charge.
A neutron, symbolized by n, has no charge.
Structure of Atom
The nucleus is a dense core that contains the protons and neutrons. Most of the mass of
an atom resides in the nucleus.
The electron cloud is composed of electrons that move rapidly in the almost empty space
surrounding the nucleus. The electron cloud comprises most of the volume of an atom
 Structure of Atom
Every atom of a given type of element always has the same number of protons in the nucleus, a value
called the atomic number, symbolized by Z. Two different elements have different atomic numbers.
The atomic number tells us both the number of protons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in
the electron cloud of a neutral atom.
§ The atomic number (Z) = the
number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom
§ Z = the number of protons in the
nucleus = the number of electrons.

Both protons and neutrons contribute to the mass of an atom. The mass
number, symbolized by
A, is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons.
Mass number (A) = the number of protons (Z) + the number of neutrons
Practical knowledge: building block elements of caffeine –
a common stimulants in tea, coffee, beverages

The atomic number, mass

number, and number of
subatomic particles in
the four building-block
elements—hydrogen, carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen—found in a
wide variety of compounds
including caffeine (chemical
formula C8H10N4O2), the bitter-
tasting mild stimulant in coffee,
tea, and cola beverages.
 Isotope, atomic number and mass number
Most elements in nature exist as a mixture of isotopes. Isotopes are
also written using the element symbol with the atomic number
written as a subscript and the mass number written as a
superscript, both to the left.
For example, all atoms of the element chlorine Cl contain 17
protons in the nucleus, but some of these atoms have 18 neutrons
in the nucleus and some have 20 neutrons. Thus, chlorine has two
isotopes with different mass numbers, 35 and
37. These isotopes are often referred to as chlorine-35 (or Cl-35)
and chlorine-37 (or Cl-37).

The element hydrogen H has three isotopes. Most hydrogen atoms

have one proton and no neutrons, giving them a mass number of
one. About 1% of hydrogen atoms have one proton and one
neutron, giving them a mass number of two. This isotope is called
deuterium, and it is often symbolized as D. An even smaller
number of hydrogen atoms contain one proton and two neutrons,
giving them a mass number of three. This isotope is called tritium,
symbolized as T.
 Atomic weight & how to determine atomic weight

Some elements like fluorine occur naturally as a single isotope. More commonly, an element is a mixture of
isotopes, and it is useful to know the average mass, called the atomic weight (or atomic mass), of the atoms in
a sample.
The atomic weight is the weighted average of the mass of the naturally occurring
isotopes of a particular element reported in atomic mass units.
The atomic weights of the elements are usually given under the element symbol in the Periodic table
Example: determine atomic weight of Cl.
- List each isotope, along with its mass in atomic mass units (amu) and the percentage that each isotope occurs in
nature. Chlorine has two isotopes—Cl-35 and Cl-37.
To determine the Cl atomic weight, the masses and abundances of its isotopes must be known.

Multiply the isotopic abundance by the mass of each isotope, and add
up the products. The sum is the atomic
weight for the element.
Mass due to Cl-35: 0.7578 × 34.97 amu = 26.5003 amu
Mass due to Cl-37: 0.2422 × 36.97 amu = 8.9541 amu
Atomic weight = 26.5003 + 8.9541 = 35.4544 amu rounded to 35.45 amu
Example: Calculate atomic weight of Mg
 Features of Periodic Table

The periodic table is arranged into seven horizontal rows and 18 vertical columns. The particular
row and column tell us much about the properties of an element.

A row in the periodic table is called a period. Elements in the same row are similar in size.
A column in the periodic table is called a group. Elements in the same group have similar electronic and
chemical properties.

