Nanomaterials and Energy Pages 235–243 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/nme/13.

00021
Feature Article
Volume 2 Issue NME5
Received 31/07/2013 Accepted 09/09/2013
3D printing for CO2 capture and chemical Published online 12/09/2013
engineering design Keywords: 3D printing/carbon capture/chemical engineering/
energy/manufacturing/prototype devices and designs
Bara, Hawkins, Neuberger and Poppell

ice | science ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

3D printing for CO2 capture and

chemical engineering design
1 Jason E. Bara PhD* 3 David T. Neuberger
Reichhold-Shumaker assistant professor, Department of Chemical and Undergraduate research assistant, Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA Biological Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

2 Christopher I. Hawkins 4 Samuel W. Poppell

Undergraduate research assistant, Department of Chemical and Undergraduate research assistant, Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, NSF-REU Site: Engineering Solutions for Biological Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
Clean Energy Generation, Storage and Consumption, University of
Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University
of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

1 2 3 4
                   

Three-dimensional printing is a form of additive manufacturing that allows the fabrication of items directly from
digital files, allowing the user to virtually produce any solid object on demand. Three-dimensional printing is already
a frequently discussed topic in the mainstream media and is beginning to find a number of applications in research
laboratories. The authors have recognized that 3D printing can have many roles in the design of chemical engineering
processes as a means of fabricating parts or perhaps entire unit operations. The authors foresee many opportunities
for 3D printing as a means of producing novel and advanced components and entire devices for gas treating. Gas
treating (i.e. the removal of one or more contaminants from a gaseous mixture) plays a crucial role in many existing
and emerging energy-related processes including natural gas sweetening, flue gas desulfurization and pre- and post-
combustion carbon dioxide capture. These processes are typically carried out in absorption columns containing trays or
packing that provide interfaces for gas–liquid contacting. New devices such as membrane contactors are also emerging
as alternative mechanisms for achieving separation of gases with potential cost and energy-saving benefits derived
from having smaller footprints, being of lighter weight and having much larger interfacial areas. Yet in all cases, the
design, cost and ability to optimize gas–liquid contactors may be limited by conventional manufacturing techniques.
In this respect, 3D printing could be a mechanism by which to achieve improvements on existing technologies and
more rapidly deploy novel devices. Here, the authors describe their efforts to date in the application of 3D printing for
the fabrication of components and devices for carbon dioxide–capture applications and provide perspective on design
strategies, opportunities and challenges.

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing, more commonly known as 3D printing,
is a process of fabricating real objects directly from digital files.
Three-dimensional printing has become a highly discussed topic in
the media during the past several months and was even touted by
President Obama as having the potential to ‘revolutionize the way
we make almost everything’ during his 2013 State of the Union
Address.1 Three-dimensional printing has also been the subject
of some controversy with respect to the production of firearms.2,3
Three-dimensional printers for consumer/home use can be ordered
over the internet or purchased at office supply stores for $2,000 (or
less) from companies such as 3D Systems and MakerBot (recently

