Problems of Psychology in The 21st Century, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2015

Vol. 9, No.
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ISSN 2029-8587
PROBLEMS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21ST
CENTURY
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Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Dr., prof. Serhiy Boltivets, Grigory Kostyuk Psychological Institute of the Ukrainian National
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
Dr., assoc. prof. Irena Gailiene, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Irakli Imedadze, Dimitri Uznadze Georgian Psychological National Society, Georgia
Dr. Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Charles Kimamo, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Dr., assoc. prof. Vadim N. Kolesnikov, Karelian State Pedagogical Academy, Republic of
Karelia, Russia
Dr., prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Re-
public of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., assoc. prof. Jan Lašek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Dr., prof. Mary Anne Lauri, University of Malta, Malta
Dr., prof. Maria Ledzińska, University of Warsaw, Poland
Dr., prof. Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., assoc. prof. Tetiana M. Shyriaieva, National University of Ostroh Academy, Ukraine
Dr., assoc. prof. Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”,
Bulgaria
Dr., prof. Guna Svence, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., assoc. prof. Yolanda Zografova, Institute for Population and Human Studies, Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
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ISSN 2029-8587
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Contents
Editorial
How social stability influences the level of social trust in

young Ukrainians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Tetiana Shyriaeva
Articles
TEAM LEADERSHIP AS A DIRECTION OF TRAINING PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS . . 6

Tahir Y. Bazarov, Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Srbui R. Gevorgyan
THE INNOVATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE: ITS SCOPE, STRUCTURE

AND PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Oksana Ye. Furman
BEYOND SOCIAL SKILLS: GROUP DYNAMICS AT SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

FOR HIGH FUNCTIONING ADOLESCENTS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS . . . 20
Agnieszka Siedler
Dynamics of depression among adolescents in secondary

schools in Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Stanislava Stoyanova, Venka Petrova
WELL-BEING CORRELATION WITH RESILIENCE AND AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Guna Svence, Maris Majors
Information
instructions for authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Journal of BALTIC Science Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

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How social stability influences

the level of social trust in
young Ukrainians
Tetiana Shyriaeva
National University of Ostroh Academy, Ukraine
E-mail: tetiana.shyriaeva@oa.edu.ua
In the light of the current events in Ukraine it appears logical to consider the concept of trust.
It has always been and still functions as a cement of human cooperation. Influencing various aspects
of interpersonal relations, including interpersonal, intergroup, and individual ones, it illustrates
the state of the political, economic and professional ability to maintain social connections. Trust
makes the basis for problem solving and is characterized with constructive correlation. Thus, it is
seen as the factor of transformation of the state’s social status on its way to become democratic
and transparent. Without exaggeration, it is trust that forms the ground for the majority of social
processes.
On the other hand, the issue of trust becomes scrutinized with special precision in the diffi-
cult or crisis periods of the country’s development. Apparently, the change in values, stereotypes,
and heuristics is followed by the modification of the human ability to trust, which in this context
symbolizes one’s certainty of a particular object or thing being positive in its nature. The light
is shed on the issue of trust in Ukraine as nowadays it is characterized by the difficult political,
economic, and social situation.
The study of the concept of trust is rooted in the 20th century. It was interpreted as a psycho-
logical state (Erikson, 1950, Rodgers, 1977), and as a social attitude (Luhmann, 1984, Giddens
E, Seligman, 2000, Sztompka, 1999). It is viewed as an individual way of social behaviour that is
caused by one’s relation to the group. According to E. Erikson, trust is the initial stage of psycho-
social development, which is typical of the first year of life. Nonetheless, the accomplishment of
this task in infancy impacts the possibility of the development of trust in oneself, in others, and in
the whole world. Ontogenetic evolution of trust illustrates that in the period of youth development
it remains not less important. With one’s becoming older, trust takes the features of psychological
phenomenon that is related to team integration, identification oneself as a member of individual
related unity or group, and simply demonstrates the ability to rely on the surrounding. However, in
most cases it is radical and unstable in teens and is extremely agile, that can be seen from the ever
changing nature of its occurrence in the pace of their life and at the various stages of interpersonal
relations. Young people are more willing to rely on other people than to expect the same from
them. Trust implies one’s confidence about other subjects and objects, which is done by promise
realization, one’s patterns of behaviour etc. Within every year the feeling of trust widens itself
and expands to the measures of society. In case there is a high level of trust in the social group,
the level of trust in every individual has a tendency to increase. It becomes possible, unless the
expectations are not realized. If that happens, disbelief, bitter disappointment, feelings of frustra-
tion and anxiety take the form of social isolation.
Interpersonal trust is understood as one’s confidence in the way a person behaves under certain
conditions (Rotter, 1971). Internal and external factors are defined as those that determine trust
as a social phenomenon. The initial group includes self-actualization of an individual (Rogers,
1977), the level of psycho-social adaptation (Erikson, 1950), personal experience etc. The external
factors are made of gender and physiological peculiarities of individual, cultural and social fac-
Tetiana SHYRIAEVA. How social stability influences the level of social trust in young Ukrainians ISSN 2029-8587
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tors that were influential for the individual’s upbringing. It is exactly this group that is of the great
interest, as it comprises the expectations of Ukrainian society, the experience of the individuals
5
and external cultural and social factors.
In the light of the current situation in Ukraine, social trust can be seen as the ability to be
socially oriented, reliable and trustworthy. The crisis that occurs is said to hinder the process of
social integration as it results in difficulties in social cooperation and ability to rely on someone
else except oneself. Interpersonal Trust Scale (J. B. Rotter) was used as a means to define the level
of trust at diagnostic stage of our research. The use of it enabled us to reveal the level of social and
political trust in young people. 25 statements make it possible to shed some light on the level of
interpersonal trust and one’s social interaction ability. The experimental stage comprised the use of
Mann-Whitney U test that enabled to trace the statistic deviation in two groups of people, one of
which was under the experiment in 2012, while the other was considered in 2014. The first group
of respondents accounted to 30 young people with the average age of 20, SD -5.75. The other one
was equal in the number of respondents; age period is 19.7, SD – 4.95. These two time periods
were taken as those that are characterized by the opposite level of stability. The variables that were
got at the stages of this longitude experiment were systematized into three levels accordingly (low
(25-74), average (75-99), and high (100-125)). First group demonstrated average (75 %) and high
(25%) levels, while the results of the second were low (60%) and average (40%). Mean score 15%
applies to the group of 2012 respondents. U test enabled us to check if there is any significant
difference in the level of trust in the young people who were questioned in 2012 and 2014. The
result U=69 (p≤0.01) proves the assumption that the results are statistically valid and proved. It
means that the level of trust in the respondents of 2012 was higher than the one of those in 2014.
Such results make the impression that social and financial stability, which characterized the year
2012, made a huge impact on the level of relation to the social group, one’s ability to negotiate and
compromise, neutral acceptance of one’s mistake, the level of adaptation and self-regulation. The
low level of social trust that was demonstrated in 2014 proved that young people felt unsafe and
insecure in the society, lacking trust and being less able to rely on other people, which we believe
is caused by hardship that was caused by the political shifts and economic instability.
Thus, social trust is seen as a psychological state and social attitude that explains the inclusion
of subject and object. The level of trust in the society is reflected, in most cases, in the fruitfulness
and efficacy of its functioning.
References
Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
Luhmann, N. (1984). Soziale systeme. Frankfurt, Germany: Suhrkamp.
Rogers, C. (1977). Carl Rogers on personal power. New York: Delacorte Press.
Rotter, J. B. (1971). Generalized expectancies for interpersonal trust. American Psychologist, 26, 443–452.
Seligman, A. (2000). The problem of trust. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Sztompka, P. (1999). Trust: A sociological theory. Cambridge University Press.
Received: May 10, 2015 Accepted: June 15, 2015
Tetiana M. Shyriaieva PhD in Psychology, Associate Professor, National University of Ostroh Academy,
Seminarska Street 2, Ostroh, Ukraine.
E-mail: tetiana.shyriaeva@oa.edu.ua
Website: http://oa.edu.ua
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TEAM LEADERSHIP AS A DIRECTION

OF TRAINING PROFESSIONAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS
Tahir Y. Bazarov
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
E-mail: thbazarov@mail.ru
Vladimir S. Karapetyan
Armenian State Pedagogical University after Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
E-mail: vskarapetyan@mail.ru
Srbui R. Gevorgyan
Armenian State Pedagogical University after Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
E-mail: gevorgyan_26@mail.ru
Abstract
Nowadays, nearly all the specialists have to operate in unpredictable situations. The group leader has to
be capable to realize effective group performance. As it has been already mentioned (Bazarov, Shevchenko,
2013), “The post-crisis era executive leader should possess such important traits as self adjustment; com-
mon sense in combination with intuition, emotions, and imagination; and the readiness to make choices
in fifty-fifty situations. The most general definition of “self-adjustment” is the building of functional in-
terconnections between (1) a subject’s actions and state and (2) the actions and state of the surrounding
setting. Building such interconnections allows for introducing relevant and purposeful changes in the
subject’s actions, depending on the feedback from the previous step. In other words, this is an algorithm
of changes based on feedback. ”. So in our opinion, a framework is needed that integrates existing team
leadership research and the full range of ways in which leadership can manifest itself within the team.
1. Four types of organization of joint activities predict the facet of the organizational culture
2. Four types of organizational culture give rise to four types of working groups
3. Four types of organizational culture assume four types of leadership as well
4. The essential difference between these cultures is determined by those forms of organization of joint
activities which underlies them.
Key words: organizational culture, joint activity, type of working group, team leadership.
Introduction
Students’ productive and educational experience is not only a transfer of knowledge on the
future profession, but also a special form of socialization of the new generation of specialists. In this
respect, it is essential to prepare psychologists for а joint creative activity in today’s organizational
reality. Here it is necessary to pay attention to the formation of the qualities of a “team player” in
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graduates. Different organizational cultures distinguish members of one team from another. People
create them as mechanisms of social experience that help to live in their environment and preserve
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the integrity of the community in collaboration with other communities.
According to Cameron and Quinn (1999) culture defines the core values, assumptions,
interpretations and approaches that characterize an organization. Most of organization scholars
and observers recognize that organizational culture has a powerful effect on the performance and
long-term effectiveness of organization. Empirical research has produced an impressive area of
findings demonstrating the importance of culture to enhancing organizational performances.
The following basic historical types of organizational cultures that give rise to four types of
working groups and four types of leadership in a team can be distinguished. The essential differ-
ence between these cultures is determined by those forms of organization of joint activities which
underlie them (Table 1).
Table 1. Types of organizational cultures.
Type of organizational
Type of joint activity Type of working group Type of a leader
culture
Bureaucratic Co-Operative Combine Commander

Organic Co-Interactive Clique Hero-Visionary
Entrepreneurial Co-Individual Enterprise Coordinator
Participatory Co-Creative Team Superleader
Theoretical Framework
“Combine” Working Group Type
Co-operative type of activity is characterized by time-distribution and consistent order of

participation of each employee in the work. Consistency assumes that at the beginning the first
employee is engaged in work, then the second, the third and so on. The features of the activity of
each work participant are instructed with the specificity of transforming the means into results.
For example, in the manufacturing of boards, one first cuts trees, then another one takes them to
the factory, next one separates the trunk from the branches, later, another one measures the trunk
and counts the quantity and the size of the boards he can get and what the chart of sawing will be,
only after this the trunk is taken to sawing. A typical example of co-operative type of interaction
is the conveyor, when the product is automatically transferred to the next participant and becomes
an object of labor (Human Resource Management, 2006).
“Combine” working group type is characterized as a formalized and structured workplace.
What people do is supervising the work process. Effective leaders are good coordinators and or-
ganizers. It is important to maintain smooth work progress. Long-term concerns of the team are to
provide stability, predictability and profitability. People are united by formal rules and official policy.
There are some basic tasks and skills for members in a group such as:
1. The worker should identify ambition and needs of potential group members as perceived
by members, worker and organization.
2. The worker has to obtain organizational uphold for and affirmation of the group.
3. The worker should select the group type, structure, operation and size that will be ar-
rogate for attaining the aims of the group.
4. The worker should reach out to and recruit potential group members.
5. The worker should obtain consent from potential members and relevant others as
required by ethical guidelines and organizational conditions ( Standards for Social
Work Practice with Groups, 2013).
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Characteristics of a “Commander”
8
Mode of impact: power
Specification of the method: enforcement
Form of communication: command
Form of stating the problem: a precise description of the form of the result and verifying points.
Objectives are linked to sanctions.
Perception of the worker: a tool for the implementation/realization of tasks who is lazy by nature
and needs to be controlled.
Valuable qualities: diligence and commitment
Criteria of leader’s efficiency: indisputable fulfillment of the task by workers. Instructor’s word
is a law. When workers are afraid it means they respect.
“Clique” Working Group Type
Co-interactive type is characterized by the obligatory participation of everyone in a com-

mon task, labor intensity of the employees is approximately the same, features of their activities
are determined by the work instructors and, as a rule, they are less changeable. The effectiveness
of the joint activity is equally dependent on the work of each employee. An illustration of such
an option of organizing joint activity may serve the joint replacement of loads (Human Resource
Management, 2006).
“Clique” working group type is characterized as a friendly workplace where people have
a lot in common and rely on each other. It is like a big family. Leaders think as educators, and,
perhaps, even as parents. The team keeps together, thanks to dedication and traditions. It puts an
emphasis on the long-term benefit from the enhancement of an individual and gives a high degree
of importance to the team unity and moral environment. Success is certain, in case of a healthy
inner environment and care of people.
Characteristics of a “Commander”
Mode of impact: emotional and motivational impact.

Specification of the method: awakening of emotions, energizing, working with the emotional state
(including stress relieving, creating feelings of confidence) and individual motivation of a worker
(with its features).
Form of communication: personal example, agitation, reliable conversation.
Form of stating the problem: an emphasis on the emotional side of the matter and relationships,
formulation in the form of a request, a draft.
Perception of the employee: a living person with his/her weaknesses and moods, who is in need
of care and attention.
Valuable qualities: dedication and reliability.
Criteria of leader’s efficiency: love and dedication of workers.
According to Colonel, (2005) the commander is a person who points where he can best in-
fluence the progress of the certain campaign, the person who makes timely decisions appropriate
to his level of command. As a matter of fact, dilemma stems from the demands on his time from
the functions that all commanders are required to perform: firstly, leadership and, of course, com-
mand. Leadership tends to be defined in terms of the qualities a leader ought to possess in order
to motivate and inspire, his presence, his own personality and character. It is widely known that
command is more of a management function, which requires a systems approach. The balance
between the leadership and command functions will vary according to the phase of an operation
or campaign, the level, or size of the command being exercised, national doctrine and the means
available for information flow. At the lower tactical levels of command, and here, we generally
accept a divisional level as the top end, commanders are able, and in many cases required, to have
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direct involvement in the battle. Indeed, at the very lowest levels, and here, I mean, the company
and below, the primary function is to lead. That is to say, commanders can exert influence through
9
their personal example, inspiring those around them, and where their personal intervention at the
precise moment in time and space may be bound.
“Concern” Working Group Type
Horses harnessed to the chariot run faster than one at a time not for they cut through the air easily with joint
efforts, but for they are incited by the competition and rivalry with each other.
Plutarchos, an ancient Greek historian (46,127)
Co-individual type is distinguished for the minimized interaction between the work partici-
pants. Each of the workers does his amount of work and the specifics of the activity is defined
by individual characteristics and professional positions of each employee. Each of the workers
presents the results of the work done in a specified manner and in a particular place. Private direct
interaction may be practically missing and can be realized through modern means of communica-
tion, i.e. phone, computer networks, etc.). Only the subject of the work, which is processed in a
specific way by each worker, does unite different workers. As examples of this type of activity
may serve an individual transport of loads or an independent analysis of different aspects of the
same phenomenon by different specialists. (Human Resource Management, 2006).
“Concern” working group type is characterized by the orientation on the accomplishment of
the task. An emphasis is put on the desire to win. Team leaders appear to be solid managers and
severe/tough rivals. Success is determined by penetrations into markets and an increase of market
share. People are characterized with their determination and competence with one another. They
are characterized by a high initiative, patience, orientation on the result and individual achieve-
ment. Such specialists give priority to own goals and values, tend to develop their own ways of
achieving goals and are able to operate/act effectively in cases of intraorganizational competition.
This group type may have trouble organizing overall activities between different specialists who
know very well their own business, but are less focused on understanding the characteristics of their
colleagues, who are more concentrated on problems of their own activities than on the problems
of the team as a whole. As Badke-Schaub, Neumann, Lauche and Mohammed, (2007) suggested
most early experiment done on mental models concentrates on the investigation of individual men-
tal models, and it took more than 10 years until the concept of mental models was introduced to
team settings. Shared or team mental models (TMM) are characterized as knowledge form - belief
structures that are shared by the members of a team, which enable them to form correct clarifica-
tions and expectations about the task, and to coordinate their doing and adjust their behavior to
the demands of the task and other team members. The term team mental model is not meant to
only refer to multiple levels or sets of shared knowledge or just to an aggregate of the individual
mental models, but also to a synergistic functional aggregation of the teams mental functioning
representing similarity, overlap, and complementarity. As team mental models delineate both of
individual mental models and how they are shared or distributed within a team, this concept seems
very suitable to investigate how complex obstacles are solved inside of groups. Design problems
can be defined as specific kinds of complex problem-resolution. As a matter of fact, using team
mental model research to examine design problems might help to understand how the solution
finding evolves and how it is communicated and (implicitly) coordinated in a group.
Table 2. Characteristics of the main group types.
Group types
Clique Concern Factory Team

