Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 81, No. 2, 2023

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 81, No.
2, 2023
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
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Dr., Prof. Raffaele Pisano, University of Lille, France
Dr., Prof. Katarzyna Potyrala, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
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Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
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Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, Educational Robotics and Science Organization, Cyprus
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Contents 171
Editorial
STUDY ABROAD AND PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ GLOBAL COMPETENCE

Ching-Ching Cheng, Kuo-Hung Huang .............................................................................172
Articles
CONTRIBUTIONS OF LAKATOSIAN THEORY TO THE EVALUATION OF EXPLANATORY

MODELS OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES MADE BY UPPER-SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS
Ana Carolina Gomes Miranda, Maurícius Selvero Pazinato ...................................................176
PREDICTIVE POWER OF BIOLOGY TEACHER’S SELF-EFFICACY ON ACCEPTABILITY

AND APPLICATION OF VIRTUAL AND HANDS-ON DISSECTIONS
Veronika Havlíčková, Andrej Šorgo, Martin Bílek ................................................................188
INTEREST OF THE PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS IN THE ALCOHOL-RELATED ISSUES

Anatolii Ivanchuk, Tetiana Zuziak, Oksana Marushchak, Viktor Solovei, Iryna Krasylnykova,
Vitalii Hlukhaniuk, Viktor Krupka ...................................................................................206
AN ALGEBRAIC THINKING SKILL TEST IN PROBLEM-SOLVING

FOR SEVENTH GRADERS
Janet Jahudin, Nyet Moi Siew .......................................................................................223
DIGITAL CITIZEN PARTICIPATION OF COLLEGE STUDENTS:

REALITY AND OPTIMIZATION PATH
Haili Lu, Kefeng Fu, Xiaolin Liu, Wanshan Hu ...................................................................244
EXPLORING CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATION: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH TOPICS

IN THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY JOURNAL
Haris Memisevic, Inga Biscevic, Selmir Hadzic, Azur Kuduzovic ..............................................258
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: THE ONLINE TEACHING QUALITY IN THE TIME

OF THE CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC
Jelena S. Osmanović Zajić, Jelena Ž. Maksimović, Sanja R. Sretić ............................................269
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS .............................................................................. 289
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION / GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS ............................... 291

This is an open access article under the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
PROBLEMS
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172
STUDY ABROAD AND PRE-SERVICE
TEACHERS’ GLOBAL COMPETENCE
Ching-Ching Cheng, Kuo-Hung Huang
National Chiayi University, Taiwan
E-mail: chingching_cheng@mail.ncyu.edu.tw, kuohung@mail.ncyu.edu.tw
Globalization has made the world a more interdependent and multicultural society.
Global issues, including regional conflicts, pandemics, and climate change, affect human life
across boundaries and cultures and require people to collaborate in solving problems. Under
this context, teachers with a global perspective and diverse values can enhance students'
world views, foster respect for difference, and develop responsibility for a more sustainable
and inclusive world. Thus, the need for professional development to prepare teachers to be
globally competent has been extensively recognized. Recently, the study abroad program as
an effective means of developing global competence has been increasingly researched and
implemented in teacher education program (Huang et al., 2023; Okken et al., 2019). Unlike
stand-alone training courses, studying abroad provides immersive opportunities for participants
to expose themselves to different educational systems and cultures. Such intercultural encounter
experiences can broaden teachers’ pedagogical repositories and skills to teach diverse students,
enhance understanding of global issues, and facilitate reflection on personal and professional
identities.
Theoretical Framework
What is global competence? Global competence combines knowledge, skills, attitudes,

and values successfully applied to global issues or intercultural situations (OECD, 2019).
Globally competent individuals can respect different perspectives and take responsible action
toward sustainability and collective well-being. Numerous research focuses on how the study
abroad experience impacts preservice teachers’ global competence, prevalently adopting
situated learning, experiential learning, and transformative learning theory as the theoretical
framework.
Situated learning believes that learning occurs within situational contexts. Students
acquire knowledge from observing others and practicing themselves, becoming "cognitive
apprentices" within the community (Collins et al., 1989). According to Lave and Wenger (1991),
a learning process is a form of societal participation. People in the real world continuously
acquire knowledge and learn as long as they continue to engage with others. Other theorists,
such as Brown and Duguid (1996) claimed that understandings are constructed amid activity
and without prior specification of expected learning. In other words, learning within designed
instructional and cultural activities does not always happen as initially planned. Therefore, the
effects of studying abroad will not be constrained if the participants are not limited to specific
contexts. As such, a study abroad program should encourage learners to make sense of what
they explore and interact with in a resource-abundant learning environment.
Experiential learning theory considers learning the process whereby knowledge is created
through experience transformation. The experiential learning cycle by Kolb (1984) highlights
how learners change due to experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation.
Learning occurs when an individual comes across a subjective experience and reflects on
the analysis and formulation of abstract concepts. The difference, conflicts and disagreement
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.172 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Ching-Ching CHENG, Kuo-Hung HUANG. Study abroad and pre-service teachers’ global competence
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people encounter abroad could be assimilated into existing concepts. Reflective activities of the 173
study abroad experience, an essential component of experiential learning, could enhance active
thinking, change attitudes, and develop multicultural awareness (Huang et al., 2023).
Transformational learning involves a fundamental questioning of how one thinks or
acts, leading to a fundamental change in our worldview beyond simple knowledge acquisition
(Mezirow, 2000). The experience of disorienting dilemmas, accompanied by guided reflection,
is eye-opening and life-changing to preservice teachers. As the definition implies, reflection
alone does not result in transformative learning unless the process involves a critical reflection
on long-held beliefs and values. Study abroad experiences challenge participants’ tacit
assumptions and supports critical reflection in which they consciously make meaning of their
lives.
Study Abroad Program Reviews
According to a meta-analysis by Huang, Cheung, and Xuan (2023), prior studies on

studying abroad mostly show different but positive influences on preservice teachers' learning,
attitudes, and identities. Different goals and implementations cause inconsistent findings on the
program's effectiveness.
A short-term program is cost-effective. With compact activities schedule, participants can
achieve their learning goals. Thus, it is suitable for a program with specific learning objectives.
On a deliberately-design program within a short time, students can participate in actual
teaching activities and the school environment of another country. For example, Sanders-Smith
and Cordoba (2022) reported a study abroad program explicitly aiming to learn the Reggio
Emilia approach in Italy. Preservice teachers wanted to implement what they learned in Reggio
Emilia's classrooms and lectures into their future classrooms. Also, students showed an analytic
ability to ponder philosophical and cultural values regarding the curricular and pedagogical
application. However, other studies revealed that it might be an overreach to expect participants
to develop a deep understanding of educational knowledge with a critical awareness of larger
social, political, and historical contexts in a short time (Frieson et al., 2022). Such an approach
is insufficient to fulfill the goal of fostering education for cultural diversity and international
understanding.
Cultural distance, defined by Hofstede (2011) as the degree to which shared norms
and values differ from one country to another, is also an influential consideration. Research
has shown international contact reduces prejudices more than within-national, cross-cultural
contexts (Frieson et al., 2022). Despite avoiding culture shock, studying abroad in a country of
similar culture could limit exposure to an unfamiliar culture and keep student-teachers within
their comfort zones as happy learners and tourists abroad. Preservice teachers experience the
difference as cultural outsiders have transformative potential. These experiences can trigger
strong emotions such as surprise, anxiety, fear, and frustration are important for setting the stage
for preservice teachers’ reflection and self-transformation (Li & Costa, 2022). An unintentional-
design long-term program promoting local cultural contact will facilitate transformative
learning, which first relies on the experience of disorienting dilemmas that challenge their
taken-for-granted views.
Implementation Suggestions
A criticism of study abroad programs in the literature is that they are often considered
tourist opportunities instead of educational experiences (Frieson et al., 2022; Michelson &
Álvarez Valencia, 2016). Tourism can provide positive experiences but is often associated with
superficial knowledge. Accumulated research findings highlight that if preservice teachers
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174 are not supported in critically appraising the differences they encounter, such encounters can
inadvertently reinforce ethnocentric or inappropriate views. Guided reflection after dissonance-
inducing experiences is vital to assist participants in understanding the personal impacts and
cultural understanding of study abroad experiences (Frieson et al., 2022; Li & Costa, 2022).
A short-term study abroad program in a low-cultural-distance country will increase the
success chance for promoting global learning. Tourism feature bringing pleasant feedback is an
inevitable part of the program. But guided reflection leading students to engage in meaningful
learning can maximize the benefits. As indicated by Sanders-Smith, these cultural immersion
experiences in the form of short-term faculty-led study abroad programs had a lasting impact
on developing culturally relevant later. Cultural awareness occurs slowly. Long-term study
abroad experience in a high-cultural-distance country is ideal for cultivating participants' global
competence. Nevertheless, a short-term study abroad experience can inspire participants’ interest
in attending a future long-term program or continuing to study or work overseas afterward. To
promote study abroad successfully, launching the short-term program first to trigger positive
emotions and then following up with a long-term program will further strengthen students'
global competence.
References
Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (1996). Stolen knowledge. In H. McClellan (Ed.), Situated learning
perspectives: The conversation commences (pp. 47-56). Educational Technology Publications.
Collins, A., Brown, J., & Newman, S. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading,
writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.). Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in
honor of Robert, 453-493. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Frieson, B. L., Murray-Everett, N. C., & Parsons, M. J. (2022). Always outsiders, never insiders:
A study abroad program for future teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 112, Article
103632. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103632
Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede Model in context. Online Readings in
Psychology and Culture, 2(1). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014
Huang, Q., Cheung, A. C. K., & Xuan, Q. (2023). The impact of study abroad on preservice and in-
service teachers' intercultural competence: A meta-analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education,
127, Article 104091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104091
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Prentice-Hall.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge
University Press.
Li, H., & Costa, C. (2022). 'Why do we think we are doing everything right [just] beacuse we do it':
What transforms Chinese and Scottish student-teachers' taken-for-granted views in study abroad
experiences. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 52(7), 1170-1188.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2020.1852915
Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult. Core concepts of transformation theory. In J. Mezirow
(Ed.), Learning as transformation. Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp. 3-33).
Jossey-Bass.
Michelson, K., & Álvarez Valencia, J. A. (2016). Study abroad: Tourism or education? A multimodal
social semiotic analysis of institutional discourses of a promotional website. Discourse &
Communication, 10(3), 235-256. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750481315623893
OE CD. (2019). PISA 2018 G lobal Competence F ramew ork. In O ECD (Ed.), P I S A
2018 A sse ssme nt a nd Analytical Fr am ewor k (pp. 165-215). O ECD P ublish i n g .
ht t ps: / / doi .org/ doi:https ://doi.org/10.1787/043fc3b0-en
Okken, G. J., Jansen, E., Hofman, W. H. A., & Coelen, R. J. (2019). Beyond the 'welcome-back party':
The enriched repertoire of professional teacher behaviour as a result of study abroad. Teaching
and Teacher Education, 86, Article Unsp 102927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102927

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Sanders-Smith, S. C., & Cordoba, T. E. (2022). Study abroad as a means of unpacking 175
pedagogical complexity in context. Early Childhood Education Journal, 50, 1059-
1069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01238-6
Received: March 20, 2023 Revised: March 28, 2023 Accepted: April 20, 2023
Cite as: Cheng, C.-C., & Huang, K.-H. (2023). Study abroad and pre-service teachers’
global competence. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 81(2), 172-175.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.172
Ching-Ching Cheng PhD, Professor, Department of Early Childhood Education, National Chiayi
University, 85 Wen-long Village, Ming-Hsiung, Chiayi 621, Taiwan.
E-mail: chingching_cheng@mail.ncyu.edu.tw
Kuo-Hung Huang PhD, Professor, Department of E-learning Design and Management, National
(Corresponding author) Chiayi University, 85 Wen-long Village, Ming-Hsiung, Chiayi 621, Taiwan.
E-mail: kuohung@mail.ncyu.edu.tw
Website: http://web.ncyu.edu.tw/~kuohung
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5716-7731