*Corresponding author e-mail address: jbara@eng.ua.edu

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 Nanomaterials and Energy
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acquired by Stratasys).4,5 These printers typically operate by
extrusion of acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) or (poly(lactic
acid)). More advanced 3D printers can print using engineering
polymers with robust properties (e.g. poly(ether ether ketone)
(PEEK)) and metals.6,7
Online file repositories such as Thingiverse allow users to create,
share and download custom files for printing, which can produce a
variety of functional and novelty objects that are fabricated from a
little as a few pennies worth of plastic.8 Many of these objects are
virtually indistinguishable from those fabricated by conventional
polymer-processing techniques. Three-dimensional printing has
already made its way into research laboratories where scientists are
using the technique to design and produce functional laboratory
supplies and equipments at a fraction of the cost associated with
purchasing the same part from a vendor or catalog.9 As early as
1996, peer-reviewed publications have described the use of 3D
printing as a research tool in bio-related applications to produce
scaffolds for bone implants as well as soft tissue.10–17 Other recent
publications have focused on the use of 3D printing for microfluidic
devices and integrated reactionware for organic synthesis and
analysis.18–22
There is a vast potential utility for 3D printing to enhance chemical
engineering processes and components, especially for separations
related to energy generation and greenhouse gas emission control.
Herein, the authors present examples where 3D printing might be
Figure 1. Photographs of Raschig rings.
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3D printing for CO2 capture and chemical
engineering design
Bara, Hawkins, Neuberger and Poppell
used to produce components and devices with improved efficiencies
in gas absorption with liquid solvents. Absorptive processes are
already used for a variety of gas-treating applications including
natural gas sweetening, flue gas desulfurization (FGD) and the
emerging applications of pre- and post-combustion carbon dioxide
capture. Furthermore, the authors illustrate their proof-of-concept
work to date in utilizing this technology for the design, fabrication
and study of novel and improved devices and components for gas
absorption processes.
2. The need for improved gas–liquid-
contacting devices in energy-
efficient carbon dioxide capture
Conventionally, gas absorption by liquid solvents (also known as
‘scrubbing’) is performed in vertical packed or trayed columns,
where mass transfer is an important consideration.23–25 Producing
as much interfacial area as possible within a given volume,
typically through selection of packing material(s) that ensure
uniform distribution of fluids, is critical to process efficiency and
minimizing equipment size footprint.23–25 Types of conventional
packing materials include Berl saddles,26 Pall rings and Raschig
rings.27 Figure 1 shows a generic Raschig ring.
The use of absorption columns for countercurrent gas–liquid
contacting (e.g. carbon dioxide removal from natural gas etc.)
has been practiced for over 80  years,28,29 and while conventional
absorption columns achieve sufficient gas–liquid contact, they
 Nanomaterials and Energy
Volume 2 Issue NME5
also suffer from disadvantages in height, footprint and less than
ideal surface area to volume (S/V) ratios.30 Furthermore, design
optimization and customization are limited by conventional
manufacturing/fabrication techniques.
Advanced column designs and novel devices are viewed as
capable of making significant impacts in minimizing the capital
expenditures and footprint of postcombustion carbon dioxide–
capture processes enabling greatly improved mass-transfer rates
relative to conventional packed or trayed absorption columns.31
This will be especially critical at land-limited sites, where there
may not be sufficient space within the plant to accommodate
conventional process equipment.31 Examples of projects using
nonconventional technologies for carbon dioxide absorption
include those of Neumann Systems Group (NSG),32 a collaboration
between Gas Technology Institute (GTI) and Porogen (PG) using
a porous membrane contactor,30,31,33,34 and other hollow fiber
membrane contactors.35–42
The NSG device operates by way of a high-velocity, high-surface-
area jet-spray that promotes rapid transfer of carbon dioxide from
the gas to the liquid phase without the need for solid interfaces
(i.e. packing or trays). The device can also be used for FGD in the
removal of SOx by way of reaction with calcium carbonate, as well
as capture of other pollutants (e.g. NOx, mercury etc.). According
the NSG website,32 their devices offer more than an 80% reduction
in process footprint compared with conventional absorber columns.
Hollow fiber membrane contactors utilize nondispersive contact
through a (porous) hollow fiber, which can also overcome issues
associated with conventional packed or trayed columns. Figure 2
provides an illustration of the operation of a hollow fiber membrane
contactor.42
Membrane contactors and other novel devices for gas–liquid
contacting can offer significant advantages relative to conventional
packed or trayed columns,30,34,42 which will potentially lower capital
Fluid no. 2 out Distribution tube
Hollow fiber membrane
Cartridge
Baffle
Fluid no. 1 in
Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing the general operation of a
membrane contactor device. Reprinted from Ref. 43 with permission
from Elsevier.
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3D printing for CO2 capture and chemical
engineering design
Bara, Hawkins, Neuberger and Poppell
and operating expenses, provide smoother process operation and
greater energy efficiency. Novel gas–liquid contactors can hold
significant promise within existing gas absorption processes
and future pre- and post-combustion carbon dioxide capture
systems.33,34,36,38–41 Several of the major benefits associated with
membrane contactors and other advanced gas–liquid contacting
devices are as follows:
■■ High S/V ratios: 1000–9000 m2/m3 against 30–300 m2/m3,
which results in higher mass-transfer coefficients (10–1000x
conventional absorber columns).
■■ Smaller process footprint: Greater mass-transfer coefficients
mean gas absorption is carried out more efficiently within
a given volume. This reduces the overall process size and
solvent inventory.
■■ Lower-cost materials of construction: If devices can be
primarily constructed from polymers, they will be of lighter
weight and will not be subject to corrosion.
■■ Elimination of issues that occur when gas and liquid phases
are in direct contact: channeling, entrainment and flooding.
This will help reduce solvent losses.
■■ Flexibility to operate under different conditions: Liquid and
gas flow rates can be controlled independently. The liquid
to gas (L/G) ratio can be optimized to achieve a target outlet
gas composition (e.g. 90% carbon dioxide removal) or liquid
loading (i.e. target mass fraction of carbon dioxide in liquid).
Furthermore, a variety of solvents can be used.
The GTI and PG contactor features PEEK-based hollow fiber
membranes.30,31,34 PEEK is a commercially available high
performance polymer that is inert to organic and aqueous solvents
and exhibits thermomechanical characteristics superior to
essentially all engineering polymers. PEEK is thermally stabile at
temperatures up to 400C and is not soluble in, nor degraded by,
essentially any organic solvent or water.43 Other chemically robust
polymers used as the hollow fiber materials in membrane contactors
include poly(propylene)35 and poly(tetrfluoroethylene).41,44 Thus,
Fluid no. 2 in
Housing
Collection tube
Fluid no. 1 out
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 Nanomaterials and Energy 3D printing for CO2 capture and chemical
Volume 2 Issue NME5 engineering design
Bara, Hawkins, Neuberger and Poppell