General actions are directed to
The consent with the
The free initiative The strong management Detailed discussions
general idea
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10 Group types
Problems are solved on the basis of

Preliminary agreement with Clear and concentrated
Individual creative activities Open interaction
the tasks and goals analysis
Leadership is based on Leadership is based on
Shared views on the
Presence of authority and Co-interaction with relations
direction of common Power and status
acceptance and collaboration
movement
Chronic problems are solved with the help of
Strengthening the A more tense discussion
Ignoring the problems and The search for creative
administration and following and new ways of solving
refusing their discussions approaches
the rules the problem
Daily work
Depends on the stability of
Is done with the least Is done and changed for Is constantly checked for
the course and the activity
intervention into it everybody in a different way further enhancement
of the authorities
Roles and responsibilities
Are realized with nearly Result in a way as people Are put down and made Are separated and replaced
automatically accuracy do firmer if necessary
Desires and interests of individuals are
Evaluated according to the
Considered more important Coordinated with the
degree of their coordination Subject to the interests of
than the interests of the interests of the organization
with the goals of the the organization
organization with the help of agreement
organization
Administration
Assigns the context and Gives people the Determines the leaders
Acts as a catalyst of group
the goal minimizing the opportunity to act as they and possible directions of
interaction and cooperation
intervention consider it necessary development
Disagreements and conflicts
Are productive
Reflect the fact of Are threats to the stability of
manifestations of individual Are vital for the effective
separation of overall goals the organization and impede
characteristics and solution of the problem
and tasks the work process
differences
Communication is
Changed according
Limited and unimportant to intensity and is not Formal and subject to rules Is open and saturated
predictable
Information and data (as a rule) are
Evaluated as overall
Used for individual Controlled and an access to Obviously evaluated and
knowledge which shouldn’t
achievement them is limited distributed
be shared
Characteristics of a “Coordinator”
Mode of impact: beneficial exchange (you give me – I give you).

Specification of the method: economizing the benefits. Resources for exchanging the outcome are:
money, status, advance in career, fame, free time, etc.
Form of communication: agreement-contract.
Form of stating the problem: in a form а problem (as a contradiction between what should be and
what it is). The targets are linked to the employee’s personal goals.
Perception of the employee: active person with his/her personal goals who is interested in beneficial
game rules and tangible rewards.
Valuable qualities: independence, efficiency.
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Criteria of leader’s efficiency: high level of efficiency of each employee (“stars”), instructor’s
ability to seek/find resources and negotiate.
11
“Team” Working Group Type
Recently a special type of joint activities, co-creative type, has been singled out (Malinow-
ski, 1990). This type of organization of joint activity originated in the fields of science and art,
where the participants of a scientific or creative project created something entirely new and often
unique, which was impossible to create with available rules and technologies. Within such groups
a special type of activity is created/established, co-creation, when each participant of the process
is considered to be the equal creator of a novelty. The laws of creation process require recording
of everyone’s contribution, even the “craziest” one, as an opening may be created from the most
absurd idea during overall discussions. This type is characterized by a specific activity of each of the
participants in the process of interaction, especially the activity which improves one’s professional
competence through participation in joint activities. On the one hand, features of co-creative group
activities allow each participant to try different ways of activity, enrichen means of working with
that of other professionals and spheres of work. But on the other hand, the synergistic (enriching)
effect gives a powerful impulse to the development of the group which performs the activity. An-
other feature of this type is that the “traces” of individual contributions of each participant aren’t
fundamentally distinguished.
The peculiarity of the participation of each employee in co-creative type of activity is the fact
that the members of this team have the opportunity to work in completely different professional
positions, and perform a variety of collective roles depending on the task the group is facing at
that point. Therefore, these groups usually have a high flexibility and variability both of the staff
and the internal structure depending on the objectives and the conditions for their fulfillment. As
an example of this type of activity serves the work of creative teams, in which each participant is
given the opportunity to manifest himself/herself. Nonetheless, the goal of the group, the creation of
a new, culturally-valuable product, is achieved as a whole, (Human Resource Management, 2006).
“Team” working group type is a dynamic, entrepreneurial and creative work environment/
place. Here an emphasis is put on the development and acquisition of new capabilities. People
here are willing to improvise and take risks. In such groups leaders are innovators who prefer
experimenting. Success means continuous development to produce unique and new products and/
or services. The team encourages individual initiative and freedom.
Representatives of the participatory culture are characterized by a particular orientation
on professional development. It differs from the ambitions of the participants of entrepreneurial
culture. In this case, it is not so much about the deepening within the same problem or profession,
but about working in border areas of human activity. А professional opposed to a specialist is
even able to go beyond his/her specialty and work using the tools of other professionals, which
allows him/her not only to find the novelty, but also to deepen his/her understanding of the prob-
lem. People of this team type are oriented to cooperation with specialists from different fields,
to flexibility of changing attitudes and to individual development. The basic aim of such teams
is to acquire new knowledge, to create conditions for personal development, and to have respect
towards the rights of each work participant. Opposed to organizations with organic culture, here
it is impossible to solve problems with the majority of voices and to introduce the dictatorship of
the majority. Problems should be solved by the consensus and the final decision must necessar-
ily give the possibility for the realization of the legitimate interests of minorities as their rights
can never be violated. Team-member back and forth quality is proposed as a role-making invent
complementary to leader-member back and forth quality. Research results from a sample of blue
collar industrial workers show that team-member exchange rate adds to the prediction of job at-
titudes by leader-member exchange quality, and that team-member exchange quality differs orderly
between groups in dealings to the autonomy given teams by management and within groups in
relation to job attitudes. Team-member back and forth quality also forecast rated interpretation,
subject to the moderating effects of peer boost. Implications for role-making theory and research
as well as for the practice of team-based management, are discussed. According to Lahtero and
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Kuusilehto-Awale (2013) there are several types of leadership. One of them is known as strategic
12 planning and it is the first element of strategic leadership. It is essential, because of the predictabil-
ity of the environments being hard due to quick change. Strategic planning combines systematic
recapture and use of data to determine the direction for the long-lasting timeline. It is a mixture
of cogitating the future, analyzing the aims and evaluating the precedence. It is about ensuring
the feasibility and effectiveness of the organization with the means of mapping the direction for
future action. Strategic planning also embraces the creation of the organizational mission, vision
and strategies. Strategic planning is mainly useful only when it is connected in order to implement
the strategy. Strategic leadership has to focus on the objectives defined in the strategy, and for the
strategy to be operational, the work of the whole personnel has to be aligned with what is defined
in the strategy. Working in line with the strategy implies how the staff are induced to commit
themselves to the strategy and to put it into effect in their daily work. Strategic vision can only
be achieved by the attachment and loyalty of the personnel to it. The level of attachment depends
on how close and important the strategy implementation is perceived to be. If the strategy is not
opened in discussions and brought close to the practice, its significance remains superficial and
alien. This decreases the will to commit to the work. Comprehension and perceiving the entity are
therefore essential for launching the strategy to the field. An employer can take responsibility for
the development of their own strategic capacity only when they are conscious of the long-term
strategic direction and vision.
Characteristics of a “Superleader”
Mode of impact/influence: envolvement.

Specification of the method: inspiration by the aim, a professional challenge, a free choice, a com-
mon fate, professional opportunities.
Form of communication: coherence of actions, common consent with the distribution of respon-
sibilities.
Form of stating the problem: formulation of an ambitious and scaled goal with a professional chal-
lenge, the designation of its role in the development of an employee or of a company.
Perception of the employee: a person who is oriented in professional growth and is interested
in the possibilities of development.
Valuable qualities: creativity, initiative, learning intentions.
Criteria for leader’s efficiency: continuous development of workers, organization of a creative
team, which is capable of dealing with a completely new challenges.
Conclusions
An intent with this analysis was to review the literature on organizational culture and team
leadership and as a direction of training professional psychologists and tried to suggest a framework
that integrates existing team leadership research and describes the full range of ways in which
leadership can manifest itself within a team (Table 2). Though it should be noticed that “like any
typological approach, singling out these styles may possess its opportunities and constraints. Thus,
the major benefit of the typological approach is its quick and easy-to-use source of knowledge that
generates a precise and eloquent result. However, the weak point of the
typology is skipping fine details typical of everybody’s individuality. At the same time, the
study of a personality’s response to the changing environment has produced more new questions
rather than gave exhaustive answers to the initial ones. In particular, we believe that future research
should target the correlation of individual personal characteristics, styles of response to changes,
and such parameters of the changing environment as readiness of personnel, availability of re-
sources (Bazarov, 2007), scale of changes (Ross & Nisbett, 1999), nature of changes, principles
of corporate culture existing within the company.”
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References 13
Bazarov, T. Yu. (2012). Social psychology of instability within organizational reality. Psychology in Rus-
sia: State of the Art, 5, 271-288. DOI: 10.11621/pir.2012.0016.
Bazarov, T. Yu., & Shevchenko, Yu. S. ( 2013). The executive leader in the postcrisis era. Psychology in
Russia: State of the Art, 6 (2), 4-19.
Bazarov, T. Yu., (n.d.). Psychological aspects of an organization undergoing changes. Moscow: Aspekt-
Press.
Cameron, K. S., & Ettigton, D. R. (1988). The conceptual foundations of organizational culture. Higher
education: Handbook of Theory and Research. New York: Agathon, p. 356-396.
Cameron, K. S., & Quinn, R. E. (1999). Diagnosing and changing organizational culture: Based on the
competing values framework. Addison Wesley Logman.
Ross, L., Nisbett, R. (1999). Man and situation: Lessons of social psychology. Moscow: Aspekt-Press.
Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups, Second Edition Association for the Advancement of
Social Work with Groups (2013). Inc. Retrieved from http://www.aaswg.org/standards-social-work-
practice-with-groups
Colonel Shaun A. Burley British Army (2005) XI. Contrasting styles of command: French and German ap-
proaches during the 1940 campaign. Defence Studies, 5 (1), 138-150. DOI: 10.1080/1470243050009.
Lahtero, T. J., & Kuusilehto-Awale, L. (2013). Realisation of strategic leadership in leadership teams’ work
as experienced by the leadership team members of basic education schools. School Leadership & Man-
agement: Formerly School Organisation, 33 (5), 457-472. DOI: 10.1080/13632434.2013.813464qw.
Badke-Schaub, P., Neumann, A., Lauche, K., & Mohammed, S. (2007). Mental models in design teams:
A valid approach to performance in design collaboration? CoDesign: International Journal of
CoCreation in Design and the Arts, 3 (1), 5-20. DOI: 10.1080/15710880601170768.
Advised by Judita Stankutė, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Received: April 05, 2015 Accepted: June 25, 2015
Tahir Y. Bazarov PhD., Professor, Chairman of the Expert Council RPS, Member of the Presidium
RPS, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
E-mail: thbazarov@mail.ru
Vladimir S. Karapetyan PhD., Professor, Armenian State Pedagogical University after Kh. Abovyan, 17
Tigran Mets Ave., Yerevan, 375010, Armenia.
E-mail: vskarapetyan@mail.ru
Website: http://www.armspu.am/home/ln/en
Srbui R. Gevorgyan PhD., Professor, Armenian State Pedagogical University after Kh. Abovyan,
Armenia.
E-mail: gevorgyan_26@mail.ru
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14
THE INNOVATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL

CLIMATE: ITS SCOPE, STRUCTURE AND
PARAMETERS
Oksana Ye. Furman

Ternopil National Economic University, Ukraine
E-mail: prfurman@yandex.ua
Abstract
The research reported here was designed to investigate the notion of psychological climate. The study
presents the types of climate in organizations, namely, psychological, socio-psychological, organizational,
innovative and psychological and carries out their scientific analysis. In addition, it presents the author’s
understanding of the concepts of innovative and psychological climate and its integrated parameters
(psychological impact, educational communication, multi-motivation, positive and harmonious I-concept)
as multi-dimensional phenomenon of modern education. The approach used in the research is based on
the parallels drawn between the abilities and efficacy of human activity in certain geographical and psy-
chological climate conditions, thus climatic determinism approach was referred to.
Key words: system of education, socio-psychological and organizational types of climate, innovative and
psychological climate, climate parameters.
Introduction
It seems unreasonable to mention, but, in fact, the term “climate” was originally introduced by
the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the second century BC. For two millennia, “persisted
the idea that climate depends on location (inclination) of the sun above the horizon” (Бабиченко,
Барабаш, & Логвинов, 1984). In Greek, klima means inclination, in this case the earth’s surface
to sunlight.
In the early nineteenth century, Alexander von Humboldt noted that climate affects not only
the position of the sun and various properties of the earth’s surface, but has a significant effect
on the location and movements of oceans. Later, the term climate was improved and repeatedly
clarified. Currently, the term is mostly used to describe the general or average weather conditions
of a certain region, including temperature, rainfall and wind. According to A. Monin, “climate is
interacting parts of a single system, the atmosphere-ocean-land system or climate system. The initial
state of the climate system will, external conditions remaining unchanged, completely determine
its evolution in time” (Monin, 1986).
Humankind is aware of a “number of nearly constant variables which determine climate and
its change: 1) external or astronomical covering glow of the sun, axial tilt, speed of revolving of
the Earth around the sun; 2) geophysical, related to the properties of the Earth as a planet, namely,
the size and mass of the planet, the gravitational and magnetic field, internal heat sources, planet
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surface; 3) meteorological, with the mass and chemical composition of the atmosphere being the
15
most important ones” (Monin, 1986, p. 17).
At the same time, climatic factors, such as temperature, wind, radiation, humidity, atmos-
pheric pressure, and cloudiness significantly affect the patterns of our behaviour. In particular, it is
proved that “strikes are most likely in a very hot and humid weather without any winds blowing as
in such conditions we might witness increase in irritation, tension, aggression and so on. In chilly
climates mental and physical human activity is more active, while in dry and humid climate our
physical activity and mental concentration are much more complicated, and thus, a person acts in
a passive way” (Корсини, Ауэрбаха, 2003, p. 289). Consequently, specified relationships between
human and climatic factors confirm the soundness of the idea of “climatic determinism” (ibid.
289). Proponents of the latter believe that climate affects not only a person’s physiological and
social status, but his choice of the activities. Hence, for instance, increased or reduced performance.
On the other hand, climate research was introduced by Lewin, Lippitt and White in the 1930s
(Ashkanasy, Wilderom, & Peterson, 2000), which is viewed as nearly homogeneous units com-
prised of believes and perceptions with the consideration of the peculiarities of this homogeneity
occurrence (Reichers & Schneider, 1990, Moran & Volkwein, 1992).
Thus, climate issues are relevant not only in understanding the natural interaction in the sys-
tem “human - the world”, but in the psychological understanding of interpersonal and intergroup
ones where we deal with socio-psychological or organizational climates.
Analysis of the Latest Researches of the Issue
It is known that positive or negative atmospheres of interactions in the group significantly