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176
CONTRIBUTIONS OF LAKATOSIAN
THEORY TO THE EVALUATION
OF EXPLANATORY MODELS OF
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES MADE BY
UPPER-SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
Ana Carolina Gomes Miranda
Federal University of Ouro Preto, Brazil
E-mail: ana.miranda@ufop.edu.br
Maurícius Selvero Pazinato

Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
E-mail: mauriuspazinato@gmail.com
Abstract
The focus of the present study is the learning processes of concepts related to hydrogen bonds, which were
developed using a didactic sequence (DS). Based on the perspective of Imre Lakatos, it was observed
whether the explanatory models created by upper-secondary students form progressive transition
sequences, which are similar to what Lakatos, in his text The History of Science, calls a “problem”
that increases the explanatory/heuristic power of the model. To evaluate the evolution of these models,
which generally consist of progressive transitions, four phases were developed: 1) the categorization
of answers obtained in the DS in Realist, Empiricist or Rationalist zones, as well as an attribution of
scores; 2) the determination of a score range for said zones; 3) hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA)
and 4) an analysis of the progressive transition of the explanatory models. A continuous review of the
ideas expressed by the students during their learning of the subject revealed that a significant share of
students progressed conceptually. In a general way, it can be said that the activities developed in the DS
contributed substantially to the progressive transition of the explanatory models made by most students.
Furthermore, the approach of the DS toward the subject of hydrogen bonds allowed the students to
interpret the phenomena studied using their knowledge of Chemistry.
Keywords: London force and dipole-dipole interactions, progressive transition, chemistry teaching

Introduction
Intermolecular interactions are a key point for understanding the properties of materials,
e.g. melting and boiling points, solubility, density and viscosity; furthermore, they permeate
several fields of knowledge based on the understanding of everyday phenomena. In addition,
according to the official education documents of Brazil, upper-secondary students must:
understand the properties of substances and materials in terms of interactions between atoms,
molecules or ions; understand the concepts of boiling and melting points and their relationships
with the nature of substances; understand the concepts of density and solubility and their
dependence on temperature and the nature of the material, and recognize that the technological
applications of substances and materials are related to their properties (Mec, 1998). Alongside
the curricular guidelines for upper-secondary education, more recently the National Common
Curricular Basis (Mec, 2018) emphasized that students need to develop skills and abilities
related to the topic in question. Among them, the following stand out: using Chemistry

Ana Carolina Gomes MIRANDA, Maurícius Selvero PAZINATO. Contributions of Lakatosian theory to the evaluation of explanatory
models of intermolecular forces made by upper-secondary school students
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codes and nomenclatures to characterize materials, substances or chemical transformations; 177

understanding methods and procedures typical of the natural sciences and applying them in
different contexts; and relating physical, chemical or biological properties of products, systems
or technological processes to their intended purposes.
Some studies (Santos, Almeida, & Filho, 2020; Cooper, et al., 2015) indicate that the
subject of intermolecular forces has not been taught efficiently. They even state that the topic
has the potential to generate alternative concepts in the scientific models created by students. In
another study (Miranda, et al., 2018), bibliographical research was carried out in Brazilian and
international journals to detect the main trends in the teaching and learning of intermolecular
forces. This study identified gaps in learning processes that include the most recurrent
alternative concepts. They are there are no significant differences between intermolecular
forces and chemical bonds; intermolecular forces are stronger than intramolecular bonds; there
is a hydrogen bond in all molecules containing hydrogen, and the strength of this interaction is
measured by the number of hydrogen atoms that the molecule has, e.g., the interactions between
molecules of CH4 are more intense than those of NH3. This evidence motivated us to elaborate
a Didactic Sequence (DS) in an attempt to promote a more coherent learning process in upper-
secondary classes, that is, in accordance with the currently accepted scientific models.
Following this, theoretical foundations were sought that could help in the interpretation
of the conceptual evolution of this topic by upper-secondary students. Within this perspective,
the relationship between the epistemology of science and the evolution of knowledge in the
school context has been recognized by philosophers of science, psychologists, researchers and
educators (Carey, 1985; Gil-Pérez, 1993; Duschl, & Gitomer, 1994; Niaz, 1998; Laburú &
Niaz, 2002; Martorano, 2012). It is believed that the theory of Imre Lakatos on the progress of
science can be a tool for investigating the conceptual evolution of studied subjects. According
to Niaz (1998), the epistemology of science based on the assumptions proposed by Lakatos has
didactic-pedagogical implications that can bring important benefits to teaching and learning.
For Lakatos, the progress of science portrays what he defines as a methodology of
Scientific Research Programmes (SRP). An SRP consists of several theories that progressively
evolve, and the process of science is characterized by the competition between rival Research
Programmes. SRPs are characterized by methodological rules: “some tell us what paths of
research to avoid (negative heuristic), and others what paths to pursue (positive heuristic)”
(Lakatos, 1971, p. 162).
Analogously, this perspective can be used in Chemistry teaching to analyze whether the
explanatory models of upper-secondary students form progressive transition sequences (Niaz,
2001), similar to what Lakatos, with regard to scientific progress, calls the “problem” that
increases the explanatory/heuristic power of a given model or theory.
Research Problem
The study of intermolecular forces is of critical importance to understand phenomena

found in daily life. However, we acknowledge that teaching and learning these concepts is
not as easy as it appears. This issue, which is essential to Chemistry, demands the teacher pay
attention to class development, mainly in the approach to theories, laws and models in order to
avoid the distortion of content. As for the students, besides personal effort and study, learning
the content of intermolecular forces demands a high capacity of abstraction, as well as the
transition between the matter representative levels so that the concepts can form sequences of
progressive transition. Within this context, the question that guided this research was: "How to
evaluate the explanatory models of upper-secondary students about the nature of intermolecular
forces, based on the relationship between Lakatosian theory and the levels of representation of
chemical knowledge?"

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178 Research Focus
With these considerations in mind, the aim of this study is to observe how the explanatory
models of upper-secondary students about intermolecular forces form progressive transition
sequences based on the development of a didactic sequence.
Research Methodology
General Background
This study followed the principles of mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative)
research. participants were 29 students enrolled in the first year of upper-secondary education
at a Federal Institute in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Data were collected by means of
questionnaires applied before, during and after the development of a didactic sequence (DS) on
the subject of intermolecular forces. The DS was organized based on the theoretical assumptions
recommended by Zabala (1998) and an adaptation of the structuring criteria proposed by Dolz,
et al., (2004). According to the authors, DSs consist of activities with a progressive level of
cognitive complexity in terms of the approaches that students must develop to solve certain
problems. For Zabala (1998), DSs are a set of ordered and articulated activities to achieve
educational objectives. In addition, the author states that the use of this strategy is an important
tool to reflect on and improve teaching practices since it expresses different elements of actions
that educators can adopt, such as decisions on the selection and organization of subjects,
resources, spaces, time and methods of evaluating the learning process.
Regarding the concepts related to the subject of intermolecular forces, essential topics for
understanding the nature of these interactions were developed, as well as their influence on the
physical properties of materials. The DS was organized in three didactic units (DU):
- Nature of intermolecular forces DU: developed in 6h/classes to promote an understanding
of the electrostatic nature of intermolecular interactions.
- London force and dipole-dipole interactions DU: lasted three classes, totaling 6 hours/
class, whose main objective was to understand the electrostatic nature of the dipole-dipole
interaction due to the distribution of electrical charges and the formation of electric dipoles.
- Hydrogen bonding DU: developed in 6h/classes with the aim of understanding the
electrostatic nature of the hydrogen bond at an atomic-molecular level.
In total, six weeks of application were necessary, amounting to a month and a half of
effective development of all activities. However, this study focused on the description and
analysis of the London Force and dipole-dipole interactions unit, which discussed fundamental
aspects for the understanding of intermolecular forces in upper-secondary education.
Sample
52 students from two classes of the first year of upper-secondary education participated
in this research, 26 in the technical course in Chemistry and 26 in the Industrial Automation
course, which are integrated into upper-secondary education.
It is noteworthy that some students did not participate in all the interventions related to
the subject of intermolecular forces, and, therefore, exclusion criteria were established, such as:
- Not answering two or more instruments - Students who did not answer two or more collection
instruments. It is believed that students who did not attend at least two classes dedicated to
intermolecular forces could, in this case, interfere with the research results. Thus, these criteria
restricted the number of participants. Of the 52 initial students, 29 were considered subjects for
data analysis.

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Instrument and Procedures 179
Data collection took place before, during and after the development of the DS. It should
be noted that the DS was designed to promote the progressive transition of the explanatory
models created by the participating students. In this way, to facilitate the data collection process
and subsequent analysis, the activities were separated into research phases: - Initial phase –
application of the initial diagnostic questionnaire; - Intermediate phase – development of
activities proposed in the DS; - Final phase – application of a final diagnostic questionnaire.
Table 1
Phases, Descriptions Activities and Data Collection Instruments.
London Force and Dipole-Dipole Interactions DU

Phase Description of activity Instruments
Questionnaire regarding: the identification of dipole-dipole and
London interactions, the electrostatic nature of the dipole-dipole
interaction due to the distribution of electric charges and formation
Application of the initial diagnostic
Initial of electric dipoles; the nature of the London forces by polarizability,
questionnaire.
as well as the magnitude of these interactions in rationalizing
observable macroscopic properties; influence and magnitude of
these interactions on the physical properties of substances
Instruments organized according to the sequence of the seven
methodological steps proposed for the discussion and resolution
of problems, proposed by Schmidt (1983): Reading the Problem,
identification and clarification of unknown terms; Identification
- Solution of the initial problem of the problems proposed by the statement; Formulations of
Intermediate explanatory hypotheses; Summary of hypotheses; Formulations
of learning objects; Study and research of the issues raised in the
learning objectives; Re-discussions of the problem and sharing of
new knowledge acquired in the study phase to the group.
Instrument to collect pictographic data on the submicroscopic
Investigative experimental activity
representation of dipole-dipole interactions and London forces.
Application of the final diagnostic
Final Questionnaire for final data collection.
questionnaire.
Table 1 presents, in a simplified way, the phases of the study, as well as descriptions of
the activities carried out and the data collection instruments used during the DS. To understand
in detail the development of the didactic sequence, in addition to the aspects, consult Miranda
(2018).
Data Analysis

The data analysis to evaluate the conceptual evolution of the participants was divided
into four stages, as shown in Figure 1.

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180 Figure 1
Stages of Data Analysis
In stage I, the responses of students were read, transcribed into Microsoft Office Excel®
spreadsheets and grouped into the categories suggested by Pazinato (2016) in the three stages
of the study, as described in Table 2. Thus, score 1 was assigned for students who presented
realistic conceptions of the subject in their ideas, score 2, for empiricist ideas and score 3, for
rationalist conceptions.
Table 2
Description of Philosophical Zones
Philosophical
Description Score
zone
They present non-scientific notions. They represent ideas associated with common sense,
Realist characterized by naive, subjective and intuitive ways of enunciating a certain concept. 1
They begin to use scientific terms derived directly from observation, experimentation
Empiricist or experimental data. They present ideas with a greater degree of abstraction than the 2
previous zone and generally do not establish many relationships between concepts.
They present scientific ways of thinking about the concepts in question. The ideas are
Rationalist complex and interrelated, most of the time with great power of abstraction. In this zone, 3
there is a higher level of reflection on the scientific concepts researched.
In the second stage, the average of the answers of each student per phase of the research
(initial, intermediate and final) was calculated, which represents the predominant zone of the
students' ideas. For this, Score ranges were determined for each philosophical zone, in order
to obtain an overview of the origin of the student's knowledge, as shown in Figure 4. This is
justified by the plurality of thoughts, since, often, for a given concept, responses from different

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philosophical areas were presented throughout the research. It is noteworthy that in each of 181
the phases (initial, intermediate and final) data were collected that served as support to analyze
the progressive transition. For example, in the initial phase, seven questions were used (Q1
to Q7). In this way, the classification for student E5's ideas was: Q1 realistic (1), Q2 realistic
(1), Q3 realistic (1), Q4 empiricist (2), Q5 empiricist (2), Q6 realistic (1) and Q7 empiricists
(2). Therefore, the average of the answers was calculated (1+1+1+2+2+1+2/ 7 = 1.4) and this
student presented a predominantly realistic notion about the hydrogen bond. Score ranges were
determined to obtain an overview of the ideas presented by students, as explained above. This
same procedure was repeated for the other students in all phases of the research.
Figure 2
Score Range
In the third stage, a statistical method for HCA - Hierarchical Cluster Analysis – was
used, which allows for optimizing data by grouping students with similar answers (Hair, 2005)
and prevents the analysis of progressive transition sequences from becoming exhaustive and
repetitive. For each group formed from the aforementioned technique, a subject was randomly
chosen that represents the ideas of the entire group to demonstrate the analysis of the progressive
transition, that is, to evaluate the conceptual evolution during the approach of the content of
intermolecular forces, contemplated in step IV.
In addition, the matter representation levels were also considered for the evaluation of
progressive transition sequences. In this analysis, the categories proposed by Martorano (2012)
were adapted, as shown in Table 3
Table 3
Description of Proposed Categories of Representation of Chemical Knowledge Levels
Category Description
This category will include students who are able to present their pictographic
MEM –Macroscopic explanatory
representations only with macroscopic characteristics, that is, descriptive and
model
functional representations of the phenomena under study.
SEM–Submicroscopic explanatory This category will include students who represent phenomena through entities
model from the submicroscopic world and through the use of specific chemistry terms.
This category will include students who make linked relationships between
LEM–Linked explanatory model submicroscopic and macroscopic levels, as well as representation of
phenomena through scientifically accepted models.
Research Results
Table 4 presents the results referring to steps I and II. Hence, the percentage of students
who remained in the zones of the initial, intermediate and final phases of the research is shown.