the use of polymers is clearly desirable to fabricate advanced,

lightweight gas–liquid-contacting devices with high S/V ratios.
3D printing
Because postcombustion carbon dioxide capture is carried out
near ambient pressure, there is no fundamental need to fabricate
devices from steel if a mechanically, thermally and chemically Lab
robust polymer is available (i.e. the absorption device is not CAD experiments
required to be a pressurized vessel).31 However, a major limitation
in the progression of these advanced devices is their high cost of
manufacture when conventional fabrication techniques are used
and corresponding lengthy design/fabrication/testing cycle times,
which limit the pace at which these modules can be evaluated and
improved. Chemical process
engineering
CFD
Packing materials such as Berl saddles, Pall rings and Raschig rings
are already available in a variety of materials including ceramics,
Figure 3. Feedback loop that drives studies, efficiency and
metal and even plastics. It is also apparent that gas–liquid-
performance in the implementation of 3D printing for chemical
contacting devices fabricated partially or entirely from polymers
engineering process design.
are both desirable and feasible. The authors thus foresee a major
potential role for 3D printing as a means of improving the design
of absorption columns, trays and packing as well as providing
access to rapid and economic production of novel and advanced
gas–liquid-contactor devices such as jet absorbers and membrane
contactors. The following section will focus on the design strategies
and initial work in producing functional parts from 3D printers
available in the laboratories and within the College of Engineering
at the University of Alabama.

3. The initial progress in utilizing

3D printing for polymer-based
gas–liquid contactors
The authors view 3D printing as able to offer significant
advantages in the design of novel and advanced gas–liquid-
contacting devices. Three-dimensional printing allows for
unique features that are difficult or impossible to achieve with
traditional fabrication techniques and also minimizes the cost of
manufacture and expedites timelines for realizing carbon dioxide
Figure 4. Hybrid Berl saddles/Raschig rings fabricated from ABS
capture in the field. In the experiences, functional prototypes can
polymer by way of 3D printing. ABS, acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene.
be designed, fabricated and tested within a timeframe of as little
as 24 h. Because the design process is entirely software based,
prototypes can be parametrically varied with great precision rings. The authors view this as the logical entry point for integrating
so that effects of variables such as surface area, pressure drop, 3D printed components in gas–liquid-contacting applications due
porosity and other features can be easily understood and used to to the relative simplicity of the parts and ability to produce many
quickly improve and optimize devices. The authors envision an parts at once. Figure 4 shows the printed ‘snap-off’ array of 63
accelerated and flexible feedback loop between design (chemical hybrid saddles/rings, the loose individual pieces and the parts
engineering fundamentals and computer-aided design (CAD)), filling ~250 cm3 of a graduated cylinder. Each hybrid ring/saddle
fabrication (3D printing and postprocessing), simulation measures 5/8 inch across at the widest diameter and is 1/2 inch
(computational fluid dynamics (CFD)) and testing (laboratory in height. The array was printed on the Stratasys Dimension SST
experiments; Figure 3). 1200es from ABS polymer.