affect the emotional relationship between people and the content of their work. “The favourable
or healthy climate” (Карамушка, 2003, p. 142) in the team accompanies technological progress
of society, because it solves the issue of social and psychological potential in humanity, creating
a culture of respect in relationships. In addition, it is a factor in the formation and activity of the
individual, a prerequisite for stimulation of a person’s creative and spiritual fulfilment. Amid its
important features are the pleasure of work, a positive attitude and understanding between people,
their unity, performance, stability, interpersonal and intergroup discourse, self-regulation and self-
organization, and creative atmosphere.
However, it is worth mentioning that yet L. Tolstoy admitted the phenomenon of “school
spirit”, A. Makarenko, analyzing collective, applied as required the following options a “style”
or “tone” and B. Paryhin, along with the term “climate”, sometimes used the term “spiritual at-
mosphere” or “spirit of collective”. Scientists claim that these are not identical. “The atmosphere
is unstable, constantly variable side of the collective consciousness, and the climate refers not to
certain situational changes in the mood of people, but only its resistant features” (Парыгин, 1981,
pр. 9, 10). In addition, climate is “a part of the socio-psychological space of an organization, its
psychological field” (Левин, 2009), which unfolds labour rights of a person as “bridgehead life
personality” (Парыгин, 1981).
Psychological literature operates by such climate concepts as psychological, socio-psycholog-
ical, organizational and others. The first one is described as the concept that justifies the emotional
mood, moral and psychological state of the person and is expressed through the communication
process. Through its action, personal and business relationships of team members, their values
and norms are displayed on the affective level. At the same time, the socio-psychological climate
(SPC), firstly, highlights the system of relationships between team members (reactions, social
actions), that is interpersonal or directly inter-relational. The latter is formed as “a qualitative
structure influencing livelihoods within a small group. In the group of 7-20 people there is SPC,
and in the group of 50-100 or more people interpersonal relationships are grouped into three to
five separate substructures” (Казмиренко, 1993, рp. 106, 107). The relations which exist between
them are examined by organizational climates (OC) that also depend on the processes in single
socio-psychological climates.
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Research Purpose
16
It appears plausible that the comfort and efficiency of the group work depends greatly on the
individual characteristics of its members. There is a wide scope of variables that can influence the
quality of the climate and its perception by the members. However, having considered all previ-
ously revealed aspects of climate, such as psychological, socio-psychological, organisational,
innovative-psychological, it appears reasonable to provide a conceptual description of the latter
from the perspective of its educational integration in the condition of current transformations in
this sphere. So far, the aim of the study is much predisposed by this necessity.
Moreover, the theme for the study is caused by multiple reasons, all of which will be briefly
viewed below. Innovative-psychological climate is a commonplace within social organisation that
is viewed as an integrated human activity. What is more, this climate influences the efficacy of
the human activity while having an impact on the level of human ability to be involved. Positive
climate leads to the scientific and technical progress within any particular society as it influences
human creativity and the quality of interpersonal relations. Finally, it results in the active personal
realization on both social and personal levels.
Methodology of Research
Many famous scientists pay attention to the study of socio-psychological and organizational
climates (Аникеева, 1989; Парыгин, 1981; Казмиренко, 1993; Карамушка, 2003). In most cases,
the authors define the first one as a societal and psychological phenomenon, which is formed through
interpersonal relations in small groups; the second is characterized as reflecting the structural and
dynamic properties of organizational environment, where people, sharing the same objectives and
combined in a large group, can implement their ideas and intentions.
Interactive approach to climate formation states that climate is maintained as an interaction
between individual and his surrounding or environment which is regulated by the peculiarities of
information exchange (Moran & Volkwein, 1992). In other words, interpersonal cooperation real-
ised in common conversations and shared activities influences the formation of common meanings
that, in its turn, has an impact on the comfort of team coexistence.
According to N. Anikeieva’s conception, relations in the psychological climate are formed
through the interaction of such methods as persuasion, infection, imitation and infusion that cause
apparition of group compatibility (maximum result at minimum psychological expenses) or in-
compatibility as a psychological phenomenon (pр. 5, 11).
“The structure of SPC displays covers relation to: a) each other, b) common interests, c)
the world (system of valuable personality orientations), and d) yourself (self-consciousness,
self-attitude and well-being)” (Парыгин, 1981, рp. 12, 13). B. Paryhin also notes that the SPC is
important in estimation of the overall emotional mood inside the collective. This position is also
shared by N. Kolominskyi and other researchers (Коломінський, 2000). B. Shakurov writes that
“the psychological aspect of climate is revealed in emotional, volitional and intellectual conditions
and group properties, although they can be fixed on the social side” (Шакуров, 1982, рp. 55-69).
“As for the socio-psychological aspect, it is demonstrated through unity, agreement, satisfaction,
friendship, and solidarity” (Коломінський, 2000).
A brief review of psychological and socio-psychological climates enables the support of B.D.
Paryhin (1981), L.M. Karamushka (2003), and N.L. Kolominskyi’s (2000) opinions which state
they should not be separated. This is evidenced by the fact that they cover processes of moral,
psychological and social conditions of people, as well as the relationship between them, and most
importantly, their overall emotional mood.
Similarly V.P. Kazmirenko (1993) notes that the SPC should not be identified with OC, as
the first one often depicts direct interpersonal relationships that are inherent in small groups,
whereas the second shows intergroup ones, although it considers interpersonal relationships.
This is a new methodological level and, according to this approach, both direct and indirect
relationships should undergo analysis. Thus, OC has its nature and “is reflected in the system
of three main parameters: socio-psychological space organization, information and business
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exchanges, ways and means to revitalize the elements of the organization at all levels” (Каз-
миренко, 1993, p. 108).
17
Thus, based on theoretical considerations of socio-psychological and organizational climates,
learning of experience of the fundamental comprehensive experiment in module-developing learn-
ing (Фурман, 1997), the term “innovative psychological climate” (IPC) is introduced.
IPC provides an exceptional learning environment, where realization of social activity of
participants of educational cooperation takes place and is reflected in the following of its basic
parameters: a) socio-psychological impact functioning in the context of social and cultural space
and time, b) educational communication as information, business, and self-sensual exchanges
and c) multi-motivation as a way of activation of students’ educational activity. In psychological
and pedagogical unity they define the development of positively harmonious students’ I-concept.
It should be stated that under the parameters followed by V. Kazmirenko, “those complex
or single features that, on the one hand, are properties of the analyzed reality, on the other hand,
can be used as variables of its measurement” are meant (Казмиренко, 1993, p. 81). In addition,
they are used to call the set of “... leading variables which allow ... to evaluate peculiarities of
the socio-psychological processes and the organizational climate” (Казмиренко, 1993, p. 129).
Parameters as characteristics do not arise spontaneously, without any reason. They are caused
by the factors which are “a condition, driving force of any process, phenomenon; factor; ... “ (Бусел,
2009, p. 1526). In other words, the above-mentioned parameters arise under such integrated cycli-
cally motivated factors: knowledgeable and situational, normative and motivational, value-active,
self-realizing and post-active. The latter is projected and activated due to module-developing cycle
periods as a separate group of psycho-pedagogical conditions and causes of educational common
activity of teachers and students. At the same time, “set parameters values and features ...” (Бу-
сел, 2009, p. 588) are called “criteria ...” (or even “a measure of truth ...” (Бусел, 2009, p. 588).
Thus, four criteria groups of IPC that explain mentioned above parameters were differentiated:
a) determination (feasibility, appropriateness), b) awareness (intentionality, meaningfulness), c)
efficiency (pithiness, productivity), d) coordination (balance, proportionality).
Results of Research
IPC functions in a module-developing educational system (Фурман, 1997; Фурман, 2001),

which, as a research project of innovative education, realizes a socio-cultural paradigm of social
development in Ukraine; aims at scientific and practical grounding of the school of future which
is represented by school of culture and spirituality; is viewed as the unity of a multidisciplinary
theory, vita-cultural methodology, social and psychological technologies and practice to experi-
ment in educational institutions; implements the requirements of ideas of culture and development,
principles of mentality, spirituality, evolution and modularity patterns, patterns of functioning of
didactic, educational, content and other modules; is based on the theory of educational activities
which explain the mechanisms of human appearance as a subject himself, personality, individual-
ity and the universe through immersion into social experience (Гуменюк, 1998; Гуменюк, 2003;
Гуменюк, 2008; “Модульно-розвивальна система як соціокультурна організація”, 2001;
Фурман, 1997; Фурман, 2001). A module-developing system is being gradually implemented in
Ukrainian schools as longitudinal socio-psychological experiment and, therefore, follows the laws
and methods of social engineering and prognostication.
It should be noted that IPC, which operates in this study, covers the content of socio-psycho-
logical (developmental cooperation arises positive emotions, moods, installations, motives, news
norms and senses are formed, different interpersonal relationships such as parity and development
are shaped and organizational climate (educational organization, where there are interpersonal
and intergroup relations). In addition, influence, communication, multi-motivation and I-concept
are reflected in the system of the above mentioned parameters. Under the innovation and psycho-
logical climate one understands a set of stable features that essentially define module-developing
system, affect the forms of the activity of participants in the group, and their emotional and moral
moods and intergroup relationships. Its structure includes: a) psychological impact and its classes
(cognitive and subjective effects, regulatory and personal interplay, value-individual interplay,
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spiritual and universe self-creation); b) educational communication with its aspects (communicative
18 aspect as information, interactive as business exchange, perceptive as sense creative, intuitive as
self-sensitive); c) multi-motivation with its scope and terms of deployment (cognitive motivation,
practical motivation, mental motivation, self-motivation); d) positively harmonic I-concept and
its components (cognitive: I-image, emotional and evaluative: I-attitude, action-creative: I-act,
spontaneously spiritual: I-spiritual).
According to B. Paryhin, one of the most common indicators of SPC is self-attitude, feelings
which surround the individual identity (Парыгин, 1981, рp. 13, 15). So, the central identity forma-
tion becomes I-concept of the person, who theoretically and empirically is being investigated in
this research as a fourth IPC parameter (Гуменюк, 2008).
The term “innovative psychological climate” in the research emerged, on the one hand, from
the analysis of practical activity which is based on the experience of experimentation in Ukrainian
schools. On the other hand, it has arisen from the theoretical combination of knowledge in different
subjects (psychological theories and concepts, for example), which made it possible to distinguish
its parameters. Thus, IPC is the phenomenon of multi-module developing training system, which
naturally occurs in the final stages of the experiment, integrates achievements of innovative and
educational, scientific and research activities of the comprehensive institution (school, lyceum) and
is forecasted by the theory of educational activities as a fundamental condition of implementing
innovative educational system.
Summing-up
Innovative and psychological climate, which keeps phenomena of influence, multi-motivation,

communication, I-concept, represents itself as a self-sufficient integrity of persistent features of a
school environment that are essentially inherent to module-developing education and cause vari-
ous forms of mental activity of students, their emotional state and moral mood, effectiveness of
interpersonal and intergroup relationships which develop rhythmically each subject, personality,
selfhood and someone universe. Simultaneously, innovative and psychological climate is actu-
ally available, complex phenomenon of school life which is influenced by several factors: 1) the
socio-psychological atmosphere, or “humanitarian aura” of society referring mainly to the socio-
cultural sphere of influence; 2) “school spirit” as the scope of educational parity interaction and
communication in the space of a comprehensive institution; 3) trust-business nature of interpersonal
relations which is mainly the scope of multi-motivation of educational activity of each participant
of the training; 4) special actively-reflective state of mind of a teacher and student as their positive
and harmonic I-concept.
In summary, the innovative and psychological climate, integrating both features of school
organizational climate and socio-psychological climates of educational groups and the content of
innovative-experimental activity of a certain school staff is an empirical phenomenon, which oc-
curs in the course of module-developing system and is meaningful as a constituent part of a high
parametric complexity.
A final implication for future research is how the efficacy of innovative and psychological
climate can be studied within the context of school functioning. These conclusions emphasise the
importance of educational surrounding scanning.
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Advised by Tetiana Shyriaeva,

National University of Ostroh Academy, Ukraine
Received: May 18, 2015 Accepted: June 22, 2015
Oksana Ye. Furman PhD., Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology and Social Work,
Ternopil National Economic University, Assistant Editor of “Psychologia i
Suspilstvo”, 1 /4 Lvivska str., Ternopil, Ukraine.
E-mail: o.furman@tneu.edu.ua
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BEYOND SOCIAL SKILLS: GROUP