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182 Table 4
Categorization of Responses on Intermolecular Forces in the Initial, Intermediate and Final
Phases of the Research
Percentage per research phase %

Zones Score range
Initial Intermediate Final
Realist 1.0-1.4 31.0 - -
Empiricist 1.5-2.4 65.5 27.5 31.0
Rationalist 2.5-3.0 3.5 72.5 69.0
After analyzing stages I and II, the HCA was used to group students with similar
responses. The dendrogram obtained from the HCA is represented in Figure 3. The branches of
the Dendrogram indicate five groups of students (I-V) with 65.5% (0.655) of similarity.
Figure 3
Dendrogram Obtained from the HCA Using the Ward/Incremental Method and the Euclidean
Distance
Thus, from the results obtained in the HCA, Table 5 was created. It presents the grouping
of students with similar answers, as well as the subject chosen to describe the development of
the progressive transition sequence of the explanatory models.

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Table 5 183
HCA Groups and Students Chosen to Develop the Progressive Transition Sequence
Students Progressive Transition

Group I E29 E13 E26 E22 E29
Group II E23 E15 E20 E20
Group III E25 E21 E19 E2 E25
Group IV E28 E16 E14 E9 E10 E14
E27 E12 E7 E1 E18 E17 E4 E11 E6
Group V E1
E5 E3
In view of the above, the progressive transition sequences of the students mentioned in
Table 5 will be presented below. Thus, Figure 4 shows the analysis of the progressive transition
of the students in the London forces dimension and dipole-dipole in the three phases of the
research. In addition, it shows graphs that represent the evolution of the explanatory models
of students E29, E20, E25, E14 and E1, (representatives of the groups specified in Table 2),
respectively.
Figure 4
Progressive Transition of Students E29, E20, E25, E14 and E1 in the Three Phases of the
Research

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184 Discussion
At the end of the DS, it can be seen that most students (20) managed to evolve
conceptually. It was noticeable that they understood that a dipole-dipole interaction, for
example, occurs between molecules containing the bond connecting two different atoms, in
which the electrons are not shared symmetrically, presenting an electric dipole moment (μ) and
forming a permanent dipole. In this way, when close to each other, the molecules attract each
other through the partial charges of opposite signs located in each molecule. In addition, they
understood the London forces and the influence of these interactions on physical properties.
However, it was detected that a group of students still had empiricist ideas, failing to form
progressive transition sequences of their explanatory models, that is, there was no significant
conceptual evolution during the research phases, as observed in the representatives of groups
I and II, E29 and E20, respectively. The aforementioned aspects were evaluated during the
discussion of this section, in which important themes that could guide the causes of learning
difficulties and resistance to conceptual changes were addressed. Authors such as Duschl and
Gitomer (1991) studied the philosophy of science to affirm the gradual and evolutionary nature
of conceptual changes, as opposed to the image of radical changes proposed by a philosophy
based on Kuhnian assumptions. The authors are attentive to the transpositions of the philosophy
of science to the understanding of the learning process in the classroom and highlight important
information regarding students' resistance to changes.
According to Niaz (1998), those beliefs that are resistant to change can be compared to
the "hard core" of a scientific research program; that is, this core is what defines the program,
takes the form of a hypothesis within which the program develops and, as a result, removing or
altering it will cause it to degenerate. According to the author, students resist changes in their core
convictions by creating "auxiliary hypotheses" to defend them. These supporting hypotheses
can offer springboards for the development of new teaching strategies. Still, according to Niaz
(1998), it is important to explore the relationship between core beliefs and students' alternative
conceptions. For this, it is essential that the alternative conceptions are interpreted within the
epistemological assumptions because, in this way, an alternative conception does not become
a mere mistake and resembles a paradigm. According to the author, this similarity can help it
become a candidate for change. Similar to the learning process, Lakatos (1970) observes that,
in science, the core of a Program develops slowly through a long and slow process of trial and
error and never emerges out of the blue. In this way, the act of learning is a slow process and
requires the use of methods that favor the students to overcome their core convictions.
Furthermore, Miranda et al., (2022) argue that empiricism is still rooted in teaching
practice and in teaching materials used in basic education. The empiricist conception continues
to be adopted by teachers, being strongly inspired by the work of Sir Francis Bacon, who
proposed an empiricist-inductive method. In this way, proven knowledge is absolute knowledge
and, therefore, unquestionable, which implies the exacerbated application of general rules for
the concepts under study.
In view of this, the aforementioned author argues that effective learning in science
involves a slow process of change that should be directed not only towards the assimilation of
concepts but mainly towards new modes of reasoning, epistemological demands and cognitive
values.
Regarding the ability to move between the levels of matter representation, it was observed
that the students were able to represent their pictographic models, through more complex,
interrelated and submicroscopic schemes. For Miranda et al., (2022) the exacerbated use of
principles, laws and the application of general rules without submicroscopically considering the
phenomena under study is related to a purely empiricist view of the construction and application
of scientific knowledge. With this in mind, we believe there was a deepened understanding of

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concepts related to intermolecular forces, and the activities developed effectively contributed to 185
the progressive transition of the students’ explanatory models.
Conclusions and Implications
In order to achieve the objectives proposed in this work and respond to the research
problem: "How to evaluate the explanatory models of upper-secondary students about the
nature of intermolecular forces, based on the relationship between Lakatosian theory and the
levels of representation of chemical knowledge?", a didactic sequence was created for the
construction of knowledge on the topic of intermolecular forces. A DS was developed based
on experimental activities of an investigative nature, problem-solving and modeling activities,
with a view to conceptual evolution on the part of the students, so that their explanatory models
could form progressive transition sequences, increasing the heuristic power of this model.
It was noticed that there was a significant percentage of students who managed to progress
during the research. It is concluded that the use of differentiated activities in the teaching of
intermolecular forces, within a constructivist perspective, in which students become active
subjects in the construction of knowledge, significantly favors the learning process. Therefore,
the results revealed that these interventions were important for the subjects to be able to evolve
conceptually and form progressive transition sequences of their explanatory models, that is,
they progressively managed to increase the heuristic power of these models.
In addition, this research still has numerous possibilities for studies on the topic addressed.
The Brazilian educational context needs more research that conjectures the interpretation of
everyday phenomena through the understanding of the content of intermolecular forces. Also, it
is extremely important that epistemological issues are included in initial training curricula and
in discussions of continuing teacher training, since epistemological aspects are fundamental for
a more critical training and for overcoming the empiricist model still influential in Brazilian
education.
Acknowledgements
The Federal University of Ouro Preto, CAPES and CNPq.
Declaration of Interest
The authors declare no competing interest.
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Received: February 11, 2022 Revised: March 20, 2023 Accepted: April 05, 2023

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Cite as: Miranda, A. C. G., & Pazinato, M. S. (2023). Contributions of Lakatosian

theory to the evaluation of explanatory models of intermolecular forces made by
upper-secondary students. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 81(2), 176-187.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.176
Ana Carolina Gomes Miranda PhD in Chemistry Teaching, Professor, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Rua
(Corresponding author) Dom Veloso, 108. Bairro Cabeças, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
E-mail: ana.miranda@ufop.edu.br
Maurícius Selvero Pazinato PhD in Chemistry Teaching, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Minas
Gerais, Brazil.
E-mail: mauriuspazinato@gmail.com

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188
PREDICTIVE POWER OF BIOLOGY
TEACHER’S SELF-EFFICACY ON
ACCEPTABILITY AND APPLICATION OF
VIRTUAL AND HANDS-ON DISSECTIONS
Veronika Havlíčková
University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
E-mail: bangova.veronika@seznam.cz
Andrej Šorgo
University of Maribor, Slovenia
E-mail: andrej.sorgo@um.si
Martin Bílek
Charles University, Czech Republic
E-mail: martin.bilek@pedf.cuni.cz
Abstract
Hands-on dissections of animals are traditionally regarded as an essential part of biology education.
Nowadays, regardless of the reported educational benefits, there is a gradual change in the concept
and acceptance of hands-on dissection, leading in many cases to its abandonment in schools and its
replacement with alternatives such as 3D models, figurines, plastination and computer-based alternatives.
However, the position of hands-on dissection has recently been challenged, mostly by computer-supported
alternatives. The aim of the study was to explore whether teacher self-efficacy can be recognized as a
predictor of the application of the different kinds of animals in hands-on and virtual dissections in Biology
lessons. Based on responses from 405 Czech Biology teachers there are differences in the acceptability and
implementation of organisms for hands-on and virtual dissection. It was established, that self-efficacy is
not a predictor of either the acceptability of organisms or actual behaviour in both variants of dissection.
Keywords: biology lessons, biology teachers, hands-on dissection, teacher self-efficacy, virtual
dissection
Introduction
In the biological sciences, observation with the naked eye or with the aid of instruments
is a fundamental method of acquiring knowledge about living beings. However, biological
knowledge is incomplete without knowledge of internal body structures. Thus, when
researchers have wanted to know what is inside organisms, they have traditionally explored
internal anatomy through dissection and, more recently, through non-invasive methods such as
X-rays, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance, the latter of which are not appropriate for teaching
in elementary and secondary schools. When educators want to show internal structures to
their students, they cannot rely on verbal-textual presentations but must choose one of the
alternatives to visualize the objects of interest. The presentations can alternate between teaching
with the help of pictures, multimedia presentations, models, preserved specimens, hands-on
dissection of real specimens and, more recently, with the use of computer-based interactive
virtual laboratories (Havlíčková et al., 2018b). Each teaching tool has its advantages and