The main group elements consist of the two columns on the far left and the six columns on the far right of
the table. These groups are numbered 1A–8A.
The transition metal elements are contained in the 10 short columns in the middle of the table, numbered
1B–8B.
The inner transition elements consist of the lanthanides and actinides, and they are not assigned group
numbers.
• Each element of the
periodic table is part of a
horizontal row and a
vertical column.
• The periodic table consists
of seven rows, labeled
periods 1–7, and 18
columns that are assigned
a group number.
• Elements are divided into
three categories: main
group elements (groups
1A–8A, shown in light
blue), transition metals
(groups1B–8B, shown in
tan), and inner transition
metals (shown in light
green).
 Example: size of the atom

In a row: Atom’s size decreases across a row when protons number increases

In a column: The size of atoms increases down a column of the periodic table
 Structure of electron
Why do elements in a group of the periodic table have similar chemical properties? The chemistry of an element is
determined by the number of electrons in an atom. To understand the properties of an element, therefore, we must learn
more about the electrons that surround the nucleus

Electrons do not move freely in space; rather, an electron is confined to a specific region, giving it a
particular energy.
Electrons occupy discrete energy levels. The energy of electrons is quantized; that is, the energy is
restricted to specific values.
The electrons that surround a nucleus are confined to regions called the principal energy levels,
or shells.
The shells are numbered, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …. , beginning closest to the nucleus.
Electrons closer to the nucleus are held more tightly and are lower in energy.
Electrons farther from the nucleus are held less tightly and are higher in energy.
 Structure of electron

In any atom, the electrons are arranged in definite layers, starting from the nucleus and proceeding outward.
These layers are regions within which the electrons move randomly and unpredictably. The layer are called
electron shells or energy levels.
Practical knowledge: elements of life (human body)
It takes 20 elements
to build a human body, although several
other elements are
present without having any apparent
function. Of these 20 essential
elements, four of them (carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, and nitrogen)
make up 96% of the mass and 99% of the
atoms.
-The seven most common elements
(oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
calcium, phosphorus, and sulfur)
are structural elements.
-The next three elements (potassium,
sodium, and chlorine) are electrolytes,
elements that form ions and that are always
dissolved in water, giving our body fluids
their correct properties.
-The remaining are trace elements having
different functions
 Chemical bonds – Liên kết hóa học
How and why elements form compounds.
How atoms of different elements bond to one another in a compound and How the different
types of bonds lead to different properties. There are number of chemical bonds :
-Covalent bonds
-Double and triple bonds
-Electronegativity and polar bons
-Ions and ionic compounds
When two atoms share a pair of electrons, the shared electrons
are called a bonding electron pair. This pair of electrons forms
a powerful bond between the two atoms, called a covalent
bond
We can use Lewis structures to represent the formation of a
covalent bond. Lewis structures allow us to keep track of the
valence electrons around each atom. For a covalent bond, the
two electrons in the bonding pair are drawn side by side, as an
Example of F shown here. The two or more atoms are linked by
Covalent bonds, and the group of atoms call a molecular.
Bonds and molecular
HF

This is the structure of water, the most familiar

and common chemical compound on
Earth. We can now understand why water is H2O,
H2O rather than H3O, HO, HO2, or others …
The chemical formula of water is a direct result
of the two empty spaces in the valence shell of
oxygen, and of hydrogen’s ability to fill only one
of those spaces
Bonds and molecular
Double and triple bonds

§ Single bond is the sharing of

two electrons between a pair
of atoms.
§ A double bond is the sharing
of four electrons between a
pair of atoms.
§ A triple bond is the sharing of
six electrons between a pair
of atoms
The number of single bonds a
nonmetal normally forms is
related to the number of
electrons in its valence shell. So a
double bond is equivalent to two
single bonds and a triple bond is
equivalent to three single bonds.
Example: predict covalent bonds and lone pairs

Number of bonds + number of lone pair = 4

 Example: draw Lewis structure of chloromethane

- Place C in the center, 3 H and 1 Cl in the periphery

- Count the number of electron.

 Ions and ionic compounds

Atoms normally have equal numbers of protons and electrons.