DYNAMICS AT SOCIAL SKILLS
TRAINING FOR HIGH FUNCTIONING
ADOLESCENTS WITH AUTISM
SPECTRUM DISORDERS
Agnieszka Siedler
University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
Autism Diagnosis and Therapy Center “Navicula”, Łódź, Poland
E-mail: a.siedler@gmail.com
Abstract
The usefulness of group social skills training in Autism Spectrum Disorder therapy has been well estab-
lished. However, little is known about the group dynamics of this kind of intervention. The current multiple
case studies were conducted to demonstrate that, despite of the functioning specifics of participants with
ASD, processes associated with the dynamics of the group during group social skills training session may
be noticeable. Intervention groups consisted of fifteen adolescents and preadolescents with high function-
ing Autism Spectrum Disorders aged between 11 to 17 years old divided into three training groups. The
social skills training sessions were conducted on a weekly basis. The observation lasted for six months
and it included the formation of the group, the period of stability and unexpected changes. After each
group session, the therapists filled in a detailed report about the participants’ behavior and interactions
between participants. Collected data were carefully analyzed for group dynamic features. It was noticed
that adolescents participating in group interventions are susceptible to the influence of the group, take
different individual roles and are moderately sensitive to changes in the group structure. The influence of
the disorder characteristics on group dynamics was also observed. Although the results show that group
dynamics can be observed at a group training for ASD, the need for further structured observation should
be emphasized as a current study constituted the first approach to the subject.
Preliminary study: Benefits and challenges for participants beyond social skills obtaining are discussed.
Key words: autism, Asperger Syndrome, group intervention, social skills training, groups’ roles, group
dynamics.
Introduction
There are many different types of therapies for people with Autism Spectrum Disorders.
Most of them are intended for toddlers and younger school-age children. The therapeutic offer for
adolescents is not so wide, however, individuals still need diverse types of support. One of the
most popular interventions for adolescents are social skills training groups.
Social skills training sessions for children and adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders
(ASD) are usually the kind of group interventions (Andanson, Pourre, Maffre & Raynaud, 2011;
Marriage, Gordon & Brand, 1995; Castorina & Negri, 2010; Barry, Klinger, Lee, Palardy, Gilmore
& Bodin, 2003).
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The main characteristics of ASD are social skills impairment, lack of behavioral and think-
ing flexibility and restricted interests (Atwood, 2006; Frith, 2008), but they also lack of empathy,
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have a poor non-verbal communication and bizarre way of speaking (Wing, 1986). Asperger
Syndrome does not affect intelligence, but individuals are frequently perceived as less intelligent
in certain social situations (Vermeulen, 2001). Research taken in the field of social skills training
shows its impact on social skill improvement, but suggests poor generalization to non-clinic set-
ting (Barry, Klinger, Lee, Palardy, Gilmore & Bodin, 2003; Castorina & Negri, 2010). Training
that uses narrative techniques has an influence on failure-related and decision-related component
of action-control (Waligórska, Siedler & Waligórski, 2010). Unfortunately, there is no research
focusing on processes during the social skills group training sessions, that are not related with
training objectives. Trainings are perceived as an in-group learning of social skills, omitting pos-
sible therapeutic aspect of group intervention.
The group is being commonly defined as: two or more people who interact with one an-
other, share similar characteristics and goals, define their own standards, create group structure
and collectively have a sense of unity (Mika, 1981). Group training as a particular kind of group
also manifests most of the social group features. Furthermore, that type of intervention can also
have few characteristics of group therapy. According to Yalom (Yalom & Leszcz, 2006), group
therapy helps individuals through eleven basic factors: hope, feeling that “I’m not alone”, sharing
information, altruism, corrective recapitulation of the first family group, development of socializing
techniques, behavior imitation, interpersonal learning, group consistency, catharsis and existential
factors. Group therapy for adolescents with Asperger’s Syndrome improves the ability to develop
and maintain relationships with others (Longhurst, Richards, Copenhaver & Morrow, 2010).
Individuals engage in group interaction for many reasons. One of them is socialization and
the need to feel a sense of belonging, that is one of the most basic needs for an individual (Maslow,
1954). It predicts better physical health (Hale, Hannum & Espelage, 2005) and quality of life
(Jones, 2003). Sense of belonging also determines healthy child development (Filipczuk, 1980).
Motivating to engage in social relationships is one of the essential components of one’s well-being
(Cacioppo et al., 2007). Children and adolescents with High Functioning Autism (HFA) and Asper-
ger’s Syndrome (AS) also have the need of belongingness (Pisula, 2003), but for them it is much
more difficult to fulfill (Laursen & Yazdgerdi, 2012). But social interactions of people with ASD
are believed to be shallow as individuals are not able to accurately empathize with another person.
As a basis for the current study it was assumed, that beyond learning social skills that type
of group intervention may have also a therapeutic dimension, typical for other types of group
treatment. The purpose of this study was to observe what kind of group dynamics, group roles and
healing factors can be observed during the group interventions for adolescents with ASD.
The study was performed at Autism Diagnosis and Therapy Center in Łódź, Poland, an insti-
tution with over 1000 individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders under stationary or ambulatory
care. Due to the lack of detailed preliminary research, the exploratory case study design was used.
Three groups, differing in age range, were taken into account.
Participants
The sample consisted of fifteen children, ranging from 11 to 17 years old, all males. They were
divided into three groups: 11 to 12 years old; 13 to 15 years old and 15 to 17 years old. Participants
had a diagnosis confirmed by a psychologist and psychiatrist. Six of the participants had a diag-
nosis of High Functioning Autism and nine participants had a diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome.
Procedure
The social skills training group sessions were conducted on a weekly basis for six months,
from September 2013 to March 2014. Every session was conducted by two psychologists with
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multiple years of experience in ASD therapy and social skills training. Psychologists were assigned
22 to a certain group. The participants were recruited and assigned to the social skills training groups,
based on age and functioning level. After each session one of the psychologists created a detailed
report about each of the participants’ behavior and interactions with other participants for further
analysis. Psychologists used methods like role playing, informing, discussion, modeling, shap-
ing, social stories, behavior rehearsal, getting feedback, dyad exercises, games and coaching. The
main purpose of each session was to develop social skills. The participants were learning about
the social context of emotions, social perception, self-regulation, self-monitoring, social rules and
training basic social skills (like maintaining eye contact, respecting personal space, gestures) and
complex social-skills (like conflict resolution, dealing with teasing and dating). The content of the
training was adapted to the needs of a particular training group.
Analyses
Collected data were analyzed for the presence in the description of the behavior of the partici-
pants and their interaction characteristics of group dynamics and healing factors. Two independ-
ent judges, both psychologists, evaluated reports from social skills group session. The following
components were assessed:
•• Healing factors: hope, feeling that “I’m not alone”, sharing information, altruism,
corrective recapitulation of the first family group, development of socializing tech-
niques, behavior imitation, interpersonal learning, group consistency, catharsis and
existential factors.
•• Group roles: leader, observer, aggressor, disrupter, clown, scapegoat, yes-man, outsider,
toady and group conscience.
•• Stages of group development: forming, storming, norming and performing.
•• Characteristics of group dynamics, like: unspoken rules and norms, group coherence,
intermember relations, features of group identity, values, communication patterns,
conflicts and problem solving, spontaneous cooperation.
Observation Results
Group 1
The group consisted of five boys aged 11 to 12 years old. At the first session group members
agreed to the rules of behavior and mutual interactions at the group meetings and the objective of
the participation in social skills training. Boys were very agreeable and silent. Formal leader was
encouraging them to talk. They quickly realized that they had similar interest. Participants seemed
to be dazed by being in group interactions for the next 5 weeks. Three boys insistently tried to
get the attention of others, by clowning, speaking very loudly and showing-off. Two boys stayed
quiet and observed the group. They started to share their interest with each other a lot and getting
into the dialog. The psychologist, besides carrying on social skills exercises, tried to support them
in creating correct interactions and include all the participants in the discussion. One boy at the
beginning of the program was frustrating because of others inappropriate behavior, he showed low
resistance. Behaviors like rushing out of class, hiding under the chair and reversing his chair were
observed. After 8 weeks of sessions the group has created unspoken rule – not to upset this boy.
Despite the fact that the boys still like to make jokes they tried to monitor his reaction and stopped
before his tension level reached the breaking point. The group reached a stable point and for the
next weeks worked very effectively. Participants knew each other and felt safely. Parents reported
that boys didn’t like social skills training exercises, but they liked coming to the session because
of their contact with friends. This tendency was stronger for the boys with Asperger’s Syndrome
that with autism. About 12th week the psychologist started to observe creating of the alliance. Two
boys were always sitting next to each other, talking a lot. The psychologist even suggested them
to exchange their phone numbers, but it was a hard task for them. It took next four weeks until
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they finally did it. At 20th week three participants with Asperger’s Syndrome started asking ques-
tions about why they need to learn those things about emotions and social interactions while they
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don’t need them. They also felt that two other boys (absent that day) were different from them.
They tried to confront together with the group formal leaders. Differences and similarities in the
group were discussed and the participants agreed with jointly established conclusion: “They are a
little bit different from them, but we are also similar. Together we have similar difficulties and the
practice may help us”. The aspect of “not being alone” seemed to be important for boys as well
as the possibility of sharing information with each other. At the time when the observation ended
there was no informal leader in the group and no specific group roles.
Group 2
agreed to group rules and goals. Four of them had a diagnosis of High Functioning Autism and
one had a diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome. For the first four weeks one of the participants tried
to get other’s attention by giving early Christmas gifts and telling riddles. Such behavior did not
disappear till the end of the observation. The boy also started to bring his toy figures with him to
show it to other group members. Intensive approval seeking was observed. On the other hand, the
boy started to build the wall between him and the rest of the group by bringing books with him
to the sessions. He wouldn’t come into the classroom without the book and he had to have it near
him. Usually, after he talked about his experience and after he shared with others his interests he
started to read. He kept reading until someone asked him a direct question or until the group started
to play a game. Psychologists named his role in the group as an outsider. Changing his habit was
a long process that did not end completely until the end of the observation. What was achieved,
the boy started to put his book aside more often.
After four weeks group roles could be observed. The group had an informal leader, who was
making all decisions in a group, was very active in discussions, and was asking questions other
members of the group and including the formal leaders. Two other participants manifested a con-
formist attitude. They never asked the question spontaneously and were passive in discussions.
One last participant unfortunately was a scapegoat. Communicating with others was a little bit
harder for him than for the rest of the group. The group has not commented on their own mistakes,
however, made fun from a scapegoat. The psychologist had to put a lot of effort to change the
boys’ group role. After they succeeded the group reached the point of stable structure and could
work effectively.
Group 3
agreed to group rules and goals. All five of them had a diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome. The
participants tried to get each other’s attention for twelve weeks. They were also intensively testing
the boundaries set by psychologists. The following behaviors have been observed: inappropriate
language, raising difficult subjects, shouts, loud singing, attempt to hit the colleague, attempt to
hit the psychologist. In a very short period of time two opposing alliances were created. Two of
the participants competed for the position of informal group leader, each one had one friend on
his side. The fifth boy adopted the role of the oppositionist – he never agreed with anything said
on the group, he did not like the proposed activities and he did not opt on anyone’s side. This
structure was visible even in the way of chairs set up. Because of the conflict, it was difficult for
the group to focus on the exercises. The psychologist made an attempt to talk about it. Unfortu-
nately, it was very difficult for the participants to realize their emotions in relation to the group.
The conflict escalated to the moment one of the participants resigned. The boy’s parents were not
able to convince him to come back. As a reason, he stated that the sessions did not meet his needs.
After one aspiring leader left the group, the one left could take the role. The group life calmed
down and could focus on social skills. The participants in that group willingly shared information
and helped each other. They started to solve their problems from outside the group by discussing
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them with other group members. On the 16th week one of the participants said that he liked to come
24 to the sessions because of the group as a whole, because he liked to be in that group.
Discussion
The results of the observation were consisted with the assumptions. In all the groups features
of group dynamics and healing factors could be observed. Some of the participants received group
roles. The groups passed through various phases of group development. Healing factors like feeling
that “I’m not alone”, sharing information and behavior imitation were also observed. It confirms
the thesis of the group dynamics existence in social skills training groups. That kind of intervention
may be compared to group therapy. Previous studies focused mostly of differences between social
skills training groups and group psychotherapy (Lehtsaar, 1987), but did not include observations
of a group as specific as adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Despite the difficulties as-
sociated with a disorder, features typical for other group interventions could be observed.
It could be noticed, that less rated aspects occurred in the youngest group, aged 11 to 12 years
old. Possibly, younger adolescents are not able to engage in social interactions as much as older
adolescents. From the therapeutic perspective, for this age range probably it is probably better
to focus on behavioral interventions at group trainings than including group dynamic influence.
Older children, aged 13 to 15 years old and aged 15 to 17 years old were benefited not only from
structured exercises, but also from “being” in the group.
Conclusion
In this research it was shown, that in social skills training sessions, group dynamics can
also be observed. For people with High Functioning Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome that may
be another factor that helps them. Besides teaching social skills, the participants can also receive
social support, find an accepting peer group and work on their self-identity. Since presented study
was only a preliminary observation of a group process of this kind of intervention, there is a need
to conduct further research, including structured observation.
References
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lescents with Asperger syndrome: A review. Archives de Pediatrie, 18 (5), 589-596.
Attwood, T. (2006). Zespół Aspergera [Asperger’s Syndrome]. Poznań: Zysk i s-ka Publishing.
Barry, T. D., Klinger, L. G., Lee, J. M., Palardy, N., Gilmore, T., Bodin, S. D. (2003). Examining the effective-
ness of an outpatient clinic–based social skills group for high-functioning children with autism. Journal
of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 33 (6), 685-701.
Cacioppo, J. T., Amaral, D. G., Blanchard, J. J., Cameron, J. L., Carter, C., Crews, D., Quinn, K. J. (2007).
Social neuroscience: Progress and implications for mental health. Perspectives on Psychological Sci-
ence, 2, 99–123.
Castorina, L. L., Negri, L. M. (2010). The inclusion of siblings in social skills training groups for boys with
asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41 (1).
Filipczuk, H. (1980). Potrzeby psychiczne dzieci i młodzieży [Psychological needs of children and adolescents].
Warsaw: Publishing Institute CRZZ.
Frith, U. (2008). Autyzm: Wyjaśnienie tajemnicy [Autism: Explaining the enigma]. Gdańsk: Gdańsk Psycho-
logical Publisher GWP.
Hale, C., Hannum, J., Espelage, D. (2005). Social support and physical health: The importance of belonging.
Journal of American College Health, 53 (6), 276-284.
Jones, R. C. (2003). Sense of belonging and its relationship with quality of life and symptom distress among
undergraduate college students. Proquest, Umi Dissertation Publishing.
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Lehtsaar, T. (1987). Using psychotherapeutic methods in social skills training. Soviet Psychology, 25 (3), 83-91.
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Longhurst, J., Richards, D., Copenhaver, J., Morrow, D. (2010). “Outside In” group treatment of youth with
Asperger’s. Reclaiming Children & Yout, 19 (3), 40-44.
Marriage, K. J., Gordon, V., Brand, L. (1995). A social skills group for boys with Asperger’s syndrome. Austral-
ian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 29 (1), 58-62.
Maslow, A. (1954/1990). Motywacja i osobowość [Motivation and personality]. Warsaw: Publishing Institute
PAX.
Mika, S. (1981). Psychologia społeczna [Social psychology]. Warsaw: P.W.N. Publishing.
Pisula, E. (2003). Autyzm i przywiązanie [Autism and attachement]. Grańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psycho-
logiczne.
Waligórska, A., Siedler, A., Waligórski, M. (2011). Narracje osób z Zespołem Aspergera z perspektywy tera-
peutycznej [Narrations of individuals with Aspergers Syndrome from therapeutic perspective]. In: Dryll,
E., Cierpka, A. (Eds.) Psychologia narracyjna [Narrative psychology]. Warsaw: Eneteia Publishing.
Wing, L. (1986). Asperger syndrome: A clinical account. Psychological Medicine, 11, 115-129.
Vermeulen, P. (2001). I am special. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publisher.
Advised by Vincentas Lamanauskas,

Siauliai University, Lithuania
Received: March 09, 2015 Accepted: June 10, 2015
Agnieszka Siedler PhD Student, Department of Psychology, University of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Warsaw, Poland.
Autism Therapy and Diagnosis Centre, ul. Cedry 2, Łódź, Poland.
E-mail: a.siedler@gmail.com
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Dynamics of depression among

adolescents in secondary
schools in Bulgaria
Stanislava Stoyanova, Venka Petrova

South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria
E-mail: avka@abv.bg, veni19@abv.bg
Abstract
Depression becomes more and more typical for adolescence. The study of dynamics of depression dur-
ing the teenage years is important for differentiation of the most vulnerable periods for development of
depression in this age and to be pointed out some factors that could contribute to triggering, preventing
or recovering depression. This study of dynamics of depression was based on Developmental theories
of dynamics of depression that relate depression to some vulnerable age groups and on the theories that
relate dynamics of depression to one or more factors that trigger depression in different stages of human
life. Depression in Bulgarian high – school students was compared at the beginning and at the end of the
school year in a longitudinal study. 360 Bulgarian secondary school students from 9th to 12th grade were
studied twice - at the beginning of the school year 2013/2014 and at the end of this school year. Several
methods were used - Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, and Eysenck
Personality Questionnaire. A model of dynamics of depression at upper school age in Bulgaria has been
suggested. According to this model, depression slightly increases from the beginning to the end of the
school year being differentiated by the types of the schools at the beginning of the school year and by the
interaction of the types of schools, gender and grade at the end of the school year. Some of its correlates
(anxiety, extraversion/introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism) and social determinants (gender, school
grade, and types of schools) were found. The interventions focused on diminishing anxiety, neuroticism
(for example by meeting students’ expectancies) and psychoticism (developing empathy and altruism), and
increasing extraversion (better communication, social support) could be effective for diminishing depres-
sion throughout the whole school year. Motivating students for participating in more extra-curriculum
activities related to the students’ plans for further realisation in universities and workplace would be useful
for diminishing students’ depression as the experience of special education schools indicate.
Key words: adolescents, anxiety, depression, introversion, longitudinal study, neuroticism, psychoticism.
Introduction
Depression is an affective disorder that becomes more and more widespread among different
populations in different regions and in different age groups. One person could suffer from depression
several times in his/her life. It is important to try to find out if there are some patterns of develop-
ment and dynamics of depression during ontogenesis. The focus of this study is adolescent age
when people are vulnerable to many stress factors because of upcoming changes in their biological
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and social functioning that provoke different psychological responses. Depression could be among 27
the inadequate mental reactions to some internal and external factors.
Depression is among the phenomena that are clearly defined and whose nature is almost
undoubted, but whose etiology and dynamics are not enough known.
Definition and Symptoms of Depression
Depression is a kind of mood disorder characterized by at least 2 weeks of depressed mood