Veronika HAVLÍČKOVÁ, Andrej ŠORGO, Martin BÍLEK. Predictive power of biology teacher’s self-efficacy on acceptability and
application of virtual and hands-on dissections
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disadvantages, and teachers must seek a balance between them when searching for the most 189
beneficial teaching method. Likewise, teachers should think and reflect on the ethical aspects of
the chosen methods (Balcombe, 2000). However, the best possible alternative is often not the
one chosen - not because of the availability of resources, but because of teachers' abilities and
personal characteristics and beliefs. In addition to such factors, perceived self-efficacy (Bandura,
1994) can be a source of biased decision-making when it comes to choosing or rejecting hands-
on and virtual dissection as plausible dissection alternatives for teaching biology/science.
The added value of research can be recognized at several levels. On the national
level, this is the first study of its kind on the population of Czech biology teachers. On the
international level, it was not possible to find a similar study, even if every single aspect has
already been researched, but not in the present context. The potential results of the study can
also be recognized as a valuable addition to the arguments helping decision-makers to include
or replace dissection in schools.
Background
Hands-on dissections of organisms and their body parts have traditionally been an
essential part of teaching biology and science. The advantages and disadvantages have been
thoroughly debated in the educational literature. Hands-on dissection is most often described
in educational contexts as a valuable motivational tool that helps students strengthen their
understanding and reinforce their knowledge of anatomy and morphology (Lombardi et al.,
2014; Randler et al., 2012, 2015). Hands-on dissection is known to provide a more realistic and
exciting experience (Franklin & Peat, 2005). It leads to progress in manual skills, observational
skills, through the discovery of specific structures of the body and recognition of the complexity
of living creatures (National Science Teachers Association [NSTA], 2008). Hands-on dissection
is a common and widespread practice in schools; however, it should not be done solely to satisfy
one's curiosity (Moore, 2001; Randler et al., 2012). Therefore, hands-on dissection should fulfil
educational goals, such as developing observational and manual skills, and allow students to
discover and share unique structures and develop greater value for life (NSTA, 2008).
Nowadays, regardless of the reported educational benefits, there is a gradual change in
the concept and acceptance of hands-on dissection, leading in many cases to its abandonment
in schools and its replacement with alternatives such as 3D models, figurines, plastination
and computer-based alternatives. This transition can already be seen in documents: National
Association of Biology Teachers (NABT, 2008), for example, promotes the inclusion of animals
in the classroom and suggests that teachers should choose carefully between dissection and its
alternatives. However, since the alternatives also have limitations, they should not be used
uncritically to replace the use of animals (NABT, 2008). Some authors believe that hands-on
dissection should be abandoned when an alternative of adequate quality exists (De Villiers
& Monk, 2005). The reasons for such a stance are mostly ethical (Balcombe, 2000) and are
justified by the higher costs and limited access to dissection materials and laboratory equipment
(Havlíčková & Bílek, 2015). Additionally, changes at the curricular level are reflected in the
introduction of the right for students to opt out of hands-on dissection (Balcombe, 2000).
Recently, the greatest potential for replacing traditional hands-on dissection has been
attributed to virtual and interactive computer-based alternatives (Havlíčková & Bílek, 2015;
Havlíčková et al., 2018b). In addition to ethical reasons, the most commonly reported advantages
of virtual interactive dissection are lower cost, independence of time and place, the possibility
of immediate feedback, simplification of natural complexity (Balcombe, 2000; Volf, 2012),
and the possibility of dealing with normally inaccessible animal species and their internal
parts (Havlíčková et al., 2018b). Swan and O'Donnell (2009) report that virtual dissection can
simulate objects and processes that are difficult to explain or show during instruction, which

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190 promotes critical thinking and analysis during the lesson (Kuech et al., 2003). Virtual dissection
is a tool with significant instructional potential because students can repeat the activity until
they are able to complete it and eliminate errors (Lalley et al., 2010). Swan and O'Donnell
recognized virtual dissection as a tool that can facilitate online group discussions among users
and an approach to course material and exercises (Swan & O'Donnell, 2009) without fear or
discomfort. By some, these tools are perceived to supplement information gathering prior to
actual hands-on dissection (Predavec, 2001), as they provide additional information (Swan &
O'Donnell, 2009).
Virtual dissection has both opponents and proponents. They mostly criticize the
oversimplification and low degree of realism of such simulations, which leads them to be
considered as a game rather than a real experience (Allchin, 2005). Furthermore, virtual
dissections do not allow for the establishment of a relationship with the dissected object or
other ethical aspects of the activity (Oakley, 2012). In contrast, one of the most important
considerations in the adoption of virtual technology is knowledge gain compared to traditional
methods. The results of studies on knowledge gain are mixed and do not allow for clear
conclusions (Špernjak & Šorgo, 2018). All of the above reasons could contribute to teachers
having negative attitudes towards virtual dissection (Oakley, 2012).
Hands-on dissection and its alternative can be done as a demonstration by the teacher or as
individual or group work by the students. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages
and, as shown in the study by Havlíčková et al. (2018b), Czech teachers prefer dissection as
an individual, hands-on activity carried out by their students to demonstrations. The reason for
their preference for active engagement in dissection as individual or group work is most likely
their desire to provide students with first-hand experience and fear of failure when using digital
alternatives.
Attitudes towards hands-on and virtual dissection can be described as mixed, leading to
the conclusion that the issue is not black and white for or against these alternatives. Moreover,
students and teachers do not necessarily share the same opinions and neither group is isolated
from the influence of those who are directly and indirectly involved in teaching, such as
parents or peers. From the study by Havlíčková and Bílek (2015), it is obvious that students
are opposed to a complete replacement of hands-on dissection with virtual or other alternatives,
and although many students struggle with the acceptance of hands-on dissection, they see it as
necessary for their education. In some cases, it has been recognized that students prefer hands-
on dissection to alternatives (Lombardi et al., 2014; Špernjak & Šorgo, 2017). These students
often adopt attitudes towards dissection alternatives and share them with their teachers. A gap
between teacher and student opinions may go unnoticed and unaddressed by researchers. For
example, Balcombe (1997) found that there were many more negative student responses than
were self-reported by teachers. One source of bias may be the perception that teachers should be
more sensitive to students who express certain reservations about hands-on dissection (Moore,
2001). The rationale may lie in the intuitive claim that students learn more when they work in
an enjoyable way (Balcombe, 2001). However, even when students have the opportunity to
use virtual and other alternatives, they do not necessarily want to use them (Lombardi et al.,
2014; Špernjak & Šorgo, 2017; Swan & O'Donnell, 2009). One reason for the reluctance to use
alternatives could be a lack of experience with section alternatives (mainly virtual sections)
among both students and their teachers (Havlíčková et al., 2018b).
The most likely reasons for using or avoiding practical or virtual sections are emotions.
As Randler et al. (2016) wrote, anxiety and other negative and positive emotions are predictors
of approaching hands-on dissection. Emotions are strongly associated with motivation and
learning (Randler et al., 2016), as well as self-efficacy (Areepattamannil et al., 2011; Hidi &
Renninger, 2006). A frightened or disgusted person views him or herself as less capable than
one who is not frightened (Holstermann et al., 2010). Some animals, as well as sick people

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and substances such as vomit, can cause the development of disgust (Petrowski et al., 2010; 191
Rozin et al., 2000). This feeling also reduces motivation and leads to the rejection of studying
biology (Holstermann et al., 2009); also, someone who feels disgust towards certain animals
(e.g., amphibians) usually does not reach the same level of knowledge (Randler et al., 2005).
Therefore, their knowledge remains at a lower level than students who do not experience
fear or disgust. Students experience disgust for animals across the scale. The most disgusting
animals students perceive are macroinvertebrates, while the least disgusting animals are
mammals (Randler et al., 2013), and the most disgusting activity is hands-on dissection of
fish. In general, there are many species of animals that students categorize into several groups
based on attractiveness: those with lower attractiveness (reptiles, amphibians, and insects)
and higher attractiveness (mammals and birds), as well as some with very negative ratings,
such as spiders, snakes, or insects (Bjerke et al., 1998; Prokop & Tunnicliffe, 2008; Randler
et al., 2013). Ondrová (2012) wrote that her respondents had the most experience with hands-
on dissection of earthworms, pig or bull eyes, bees, fish or chickens, etc. Similar results were
found by Organization Svoboda Zvířat (2011). They wrote that their respondents mentioned
alternatives but had no experience with these alternatives. This could be the correct reason
for the differences in the use or avoidance of the two decomposition alternatives found in this
study. It is similar to the study of Havlíčková et al. (2018a), where the respondents also had no
experience with virtual dissection.
It should be noted that disgust protects us from possible diseases, injury, etc. (Randler et
al., 2013). Nevertheless, disgust, fear, and other negative emotions could be reduced through
various methods (repeated exposure to dissections and animals). For example, Pugh and Salud
(2007) used models to reduce the fear of hands-on dissection. And Arraez-Aybar et al. (2004)
used verbal information and videos that showed images of human dissection. It is evident that
disgust or other previous negative emotions have a negative impact on attitude and reduce the
quality of activities performed, along with the quantity of knowledge acquired (Holstermann
et al., 2009; Randler et al., 2012, 2016). It could be predicted that positive experiences and
attitudes lead to better outcomes. The quality of the acquired knowledge and performed activity
also depends on positive emotions.
Self-efficacy can be recognized as an individual's belief in his or her own ability to achieve
desired goals in a particular domain. In fact, it can be recognized as a person's belief in his or
her ability to influence events that affect his or her life (Bandura, 1994). It can also influence
cognitive, motivational, and affective processes (Bandura & Locke, 2003; Randler et al., 2015).
Self-efficacy affects all areas of human endeavour. It is part of the mechanism for developing
a psychologically resilient personality and a person's belief that they have control over events
(Alt, 2018). Belief in one's self-efficacy influences whether people perceive themselves as self-
efficacious or self-defeating and how well they motivate themselves or persevere in the face of
difficulty (Bandura & Locke, 2003). This means that the self-efficacy of a happy person is much
higher than the self-efficacy of a person who is sad or depressed (Forgas et al., 1990; Randler et
al., 2012; Salovey & Birnbaum, 1989).
Self-efficacy is strongly associated with motivation to continue studying biology,
working scientifically, or performing related activities (Šorgo et al., 2017), which means that
positive emotions and experiences significantly increase self-efficacy, while negative emotions
and experiences decrease it. As Holstermann et al. (2009) and Randler et al. (2012) found,
disgust and fear are the negative predictors that significantly reduce motivation to perform a
practical dissection. As Randler et al. (2016) found, we acquire less knowledge about a species
when we feel fear of it. When someone feels disgust, their intention is to avoid the stimulus.
And at that moment, self-efficacy plays a crucial role because it can lead to a willingness to
perform or repeat a certain activity.

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192 Research Aim
There exist many concerns about the position of the hands-on dissection of animals in
schools as the source of authentic learning experiences of students. Hands-on dissections can
be replaced by alternatives such as models and most recently by virtual laboratories. The most
important factor in the selection between alternatives is teachers. The aim of the study was to
explore their acceptance of organisms for dissection in school which may depend on many
factors, such as availability of the organisms, availability of (digital) tools, cost, emotion, self-
efficacy, and motivation. The focus of the study was to answer the question if the self-efficacy
of teachers would be a statistically significant predictor of the choice of different kinds of
organisms for dissection as hands-on or virtual activity.
Research Questions
Research questions were related to finding reasons for implementing or not implementing
hands-on and virtual dissection in biology classes in the Czech Republic. Based on the
hypothesis that self-efficacy is highly related to the choice of an organism to dissect and the
manner in which dissection is performed, the research questions were as follows.
(1) Are there differences in the acceptability of different types of organisms between
hands-on and virtual dissection?
(2) Are there differences in the use of different types of organisms in the classroom
between hands-on and virtual dissection?
(3) Are there differences in perceived self-efficacy between practical and virtual
dissection?
(4) Is there a statistically significant relationship between self-efficacy and acceptance of
organisms in hands-on and virtual dissection?
(5) Is there a statistically significant relationship between self-efficacy and classroom use
of organisms in hands-on and virtual dissection?
General Background
To obtain the answers to research questions, a survey administered to a sample of Czech

pre-service and in-service biology teachers working in lower and upper secondary schools was
a choice. The survey instrument was a questionnaire with subscales asking about demographic
data, frequency of using organisms in the classroom, acceptance of organisms, and a self-
efficacy scale focusing on real and virtual dissection. The work was conducted as a doctoral
project, with some of the aspects discussed in Havlíčková and Bílek (2015) and Havlíčková et
al. (2018a, 2018b).
Data Collection
In order to obtain a general overview of the views and practice of dissection among Czech
teachers, the target population consisted of pre-service and in-service biology teachers. The
focus was on lower secondary and upper secondary schools, where it was assumed that hands-
on dissection is an optional part of the biology curriculum, depending on whether teachers
choose this method or not. A call for participation in the survey was made to teachers and
prospective teachers through a variety of in-person, formal, and informal channels. All of the
contacted prospective teachers were in the Master’s programme and had previous experience of