The first endeavor in this area has been to design and fabricate The authors are currently printing more of these arrays that will
packing materials that are hybrids of Berl saddles and Raschig fill a 3-inch diameter, 4-foot tall column to begin experimentally

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 Nanomaterials and Energy
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Lean solution
CO2-lean
2
flue gas
3D printed
contactor
CO2-rich
flue gas 1
Rich solution
Figure 5. Simplified process flow diagram for countercurrent carbon
dioxide absorption.
testing the performances of these packing materials for carbon
dioxide scrubbing. A simplified process flow diagram for this
experiment is shown in Figure 5.
Although ABS is not chemically resistant to most organic solvents or
aqueous amine solutions (e.g. 30 wt% mononethanolamine (MEA)
etc.) that might be used for carbon dioxide capture applications, it
will not undergo degradation by aqueous sodium hydroxide solvents.
Aqueous sodium hydroxide solvents are capable of absorbing
carbon dioxide by way of bicarbonate formation according to the
following reaction: 2 NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l).45
Thus, although sodium hydroxide is not a typical solvent for
industrial carbon dioxide capture due to the irreversibility of the
reaction with carbon dioxide, it still provides a valuable metric for
the mass-transfer rates associated with these packing materials.
Experimental data generated from these studies will be used within
the context of the design loop (Figure 3) to parametrically vary
the size and shape of the hybrid saddles/rings to better understand
mass-transfer rates associated with packing produced by 3D
printing and generate optimal designs that can be printed from
engineering polymers such as PEEK for testing with solvents such
as MEA and other aqueous amines.
The authors have also initiated work on developing novel column
and tray designs. Another distinct advantage in using 3D printing for
the design of unit operation within chemical processes is the ability
to rapidly produce new and interchangeable parts. They have created
a ‘key-lock’ system for advanced use of novel tray designs in gas
absorption columns. Thus, a column body must only be printed only
once, and new tray designs can be fabricated and tested by simply
printing these parts and replacing the prior trays. Figures 6 and 7
illustrate the design approach and selected 3D printed parts. In the
designs depicted, each column body has a 2-inch internal diameter,
with a height of ~3 inch and can hold up to six trays spaced ~0·5
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3D printing for CO2 capture and chemical
engineering design
Bara, Hawkins, Neuberger and Poppell
Figure 6. (a) SolidWorks designs and (b) 3D printed parts for
absorber column section with ‘key-lock’ interchangeable trays with
parametrically varied and novel designs for gas–liquid contacting.
inch apart down the length of the column body. The column bodies
accept a 1/8-inch thermocouple for monitoring the temperature
profile down the length of the assembled column. Each tray is
‘keyed’ with 3–18 notches, which requires it to be inserted at the
corresponding ‘lock’ position in the column body. The column body
has been precisely designed in SolidWorks (a CAD program) so
as to mate with the one above or below it, allowing for the parts to
be stacked and assembled with the use of commercially available
O-rings and fasteners. The column body on the bottom left and trays
in the bottom center in Figure 5 were printed from an acrylic resin
on an Objet 30 Pro, and the column body with tray inserted on the
bottom right was each individually printed from ABS on a Makerbot
Replicator. Figure 6 illustrates the design, fabrication, assembly and
CFD model of flow through a single-column section.
The acrylic resin has chemical resistance similar to ABS, and
the authors expect the initial carbon dioxide absorption testing
and mass-transfer coefficient measurements in these novel trayed
columns to be carried out with aqueous sodium hydroxide solvents,
with the best performing devices to be fabricated from PEEK or
other engineering polymers in the future.
In Figure 7, the gas inlets/outlets on the assembled single-stage
contactor were designed and fabricated to be directly compatible
with 1/4-inch Swagelok tube fittings, while the liquid inlets/outlets
were produced to be tapped with 1/4 inch National Pipe Thread
(NPT). This is an important consideration for using 3D printing.
While 3D printing is an exceptional technique to produce devices
and parts, the user should not expect the printer to do all of the work
or produce all of the parts required for assembly and/or function.
It may be more convenient, or in the case of features, requiring
precision beyond the resolution of the 3D printer (e.g. screw and
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 Nanomaterials and Energy
Volume 2 Issue NME5
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Figure 7. From CAD design to finished product and flow simulation.
(a) SolidWorks (a CAD program) drawings of gas–liquid contactor,
(b) the 3D print process in action on the Objet 30 Pro at University
of Alabama’s 3D printing laboratory; (c) an assembled gas–liquid
contactor printed from an acrylic resin with a single stage and
(d) output of a CFD simulation of gas flow through a contactor
section in Autodesk CFD 2014. CAD, computer-aided design; CFD,
computational fluid dynamics.
pipe threads) required for postprocessing mechanical work to be
done by other machines or by hand.
We have also begun working toward 3D printing of more