and loss of interest accompanied by some additional symptoms, different in number and content
for each type of depressive disorders: unipolar - major, dysthymic, not otherwise specified; or as
a part of bipolar disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, pp.317-318); mild, moderate,
severe, unspecified, recurrent, etc. (World Health Organization, 1992, p.100).
The additional symptoms of depression could be increased by tiredness, diminished activity,
reduced concentration, reduced self-esteem, ideas of guilt and unworthiness, pessimistic views
of the future, suicide ideas, disturbed sleep, etc. (World Health Organization, 1992, p.100). Other
symptoms of depression are negative attitudes, performance difficulty and somatic elements, such
as increases as well as decreases in appetite and sleep during the past two weeks (Whisman et al.,
2012), sad mood, hopelessness, weight change, retardation, and anxiety (Leserman & Koch, 1993,
p. 538). Hopelessness is typical for severe depression (Min, 2002).
Dynamics of depression is characterised by slow accumulation of more and more depressive
symptoms as a reaction to some environmental and biological factors.
Risk Factors for Depression
Risk factors have their crucial importance for the onset of depression. They could trigger
depression and delay the recovery.
Depression could be provoked by some important personal and/or social events. 44.8% of
373 Chinese adolescents from grades 7-9 had symptoms of depression 3 years after an earthquake
(Pan et al., 2013). Unhappy childhood increases depression (Joules, Williams & Thompson, 2014).
Some social – economic factors are potential triggers for depression. Children and young
people from low-income households or from families of high socioeconomic statuses, from ethnic
minority groups, from rural communities and from affluent families are potentially more vulnerable
to symptoms of depression (Joe, Joe & Rowley, 2009). Low financial status was related to both
susceptibility to depression and suicidal thoughts (Mojs, Warchol-Biederman & Samborski, 2012).
Asian-specific risk factor for depression is being foreign-born (Song et al., 2011) that indicates
some difficulties in one’s adaptation, strong support of in-group cultural traditions and possible
perception as being rejected by the other population.
The predictors of first- to sixth-grade Korean pupils’ depression were living in a disadvantaged
neighbourhood (Lee et al., 2012).
There are some cross-cultural differences in depression. The adults in six countries had a com-
mon symptom of depression – despair. Depression was higher in former Czechoslovakia, followed
by Sweden, Germany, Spain, England, and USA (Zung, 1972). Some other findings also rank the
nationalities concerning the experienced depression. Susceptibility to depression was higher among
students living in former Eastern bloc countries than in Western Europe (Mikolajczyk et al., 2008).
Hispanic teen students report more depression than Whites and African Americans (Robles-
Pina, Defrance & Cox, 2008). Asian students from 9th to 12th grades had a higher prevalence of
depressed symptoms compared to their peers from other ethnic and national background (Song
et al., 2011). About 20 million Americans suffer from depression each year (in Mental Health
America, 2013). 25% of Australian students using Facebook were identified as at-risk for depres-
sion (Skues, Banagan & Wise, 2014).
Other risk factors for depression are related to school. Early school retention increases the risk
of adolescent depression. Retained students versus non-retained students have lower self-concept,
lower grade points (school success) and higher levels of depression (Robles-Pina, Defrance &
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Cox, 2008). School absenteeism, inability to remain focused and complete schoolwork in a timely
28 manner could be related to depressive moods (Joe, Joe, & Rowley, 2009).
The predictors of first- to sixth-grade Korean boys’ depression were perceived less enjoyable
school life and worse peer relations in school (Lee et al., 2012). Chinese high school students from
Hong Kong from 14 to 21 years old who were perfectionists had higher satisfaction with life and
lower depression than non-perfectionists (Wang, Yuen & Slaney, 2009).
Some risk factors for depression are related to lifestyle and habits. Smoking and injury are
major risk factors for depressed mood among Asians and Caucasian teen students (Song et al.,
2011). Maladaptive coping is a risk factor for depression (Thorsteinsson, Ryan & Sveinbjornsdottir,
2013). Life style characterized by fears, anxiety, passiveness, learned helplessness, lack of realiza-
tion of own limits and turn for overload diminishes frustration toleration and facilitates depression
(Horney, 1997).
Depression could be related to health status, some illnesses. For example, adolescents with
allergies are at risk for experiencing higher rates of depressive and anxious symptoms than healthy
adolescents (Molzon et al., 2011). Overweight increases risk for depression in adolescence (Joe, Joe
& Rowley, 2009). Poor physical health increases depression (Joules, Williams & Thompson, 2014).
Young people face elevated risk of depression living with a parent experiencing chronic or
acute illnesses (Morley & Jenkinson, 2012).
A part of the risk factors for depression are related to some peculiarities of social relationships.
Adolescents had more depressive symptoms if their mothers experienced trauma and parented
with an authoritarian style (Leslie & Cook, 2015). Children with depressive parents feel guilty
of having caused their parents’ mood because of one’s imperfection (Riemann, 1961). Mothers’
rumination was related to higher depression of their children – adolescents in Iran (Jafari, Yousefi
& Manshaee, 2014). Family dysfunction or extreme care and concern from parents about children’s
study and their academic performance, higher academic pressure, poor relationship with others,
negative self-perception (Huang et al., 2009), and lack of social support (Thorsteinsson, Ryan &
Sveinbjornsdottir, 2013) are among the risk factors for depression in adolescents.
Asian individuals perceive receiving more maladaptive inferential feedback (not helping a
person to change his/her negative behaviours) from friends and family members than Caucasians
and African Americans that may facilitate depression (DeFronzo Dobkin et al., 2007). Depression
was higher among lonely Chinese students (Running, Ligon & Miskioglu, 1999).
Some personality characteristics make people more vulnerable for depression. Perceived
stress at school, at work is a risk factor for depression (Lee et al., 2012; Thorsteinsson, Ryan &
Sveinbjornsdottir, 2013; Joules, Williams & Thompson, 2014). Anxiety was among the predictor
of first- to sixth-grade Korean pupils’ depression (Lee et al., 2012).
Depression is higher among Chinese students with low self-esteem (Running, Ligon & Mis-
kioglu, 1999). Depression is related to self-appraisal - negative self-judgment of dysfunctional
beliefs (such as: I am a born loser; I am nothing if a person I love doesn’t love me) and low explicit
self-esteem (Phillips & Hine, 2012). Low self-concept (evaluative statements that students make
of themselves in particular areas, such as academic performance, physical appearance, social in-
teractions and athletic performance) is associated with higher depression (Robles-Pina, Defrance
& Cox, 2008). Self-blame and rumination were related with high levels of anxiety and depression
(Omran, 2011)
Theories of Dynamics of Depression
Some Theories Relate Dynamics of Depression to One or More Factors that Trigger Depression
in Different Stages of Human Life
The evolutionist or Darwinian view of dynamics of depression (Price, 2009) divides the
population into selected and non-selected - as sexual partners, territorial owners, etc. Once selected,
a person may later be de-selected. Depression has evolved for those in the social role of being
unselected and de-selected who enabled being unselected to contribute negatively to their social
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well-being (Price, 2009). According to the evolutionist view, depression could be possible at every
time of human life after feeling unselected or de-selected and its dynamics could be predicted on
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the basis of competitions one participates in.
Social ranking theory of depression (Storck, 1999) considers that depression follows submis-
sion and withdrawal.
Psychosocial class theory of depression (Storck, 1999) deals with depression as typical for
lower, under middle social classes caused by lack of resources, illness and instability. Higher
depression is associated with poor socio-economic conditions (Mozumdar & Roy, 2010). Dis-
ability statuses are related to change in depressive symptoms. Stable disability statuses increase
depression. The onset of disability stronger changes depressive mood than recovery from disability
(Yang & George, 2005).
Some studies on dynamics of depression relate it to childbirth and marital satisfaction. Mar-
ried couples in Finland (mean age about 30 years old) typically have similar levels of depressive
symptoms and a similar pattern of changes in depression in the period before child birth (3rd month
of pregnancy) and after child birth (till the child was about 2 years old). Spouses mutually influ-
ence each other with respect to their mood. They share some attributions and some life situations.
Spouses with a higher level of depressive symptoms were more likely to show a greater decrease
in them after the birth of the child when compared with those who originally reported fewer
depressive symptoms. The birth of a child could be motivating, leading to new and meaningful
activities. It may reduce some previously stressful factors, such as heavy workload. A high level
of depressive symptoms among the couples was associated with a low level of marital satisfaction
(Salmela-Aro et al., 2006).
The final stage of dynamics of depression is self-harm and committing suicide (Millard, 2013).
Psycho-Social Theories of Dynamics of Depression Deal with the Stages of Psycho-Sexual

Development
The young child recognizes the mother as the basic source of satisfaction of its needs and
the child realizes its dependency on his/her mother. If the mother is perceived as present and lov-
ing, the sense of own importance is formed. Unstable mother’s presence is related to a negative
attitude towards oneself, because of the lack of confidence that this individual is worthy of being
loved. This early experience leads to a future sense of inferiority (Adler, 1997). Parent’s hyper-
protection also causes child’s low self-confidence, because the child cannot express oneself, neither
become independent. When the sense of inferiority is strongly expressed, it could be followed by
the idea to live for the benefit of other people and to feel guilty when satisfying own needs. This
is the beginning of formation of individual depressive position that is accompanied by the fear of
independent existence without feeling the contact with the referent adult; dependency; the fear of
assertive and aggressive manifestations (Riemann, 1961).
Klein described ‘depressive’ position in the infant’s development in relation to separation
with mother’s breast after feeding. Later baby begins to integrate its fragmented perceptions of
its parents and has a more integrated sense of self. Ambivalent feelings (hateful feelings about the
loved object, prototypically the mother) lead to the sense of guilt. The term ‘depressive position’
refers to the experience, at any stage of life, of guilt and grief varying from normal mourning for
loss to severe depression (Klein, 1940).
Ego-state of depressive personality hates his/her Id-state that provokes the feeling of being
unworthy and despair (Klein, 1935).
The defence mechanisms of introjections and projection of aggression and anxiety provoke
fear of persecution that is the starting point of the following stage of dynamics of depression - the
manic position (Klein, 1940) called also the paranoid position (Klein, 1935). Depression is related
to sadness for the lost loved object. Manic position is related to defences from the bad persecuting
objects and it could result in a feeling of triumph related to considering oneself almighty and despis-
ing others. Normal development fluctuates between depressive and manic positions (Klein, 1940).
Depression could be overcome by means of feeling safety, following after internal recover-
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ing of the image of good parents, of a recently lost person, and own internal peaceful mental life
30 that had been disintegrated and vulnerable. A manic person had not been able to establish internal
good, positive objects in his/her early childhood (Klein, 1940).
Paranoid position in dynamics of depression is characterized by means of introjection of a
whole and real object, but paranoid personality failed to fully identify with this object or to maintain
one’s identification with this object, because of high anxiety and fear of persecution (Klein, 1935).
The difficulties in establishing relationships with referent adults in childhood are followed
by such problems in the future, fear of being abandoned and risk for depression (Riemann, 1961;
Horney, 2002).
Depressive personality could develop further sensitivity to the needs of other family members
and finding life meaning in solving emotional conflicts in family (McWilliams, 2011).
Depressive personality directs aggression to oneself in order to escape from denunciation as
unworthy of being loved. Defense mechanisms unconsciously form negative automatic thoughts
(based on logical errors, overgeneralization, etc.) that are among the basic factors for depression.
Wrong way of thinking deepens depression (Beck et al., 2003).
Development of personal depression maintains the idea of being guilty of all negative life
events. Depressive people are sensitive to criticism and emotionally vulnerable. They could dimin-
ish their depression and guilt taking care of others, being altruistic (Riemann, 1961).
Developmental Theories of Dynamics of Depression Relate Depression to Some Vulnerable

Age Groups
Depression affects all age ranges, especially the elderly and children (Wehner & Stoner,
2001). There are some data for prevalence of depression among high schools students in different
countries. Major depressive disorder is now one of the most widespread among adolescents with
the first depressive episode in late childhood or early adolescence (Shavers, 2014). Early child-
hood depression increases the risk of adolescent depression (Robles-Pina, Defrance & Cox, 2008).
About 11% of adolescents in USA have a depressive disorder by age 18 (Allison et al., 2013).
24% of the last-year high schools students in Laos were depressed (Phanthavong, Naphayvong
& Reinharz, 2013). From 33% to about 38% of adolescent Facebook users (more females than
males) had some form of depression (Moreno, Jelenchick & Kota, 2013).
About 100 Bulgarian high school students in Sofia from 8th to 11th grades were studied twice
in 1996 and 1998 as a longitudinal study – in 1996 they were in 8th and 9th grades, in 1998 they
were in 10th and 11th grades. About 300 different students from 8th to 11th grades were studied as
a cohort study in each of these years. Their levels of depression were stable (Botcheva, Feldman
& Leiderman, 2002).
The pupils studying at the secondary schools had higher depression scores than those studying
at the primary schools in China (Running, Ligon & Miskioglu, 1999). School age children are ten
times more likely to experience depression in their lifetime than three decades ago (Robles-Pina,
Defrance & Cox, 2008). Moderate and severe depression were more frequent in the age groups of
21-40 years old, but mild depression was more typical for 41-60 years old Nigerians (Shittu et al.,
2002). Depression is more typical for the people advanced in age - 50 years old and above (Wood
et al., 2010; Büchtemann et al., 2012; Bose & Neelakandan, 2013) than for the young people (Pat-
ten, Gordon-Brown, & Meadows, 2010; Wood et al., 2010; Cole et al., 2012; Tezvaran, Akan, &
Zahmaciog, 2012).
Hispanics aged 51 and older started with worse depressive symptomatology, but had a greater
rate of reduction in depressive symptoms within 11 years compared to Black and White Americans.
Middle-aged Black Americans had a higher level of depressive symptoms compared to White
Americans, but experienced a lower rate of increase over time (Xu et al., 2010).
Research on dynamics of depression among different populations in different countries re-
vealed the trend depression to increase again in old age, above 60 years old.
57.8% of elderly people in Nepal suffered from some form of depression, mainly lonely
women dependent on others for daily activities (Chalise, 2014). 49.8% of the elderly patients with
multimorbidities suffered from depression in South Africa (Stanners et al., 2013).
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Depression may worsen over a period of time and it is commonly comorbid with a chronic
disease. Depression produces one of the greatest decrements in human health when compared to
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other chronic conditions (Shafi & Shafi, 2014).
Dynamics of depression was studied among some occupational groups like physicians.
Depression increased irregularly from the beginning to the end of each intern year. Depression
frequency diminished from the first to the third year of internship among resident physicians
(Joules, Williams & Thompson, 2014).
When asked to think their nearest future, depressed individuals expected ambivalent or
negative cognitive, emotional, physical and socioeconomic consequences, but these negative
consequences were reduced in strength concerning the more distant future (Sarkohi et al., 2013).
Rationale of the Study
There are some research findings that indicate that depression becomes more and more
typical for adolescence (Robles-Pina, Defrance & Cox, 2008; Shavers, 2014). It is important to
be distinguished the different stages in dynamics of depression during the teenage years in order
to be specified the most vulnerable periods for development of depression in this age and to be
pointed out some factors that could contribute to triggering, preventing or recovering depression.
The objectives of the study were to be selected several types of schools and respectively – the
secondary school students from 9th to 12the grades to be contacted, as well as their parents and
school principals, school psychologists and some teachers, in order to be received their informed
consent for students’ participation in the study. Then - to be studied depression, anxiety, extraver-
sion/introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism at the beginning of school year, as well as and
social desirability as an indicator of sincere self-report and striving for approval. At the end of the
school year this process was repeated again in each grade. The results from two measurements were
compared reflecting the effect of school education, workload at school on dynamics of depression,
and the correlation between depression and some personality and socio-demographic characteristics.
The aim of the study was to be compared depression in Bulgarian high – school students at
the beginning and at the end of the school year, and to be found some of its correlates (anxiety, ex-
traversion/introversion, neuroticism, psychoticism, and social desirability) and social determinants
(gender, age, school grade, and types of schools), to try to specify the effect of school education
and workload at school on dynamics of depression.
One hypothesis of the study was that depressive symptoms at the end of the school year
would be more strongly expressed than at the beginning of the school year, because of more school
workload at the end of the school year.
Another hypothesis supposed that depression would be higher among more anxious students,
introverts, with higher neuroticism, higher social desirability and lower psychoticism. The third
hypothesis supposed the existence of some differences in students’ depression levels depending
on the grades and types of schools.
General Background of the Research
Longitudinal research on dynamics of depression was conducted at the beginning and at the
end of school year 2013/2014 in each grade from 9th to 12th. Comparisons were made between
several age groups of Bulgarian adolescents differing in their gender, grade, types of schools and
some personality characteristics – introversion/extraversion, neuroticism, anxiety, and psychoticism.
These personality characteristics were chosen because they were stable; anxiety often comorbided
depression (Altin et al., 2014); and the appropriate methods for their measurement were available
and standardized in Bulgaria.
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Sample
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The number of secondary school students from 9th to 12th grades in school year 2013/2014
was 6744 in Blagoevgrad, and 43281 in South-Western region of Bulgaria, and 132731 for the
whole country (National Statistical Institute of Republic of Bulgaria, 2014).
The needed sample size for a representative community study for secondary school students
in Blagoevgrad was 257 (confidence interval 6; confidence level 95%), and for a representative
community study for secondary school students in South-Western region of Bulgaria was 265
(confidence interval 6; confidence level 95%), and for a representative study for secondary school
students for the whole country was 266 (confidence interval 6; confidence level 95%), that was
computed by means of an online sample size calculator (Creative Research Systems, 2012).
360 secondary school students were studied twice in Blagoevgrad, South-Western part of
Bulgaria - at the beginning of the school year 2013/2014 (September-October) and at the end of
the school year 2013/2014 (May-June). They participated voluntarily. Informed consents from
their parents were received. The school principals also approved conducting this study.
The study was conducted in five schools selected randomly from the list of schools in the
region. At the beginning of the school year, they were from 14 to 19 years old. Their mean age
was 16.5 years old, SD=1.1 year. At the end of the school year, they were from 15 to 19 years old.
Their mean age was 17 years old, SD=1.2 year.
90 students studied at 9th grade. 94 students studied at 10th grade. 101 students studied at 11th
grade. 75 students studied at 12th grade. 205 studied at schools of special education such as language
schools and natural sciences and mathematics schools. 155 studied at schools of general education.
167 were boys and 193 were girls. A detailed distribution of social - demographic characteristics
of the participants in the study is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Frequency distribution of the secondary school students, according to

types of schools, gender and grade.
Grade
Types of schools Total number
9 10 11 12
Male 29 16 18 22 85
Gender
Schools of special education Female 18 40 35 27 120
Total number 47 56 53 49 205
Male 21 16 33 12 82
Gender
Schools of general education Female 22 22 15 14 73
Total number 43 38 48 26 155
Johanson & Brooks (2010) recommended at least 12 participants in a group to be studied as

it was the case with the group with the fewest number of members in Table 1.
Instruments
The Bulgarian version of Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale – SDS (Kokoshkarova, 1984)
was used twice – at the beginning of the school year 2013/2014 and at the end of the school year
2013/2014. It has 20 items regarding past 1-2 weeks answered on a 4-point scale. The scores on
items were summed, divided by 80 and multiplied by 100 to yield scores ranging from 25-100.
Scores were categorized as follows: raw score <40 or SDS index <50 - normal; raw score 41-47 or
SDS index 50—59 - mild depression; raw score 48-55 or SDS index 60-69 - moderate depression;
raw score >56 or SDS index >70 - severe depression (Kokoshkarova, 1984, pp.53, 59; Leserman &
Koch, 1993). Its Cronbach’s alpha reliability varies from .7 to .92 in different samples (Leserman
& Koch, 1993). In this Bulgarian sample of adolescents, its Cronbach’s alpha= .697.
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Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale showed accuracy in identifying nondepressed individuals