When we remove electrons from an atom, the atom becomes a cation (a positively charged ion), because
the atom now has fewer electrons than protons. In this case, removing one electron from a sodium atom
gives the atom a 1 charge, as shown here. The sodium atom becomes a sodium ion Na+
Oppositely Charged Ions Combine to Form an Ionic Compound

When an electron moves from sodium to chlorine, the sodium becomes a positive ion (a cation) and the chlorine becomes a
negative ion (an anion). These two ions attract each other, because they have opposite charges, and the attraction binds the
ions together into a compound. A compound that is made from positively and negatively charged ions is called an ionic
compound. When we write the formula of an ionic compound, list the cation first, followed by the anion, so the formula of
the salt is written NaCl. The formula of an ionic compound does not include the charges on the individual ions.

Formation of NaCl molecular, which is ionic compound

Difference between a molecular substance and an ionic

substance
 Polyatomic ions
Monatomic ions are made from a single Atom. On the other hands, Any ion that contains two or more
atoms is called a polyatomic ion.

The ammonium ion (NH4+) is a positively charged polyatomic ion. The ammonium ion is related to the
covalent compound NH3 (ammonia), but it contains a nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. One
electron has been removed to produce the 1 charge. Above figure shows the formation of NH4+
 How to recognize molecular and ionic compounds
Three guidelines to classify compounds based on their formulas:
1. Compounds that contain a metallic element are usually ionic.
Examples: CaO, Fe(NO3)3, NaC2H3O2
2. Compounds that contain only nonmetals are usually molecular.
Examples: CO2, H2SO4, CH3OH, C3H5(NO3)3
3. Compounds that contain the NH4 group are ionic. (This is the important exception to guideline 2).
Examples: NH4Cl, (NH4)3PO4
 Practical knowledge: Nitrogen N and Oxygen compounds
& air pollutants
- Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a red–brown, acrid-smelling,
poisonous gas that is a major component of the smog that
forms over urban areas in the summer. NO2 is formed during
the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria. The major
sources of this gas are the engines of automobiles and other
transportation vehicles, power plants that use coal and natural
gas to produce electricity.
- NO2 is highly irritating to the lungs and can trigger asthma
attacks. In addition, NO2 dissolves in rainwater and forms nitric
acid, HNO3, a strong and very corrosive acid. Acidic rainwater is
toxic to most aquatic animals and plants and can even dissolve
some types of rock, including the limestone and marble that
are used to make buildings and statues.

Nitric oxide (NO), a colorless, poisonous gas with a remarkable history. This
compound is actually the first product formed when nitrogen and
oxygen combine at high temperatures, but it reacts almost instantly
with oxygen to form NO2, so the actual concentration of NO in the
atmosphere is negligible
 In class questions
Carbon-11 is an unnatural isotope used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans. PET
scans are used to monitor brain activity and diagnose dementia. How does carbon-11 compare
to carbon-12 in terms of the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons? Write the element
symbol of carbon-11 using superscripts and subscripts.

11
6 C
 In class questions
Strontium-90 is a radioactive element formed in nuclear reactors. When an unusually high level of
strontium is released into the air, such as occurred during the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, the
strontium can be incorporated into the bones of exposed individuals. High levels of strontium can cause
bone cancer and leukemia. Why does Sr-90 cause this particular health problem?

1. Identify which element is most important for bone.

2. Compare properties of this element and Sr by checking Periodic Table
3. Identify what happened if human is exposed high level of Sr-90.

1. Ca is important element for Bone

2. Ca and Sr in the same group 2A in Periodic Table, and they have similar properties
3. When human exposed high level of Sr-90, it can replace Ca.
4. But Sr-90 is radioactive, therefore, it can cause bone cancer and leukemia
 In class questions
Wilson’s disease is an inherited defect in copper metabolism in which copper accumulates in tissues, causing
neurological problems and liver disease. The disease can be treated with compounds that bind to copper and
thus remove it from the tissues, (a) How many protons and electrons are found in a neutral copper atom? Zinc
acetate inhibits copper absorption and so it is used to treat Wilson’s disease. What is the structure of zinc
acetate?