complicated devices such as porous membrane contactors
(Figure 2). An example model of a gas–liquid contactor designed
in SolidWorks and the cross-section showing the interfacial area
for gas–liquid contact are shown in Figure 8, while Figure 9
presents photographs of a finished part and the porous internal
structure. While merely produced as example pieces (the holes
in the tubes are much larger than those in porous membrane
contactors), this does demonstrate that such devices are feasible.
The 3D printed parts in Figure 9 are made of ABS on a Stratasys
Dimension SST 1200es.
Figures 4, 6, 7 and 9 clearly illustrate that the use of 3D printing
is a viable technique to create packing materials, trays and even
complete gas–liquid-contacting devices and that mid range
3D printers produce high-resolution parts that are unlikely
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3D printing for CO2 capture and chemical
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Bara, Hawkins, Neuberger and Poppell
to be readily achievable with traditional polymer-processing
techniques (e.g. injection molding), and they certainly would
not be accessible within a university research laboratory. As with
other designs, the gas/liquid inlets and outlets in Figures 8 and 9
were designed to accept standard Swagelok fittings or be tapped
with 1/4 inch NPT. In the lower photo of Figure 8 (black model
part), each of the internal tubes for gas–liquid contact is 1-inch
long, with a 4-mm outside diameter (OD) and 2-mm inside
diameter. The pores in the tubes are 1 mm × 1 mm, and there are
48 pores per tube width (i.e. four pores circumferentially spaced
at 90° intervals with 12 pores down the length of the tube).
In both the extrusion- and curing-based printing techniques,
parts are printed using a water-soluble support material that is
automatically applied as needed by the printer software (and is
removed postprinting by soaking in an aqueous sodium hydroxide
bath. The use of support material ensures that fine features and
overhangs are printed with high resolution and without sagging
or other defects.
While this sample demonstration part has been produced primarily
as a visual reference, and has a low S/V ratio (~2·2), this ratio
can be easily increased by more than two orders of magnitude
(i.e. S/V ratio of 200–500) with simple modifications to the 3D part
design. To accomplish this, the tubes can be made to have smaller
diameters (0·5–1·0-mm OD), smaller spacing between tubes and
increased tube porosity (i.e. more and smaller pores). Reduction
in feature sizes results in greater part complexity and might cause
longer calculation and printing times. Typical layer thicknesses on
current extrusion-based printers are on the order of 100–300 µm,
and this might represent a current lower limit on pore size in these
contacting devices. Layer thicknesses on the Objet 30 Pro are
listed as 28 µm (0·0011 inch) or less. However, the authors believe
advanced printing methods and the rapid progression in the general
quality of 3D printing will certainly improve on the minimum
length scales.
4. Outlook and future work
Three-dimensional printing offers rapid design of robust gas–
liquid contactors for applications such as postcombustion carbon
dioxide capture that when used as part of an integrated design
cycle including parametric design in CAD, simulations with CFD,
laboratory experiments and chemical engineering fundamentals
can be used to design new and optimized components and
devices with improved mass-transfer rates. These flexible design
capabilities and thorough control are unprecedented in the
history of manufacturing, and it is unlikely that such a process
could be achievable through conventional fabrication techniques.
Furthermore, the costs of manufacturing prototypes and eventually
full-scale gas–liquid contactors can be drastically reduced as 3D
printers produce parts (and integrated arrays of parts) in an additive
manner (i.e. little or no waste) and print extremely complex and
precise designs without interruption (i.e. no need to retool or switch
 Nanomaterials and Energy 3D printing for CO2 capture and chemical
Volume 2 Issue NME5 engineering design
Bara, Hawkins, Neuberger and Poppell

(a) (b)
Figure 8. SolidWorks model of a conceptual contactor design with
(a) exterior surfaces and (b) cross-section illustrating connectivity of
device and internal structure for gas–liquid interface.

tooling during production). The authors expect that 3D printing will

find a number of applications within chemical process engineering,
as 3D printers are becoming more widely available, capabilities
College of Engineering
improve, minimum feature sizes shrink and with advancements in
Department of Chemical
and Biological Engineering 3D printing by way of laser sintering to fabricate in chemically
robust polymers such as PEEK.

THE UNIVERSITY OF As demonstrated, 3D printing is a feasible technique for the

ALABAMA production of packing materials, trays and even entire contactors;
ENGINEERING the next endeavors are to begin testing their performances of
these different components by measuring mass-transfer rates
for carbon dioxide absorption with aqueous sodium hydroxide
solvents.
(a)
Acknowledgements
Partial support for this study provided by NSF Research
Experiences for Undergraduates (EEC-1062705) is gratefully
acknowledged. Jason E. Bara also acknowledges the University of
Alabama Research Grants Committee. The authors sincerely thank
Mr. Doug Cannon, Mr. James Cannon, Ms. Anna Marthinsen and
the University of Alabama College of Engineering 3-D Printing
Lab for their time and support.

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