(Thurber, Snow & Honts, 2002). SDS discriminates depressed from not depressed, but its ability to
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measure severity of symptoms is doubtful. SDS is not to very sensitive to change after treatment
(Leserman & Koch, 1993). The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale is appropriate for screening
large population (Wehner & Stoner, 2001).
The Bulgarian version of Zung Self-rating Anxiety Scale – SAS (Kokoshkarova, 1984)
was used twice – at the beginning of the school year 2013/2014 and at the end of the school year
2013/2014. It contains 4 affective and 15 somatic symptoms of anxiety and fear. The scores on
items were summed, divided by 80 and multiplied by 100. A SAS index above 45 means expressed
anxiety and fear (Kokoshkarova, 1984, p.64). In our sample, its Cronbach’s alpha= .673.
The Bulgarian version (Paspalanov, Shtetinski & Eysenck, 1984) of Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire was used twice – at the beginning of the school year 2013/2014 and at the end of the
school year 2013/2014. Cronbach’s alpha of all its scales varied between .68 to .84 (Paspalanov,
Shtetinski & Eysenck, 1984, p.287). In our sample, Cronbach’s alpha of EPQ varied from .613
for Social desirability, .717 for Extraversion/Introversion, .724 for Psychoticism, to .838 for
Neuroticism.
EPQ was used to be found some correlations between extraversion, neuroticism, psychoti-
cism, social desirability on the one hand, and depression on the other hand.
Data Analysis
Data were statistically processed by means of SPSS 16.0 using descriptive statistics, Paired-
Sample T- Test, chi – square analysis, ANOVA, Pearson correlation, General linear model – Uni-
variate analysis of variance, and Linear Regression (Method Enter).
Results of Research
Most students had depression scores in norm (see Table 2).
Table 2. Frequency distribution of levels of depression.
Beginning of the school year 2013/2014 End of the school year 2013/2014
Levels of
depression
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Norm 241 66.9 243 67.5

Mild depression 85 23.6 80 22.2
Moderate depression 24 6.7 29 8.1
Severe depression 10 2.8 8 2.2
The secondary school students with some form of depression were about 30% of total number
of studied students.
There were not any significant differences (t|359|=0.632; p=.528) between secondary school
students’ depression at the beginning (M=38.76; SD=6.7) and at the end of the school year
(M=38.92; SD=6.74).
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Table 3. Crosstabs of levels of depression at the beginning and at the end of

34 the school year.
Levels of depression at the end of the school year

Mild Moderate Severe
Norm
depression depression depression
Norm N 223 12 3 3
Levels of
depression at the Mild depression N 16 64 5 0
beginning of the Moderate depression N 3 3 18 0
school year
Severe depression N 1 1 3 5
Most students had the same level of depression at the beginning and at the end of the school
year (r=.75; p<.001), but the variance was higher among the depressed students than among the
students in norm (see Table 3; χ|9|2=46.96; p<.001; Cramer’s V=.752).
There were not any significant gender differences in the secondary students’ depression at the
beginning (t|358|=0.64; p=.522) and at the end of the school year (t|358|=0.894; p=.372).
There were not any significant differences in their depression between the students in differ-
ent grades (9, 10, 11 and 12) at the beginning (F|3, 356|=1.08; p=.358) and at the end of the school
year (F|3, 356|=1.22; p=.302).
Table 4. Differences between types of schools in students’ depression.
N M SD F|1, 358| p
Depression at the beginning of the Schools of special education 205 38.12 6.94
4.333 .038
school year Schools of general education 155 39.6 6.3
Depression at the end of the Schools of special education 205 38.36 7.1
3.253 .072
school year Schools of general education 155 39.65 6.19
The students at secondary schools of general education were more depressed at the begin-
ning of the school year than the students at schools of special education, but there were not any
significant differences in students’ depression between the types of schools at the end of the school
year (see Table 4).
Table 5. Differences between types of schools in students’ levels of depression

at the beginning of the school year.
Levels of depression

Mild Moderate Severe
Norm
depression depression depression
N 149 37 12 7
Schools of special
education % within schools of
72.7 18 5.9 3.4
Types of special education
schools N 92 48 12 3
Schools of general
education % schools of general
59.4 31 7.7 1.9
education
More students at schools of general education had mild depression than the students at schools
of special education (χ|3|2=9.748; p=.021; Cramer’s V=.165) at the beginning of the school year
(see Table 5).
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Table 6. General linear model of influence of gender, grade, age, and types of
schools on students’ depression at the beginning of the school year
35
(main effects and interactions).
Type III Sum of Partial Eta

Source df Mean Square F p
Squares Squared
Corrected Model 1676.786a 21 79.847 1.868 .012 .104

Intercept 62520.967 1 62520.967 146.3 <.001 .812
Gender 3.838 1 3.838 .090 .765 <.001
Grade 138.005 2 69.003 1.614 .201 .009
Age 311.137 4 77.784 1.820 .125 .021
Types of schools 231.863 1 231.863 5.425 .02 .016
gender * types of schools 66.326 1 66.326 1.552 .214 .005
Error 14447.189 338 42.743
Total 556919.000 360
Corrected Total 16123.975 359
a. R Squared = .104 (Adjusted R Squared = .048)
Only values >0 are indicated in the table.
At the beginning of the school year, only the type of schools differentiated the students in
their depression (see Table 6).
Table 7. General linear model of influence of gender, grade, age, and types of
schools on students’ depression at the end of the school year (main
effects and interactions).
Type III Sum of Partial Eta

Source df Mean Square F p
Squares Squared
Corrected Model 1733.695a 29 59.783 1.352 .111 .106

Intercept 161315.061 1 161315.061 364.7 <.001 .917
Gender 2.784 1 2.784 .063 .802 <.001
Grade 93.124 3 31.041 .702 .552 .006
Age 32.158 4 8.039 .182 .948 .002
Types of schools 86.364 1 86.364 1.953 .163 .006
gender * grade 276.457 3 92.152 2.083 .102 .019
gender * age 351.113 4 87.778 1.985 .097 .023
gender * types of schools 28.008 1 28.008 .633 .427 .002
grade * types of schools 147.077 3 49.026 1.108 .346 .010
age * types of schools 102.017 4 25.504 .577 .680 .007
gender * grade * types of schools 260.882 1 260.882 5.898 .016 .018
gender * age * types of schools .006 1 .006 <.001 .991 <.001
Error 14595.805 330 44.230
Total 561552.000 360
Corrected Total 16329.500 359
a. R Squared = .106 (Adjusted R Squared = .028)
Only values >0 are indicated in the table.
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At the end of the school year, the gender, grade and the types of schools interacted to dif-
36 ferentiate the students in their depression (see Table 7). The highest scores on depression had
girls in 11th grade at schools of special education, followed by the girls in 9th grade at schools of
general education (see Table 8). The lowest scores on depression had girls in 10th and 12th grades
at schools of special education, boys in 11th grade at schools of special education, and boys in 10th
grade at schools of special education.
At the end of the school year, the gender, grade and the types of schools interacted to differ-
entiate the students in their depression. There was a trend the boys in schools of special education
to have the highest depression in 12th grade; the girls in schools of special education to have the
highest depression in 11th grade; the boys and the girls in schools of general education to have
the highest depression in 9th grade (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Mean level of depression at the end of the school year among
secondary school students with different gender, grade and type of
schools.
Table 8. Mean scores on depression of the secondary school students at the

end of the school year, according to types of schools, gender and
grade.
Grade
Types of schools
9 10 11 12
Male 38.139 37.467 36.971 38.975

Schools of special education Gender
Female 38.611 34.737 45.307 35.868
Male 40.750 39.875 40.400 39.500
Schools of general education Gender
Female 43.107 40.535 38.667 38.722
Note: The highest mean scores on depression are bolded. The lowest mean scores on depression are in italic.
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Table 9. Correlation and Regression coefficients between Depression scores

(dependent variable) and scores on Extraversion, Neuroticism,
37
Psychoticism, and Social desirability (predictors) at the beginning of
the school year.
Depression at
Correlation
R=.548; R2=.3; F=30.355; p<.001 the beginning of B Beta T p
coefficients
the school year
Anxiety at the beginning of the r .301

.187 .153 3.207 .001
school year p <.001
Extraversion at the beginning of r -.258
-.259 -.13 -2.79 .006
the school year p <.001
Neuroticism at the beginning of the r .425
.417 .324 6.697 <.001
school year p <.001
Psychoticism at the beginning of r .318
.479 .263 5.485 <.001
the school year p .000
Social desirability at the beginning r -.008
.338 .086 1.822 .069
of the school year p .883
At the beginning of the school year, higher depression was related to higher anxiety, introver-
sion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (see Table 9).
Table 10. Correlation and Regression coefficients between depression scores

(dependent variable) and scores on Extraversion, Neuroticism,
Psychoticism, and Social desirability (predictors) at the end of the
school year.
Depression
Correlation at the end of
R=.51; R =.26; F=24.844; p<.001
2
B Beta T p
coefficients the school

year
Anxiety at the end of the school r .370

.29 .24 4.861 <.001
year p <.001
Extraversion at the end of the r -.222
-.264 -.121 -2.486 .013
school year p <.001
Neuroticism at the end of the r .237
.389 .286 5.808 <.001
school year p <.001
Psychoticism at the end of the r .403
.212 .122 2.527 .012
school year p <.001
Social desirability at the end of the r .034
.013 .004 .081 .936
school year p .517
At the end of the school year, higher depression was related again to higher anxiety, intro-
version, neuroticism, and psychoticism (see Table 10). These are the same correlations as at the
beginning of the school year.
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38 Type of school &

Neuroticism gender & grade
Type of school Psychoticism
Boys and girls, 9 grade,

general education
General education
school Girls, 11 grade,
special education
Special education
school Depression
Boys, 12 grade,
END OF
BEGINNING OF special education
SCHOOL
SCHOOL YEAR
YEAR
Anxiety Introversion
Figure 2: Model of dynamics of depression at upper school age in Bulgaria.
Figure 2 presents the dynamics of depression and its relationships with some personality and
social determinants in secondary school students. This model resulted from the research findings.
Every factor that was found to influence on secondary students’ depression or to differentiate
adolescents’ depression was included in Figure 2. The dynamics of depression was presented on
a continuum form the beginning to the end of the school year. Depression slightly increases from
the beginning to the end of the school year being differentiated by the types of the schools at the
beginning of the school year and by the interaction of the types of schools, gender and grade at
the end of the school year.
Discussion
This study of dynamics of depression was based on the one hand on Developmental theories
of dynamics of depression that relate depression to some vulnerable age groups (in this case –
adolescent age with each grade from 9th to 12th as a different age group). This study of dynamics
of depression was based on the other hand on the theories that relate dynamics of depression to
one or more factors that trigger depression in different stages of human life. The factors that were
the focus of this study on dynamics of depression could be considered to a certain degree in the
scope of psychosocial class theory of depression (Storck, 1999), because of the different cognitive,
social and personal resources available at the beginning and the end of the school year.
The first hypothesis that depressive symptoms at the end of the school year would be more
strongly expressed than at the beginning of the school year was not supported by the research find-
ings. The studied students did not differ significantly in their depression scores at the beginning
and at the end of the school year, but depressive scores at the end of the school year were slightly
higher than at the beginning of the school year.
Secondary school students’ anxiety also did not change between the beginning and the end
of the school year (Petrova, 2013).
At the beginning of the school year, the students need some period to adapt to school environ-
ment after the long holidays. It is possible that the adaptation of the students in different types of
schools to occur in different pace. The students in special education schools might have returned
to school with more readiness and academic motivation than the students in general education
schools who were slightly more depressed at the beginning of the school year. Enhanced motiva-
tion for study could be related to more positive attitude towards educational process. The students
in the special schools could have more possibilities to study their preferred areas than the students
in general education schools.
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During the school year, the workload does not seem to influence on the biggest part of sec-
ondary school students to a degree to lose their energy and to become more depressive, neither
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anxious. Anxiety and school successfulness (students’ grade points) were not related (Petrova, 2013).
Therefore, it is less probable low academic success to provoke higher anxiety among Bulgarian
secondary students, and higher depression related to it. A further research on school success and
depression should be conducted.
The second hypothesis that supposed that depression would be higher among more anxious
students, introverts, with higher neuroticism, higher social desirability and lower psychoticism was
confirmed partly. Both at the beginning and at the end of the school year, higher depression was
related to higher anxiety, introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (not lower psychoticism).
Higher psychoticism means loneliness, and distance in relationships (Paspalanov, Shtetinski &
Eysenck, 1984) that could be accompanied with depression. On the other hand, higher depression
leads to alienation.
Depression and anxiety were comorbid in 28.7% of Chinese adolescents (Pan et al., 2013).
The close relation between depression and anxiety was found also in Bulgarian adolescent sample.
The positive correlation between depression and anxiety could be explained by the finding that
depression and anxiety are due to the same genetic factors, but different environment specifies the
type of the manifested disease (Kendler et al., 1992; McGue & Irons, 2013).
No significant correlation was found between students’ depression and social desirability.
The striving for receiving other people’s approval could maintain the interest in them, and also
it could create some tension in the person who plays a role instead of being authentic. These two
aspects of social desirability related to depression could balance each other.
The third hypothesis about some differences in students’ depression levels depending on the
grades and types of schools was supported partly. More students at schools of general education
had mild depression than the students at schools of special education at the beginning of the school
year, but there were not any significant differences in students’ depression between the types of
schools at the end of the school year. The secondary school students in both types of schools were
adapted to the school environment and were interested in the upcoming summer holidays at the
end of the school year. This finding suggests that secondary school students’ depression could be
more strongly related to extra-school factors than to school environment.
One possible explanation for differentiation of depression depending on the interaction of
gender, grade and the types of schools at the end of the school year is that the students in general
education schools are more disappointed with their type of school during the start of their edu-
cation, but later they become more satisfied, while the students in special education schools are
more exhausted at the end of their education in school. Besides, more students in special education
schools plan to apply for university admission exams that have increased their workload.
The start of secondary school education in general schools is 9th grade, while the students in
special education schools in Bulgaria start their education in 8th grade and their adaptation period
to the type of school has already been finished during the period of conducting this study.
Gender could interact with the grade and the types of schools at the end of the school year,
because there are some research findings that women are more often depressed than men (Marsh,
1989; Wehner & Stoner, 2001). Females with depression outnumber males in adolescence and are
equal in number during childhood (Allison et al., 2013). One more finding specified that urban
Hispanic female adolescents had more depressive symptoms than urban Hispanic male adolescents
(Robles-Pina, Defrance & Cox, 2008). A specific trend in Bulgarian sample was that gender did
not influence secondary students’ depression independently, but in interaction with the grade and
the types of schools.
The interaction between gender and grade was not statistically significant in China (Run-
ning, Ligon & Miskioglu, 1999). No other studies have been focused on the effect of the types of
schools for students’ mental health.
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Conclusions
40
This study established a relatively stable dynamics of depression in Bulgarian secondary
school students as Botcheva, Feldman and Leiderman (2002) did, but this study differentiated the
role of the types of schools for depression at the beginning of the school year, and the interaction
between gender, grade and types of school at the end of the school year, as well as some stable
personality characteristics - anxiety, introversion, neuroticism and psychoticism – being constant
determinants of depression during the whole school year.
The necessity of further studies that explain the influence of more factors on students’ depres-
sion has been already indicated, for example concerning relationship between students’ success and
depression. Taking into account the peculiarities of the age group, it would be useful to be studied
the link between some personality traits and depression, as well as the level of depression depend-
ing on peer relationships. Such findings would be important for psychoprophylaxis of depression.
Early diagnostics and psychoprophylaxis of the depressive trends in personality development is
important for adult mental health.
The model of depression in secondary school age could be useful for teachers and school
psychologists, because it points out some risk periods in upper school age and some risk groups
vulnerable to depression.
Longitudinal studies as this study have been conducted rarely, but they give the possibility to
study the dynamics of development of one or more phenomena and to reveal some important fac-
tors that influence on them at different time periods. A longer time period for further longitudinal
studies, their repetition more than twice, bigger sample size, including wider age scope, could be
more useful in revealing the dynamics of depression.
Research of depression in adolescence permits to clarify the negative impact of depression
on some cognitive processes. It is important dynamics of depression to be studied in adolescent
age – the period of starting intimacy relationships and psychological vulnerability – in order to
be developed some interventions for improving health and social functioning. Early detection of
depression could facilitate treatment efforts among children and adolescents.
There are different possibilities for diminishing depression – group therapy, including
cognitive behavioural therapy, music therapy, relaxation training; increasing knowledge about
depression in the school curriculum, screening for depression in school age, school and family
focused interventions; social internet use, social support; physical activity, etc. One possibility
for prevention of depression is enhancing self-esteem, permitting independence and autonomy in
making one’s choices. Spending time on preferred activities could enhance positive emotions and
diminish depression.
There are a lot of possibilities for influencing on dynamics of depression. This study indicates
that interventions focused on diminishing anxiety, neuroticism (for example by meeting students’
expectancies) and psychoticism (developing empathy and altruism), and increasing extraversion
(better communication, social support) could be effective for diminishing depression throughout
the whole school year. Motivating students, participating in more extra-curriculum activities re-
lated to the students’ plans for further realisation in universities and workplace would be useful for
diminishing students’ depression as the experience of special education schools indicate.
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Advised by Laima Railienė,