- Check Cu in Periodic Table to find atomic number

- Identification of cation and anion and their charges, where zinc is metal so it forms
cation of +2 charge and acetate is polyatomic ion has charge of -1. This is ionic
compounds: Zn(CH3COO)2
 Chemical equilibria

1) Chemical equilibria:
b. Equilibrium constant – hằng số cân bằng
c. Manipulate equilibrium constant – tính hằng số cân bằng
2) Le Chatelier’s principle – Nguyên lý Le Chatelier
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

• How to manipulate the equilibrium constant

• To understand the nature of main chemical equilibria in solutions: acids-
bases, complexation, precipitation and reduction/oxidation (redox)
• To understand the concept of pH and acid-base reactions in solutions
• To comprehend how to calculate pH of different electrolyte solutions
• Know to calculate the composition of complexation and solubility
products
• Understand how to calculate the standard electrode potential and factors
influencing the standard electrode potential
 Required readings

• 1. Janice G. Smith. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 2010 by The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
• Part 6.5, from page 173
• Part 9. from page 258
• 2. Từ Vọng Nghi. Hoá học phân tích. Nhà xuất bản Đại học quốc gia Hà nội
• 3. David Harvey. Modern Analytical Chemistry. 2000 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc
• Part 6, from page 135
• Part 9B, from page 278
 Nomenclature – Thuật ngữ
English
1 Equilibrium/equilibria
2 Reaction, reactants
3 Products
4 Equilibrium constant
5 Concentration
6 Partial pressure
7 Le Chatelier’s principle
8 Endothermic, exothermic
Tiếng Việt
Cân bằng
Phản ứng, chất tham gia phản ứng
Sản phẩm tạo thành sau phản ứng
Hằng số cân bằng
Nồng độ
Áp suất riêng phần
Nguyên lý Le Chatelier’s
Thu nhiệt, toả nhiệt
 1. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA
• For a given chemical reaction, a reversible reaction can occur in either
direction, from reactants to products and from products to reactants
aA + bB « cC + dD

The forward reaction proceeds from left to right

The reverse reaction proceeds from right to left
The rate of the forward reaction is rapid at first, and then decreases when the
concentration of reactants decreases. The rate of the reverse reaction is slow
at first, but speeds up when the concentration of the products increases.
When the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction,
the net concentrations of all species do not change and the system is at
equilibrium
 Calculation of equilibrium constant

For any given chemical reaction:

aA + bB « cC + dD

Equilibrium constant K:

• [A], [B]… are equilibrium concentrations of A, B…(in mol/L or M)

• a,b,c,d .. stoichiometric coefficients.
• For gases, use partial pressure instead of concentration.
• Concentrations of pure solids, pure liquids (solvents) are omitted as activity
equals 1
 Equilibrium Constant
• For the general equation aA + bB Û cC + dD,
• The lowercase letters represent the coefficients of the balanced chemical
equation.
• Equilibrium constant, K (applied for both reactions in the solution and in the
gaseous phase)

K =
[C] ´ [D]
c d
Note : Concentration of
[A ] ´ [B]
a b subtances when reaction
reached equilibrium
• For the gaseous reaction, K can be alternatively represented in the term of
partial pressure
PC ´ PD
c d Note : partial pressure of
Kp = a b subtances when reaction
PA ´ PB reached equilibrium
Manipulating equilibrium constants

• What’s equilibrium constant of reverse reaction?

• Adding reactions:
Equilibrium Constants for Heterogeneous Equilibria

• Pure substances in the solid and liquid state have constant

concentrations.
• Adding or removing some does not change the concentration
because they do not expand to fill the container or spread
throughout a solution.
• Therefore, these substances are not included in the equilibrium
constant expression.