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teaching in schools as part of their compulsory teaching practice. Two options for completing 193
the questionnaire were offered. The first was a paper-and-pencil form, and the second was an
online form set up as a Google form. The questionnaires were distributed in paper form or as
a note with a link to the form between September 2015 and February 2016. Completion of the
questionnaire was voluntary, and anonymity was guaranteed. No benefits were offered to those
who provided responses.
Sample
In a realised survey, there were 489 responses from biology teachers. The sample was
large enough for the intended statistical analyses (Hinkin et al., 1997). Cases with a large
number of missing responses and responses from individuals who qualified as subject teachers
or worked in jobs where dissection was not applicable (e.g., principals) were removed from
the list prior to analysis. Therefore, it was finally gained with a sample of 405 prospective
biology teachers (N = 196; 48.4%) and biology teachers (N = 208, 51.4%) who indicated that
they belonged to the group of "teachers of a subject in which dissection is applicable." The
sample included 304 (75.1%) women and 101 (24.9%) men, reflecting the feminisation of the
profession.
Instrument and Procedures
Acceptance Scale
The acceptability of organisms for hands-on or virtual dissection was measured using two
identical 5-point Likert scales, one for hands-on and the other for virtual dissection (Havlíčková
et al., 2018b). Nine groups of organisms were listed (Table 1) and the respondents' task was to
rate their acceptability for inclusion in biology (science) lessons. Given the response format-
one (completely unacceptable) to five (completely acceptable)-the nine-point total score had a
theoretical range of 9 for someone for whom dissecting all types of organisms is unacceptable
to 45 for someone for whom all organisms are acceptable (Table 1). Cronbach's alpha for
acceptability of organisms for hands-on dissection was .85, and for virtual dissection was .93;
therefore, no item was dropped from the pool.
Dissection Practice Scale
Identical five-point Likert scales to those used for acceptability were used; the only
difference was that respondents were asked about their real-world experiences with hands-on
and virtual dissection (Havlíčková et al., 2018b). The range on a 5-point Likert scale was from
one (never) to "on every possible occasion". Given the response format of 1 to 5, the nine-item
summary score had a theoretical range of 9 for someone who never dissects and 45 for someone
who dissects every organism on every possible occasion (Table 2). Cronbach's alpha for using
hands-on dissection was .87, and for virtual dissection was .97. Given the very good scores, the
items were not removed from the pool.
Self-efficacy Scale
Self-efficacy in hands-on and virtual dissection was measured using the General Self-
Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). The General Self-Efficacy Scale is a 10-item
psychometric scale developed to measure optimistic self-beliefs (Table 3). Respondents were
provided with two identical scales and instructed that they should answer the first scale in

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194 the context of hands-on dissection and the second scale in the context of virtual dissection.
The Czech language version, available on the website of the Free University of Berlin (http://
userpage.fu-berlin.de/~health/selfscal.htm), was used in the study. The scale has been shown to
be suitable in an international context (e.g. Scholz et al., 2002; Schwarzer et al., 1997; Šorgo et
al., 2017). The response format used in the study was as follows: strongly disagree (1), hardly
true (2), moderately true (3) and exactly true (4). Due to the response format of 1 to 4, the ten-
point summary score had a theoretical range of 10 to 40. The Cronbach's alphas for self-efficacy
for hands-on dissection (.89) and virtual dissection (.95) were large enough to accept both
scales as reliable; therefore, no item was discarded from the pool.
Data Analysis

Data from the Google forms and paper-and-pencil questionnaires were combined into
a single spreadsheet file and transferred to IBM SPSS 24. All cases with a large number of
missing items were excluded from the analysis. Because of the non-normal and partially
skewed distribution, non-parametric statistics was a choice. Frequency analyses, Spearman
correlation coefficients, and Mann-Whitney nonparametric tests were performed. The reliability
of the scales was assessed using Cronbach's alpha (Gliem & Gliem, 2003). Effect sizes were
calculated as Cohen's d using the Psychometrica Online Engine (Lenhard & Lenhard, 2016)
and verified using the formula r = -z/√N (Field, 2009, p.550).
Before proceeding with the analysis, the differences in the summative scales between
prospective and actual teachers and between genders were calculated. The only statistically
significant difference was found in the scales that assessed the acceptability of organisms for
use in hands-on dissection (Mann-Whitney U = 17423.5; p = .012); however, the effect size
value (r = .13) ranged from not significant to very small, so it was proceeded with the analyses
by treating prospective and in-service Biology teachers as one group, regardless of gender.
Correlations (Figure 1) were calculated from the sums of answers as obtained by the scales
described above.
Research Results
Acceptance of Different Kinds of Organisms as a Hands-on and Virtual Activity in School

The results of acceptance of different types of organisms as a hands-on and virtual activity
in school are presented in Table 1. The results are sorted by decreasing means and modes,
which means that at the top of the table are the organisms that are accepted for dissection by
the majority of teachers. The differences between acceptance in the real and virtual world are
clearly visible. In the virtual world, all classes of organisms and organs, except human tissues,
are above the median of 5, which means that they are completely acceptable for dissection
for more than half of the respondents. On the other hand, the acceptability of organisms to be
used in a hands-on dissection falls into two distinct groups. In the first group (Med = 5; Mod
= 5) are plants, arthropods, lower invertebrates, and animal organs that can be purchased in
supermarkets or obtained from slaughterhouses for human consumption – all of these organisms
are recognised by the majority of teachers as acceptable for dissection. In the second group are
whole vertebrate animals and human tissues. All differences in acceptability between hands-on
and virtual dissection in the first group are within a small range. In all cases, except for plants,
acceptance is higher for the virtual alternatives. In the second group (vertebrates and human
tissues), the differences in effect size fall within a large range in favour of virtual dissection.
Looking at the overall acceptance from the central tendencies of the totals of all organisms
on a scale of 9 to 45 (Table 1), it can be seen that the effect size is in favour of the virtual

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dissection in a large range (.86). It is worth noting that for 164 (40.5%) of the respondents, 195
all organisms and tissues in the virtual world are acceptable for dissection. The high level of
acceptability is also visible in the value (43) of the median. In the real hands-on world, the
acceptance is lower; however, the median of 33 is significantly higher than the midpoint at 27
points.
Table 1
Frequencies of Acceptability of Different Kinds of Organisms for Use as Hands-on and
Virtual Dissection in a School (N=405)
Hands-on dissection Virtual dissection

M Mode M Mode Cohen’s Effect
Organism SD Median Median
% SD % d size
(5) 4.79 (5)
Plants 4.88 0.53 5.0 5.0 -0.15 Small
92.6 0.67 87.2
(5) 4.63 (5)
Arthropods# 4.42 0.93 5.0 5.0 0.25 Small
64.2 0.78 76.3
Lower (5) 4.59 (5)
4.33 1.01 5.0 5.0 0.28 Small
invertebrates## 60.7 0.87 75.8
(5) 4.45 (5)
Animal organs### 4.26 1.12 5.0 5.0 0.18 Small
61.2 1.04 70.9
(2) 4.36 (5)
Whole fish 2.41 1.09 2.0 5.0 1.77 Large
47.2 1.11 66.7
Whole reptiles and (1) 4.13 (5)
2.80 1.42 3.0 5.0 0.98 Large
amphibians 27.4 1.30 59.5
(1) 4.02 (5)
Whole birds 2.77 1.44 3.0 5.0 0.91 Large
28.4 1.32 54.6
(1) 3.95 (5)
Whole mammals 2.61 1.40 3.0 5.0 0.97 Large
31.4 1.36 52.3
(1) 3.74 (5)
Human tissue 1.97 1.28 1.0 4.0 1.30 Large
55.1 1.43 45.9
(35) 38.65 (45)
Sum 31.96 7.24 33.0 43.0 0.86 Large
6.9 8.23 40.5
Note. #Arthropods (e.g., insects and crabs); ##Lower invertebrates (e.g., snails, worms); ###Animal organs that
can be purchased in supermarkets or obtained from slaughterhouses for human consumption (e. g. pig kidneys;
ox eyes)
Differences in the Use of Different Types of Organisms in the Classroom between Hands-on
and Virtual Dissection

The results of the differences in the use of different types of organisms in the classroom
between practical and virtual dissection are shown in Table 2. The results are sorted by
decreasing means and modes. The differences between dissection practice in the real and virtual
world are clearly visible. The results show that only plants are regularly dissected hands-on in
school, followed by invertebrates and occasionally animal organs and fish. Virtual dissection
has not found its way into regular school practice. From the positive, albeit small, effect size
values, it appears that only vertebrates and human tissues are dissected more frequently in the
virtual world, if at all.

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196 Table 2
Frequencies of Differences in Classroom Application of Different Kinds of Organisms
between Hands-on and Virtual Dissection (N=405)

Mode Mode Effect
Organism M SD Median M SD Median Cohen’s d
% % size
(5) (1)
Plants 4.06 1.26 5.0 2.25 1.64 1.0 -1.24 large
52.8 58.8
(3) (1)
Arthropods# 3.15 1.41 3.0 1.99 1.41 1.0 -0.82 large
25.7 61.7
(1) (1)
Lower invertebrates## 2.90 1.44 3.0 2.01 1.45 1.0 -0.62 intermediate
25.9 60.7
(1) (1)
Animal organs### 2.65 1.45 3.0 1.86 1.36 1.0 -0.56 intermediate
32.3 65.4
(1) (1)
Whole fish 2.51 1.44 2.0 1.87 1.32 1.0 -0.46 intermediate
38.3 64
(1) (1)
Whole mammals 1.51 0.97 1.0 1.63 1.18 1.0 0.11 small
72.1 71.9
Whole reptiles and (1) (1)
1.49 0.90 1.0 1.83 1.28 1.0 0.31 small
amphibians 72.3 63.7
(1) (1)
Whole birds 1.45 0.89 1.0 1.65 1.18 1.0 0.19 small
73.67 70.9
(1) (1)
Human tissue 1.29 0.78 1.0 1.59 1.09 1.0 0.32 small
84.7 71.6
(19) (9)
SUM 21.01 7.6 20.0 16.68 10.60 10.0 -0.47 intermediate
7.7 49.1
Note. #Arthropods (e.g., insects and crabs); ##Lower invertebrates (e.g., snails, worms); ###Animal organs that
can be purchased in supermarkets or obtained from slaughterhouses for human consumption (e. g. pig kidneys;
ox eyes)
Results of the Self-Efficacy Scale

It can be seen from Table 3 that the differences in self-efficacy in both contexts are
insignificant or bordering on insignificance in one case (d = .15). In the context of hands-on
dissection, the mean score of the scale is 29.70 (SD = 4.48). The scale is slightly negatively
skewed (skewness = - .41) and deviates from normality (Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test = .10,
p <.001). In the context of virtual dissection, the mean of the scale is 29.28 (SD = 5.96). The
scale is skewed (skewness = -.88) and deviates from normality (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test =
.129, p <0.001). The characteristics of the Czech version of the scale are close to the results of
other international studies (e.g., Scholz et al., 2002; Schwarzer et al., 1997; Šorgo et al., 2017).
Cronbach's alpha of the instrument was good at .89 for hands-on dissection and excellent at .95
for virtual preparation. The difference in effect size between the sums obtained for hands-on and
virtual contexts was not significant (d = .08).