Siauliai University, Lithuania
Stanislava Stoyanova PhD, Professor, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad,

Bulgaria.
E-mail: avka@abv.bg
Website: https://www.swu.bg/?lang=en
Venka Petrova PhD. Student, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria.
E-mail: veni19@abv.bg
ISSN 2029-8587
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CORRELATION OF WELL-BEING WITH

RESILIENCE AND AGE
Guna Svence, Maris Majors

Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
E-mail: guna.svence@rpiva.lv, maris.majors@rpiva.lv
Abstract
Resilience and positive thinking, resilience and optimism, kindness as value could be the factors which
could impact the future of our humanity and Earth as well as health and welfare of society.
There is an active process of research in the positive psychology carried out in Latvia within the last ten
years. The most important category of positive psychology is resilience and well-being. A lot of work
has been done regarding adaptation of the concept of well-being and resilience in Latvia. There is a
group of young researchers (master level students) who have made a contribution to adaptation of the
concept of resilience and well-being in the science of psychology in Latvia at Riga Teacher Training
and Education Management Academy (RTTEMA). A group of professors have recently made a joint
research, where different samples of adults are demonstrated among the Latvian population in this
article. The idea of this research is to analyse the collected secondary data on different groups of adults
concerning correlation between the aspects of well-being and resilience.
The aim of the research is to investigate the dimension of well-being in cognitive, eudaimonistic,
hedonistic, interpersonal and spiritual (transcendent) relationship with resilience indicators - self-
perseverance, self-reliance, acceptance of life, as well as the relevance of well-being indicators to age.
One statement of this analysis was the hypothesis about the age as a factor which predetermines de-
velopment of well-being and resilience.
Methods- 1) Questionnaire on well-being (Majors, Majore, Svence, 2009), 2) Resilience scale, RS
(Wagnild, Young, 1993), linguistically adapted by I. Bērziņa, G. Svence, 2011), 3) correlation and
hierarchical regression analysis of the secondary data.
Questions of the research:
1) what kind of correlation does exist between the indicators of well-being and resilience?
2) which well-being indicators predict these resilience indicators?
3) is there any correlation between the age and well-being?
A data analysis is made in two parts within the framework of this research. Part 1 is dedicated to the
examination of the research questions: 1) what kind of correlation does exist between the indicators
of well-being and resilience? and 2) which well-being indicators predict these resilience indicators?,
people of the Latvian population aged from 16 to 65 years were selected, 28.3% of men (N=184,
M=32.1, SD=11,0 years), which was made using the secondary data of two studies (Madžule, 2013;
Tauriņa, 2013). Part 2 of the research deals with the examination of the research questions 3) is there
any correlation between the age and well-being?, people aged from 16 to 65 years were chosen, 24.5%
ISSN 2029-8587 Guna SVENCE, Maris MAJORS. Well-being correlation with resilience and age
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of men (N=351, M=34.4, SD=11.5), which was made using the secondary data of three studies (Majors
46
& Majore, 2009; Madžule, 2013; Tauriņa, 2013).
It was found out, that the indicators of well-being have a direct and a rather close correlation with the indi-
cators of resilience which provided the answer to the research question, what kind of correlation between
the indicators of well-being and resilience exists. The indicators of the well-being dimension indicators
have a little or rather close correlation with the parameters of the resilience dimension(0.29<r<0.58).
It was found out, that well-being is more predicted by self-reliance of the resilience indicator, which
provided the answer to the research question, which well-being indicators predict these resilience
indicators. It was found out, that the dimensions of well-being do not correlate with age group in the
statistical sense, but only some subdimensions of the purposefulness of well-being in life, perception
and transcendence correlate with age at the trend level, providing the answer to the research question,
whether there is a correlation between the age and well-being, resilience and age group.
Key words: resilience, resilience indicators- self– reliance, self-perseverance, acceptance of life,
well-being, well-being indicators - cognitive, eudaimonistic, hedonistic, interpersonal and spiritual
(transcendent), age.
Introduction
The topicality of the research is related to the adaptation of a new concept of “well-being”
and “resilience” in the Latvian sample in a linguistic and psychometric sense. The concept of
well-being was adapted at the level of content and in the psychometric sense in cooperation of the
two authors of this article in 2007 and 2008 (Svence, Majors, 2009, as mentioned above Svence,
2009). It has been included in the edition of Positive Psychology (Svence, 2009): „..Tradition-
ally, up to now, the concept of well-being was translated from English as a sense of well-being
of the subjective life or shortly a sense of well-being or the subjective well-being. The concept of
the subjective well-being traditionally includes the idea that represents the optimal experience,
optimal self-feeling, life satisfaction and self-evaluation. It was offered to translate the concept
of well-being as well-being of life.” The substantiation – the research conducted by M. Majors,
L. Majore and G. Svence, related to the establishment of the well-being survey in Latvia, as
a part of the definition categories and psychometric validity, may be observed in this article.
It is known (as mentioned by Svence, 2009), that the term happiness, and satisfaction
with life was used in the 60-ies of the 20th century, but it was created after as a concept of a
subjective sense of well-being in the initial period of positive psychology, but afterwards, when
it was found out that people in all cultures do not associate well-being only with pleasure or
pleasant feelings, the term psychological well-being was established, which was affected by
the studies of C. Ryff (C.Ryff, 1998, as mentioned by Svence, 2009) on the effectiveness of the
correlations of a personality`s satisfaction with life and autonomy, aims of life and their sense
of mastery. This approach was associated with the eudaimonistic approach in the interpretation
of well-being. You can find the term “eudaimonistic well-being”, which was used in relation to
well-being, standing for the idea that people who have high satisfaction concerning the degree
of their realization of their autonomy, self-effectiveness, mastery, aims of life, have a high
eudaimonistic well-being.
The positive psychologists still consider the general conception of well-being as a sophisti-
cated or complex, i.e., consisting of a number of indicators even after the seven positive European
psychology congresses, having published dozens of positive psychology books and hundreds
of scientific studies. It is a phenomenon that is controversial due to its subjective nature (point
of view from Svence, 2015).
That is why, the long-term research was carried out on the validity of the idea of well-being
and its correlation to other positive psychology phenomena and the resilience phenomenon in
this article.
Human development is a critical component of the adaptation and resilience that character-
izes the ability of people to adapt to crisis situations (Baltes, Carstensen, 1996; Baltes, Staudinger,
Guna SVENCE, Maris MAJORS. Well-being correlation with resilience and age ISSN 2029-8587
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Lindenberger, 1999; Filipp, 1996, as mentioned by Cross S.E., et al, 2003). The personal well-
being throughout life may be improved by working with personal development factors.
47
It is proved that resilience helps to resist against distress (Beasley, Thompson, Davidson,
2003; Mathis, Lecci, 1999, as mentioned by Cross, 2003), it may help to functionally adapt to
changes or difficulties. You have to understand the mechanisms, how resilience is affected by
the changes of personal development and well-being development factors, in order to increase
resilience.
As it is shown by several studies (Klohnen, 1996; Werner, Smith, 1992, Klohnen, 1996,
Tugade, Frederickson, 2004, Masten, Reed, 2002, Tauriņa, 2012), there is a close correlation
between the well-being and resilience indicators (r=0,709**, as mentioned by Tauriņa, 2013),
a mathematical and statistically significant correlation is found between the common indica-
tor of resilience and eudaimonistic well-being (self-acceptance, positive relations with others,
autonomy, the ability to affect the environment and society, purposefulness in life, personal
growth and a sense of belonging, authenticity) and general well-being in the age group of early
maturity. It has been proved, that the people having high resilience are completely confident
about their future, as well as optimistic that they have the ability to affect the environment and
the society, have ambitions in life and they completely accept themselves (Klohnen et al., 1996;
Tugade, Frederickson, 2004).
It was found that significant correlations are revealed during several studies in Latvia
(Tauriņa, 2012, Bērziņa, 2011, Putnina, 2013) between the indicator of resilience and well-being,
such as spirituality, transcendence (r=0,695**, as mentioned by Tauriņa, 2012). The other stud-
ies have also shown that people with a high level of resilience have a more energetic approach
to life; they are curious and open to new experience (Klohnen, 1996; Tugade, Frederickson,
2004). An average close correlation between resilience and interpersonal well-being (r=.406**,
as mentioned by Štāla, 2011, Tauriņa, 2012) in the age group of late maturity is proved, as well.
Since the ability of resilience includes optimism, faith, sense of meaning or signification, self-
efficacy, the ability to adapt, impulse control, empathy and a sense of positive relations (Masten
and Reed, 2002), individuals with a high level of resilience are likely to be more positive to-
wards themselves, as well as they are characterized by a higher indicator of favourableness or
agreeableness and consciousness (Walton Viechtbauer, 2006; Brent Lucas, 2008) in the later age
group. For example, it has been proved that the overall satisfaction with life increases with age
within the adult period (Rocke, 2008). By contrast, other studies showed that satisfaction with
life has no connection or is only slightly expressed in relation to the chronological age (Diener
et al., 1999; Filipp, 1996; Myers, Diener, 1995). There are contradictions between the results of
various researches that led to focus on the issues of the aforementioned research- 1) what dimen-
sions of Well-being predict the dimensions of Resilience?, 2) does it have a significantly high
level of correlation between the dimensions of Well-being and Resilience, and age as a variable?
General Background of Research
There is an active process of research in positive psychology carried out in Latvia within the
last ten years. There, the most important category of positive psychology is resilience and well-
being. A great work has been done on the adaptation of the concept of well-being and resilience
in Latvia. There is a group of young researchers (master level students), who provided a contribu-
tion under supervision of professor Guna Svence to the adaptation of resilience and well-being
in the science of psychology in Latvia. There is a joint research recently made by this professor
group, where the results of different samples of adults of the Latvian population are demonstrated.
The idea of this research is to analyse the collected secondary data on different groups of adults,
regarding the correlation between the aspects of well-being and resilience.
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Sample Selection
48
A research sample was established by collecting the secondary data on the work from
different studies in Latvia (Riga Teacher Training and Education Management Academy) by
(Majors, Majore, & Svence, 2009, Svence & Madžule, 2013, Svence &Tauriņa, 2013) etc. in
the first part of this research, in order to examine correlation of the well-being dimension with
the resilience dimensions, as well as, which well-being indicators predict these resilience in-
dicators. The data collection was made by consolidating different samples selected before this
research, that is why, the data of this research are defined as the secondary data. The primary
data were collected before in the form of a survey on the website www.visidati.lv, and by using
the snowball sampling method. The data analysis of two samples is included in this article: 1)
the Latvian-speaking population of Latvia aged from 16 to 65 years, 28.3% of men (N=184,
M=32.1, SD=11.0 years), 2) a sample of the Latvian-speaking population aged from 16 to 65
years, 24.5% of men (N=351, M=34.4, SD=11.5), which was made by using the secondary data.
Tool and Procedures
A new method for measuring well-being “Well-Being Test (L1)” was established and
scientifically justified in the framework of the Bachelor program of Riga Teacher Training and
Educational Management Academy (Majors, Majore, 2009), which is also applied in the research
described in this article. “Well-Being Test (L1)” is a self-assessment questionnaire, consist-
ing of 68 statements, which are responded according to the Likert-type scale from 0 to 5. The
results provide a possibility to determine the overall well-being indicator, five dimensions and
subdimensions of well-being. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of well-being test dimensions
and subdimensions, as well as a number of forming statements, is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Scales of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of well-being test (L1).
Cronbach’s alpha
Subdimensions, Dimensions Number of statements
coefficient
Happiness 3 0.73
Satisfaction with life 5 0.83
Flow experience 2 0.08
Positive emotions 5 0.80
Hedonic well-being 15 0.89
Self-acceptance 3 0.76
Positive relationships with others 3 0.80
Autonomy 3 0.53
The ability to affect the environment and society 3 0.64
Purposefulness in life 3 0.56
Personal growth 3 0.39
Belonging 2 0.25
Authenticity 4 0.66
Eudaimonistic well-being 24 0.88
Creativity 2 0.59
Sense of the single whole meaning 4 0.59
Optimism 4 0.79
Trust in own abilities 4 0.74
Cognitive well-being 14 0.87
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Cronbach’s alpha 49
Subdimensions, Dimensions Number of statements
coefficient
Love 4 0.86
Empathy 2 0.63
Selflessness 2 0.50
Values 2 0.10
Interpersonal well-being 10 0.72
Spirituality, transcendence 5 0.78
Well-being 68 0.96
Another tool which was selected is Resilience scale (Resilience scale, RS, Wagnild, Young,
1993) adapted in Latvian by G.Svence, I.Bērziņa, 2011). Resilience scale is a self-assessment
tool consisting of 25 statements, where from 1 to 7 respondents assess the statements according
to the Likert-type scale. The results of the survey make it possible to determine the total resil-
ience indicator and three subscale indicators: Self-perseverance, Self-reliance, Acceptance of
life. The sum of self-perseverance and indicators of self-perseverance constitutes the personal
competence indicator, but the indicators of self-perseverance and self-reliance are used separately
in this research in order to better investigate the aspects providing correlation. The authors of
the Resilience scale point out that the Cronbach’s alpha in the original English version is 0.91
(Wagnild &Young, 1993).
Psychometric evaluation of the Resilience scale is relevant, reliable and valid in the internal
sense (Wagnild & Young, 1993). Despite the fact that the test was originally created to focus on
adults, it can be used for teenagers and young adults, as well as in various ethnic groups. The
resilience appears as a positive personality trait that characterizes the person’s ability to adapt
to the challenge situations and “recover” after crisis or tests in Resilience scale easily or in a
more difficult way (RS) (Wagnild & Young 1993).
During the establishment of the concept of resilience adaption in Latvia, the results of
approximately 110 articles of meta-analysis were analysed by the authors (Bērziņa&Svence,
2011), and it was found out, that well-being most closely correlates with resilience, and the
issue of resilience in the context of different psychological, social and health concepts is very
topical in the world.
The test data were processed in accordance with two subscale principles, they are charac-
terized by the following features, but additional analysis was carried out for the research cor-
relation analyzed in this article by taking into account the above-mentioned categorization of
five resilience properties - 1) personal competence: self-reliance, independence, determination,
mastery and inventiveness categories, and 2) self acceptance and acceptance of life, related to
the categories: adaptability, balance, flexibility and a healthy outlook on life which coincides
with other definitions of resilience (Wagnild & Young, 1993).
Data Analysis
The statistical analysis of data was carried out by means of the correlation analysis and using
the factor of Pearson and Hierarchical Regression Analysis of the Dependent Variables.
Results of the Research
By answering the first research question, what kind of correlation between the indicators of
well-being and resilience exists, the results obtained are given in Table 2.
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Table 2. Pearson correlation coefficients between resilience and its subscales

50 and well-being and its subscales.
Acceptance
Pearson r Resilience Self-perseverance Self-reliance
of life
Well-being 0.54** 0.42** 0.55** 0.45**
HHedonic aspect 0.47** 0.35** 0.50** 0.38**

Subscales of well-being
Eudaimonistic aspect 0.58** 0.47** 0.56** 0.46**
Cognitive aspect 0.46** 0.37** 0.45** 0.40**
Interpersonal aspect 0.38** 0.33** 0.29** 0.35**
Transcendence 0.48** 0.35** 0.51** 0.41**

Note. N=184.** p<0.01
By analyzing correlations between the indicators of resilience and its subscales (dimensions)
and the indicators of well-being and its subscales (dimensions), it is shown that a positive, fairly
significant correlation, but statistically significant correlation (r=0.54**, p<0.01) between the
indicators of resilience and well-being is found according to the theoretically expected one, by
pointing out that these are different constructions which partially overlap and are interrelated. All
the correlations between the indicators of construction subscales are also statistically significant,
positive and confirming the mentioned correlation. The correlations between eudaimonistic aspect
of well-being and resilience, well-being and self-reliance, eudaimonistic aspect of well-being and
self-reliance, self-reliance and the aspect of spirituality and transcendence are moderately strong,
the other correlations are assessed as weak.
By analyzing data on correlations of well-being dimensions and resilience dimensions, it was
found, that the closest correlation which is significant in the mathematical and statistical sense is
between the common indicator of well-being and the common indicator of resilience, as well as
the common indicator of well-being and resilience category Self-reliance. The above-mentioned
correlation between the indicators of well-being and resilience points out the increase of well-being
that leads to the increase of resilience and vice versa.
The regression analysis was conducted in order to answer the second research question and
to assess the extent to which the well-being subscale indicators can predict the resilience indica-
tors, the results of which show that by using the indicators of eudaimonistic aspect of well-being
and transcendence it is possible to predict 34% of the resilience indicator. The results obtained
are provided in Table 3.
Table 3. Hierarchical regression analysis of the dependent variables, such as

resilience, independent variables, such as subscales of well-being (N
= 184).
Independent variable B SE B β
Step 1
Eudaimonistic aspect 14.88 1.571 0.58**
Step 2
Eudaimonistic aspect 11.66 2.047 0.45**
Transcendence 3.67 1.521 0.19*
Note. In step 1 R = 0.33, p<0.01; in step 2 R = 0.34, ΔR = 0.02, p < 0.05
2 2 2
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