61
Example: write the formula of K constant for the following equilibria
 Equilibrium Constant Expressions

• 2 CO2(g) Û 2 CO(g) + O2(g)

[CO]2•[O2]
K = Kp ?
[CO2]2
• BaSO4(s) Û Ba+2(aq) + SO4-2(aq)

K = [Ba+2]•[SO4-2]
• CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) Û CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

[CO2]
K = [CH4]•[O2]2 Kp ?
Disturbing and Re-Establishing Equilibrium

• Once a reaction is at equilibrium, the concentrations of all the

reactants and products remain the same.
• However, if the conditions are changed, the concentrations of all the
chemicals will change until equilibrium is re-established.
• The new concentrations will be different, but the equilibrium
constant will be the same.
• Unless the temperature is changed
What Does the Value of K Imply?

• When the value of Keq > > 1, we know that when the reaction
reaches equilibrium, there will be many more product molecules
present than reactant molecules.
• The position of equilibrium favors products.
• When the value of Keq < < 1, we know that when the reaction
reaches equilibrium, there will be many more reactant molecules
present than product molecules.
• The position of equilibrium favors reactants.

67
2. Le Chatelier’s principle
• Le Châtelier’s principle guides us in predicting the effect on the
position of equilibrium when conditions change.
• “If a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the position of
equilibrium will shifts to a direction that tend to reduce that change.”

l Changing concentration

l Changing pressure How to dissolve AgCl?

l Changing temperature
Factor affecting the equilibrium: Concentration changes

• Adding a reactant will decrease the amounts of the other reactants

and increase the amount of the products until a new position of
equilibrium is reached.
• That has the same Keq.
• Removing a product will increase the amounts of the other products
and decrease the amounts of the reactants.
• This principle can be used to drive a reaction to completion
• Notes: Adding more of a solid or liquid does not change its
concentration and, therefore, has no effect on the equilibrium.
 Factor affecting the equilibrium: Temperature change

- Temperate
increase, the
reaction that
remove heat is
favored
- Temperate
decrease, the
reaction that
add heat is
favored
Factor affecting the equilibrium: Pressure change

When pressure increases, equilibrium shifts in the direction that decreases the number of moles in
order to decrease pressure
When pressure decreases, equilibrium shifts in the direction that increases the number
of moles in order to increase pressure
 Summary: Table 6.5, page 183
Effects of changes in conditions on equilibrium
Change Effect on equilibrium
Concentration
Adding reactant Equi. favors the products
Removing recant Equi. favors the reactants
Adding product Equi. favors the reactants
Removing product Equi. favors the products
Temperature
Increasing temperature Endothermic reaction: equi. favor the products
Exothermic reaction: equi. favors the reactants

Decreasing temperature Endothermic reaction: equi. favors the reactants

Exothermic reaction: equi. favors the products
Pressure
Increase pressure Equi. favors the side that has fewer moles
Decreasing pressure Equi. favors the side that has more moles
 Practical knowledge: focus on human body
Body temperature
Thermo-regulation process in human
body:
Similar to Le Chartelie Principle:
When temperature in the surrounding
environment changes, the body works
to counteract the change.
+When the temperature increases, the
body dissipate excess heat by dilating
blood vessels and sweating
+When the temperature decreases,
blood vessels constrict and the body
shivers/feel cold
 Body temperature: Fever

ü An infection in the body is often accompanied by a fever; that is, the

temperature in the body increases.

ü A fever is part of the body’s response to increase the rates of

defensive reactions that kill bacteria. The respiratory rate and heart
rate increase to supply more oxygen needed for faster reactions.
 Sample Text
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Sample Text
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amet, lobortis libero
tempus neque vivamus
purus, nam massa
sollicitudin, maecenas odio Sample Text
hymenaeos diam,
ullamcorper dictum eget Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, lobortis libero
voluptates cras dolor. tempus neque vivamus purus, nam massa
sollicitudin, maecenas odio hymenaeos diam,
ullamcorper dictum eget voluptates cras dolor.
Problems
Given: 1 g protein or carbohydrate releases 4 Cal; 1 gram fat releases
9 Cal.