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Table 3 197
Opinion on Self-Efficacy (N=405)

Mode Mode Effect
Statement M SD Median M SD Median Cohen’s d
% % Size
I can always manage
to solve difficult (3) (3)
3.20 0.72 3.0 3.12 0.75 3.0 -0.11 Small
problems if I try hard 52.1 56
enough.
If someone opposes
me, I can find the (3) (3)
2.93 0.70 3.0 2.92 0.70 3.0 -0.01 Insignificant
means and ways to get 59 62.2
what I want.
It is easy for me to
(3) (3)
stick to my aims and 2.99 0.69 3.0 2.97 0.71 3.0 -0.03 Insignificant
56.8 60.5
accomplish my goals.
I am confident that I
could deal efficiently (3) (3)
2.94 0.74 3.0 2.89 0.72 3.0 -0.07 Insignificant
with unexpected 54.1 59
events.
Thanks to my
resourcefulness, I (3) (3)
2.86 0.72 3.0 2.81 0.74 3.0 -0.07 Insignificant
know how to handle 53.8 56.5
unforeseen situations.
I can solve most
(3) (3)
problems if I invest the 3.07 0.64 3.0 2.97 0.70 3.0 -0.15 Small
63 61.5
necessary effort.
I can remain calm
when facing difficulties (3) (3)
2.85 0.71 3.0 2.86 0.70 3.0 0.01 Insignificant
because I can rely on 57 61
my coping abilities.
When I am confronted
with a problem, I can (3) (3)
2.84 0.69 3.0 2.83 0.74 3.0 -0.01 Insignificant
usually find several 57 57
solutions.
If I am in trouble, I
(3) (3)
can usually think of a 3.01 0.61 3.0 2.96 0.71 3.0 -0.08 Insignificant
68.4 61.7
solution.
I can usually handle
(3) (3)
whatever comes my 3.00 0.65 3.0 2.94 0.69 3.0 -0.09 Insignificant
65.2 62.5
way.
(30) (30)
SUM 29.69 4.87 30.0 29.27 5.90 30.0 -0.08 Insignificant
14.3 21.5

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198 Correlations between Self-Efficacy, Acceptance of Different Organisms, and Actual

Dissections

From the results presented in Figure 1, it can be seen that all correlations between the
considered constructs are in the medium range (.40 - .59) or below and fall in the weak (.20 - .39)
or even very weak and insignificant (.01 - .19) range. Self-efficacy as the construct of interest
correlates (r = .48) between both hands-on and virtual contexts, so it can be considered as the
same underlying construct explaining willingness to introduce or not any kind of dissection.
The finding was already indicated by the insignificant value of the effect size (Table 3). Self-
efficacy can be identified as a better predictor of the frequency of virtual dissection than as a
predictor of hands-on dissection. The explanation can be that teachers were educated in hands-
on but not in virtual reality during their university courses. The influence of self-efficacy on
both types of acceptance is missing and is very weak in terms of correlations. It is surprising
that there is no correlation between the acceptance of organisms and actual dissections.
Figure 1
Correlations among Self-Efficacy, Acceptance of Different Organisms and Actual Dissections
(N=405)
Note. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05; NS = nonsignificant; SEH= self-efficacy in a hands-on context; SEV=
self-efficacy in a virtual context; ACH = acceptability of hands-on dissection; AVD= acceptability of virtual
dissection; FHD= frequency of hands-on dissection; FVD = frequency of virtual dissection
Discussion
Differences in the Acceptability of Organism in a Hands-On and a Virtual Dissection

The acceptance of an organism for dissection can only be identified as a potential obstacle
in the case of hands-on dissection. This is because the majority of respondents consider virtual
dissection to be completely acceptable, with the exception of virtual dissection of the human
body, which is somewhat less acceptable. This uniformity in acceptability is not evident in
practical dissection. Respondents easily accept hands-on dissection of plants, invertebrates,
and animal organs, with differences regarding virtual dissection calculated as effect sizes in

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the small range. The differences in favour of virtual dissection are in the large range for whole 199
vertebrates and human tissues, indicating the potential for virtual dissection to complement
dissection in cases where effect sizes are small and to be suggested as an alternative to hands-on
dissection when teachers would not do it anyway.
For hands-on dissection, obtained results support Randler et al. (2013) recommendations
that teachers should choose animals used for consumption and avoid cute animals, blood, and
other body products. This is because the inclusion of such animals can increase the level of
disgust and protest and lead to ethical debate - which is not the case in the virtual world.
Differences in the Use of Different Types of Organisms in a Hands-On and a Virtual

Dissection
There is a large gap between accepting an organism for dissection and putting it into
practice. The gap is wider in the virtual world, where virtually all organisms are accepted by
the majority of teachers, but few or none of them subsequently perform the dissection in the
classroom. Since ethics, availability, and price of organisms can be ruled out as barriers, it can
be predicted that the most likely major barriers (besides lack of sufficient computers and/or
software) are unfamiliarity with this work and insufficiently developed pedagogy for virtual
lab work.
Since the application of hands-on dissection in the classroom depends on the species,
most teachers will exclude organisms that evoke negative attitudes and emotions and raise
perceived ethical concerns (Randler et al., 2013, 2016). Turning negative experiences into
positive ones is not easy (Tomažič et al., 2017), so one possible choice is to use animals with
negative status (e.g., an agricultural crop pest - Arion vulgaris) or those found in everyday use
(e.g., in gastronomy: crustaceans, animal organs, etc.), an approach recommended by Randler
et al. (2013).
From the position of the educational value of hands-on dissection and the desire not to
completely abandon this technique, the order of introduction of organisms may be important.
It was found that teachers regularly used only the hands-on dissection of plants. According to
Bernstein (2000), this is the first step in introducing the hands-on dissection of other organisms;
the next step should be the dissection of lower invertebrates, leading to the dissection of
mammals. Indeed, Randler et al. (2013) note that the animal species should be chosen carefully,
as a poor choice could lead to demotivation of students. This is the most likely reason why
teachers use plant dissection because plants are readily available, and there are no ethical issues
to consider, which leads to the introduction of other organisms; however, sooner or later, they
gradually stop. Respondents regularly use hands-on dissection of invertebrates (arthropods and
lower invertebrates) and occasionally use hands-on dissection of fish. Dissection of mammals,
whole reptiles and amphibians, whole birds, or human tissues is never included in the education,
likely related to ethical and legal constraints. At this breaking point, one can see that virtual
dissection is an alternative. However, virtual dissection has not currently found its way into
regular school practice. From the positive, albeit small, effect size values, it appears that only
vertebrates and human tissues are more commonly dissected in the virtual world, if at all.
Differences in the Self-Efficacy in a Hand-On and a Virtual Dissection
Self-efficacy is considered key to performing an activity or not (Bandura, 1994; Bandura

& Locke, 2003). Based on the finding that only hands-on dissection of selected organisms
is regularly used in schools, it was expected that the cause might lie in the different levels
of perceived self-efficacy toward the hands-on and virtual dissection variants. Surprisingly,
the differences for most items were not statistically significant (Table 3) and tended towards

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200 higher perceived self-efficacy. This means that teachers perceive themselves as quite capable
of achieving their chosen goals in both dissection variants and of choosing between using the
use of hands-on dissection and its alternatives (Havlíčková et al., 2018b). Obtained claims
are supported when hands-on alternatives are considered but not when virtual options are
considered.
Prior experience with hands-on dissection has a positive influence on the next performance
(Holstermann et al., 2010). In the case of hands-on dissection, social aspects (Palmer et al.,
2015) are the most likely reasons for including or excluding certain organisms in the classroom,
which can act as positive feedback that increases already high self-efficacy. Students should not
feel pressured to perform hands-on dissection (Holstermann et al., 2010), which could mean
that teachers should look for new solutions and procedures and not abandon dissection based
on the knowledge that hands-on dissection and activities can influence interest across a broad
spectrum (positive, neutral, and negative) (Holstermann et al., 2009). Self-efficacy refers to a
person's self-belief that they can overcome difficulties (Holstermann et al., 2009) and cope with
unpleasant situations, which also applies to the virtual world.
By analogy, Randler et al. (2012) found that regular and progressive exposure of
prospective biology teachers to hands-on dissection led to an increase in motivation, despite
their uncertainty in implementing it in junior high school. Therefore, Randler et al. (2016)
tested the use of a video clip prior to dissection and now recommend it to overcome feelings of
fear, disgust, etc. Based on Randler et al. (2012) statement that students become accustomed to
hands-on dissection, it is very likely that the more it was implemented virtual dissection in the
preparation of prospective biology teachers, the more willing they will be to implement virtual
dissection in their classroom.
Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Acceptance of Organisms in a Hands-On and a

Virtual Dissection
Correlations between self-efficacy and acceptance of organisms in hands-on and virtual

dissection are insignificant or small. Even if the values are small, it remains an open question
why self-efficacy towards hands-on dissection is weaker than towards virtual dissection despite
more experience with hands-on dissection. It is not possible to provide answers at this point, but
it could be speculated that these low scores could be caused by a lack of confidence, experience,
fear of failure, cost, legal considerations, hygiene, lack of time, and other unidentified reasons
as main predictors (Havlíčková et al., 2018b).
The correlation between acceptance of virtual dissection and self-efficacy is slightly
higher but not in the significant range. A plausible reason for the rejection of virtual dissection
could be a lack of experience with virtual dissection and insufficient ICT equipment at schools
(Havlíčková et al., 2018b).
Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Use of Organisms in a Hands-On and a Virtual

Dissection
The correlation between self-efficacy and the use of organisms in hands-on and virtual
dissection is much higher than the correlation with acceptance. The reason for this is that
acceptance of an organism for dissection does not mean that teachers will actually dissect it.
This is clearly seen in the case of virtual dissection, which has a high acceptance rate but is not
subsequently implemented in practice. There is no correlation between acceptance and actual
implementation of hands-on dissection, nor between hands-on dissection and acceptance of
virtual dissection. This means that the actual application of hands-on dissection depends on
more than the acceptability of the organism. Although it was found that teachers are convinced

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that the choice of dissection method depends only on themselves (Havlíčková et al., 2018b), 201
in reality, it is not related to their self-efficacy, but to other factors such as materials, school
conditions and so on (Havlíčková et al., 2018b). Self-efficacy can therefore be considered only
a low or moderate predictor of actual dissection. The correlation is much stronger in the virtual
world than in the hands-on variant. It is counterintuitive to discover that the correlation is lower
in actual hands-on dissection, where teachers have more experience, suggesting that other
factors, such as ethical concerns, are most likely stronger reasons for including an organism
in daily practice. Self-efficacy is a much better predictor in the virtual world, where teachers
using non-traditional methods have much higher confidence. A similar but anecdotal finding
was reported in a study by Špernjak and Šorgo (2018), who found that teachers are more afraid
of damaging computers than they are of possible injuries to their students (Havlíčková et al.,
2018b) during lab work.

The results obtained from the survey of biology teachers can be summarised by saying
that virtual and hands-on dissections should coexist in experimental school practice. Based on
the analysis of the results, teachers' self-assessment as a predictor of acceptance of both worlds
cannot be seen as a barrier to their implementation in successful teaching either. However, it
can be considered as a plausible reason for using or not using a particular dissected organism
in school practice.
It is reasonable to predict that dissecting, for example, a virtual carrot has no plausible
future. On the other hand, the dissection of amphibians, reptiles, mammals, birds and humans
should be encouraged because if they are not in the virtual world, they will not be dissected at
all. So, if students have a choice, the first step should be the production of high-quality virtual
applications in local languages, followed by intensive teacher training, not so much in the
technology as in the pedagogy of virtual alternatives to traditional dissection.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the kind help of all respondents.
Funding details
This work was supported by the Charles University Research Program COOPERATIO/
SOC/Science Education and the Slovenian Research Agency under the core projects:
"Information systems" under Grant no. P2-0057 and the Specific Research of the Faculty of
Education, University of Hradec Kralove under Grant no. 2135.
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205
Cite as: Havlíčková, V., Šorgo, A., & Bílek, M. (2023). Predictive power of biology teacher’s
self-efficacy on acceptability and application of virtual and hands-on dissections. Problems
of Education in the 21st Century, 81(2), 188-205. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.188
Veronika Havlíčková PhD, Faculty of Education, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanského 62, 500 03
Hradec Králové, Czech Republic.
E-mail: bangova.veronika@seznam.cz
Andrej Šorgo PhD, Professor, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics & Faculty of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Koroška cesta
160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
E-mail: andrej.sorgo@um.si
Website: https://www.fnm.um.si/index.php/en/home
Martin Bílek PhD, Professor, Faculty of Education, Charles University, Magdalény Rettigové,
(Corresponding author) 116 39 Prague 1, Czech Republic.
E-mail: martin.bilek@pedf.cuni.cz
Website: https://pedf.cuni.cz/PEDFEN-1.html