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The regression analysis was conducted in order to assess the extent to which sub-dimensional
indicators included in well-being can predict the indicators of resilience, the results of which show
51
that by using the indicators of well-being sub-dimensions - authenticity, selflessness, belonging,
creativity and purposefulness in life, it is possible to predict 45% of the resilience indicator. The
results obtained are provided in Table 4.
Table 4. Hierarchical regression analysis of the dependent variables, such as

resilience, independent variables, such as sub-dimensions of well-
being (N = 184).
Independent variable B SE B β
Step 1
Authenticity 11.16 1.14 0.59**
Step 2
Selflessness 4.10 0.99 0.24**
Step 3
Belonging -2.84 0.98 -0.17**
Step 4
Belonging -2.95 0.97 -0.18**
Creativity 2.68 0.97 0.17**
Step 5
Belonging -2.86 0.96 -0.17**
Creativity 2.29 0.97 0.15*
Purposefulness in life 2.82 1.21 0.16*
Note. In step 1 R2 = 0.34, p<0.01; in step 2 ΔR2 = 0.06, p < 0.01; in step 3 ΔR2 = 0.03, p < 0.01; in step 4 ΔR2 = 0.02, p < 0.01; in step
5 R2 = 0.45, ΔR2 = 0.02, p < 0.05
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
The regression analyses to determine the extent to which the indicators of resilience sub-
scales can predict the indicators of well-being showed the lower predictability possibilities. By
using the stepwise method of hierarchical regression analysis, it was found that the common
indicator of well-being which is significant in the statistical sense can be predicted exactly by
the resilience dimension Self-reliance. Self-reliance can predict 30% of well-being (R2=30%,
F(1;182)=77,23, p<0.01).
By applying the aforementioned method, it was found: Self-reliance can predict 25%
of well-being in the hedonic aspect. (R2=25%, F(1;182)=60,40, p<0.01). Self-reliance and
self-perseverance can predict 33% of well-being in the eudaimonistic aspect.(R 2=33%,
F(2;181)=45,11, p<0.01). Self-reliance can predict 20% of well-being in cognitive aspect
(R2=20%,F(1;182)=45,65, p<0.01).
By means of acceptance of life and self-perseverance it is possible to predict 14% of well-
being in interpersonal aspect (R2=14%, F(2;181)=16.37, p<0.01). By means of self-reliance it
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is possible to predict 26% of well-being transcendence dimensions (R2=26%, F(1;182)= 64.96,

52 p<0.01).
By answering the research question, whether there is any correlation between the age
and well-being, the results obtained indicate that the correlation is significant in the statisti-
cal sense at the trend level of some scales: the age correlates with the scales of well-being:
from the scale of Eudaimonistic well-being (category Purposefulness in life), from the scale
of Cognitive well-being (category Perception), as well as with the common indicator of Tran-
scendence. It means that Purposefulness in life decreases with the age group, but Perception
and Transcendence increase.
It was proved that neither resilience, nor the common indicator, neither scales, nor subcat-
egories correlate with age; it leads to the assumption that age is not the factor in the adult period
which affects the ability to experience happiness, hedonic well-being and so on.
Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients between the well-being dimensions,

sub-dimensions and age (N=351).
Variables r
1 Happiness 0.07
2 Satisfaction with life 0.19**
3 Flow experience -0.68
4 Positive emotions 0.13
5 Hedonic aspect 0.13
6 Self-acceptance 0.20**
7 Positive relations with others 0.02
8 Autonomy 0.13
9 The ability to affect the environment -0.03
10 Purposefulness in life 0.24**
11 Personal growth -0.03
12 Belonging 0.09
13 Authenticity 0.04
14 Eudaimonistic aspect 0.12
15 Creativity 0.06
16 Perception 0.21**
17 Optimism 0.15**
18 Trust in own abilities 0.07
19 Cognitive aspect 0.16**
20 Love 0.05
21 Empathy -0.07
22 Selflessness 0.04
23 Morality 0.08
24 Interpersonal aspect 0.05
25 Transcendence 0.22**
26 Well-being 0.14**
Note. N = 351. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
The possibility at the trend level, age correlates with purposefulness in life (variable number
10 in the table number 5, perception (variable number 16 in the table number 5) and transcendence
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(variable number 25 in the table number 5). Taking into account the substantiation referred to the
results in numbers of the named variables, three variables which are closer to the significant level
53
of correlation than others, may be distinguished.
Discussion
By answering the research question, which resilience indicators are predicted by particular
well-being indicators, it was found that well-being is more predicted by the resilience indicator
-self-reliance.
By answering the research question, whether there is any correlation between age group
and well-being, age group and resilience in the mathematical and statistical sense, it was found
that the well-being dimensions do not correlate with the age group in the statistically significant
sense, but only purposefulness in life, perception and transcendence correlate with the age group
at the trend level.
An interpretation of the connection of self-reliance with the concepts, such as purposeful-
ness in life, self-acceptance, which are substantively similar to well-being was put forward for
the discussion, because, as shown by other researches, a mathematically statistically significant
correlation is found between the common indicator of resilience and eudaimonistic well-being,
including such indicators as self-acceptance, autonomy, purposefulness in life, personal growth,
a sense of belonging, authenticity exactly in the early mature age group. It has been proved that
people with high resilience are fully confident about their future and are optimistic that they have
the ability to affect the environment and the society, ambitions in life and they completely accept
themselves (Klohnen et al., 1996; Tugade un Frederickson, 2004, as mentioned by Lielpētere,
2013). Substantively, the phenomenon of self-reliance can be associated with the EU’s concept
of substantive aspect, such as self-esteem, as well as the well-being indicator “transcendence”,
including the phenomenon of faith, optimism, hope, sense of humour, gratitude (Seligman,
Peterson, 2004, as mentioned by Svence, 2009). Self-reliance is related to the spirituality or
transcendence aspect mentioned in other researches, which also supports the result obtained that
just self-reliance is the indicator that allows predicting well-being and vice versa. It was also
found in several other studies (Tauriņa, 2012, Bērziņa, 2011, Putniņa, 2013). Significant correla-
tions were established between resilience and the indicator of well-being, such as spirituality,
transcendence (r=0.70**, as mentioned by Tauriņa, 2012).
The results about the meaning of self-reliance could be interpreted in terms of a sense of
spirituality or transcendence - people who have a high self-confidence indicator are more mentally
oriented, in crisis situations (challengeable situations) such people show more signs of resilience:
faith, optimism, hope, humour, gratitude. There is some interpretation about transcendence in
positive psychology- gratitude, hope, humour, playfulness, spirituality, appreciation of beauty
and excellence (Boniwell,2006).
This goes hand in hand with the other researches, as the ability of resilience includes opti-
mism, faith, sense of meaning or signification, self-efficacy, the ability to adapt, impulse control,
empathy, as well as the sense of positive relations (Masten and Reed, 2002, as mentioned by
Bērziņa, 2011), the individuals having a high level of resilience are likely to be more positive
towards themselves that can be related to the sense of self-reliance.
As regards the issue which was put forward for the discussion related to the relation of age
to the well-being and resilience phenomena, it was assumed that such indicators as transcendence,
perception increase with the age, because, for example, it has been proved that the overall life
satisfaction increases with the age in the adult period (Rocke, 2008, as mentioned by Svence,
Majors, 2015). It was assumed that an age group is a significant factor affecting the indicators
of resilience and well-being, because, as shown by studies, the age group and environment of
human development may be a critical component of the adaptation and resilience, that character-
ize people’s ability to adapt and recover from challenging situations (Baltes, Carstensen, 1996;
P. B. Baltes, Staudinger,Lindenberger, 1999; Filipp, 1996, as mentioned by Cross S. E., et al,
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2003). Personality development in the interaction with environmental conditions can more or
54 less affect how an individual feels, affect a personal well-being, life satisfaction level throughout
life. People with optimal level of resilience are characterized as self-effective, confident and
decisive (Wagnild, Young, 1990; Werner, Smith, 199, as mentioned by Brown, et al., 2009).
People with these characteristics will more likely express themselves as mostly balanced and will
be satisfied with themselves and life in general. Several authors have studied the correlation of
well-being and resilience (Klohnen et al., 1996; Tugade, Frederickson, 2004, as mentioned by
Cheng, 2004) by demonstrating that as the resilience feature has a multidimensional construction,
resilience can correlate with other personality traits or expressions, attitudes and feelings, for
instance, well-being, which, in its turn, is related to optimism, overall life satisfaction, achieve-
ment motivation and other positive resources of personality.
The results put forward for the discussion are, that age correlates with different indicators
of well-being at the trend level - purposefulness in life, perception and transcendence. This is
based on the assumption that younger adults (Ryff,1998, as mentioned by Svence,2009) more
clearly and often set goals in life by justifying eudaimonistic aspect of well-being. It was as-
sumed according to other similar studies that the older an individual gets, the higher is his level
of perception and spirituality - the same openness to experience, extraversion do not change
with age, but the trend to cooperate, kindness, conscientiousness grow with age (Wortman, Lu-
cas, Donnellan, 2012, as mentioned by Svence, Majors, 2015). People who choose a deliberate
position in difficulties and sufferings, make sense to life; it often happens in the middle of life
(Steger, Frazier, Oishi, 2006, as mentioned by Svence, Majors, 2015). It was also supported by
our research data that allows further research on the correlation of the indicators of transcend-
ence or spirituality and perception with age.
Conclusions
It was found that the closest correlation is between the common indicator of well-being and
the common indicator of resilience, as well as the common indicator of well-being and resilience
category Self-reliance is significant in the mathematical and statistical sense. The results point
out that the increase of well-being leads to the increase of resilience and vice versa.
By answering the research question, whether there is correlation between the age and well-
being, the results obtained indicate that correlation is statistically significant at the trend level of
some scales: the age correlates with well-being scales: from the scale Eudaimonistic well-being
(category Purposefulness in life), from the scale Cognitive well-being (category Perception),
as well as with the common indicator of Transcendence, it means that Purposefulness in life
decreases with the age group, but Perception and Transcendence increase.
A regression analysis was conducted in order to assess the extent to which sub-dimensional
indicators included in well-being can predict the indicators of resilience, the results of which
show that using the indicators of well-being sub-dimensions - authenticity, selflessness, belonging,
creativity and purposefulness in life, it is possible to predict 45% of the resilience indicator. By
means of acceptance of life and self-perseverance, it is possible to predict 14% of well-being in
the interpersonal aspect (R2=14%, F(2;181)=16.37, p<0.01).By means of self-reliance it is pos-
sible to predict 26% of well-being transcendence dimensions (R2=26%, F(1;182)= 64.96, p<0.01).
As regards the results, there are three variables of well-being which are closer to the sig-
nificant level of correlation than others - purposefulness in life, perception and transcendence.
It means that age is a variable that affects understanding of the people purpose of life (more
senses of the meaning of purpose of life in early and middle adulthood), perception ( meaning-
fulness and awareness) and transcendence - gratitude, hope, humour, playfulness, spirituality,
appreciation of beauty and excellence.
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Röcke, Chr., & Brose, A. (2013). Intraindividual variability and stability of affect and well-being short-term
and long-term change and stabilization processes. GeroPsych, 26 (3), 2013, 185–199.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psy-
chologist, 55, 5-14.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress empirical
validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60 (5), 410–421.
Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., & Oishi, S. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of
and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, (1), 80–93.
Svence, G. (2009). Pozitīvā psiholoģija. Rīga, Zvaigzne ABC.
Svence, G., Majors, M. (2015). Labizjūtas un dzīvesspēka rādītāju saistība ar vecumposma kategoriju Latvijas
izlasēs. RPIVA zinātnisko rakstu krājums SIGNUM TEMPORIS (accepted for publishing).
Štāla, E. (2011). Vēlīnā brieduma indivīdu dzīvesspēka un labizjūtas rādītāju izmaiņas pozitīvās intervences
grupā. Master theses under supervision G.Svence, RTTEMA, Riga. (Unpublished).
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Wortman, J., Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. (2012). Stability and change in the big five personality do-
56 mains: Evidence from a longitudinal study of Australians. Psychology and Aging, 27 (4), 867–874.
Advised by Laima Railienė,

University of Šiauliai, Lithuania
Guna Svence PhD in Psychology, Professor, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy, Imantas 7. linija 1, Riga, LV-1083 Latvia.
E-mail: guna.svence@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv/index.php?mh=izgl_soc_psih
Maris Majors Master in Psychology, Lecturer, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy (RTTEMA), Imantas 7. linija 1, Riga, LV-1083 Latvia.
E-mail: maris.majors@rpiva.lv
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Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-8587 Vol. 9, No. 1, 2015
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Vol. 9, No.

Scientia Socialis in Cooperation with Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia

Scientia Socialis in Cooperation with Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“,

Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

ISSN 2029-8587 © Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2015

How social stability influences the level of social trust in

TEAM LEADERSHIP AS A DIRECTION OF TRAINING PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS . . 6

THE INNOVATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE: ITS SCOPE, STRUCTURE

BEYOND SOCIAL SKILLS: GROUP DYNAMICS AT SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

Dynamics of depression among adolescents in secondary

WELL-BEING CORRELATION WITH RESILIENCE AND AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

instructions for authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Journal of BALTIC Science Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

How social stability influences

Received: May 10, 2015 Accepted: June 15, 2015

TEAM LEADERSHIP AS A DIRECTION

Table 1. Types of organizational cultures.

Bureaucratic Co-Operative Combine Commander

“Combine” Working Group Type

Co-operative type of activity is characterized by time-distribution and consistent order of

“Clique” Working Group Type

Co-interactive type is characterized by the obligatory participation of everyone in a com-

Mode of impact: emotional and motivational impact.

“Concern” Working Group Type

Table 2. Characteristics of the main group types.

Clique Concern Factory Team

Problems are solved on the basis of

Mode of impact: beneficial exchange (you give me – I give you).

“Team” Working Group Type

Mode of impact/influence: envolvement.

Advised by Judita Stankutė, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania

Received: April 05, 2015 Accepted: June 25, 2015

THE INNOVATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL

Oksana Ye. Furman

Analysis of the Latest Researches of the Issue

It is known that positive or negative atmospheres of interactions in the group significantly

IPC functions in a module-developing educational system (Фурман, 1997; Фурман, 2001),

Innovative and psychological climate, which keeps phenomena of influence, multi-motivation,

Advised by Tetiana Shyriaeva,

Received: May 18, 2015 Accepted: June 22, 2015

BEYOND SOCIAL SKILLS: GROUP

Advised by Vincentas Lamanauskas,

Received: March 09, 2015 Accepted: June 10, 2015

Dynamics of depression among

Stanislava Stoyanova, Venka Petrova

Definition and Symptoms of Depression

Depression is a kind of mood disorder characterized by at least 2 weeks of depressed mood

Risk Factors for Depression

Theories of Dynamics of Depression

Psycho-Social Theories of Dynamics of Depression Deal with the Stages of Psycho-Sexual

Developmental Theories of Dynamics of Depression Relate Depression to Some Vulnerable

Rationale of the Study

General Background of the Research

Table 1. Frequency distribution of the secondary school students, according to

Johanson & Brooks (2010) recommended at least 12 participants in a group to be studied as

Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale showed accuracy in identifying nondepressed individuals

Most students had depression scores in norm (see Table 2).

Table 2. Frequency distribution of levels of depression.

Norm 241 66.9 243 67.5

Table 3. Crosstabs of levels of depression at the beginning and at the end of

Levels of depression at the end of the school year

Table 4. Differences between types of schools in students’ depression.

Table 5. Differences between types of schools in students’ levels of depression

Well-being 0.54 0.42 0.55 0.45

HHedonic aspect 0.47 0.35 0.50 0.38

Eudaimonistic aspect 0.58 0.47 0.56 0.46

Cognitive aspect 0.46 0.37 0.45 0.40

Interpersonal aspect 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.35

Transcendence 0.48 0.35 0.51 0.41