Anatolii IVANCHUK, Tetiana ZUZIAK, Oksana MARUSHCHAK, Viktor SOLOVEI, Iryna KRASYLNYKOVA, Vitalii HLUKHANIUK, Viktor
KRUPKA. Interest of the pre-service teachers in the alcohol-related issues
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206
INTEREST OF THE PRE-SERVICE
TEACHERS IN THE ALCOHOL-RELATED
ISSUES
Anatolii Ivanchuk, Tetiana Zuziak, Oksana Marushchak,
Viktor Solovei, Iryna Krasylnykova, Vitalii Hlukhaniuk, Viktor Krupka
Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University, Ukraine
E-mail: anatolij1196@gmail.com, zuzyak@ukr.net, ksanamar77@gmail.com,
victorsolovey79@gmail.com, ivs1327@gmail.com,
vito_g@meta.ua, viktor_krupka@ukr.net
Abstract
A typical didactic problem associated with teaching the discipline "Health, Safety, and Fundamentals
of Occupational Safety" is the low level of student interest in the content of the educational material.
The purpose of the study was a critical comprehension of the results of using narratives about alcohol
phenomena in the process of studying a specific topic of this discipline by students of a pedagogical higher
education institution. Two hundred and forty-six first-year students of Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi
State Pedagogical University took part in the experiment. The data collection tool was a questionnaire
that contained eight questions about alcohol phenomena. The level of students' interest in the educational
material at the beginning and at the end of the academic year was assessed to determine the reliability of
the shift in its features in the experimental and control groups. The significance of the shift in the values
of cognitive interest indicators for students of the experimental and control groups was assessed using the
G-sign test. The theoretical framework covered the integration of psychological and medical knowledge
around the process of forming alcohol addiction. According to the results of the study, the experimental
group showed an increase in cognitive interest in the new content of the educational material. The results
of the study may be of international importance if they are used to educate students to consciously choose
their own range of acceptable alcohol consumption.
Keywords: alcohol-related phenomena, cognitive interest, integrated approach, narrative approach,
safe behavior
Introduction
In Ukraine, the educational and professional core curricula of the bachelor’s level of
higher education include the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety”
academic discipline. It was first introduced in the curriculum in 1995 as the “Health and Safety”
course (Poveda, 2017). In 2014, the initial course title was changed to “Health, Safety, and
Fundamentals of Occupational Safety.” The course content was developed on the basis of the
integrated approach in the form of interdisciplinary connections. Integration encompassed
various branches of knowledge, namely, philosophy, natural sciences, engineering,
mathematics, psychology and pedagogy, sociology, law, medicine, ecology, biology, economy,
etc. Comprehensive integration of the various topics into the course content is characteristic
of the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” academic discipline. This
uniqueness is not only an advantage but also a disadvantage, as it produces yet unresolved
contradictions concerning the content of the course.
By 2011, the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine adopted three editions of the
standard course content for the “Health and Safety” discipline. The content for the course was

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selected from the various branches of knowledge; it was structured in accordance with the basic 207
narrative “Emergency management.” However, this basic narrative proved to be ineffective
for the students of higher educational institutions, as it did not correspond to the functional
duties of the teachers of the general secondary education institutions of Ukraine. Moreover,
this subject is not in the Ukrainian school curriculum. As a result, the course content of the
discipline does not appeal to the pre-service teachers; the most common stimulus to learn it was
receiving high grades that enable winning a scholarship.
In 2014, the higher-educational institutions of Ukraine were granted a right to compile
their own syllabuses for the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety”
discipline on the basis of the existing ones. This enabled the transformations of the current basic
narrative of the course to the “Health and Safety Culture” in compliance with the functional
duties of the teachers (Hvozdii, 2016). The change in the basic narrative made it possible to
use the competence approach in the educational process, which is aimed at the development
of safe behavior patterns in the pre-service teachers (Maksymova, 2006). Personal traits of the
pre-service teachers should correspond to the components of the commitment to developing
healthy and safe behavior in schoolchildren. Hence, the paradigm of emergency prevention
and management changed to the personal development of the pre-service teacher (Hvozdii,
2016). Still, the integration of the learning material from the various branches of knowledge did
not have scientific justification, while the choice of the course content was guided mainly by
the paradigm of students’ personal development, basic narrative “Health and Safety Culture,”
experts’ conclusions, and recommendations of the textbooks’ authors.
The eight-year practice of teaching “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational
Safety” to the pre-service teachers proves that the lack of consistency in the choice of learning
material discourages the majority of students to study this discipline. Thus, it may be stated
that the process of developing the course content for this discipline is still ongoing; also, the
objective of finding the criteria for the selection of this material from the different branches of
knowledge is yet to be met.
The diverse integration of knowledge from the various branches of science and
humanities allowed selecting the facts that stimulate students’ situational interest. The process
of developing the situational interest in the information from the various branches of knowledge
requires a separate study, as the emotional and intellectual components of interest, for instance,
in engineering, differ from those in psychology. I. e., engineering and technical knowledge often
are presented as the descriptions of morphology or descriptions of the principles of operation of
technical objects, without the direct manifestations of emotions, while the psychological study
of human behavior often evokes an emotional response from most of the students. The use of
human behavioral patterns in unveiling the core of social and psychological hazards was chosen
as the main direction of this study. It will ensure an in-depth approach to the formation of the
course content for the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” discipline by
the use of an interdisciplinary approach with the humanities in the training of the pre-service
teachers.
The current learning material on the topic of alcohol-related issues for the “Health and
Safety” discipline was selected in the context of the anti-alcohol campaign; it corresponds to
the concept of a healthy lifestyle and illustrates the consequences of alcohol consumption.
Its main narratives are “Harmful effects of alcohol consumption on the human body” and
“Consequences of alcohol abuse” (Berezutskyi et. al., 2005; Biehun & Naumenko, 2004;
Dzhyhyrei, & Zhydetskyi, 2001; Lapin, 2007; Levchenko et. al., 2019; Skoblo et. al., 2003;
Yakym, 2005; Zerkalov, 2011; Zerkalov et. al., 2013; Zhelibo et. al., 2001). The content of
the textbooks often has logical contradictions, for example, one textbook lists the nutritional
values of wine as a food product and a pharmacological agent directly after the anti-alcohol
narrative (Pistun, 1999). Still, in the historical perspective (e.g., with regard to the 1988 Soviet

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208 anti-alcohol propaganda campaign) and in the practice of teaching this discipline, successful
and effective instances of such campaigning are scarce. The main cause of the ineffectiveness
of standardized anti-alcohol campaigning is its lack of connection to real people’s lives. This
results in the simplified approaches to the study of alcohol-related phenomena, when cultural,
social, psychological, biological, economic, and other aspects are ignored.
On the contrary, it would be constructive to stimulate the interest of the pedagogical
university students in alcohol-related issues in order to study alcohol-related phenomena as
applied to a single individual. It will allow considering the phenomena of human psychology,
the mechanisms of decision-making processes in the situations of involvement in alcohol
abuse, and the mindset toward the episodes of alcohol abuse. For example, at the level of a
single individual, the valuable learning material would include knowledge about the human
psychological defense mechanism, used by people with alcohol addiction and other health
conditions (Havrylkevych, 2019; Maksymova, 2006; Zinchenko, 2014). Inconsistency in the
individual’s perception of oneself and in the opinions of others triggers psychological defense
mechanisms (Zinchenko, 2014). As a result, individuals with alcohol addiction do not reflect
on their own behavior, they cannot control the potentially dangerous factors of developing an
alcohol addiction – the quantity of alcohol consumed and the frequency of alcohol consumption
episodes (Ivanchuk, 2021; Ritchie & Roser 2018). The expediency of using the approach
of social norms to form students' understanding of the range of acceptability of alcohol
consumption was studied (McAlaney et. al., 2015). The educational function of the correct
attitude towards alcohol consumption was analysed (Haug et. al., 2011). The possibility of
changing the misperception of young people about the dangerous factors of alcohol addiction
was studied (Moreira et. al., 2009).
Thus, the course content of the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational
Safety” offered to replace the traditional anti-alcohol propaganda with anti-alcohol campaigning
based on the concept of cultural competence (Ritchie & Roser, 2018; Sulkunen, 1987), focusing
on the alcohol-related phenomena instead (Ivanchuk, 2022).
Research Problem
The primary obstacle in stimulating the students’ interest in the course content is its
irrelevancy to the everyday life (Kurt, 2021; Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2007). It is common
knowledge that the facts not related to the students’ everyday life are perceived by them as
irrelevant and the learning material – as the facts used only in the educational process and
inapplicable to daily life (Jenkins & Nelson, 2005; Ng & Nguyen, 2006; Songer & Linn, 1991).
Thus, it was suggested to use the concept of relevance, taking into account the concept of
practical knowledge (Danyliak, 2012; Putnam, & Borko, 2000), the interdisciplinary didactic
principle (Buriak, 1984), and the concept of uniting the understanding of the subject matter and
the activities in one process (Dewey, 1913).
Existing textbooks on “Health and Safety” for the students of the higher educational
institutions of Ukraine do not include descriptions of psychological and social alcohol-related
phenomena. As an exception, the facts about alcohol-related phenomena are mentioned but
without revealing their essence and significance for human health and safety. E.g., the fact
that the alcohol abusers do not acknowledge the risk of developing an alcohol addiction and
existence of the alcohol-related problems (Zhelibo et. al., 2001).
Situational interest, for example, in alcohol consumption reaches the level of individual
interest due to the emergence of the positive attitude to drinking that alters the person’s life,
promoting alcohol dependency to the status of basic needs (Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Savchuk,
2006; Tabachnyk, 2015). The psychological defense mechanisms sustain a lasting positive
attitude to alcohol (Savchuk, 2006). Functioning as a defense for the Self-concept, these

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mechanisms impede any changes to the positive attitude to alcohol (Zinchenko, 2014). If the 209
alcohol addiction is not yet formed, all psychological defense mechanisms function to protect
the Self. In the case of developed alcohol addiction, the mechanism of denial prevails (Savchuk,
2006).
Still, the analyzed body of literature lacks the outline of the use of psychological
knowledge for the course content of the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational
Safety” discipline; therefore, any new study on the subject may produce new approaches
(Harbarchuk, 2004). The understanding of the practical value of certain psychological and
medical concepts by the pre-service teachers could be a systemic and formative factor for the
commitment to preventing alcohol addiction. The critical evaluation of one’s own alcohol-related
behavior and objective opinion about the alcohol behavior of the members of the immediate
small group contribute to lowering the risk of the development of alcohol dependency. Those
involved in random episodes of alcohol abuse would be committed to correcting their behavior,
lowering the amount and frequency of its use (Ritchie & Roser, 2018). With such an approach
to anti-alcohol campaigning, the students are not threatened with the consequences of drinking,
while a favorable environment for their personal growth is created instead. Hence, competent
individuals would make weighted decisions regarding their personal range of acceptable
alcohol consumption (Levine & Marcus, 2010; Ritchie & Roser, 2018). The new paradigm of
anti-alcohol campaigning would contribute to making a life choice in favor of maintaining good
health and quality of life (Sheremet, 2011).
Any mentally competent person is a natural cybernetic system (Harbarchuk, 2004). By
analogy with the cybernetic system, it has a managing agent and a managed object. The managing
agent automatically regulates the parameters of the managed object’s functioning. In this study,
the alcohol-related phenomena were viewed in the context of the principle of operation of a
natural cybernetic system, where the psychological defense mechanisms act as an automatic
regulator, the Self-concept as a managed object, and a personal conflict serves as a trigger
(Ivanchuk, 2022). The essence of automatic regulation is in the minimization of the personal
conflict or its elimination “in autopilot mode” (Harbarchuk, 2004). Functionally, the “autopilot
mode” is similar to the dynamic alcohol stereotype of an addicted person (Maksymova, 2006).
Therefore, the use of the cybernetic approach would facilitate the integration of psychological
and medical concepts into the course content of the “Health and Safety” discipline (Ivanchuk,
2022).
The discrepancy between the increase of the range of the acceptable (quantities of
alcohol consumed and frequency of alcohol episodes) and a passive mindset aimed at alcohol
consumption (though the dependency may not yet be formed) results in a personal conflict
(Burmaka, 2003). In the case of alcohol abuse, the personal conflict may be partially conscious
and behavior tends to be regulated towards limiting the range of the acceptable; here the
automatic regulator (subconscious psychological defense) of the Self-concept is activated.
Instead, with alcohol addiction, the personal conflict stirs the negative modality of emotions
and is eliminated without being registered and acknowledged by the automatic regulator – the
psychological defense mechanisms (Ritchie & Roser, 2018; Burmaka, 2003).
Revealing the sense of alcohol-related phenomena to the students of the pedagogical
higher educational institutions of Ukraine is aimed at demonstrating the practical significance
of knowledge about these phenomena in various real-life situations (Palachanina, 2009;
Songer & Linn, 1991). While the first-year students lack specific psychological and medical
knowledge, the choice of cybernetic approach and narratives as the didactic means is justified,
as they facilitate understanding of the essense and possible application of this knowledge. Thus,
the ineffective anti-alcohol campaigning, rooted in intimidation with dire consequences, was
transformed into an alternative campaigning for students’ personal development while studying
the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” discipline.

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210 Research Focus
The research focused on the realization of the relevance concept in the course content
of the specific topic within the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety”
discipline.
Research Aim
The aim of the research was to critically rethink the results of the use of the narratives
about alcohol-related phenomena in the process of learning a topic within the “Health, Safety,
and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” discipline. The objectives of the research were to
choose the criteria for the development of the students’ interest in the new learning material and
the indicators of the levels of this interest; to develop the main lines of the narratives about the
alcohol-related phenomena; to experimentally verify the effectiveness of these narratives in the
actual learning process of the Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University.
General Background
The structure of the process of pedagogical research included ascertaining, formative,

and control stages. At the ascertaining stage, the students’ level of interest in the study of
alcohol-related issues was established. At the formative stage, the narratives about alcohol-
related phenomena were developed and implemented. For the development of the narratives
about psychological defense mechanisms, the cybernetic approach was used (Harbarchuk,
2004). At the control stage, the levels of interest in the alcohol-related issues were compared in
the experimental and control groups. A pedagogical experiment was implemented in the process
of teaching the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” to the bachelor
students in the Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University (Vinnytsia, Ukraine)
during three academic years (2018–2021).
Sample
246 first-year students participated in the pedagogical experiment. Among them, 148
(60%) were female, 98 (40%) were male, and the average age of women and men was 17.
Three series of pedagogical experiments were conducted (with each series lasting for one
academic year), and the body of experimental data was processed with the use of the methods
of mathematical statistics in 2022. In order for the conditions of each series of pedagogical
experiments to be equal, the following techniques were used: equal selection of students (of the
Valentyna Voloshyna Faculty of Pre-School and Primary Education and the Faculty of History);
permanent teacher (Associate Professor A. Ivanchuk), similar choice of learning material about
alcohol-related issues, the same topic for self-study; equal requirements for the presentation
of the self-study results. The scope of the study was limited to the number of respondents for
the G-sign criterion to a range from 5 to 300 (Volovyk, 1969). The study takes into account the
requirements of the Code of Ethics for Social Work Specialists of Ukraine (Etychnyi kodeks
spetsialista iz sotsialnoi roboty Ukrainy, 2005).
In order to determine the level of actual interest in the alcoholism related problems in the
first-year students while studying “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety”

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discipline, the ordinal scale offered by А. Kyveryalg and presented in Table 1 was used (Hidi 211
& Renninger, 2006; Kyveryalg, 1980). The reliability of the ordinal scale is justified by the
development of human interests based on the conditioned reflex of the second signal system
(Kyveryalg, 1980).
Table1
Levels of Cognitive Interest
Indicators’ levels
Indicators
Strong (+) Medium (-) Low (0)
Requires an external
1. Cognitive activity Active, strong Inert, no interest
stimulus
In revealing the core of In the facts and their

2. Interest Occasional
the phenomena descriptions
Requires constant
3. Motivation Intrinsic Extrinsic
stimulation
4. Extracurricular
Constant engagement Occasional engagement No engagement
engagement
Occasional attempts to
5. Difficulties Attempts to overcome No attempts to overcome
overcome
The alcohol-related phenomena covered in the course were selected in accordance with
the basic narrative “Alcohol phenomena.” Students self-evaluated their personal interest in the
basic notion of “alcohol addiction” and additional concepts: “alcohol-related traditions and
customs,” “pharmacology of alcohol,” “alcohol as the means of social interaction,” “small
group,” “range of acceptable alcohol consumption,” “psychological defense mechanisms,” and
“alcohol withdrawal syndrome.” The obtained data are presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Students' Interest in the Concept of "Alcohol Addiction"(a Fragment)
First In the alcohol-related traditions

In the alcohol addiction In the pharmacology of alcohol
name, and customs
second Indicators Indicators Indicators
name 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 2 3 4 5 Total
- 0 + + + +2 - - 0 + - -2 0 + + - - 0
0 0 - + 0 0 + + + 0 + +4 - - 0 - 0 -3
…
Total
The correspondence of the students’ self-evaluation results about the interest in alcohol-
related issues to a certain level of cognitive interest was assessed on the interval scale presented
in Table 3 (Havryshchak & Poniatyshyn, 2006).

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212 Table 3
Levels of Students' Cognitive Interest in the Alcoholism Related Problems
Level of cognitive interest

Medium, with active Medium, with passive
Students’ interest Strong Low
interest prevailing interest prevailing
+3 … +5 +2 … 0 0 …-2 -3 …-5
In the alcohol addiction
In the alcohol-related
traditions and customs
In the pharmacology of
alcohol
…
At the formative stage of the pedagogical experiment, the information about the alcohol
phenomena was used as an independent variable. The working hypothesis was the following:
“The level of students’ interest in studying alcohol-related issues would rise if the learning
material about the alcohol phenomena is presented in the form of narratives.” The students were
not informed about their participation in the pedagogical experiment, and the learning material
for the topic “Socio-psychological hazards for health and safety” was in compliance with
the curriculum of the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” discipline
only for the students of the control group. The levels of students’ knowledge and skills in the
experimental and control groups were evaluated with the methods, familiar to them. In the
control groups, standardized methodological guidelines for the practical classes were used.
In the experimental groups, the narratives about the meanings of human behavior were used
during the lectures; the practical classes included solving the alcohol-related problems about
the alcohol-related phenomena in the situation of binge drinking, when alcohol addiction is
not yet formed (Ivanchuk, 2020; 2021; 2022). Solving the problem assignments, the students
discovered for themselves the psychological senses of small-group behavior with various
psychological defense mechanisms; the solutions were formulated as narratives.
For the development of the narrative topics, the following cognitive map was used:
problem statement → revealing the underlying senses → conclusions. For instance, the
sub-narratives of the basic narrative “The types of alcohol groups” revealed the essence of
such medical notions as “moderate drinking,” “systematic drinking,” “casual drinking”
(Ivanchuk, 2020; Maksymova, 2006).
Examples of typical narratives are the following. Narrative 1. Problem statement. After
the graduation ceremony, the students decided to celebrate in a restaurant. However, some
objected. Revealing the senses. It is unknown, whether the family members of those in this small
group have an alcohol addiction. The problem statement suggests that the graduates planned the
celebration to share their joy about receiving a diploma, with alcohol playing a supportive role
and reinforcing the euphoria. Conclusion. This small group falls into the category of “moderate
drinking.” The behavior of the group members is relatively safe and there is practically no risk
of developing alcohol addiction.
Narrative 2. Problem statement. The small group members are the managers of
the construction company. They have a tradition of going to the sauna every Friday, with
inescapable drinking of several bottles of red wine. Revealing the senses. It is unknown if any
of the members of the small group have family members with alcohol addiction. The problem
statement suggests friendly relations between the members of the group; their common goal is

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collective relaxation. Conclusion. The tradition of regular visits to the sauna and consumption 213
of several bottles of red wine prove this to be a small alcohol group. The description lacks
information about the fines from the administration of the company; most probably, this group
falls into the category of “systematic drinking.” Being in this group is semi-safe. There is a
small risk of developing an alcohol addiction, as the need for alcohol has been already formed.
Narrative 3. Problem statement. The members of a small group discuss their recent
alcohol episode. Most of the participants do not remember the occasion for drinking. Still, one
of the group members recalls meeting a friend with a bottle of vodka. He explained the fact
of having vodka with him in the following manner, “I was passing by the store and thought
that all right, I will buy one bottle just in case.” Revealing the senses. It is unknown, whether
the family members of those in this small group have an alcohol addiction. Conclusion. The
problem statement suggests that almost no one can recreate the fact of automatic, “just in
case,” purchase of vodka and that all group members had the compulsion to drink it. Hence,
the alcohol dependency in all the members of this small group is manifested in the form of
“habitual drinking.” Staying in this small group is dangerous, as the risk of developing of
alcohol addiction is high.
At the control stage of the pedagogical experiment, the scale of the shift was assessed,
indicating the cognitive interest of the students of the experimental and control groups with
the use of indicators’ G-criterion of signs (Kyveryalg, 1980). The content was covered by
both control and experimental groups. The content of the control test was the same for the
experimental and control groups. The time required to complete the control test was 45 minutes.
Accordingly, at the end of the academic year, the individual shift was determined for each
student in the categories: no shift in the indicators (0); an increase in the indicators (+); a
decrease in the indicators (-). The results with the negative shift in the indicators (0) were
omitted in the subsequent calculations. According to the prevailing (+) or (-) respectively, the
typical and atypical shifts were established. With the number of atypical shifts, the experimental
value of the Ge criterion of signs was identified. In order to verify the validity of the typical shift
in the indicators of the students’ cognitive interest, two hypotheses were used: H0 – prevalence
of the typical shift in the indicators of students’ cognitive interest is random; H1 – prevalence of
the typical shift in the indicators of students’ cognitive interest is not random.
Data Analysis
The data were collected for three academic years. The general volume of the database
of the pedagogical experiment constituted 1/9 of the overall number of the first-year students
of the Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University. The nature of students’
interest in the alcohol-related issues was measured according to three indicators at the beginning
and at the end of the academic year. Qualitative indicators were converted into quantitative ones
using the interval scale. The nature of the shift in the students’ interest was determined for
each pair of measurements using the G-criterion of signs. The sequence of calculation of the
G sign criterion was the following: we eliminated the number of zero reactions from further
calculations; the number of typical shifts; the Ge criterion; the table value of Gc (Volovyk,
1969) and compared it to Ge. The shift in the levels of students’ interest was validated with two
statistical hypotheses: null and alternative. Error probability did not exceed 5 %.
Research Results
The results of the evaluation of the cognitive interest of the first-year students of Vinnytsia
Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University at the beginning of the academic year
are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

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214 Table 4
Levels of Cognitive Interest in the Alcoholism Related Problems of the Students of the
Valentyna Voloshyna Faculty of Pre-School and Primary Education
The number of students according to the levels of cognitive interest, %
Medium, with active interest Medium, with passive

Strong Low
prevailing interest prevailing
15 22 31 32
Table 5
Levels of Cognitive Interest in the Alcoholism Related Problems of the Students of the
Faculty of History
The number of students according to the levels of cognitive interest, %
Medium, with active interest Medium, with passive

Strong Low
prevailing interest prevailing
12 19 33 36
Tables 4 and 5 prove that among the students of the Valentyna Voloshyna Faculty
of Pre-School and Primary Education and the students of the Faculty of History, low and
medium levels are typical, with the passive level of cognitive interest in the alcohol-related
phenomena prevailing, 63 % and 69 % accordingly. The most interest was expressed in the
concepts most relevant to the students’ everyday experience: alcohol-related traditions and
customs, pharmacology of alcohol, alcohol as the means of social interaction, and the range of
acceptable alcohol consumption. Psychological and medical concepts, due to the lack of basic
knowledge in these areas among the first-year students, were of mild interest to them. Based on
the results of the ascertaining stage of the pedagogical experiment, the experimental group was
comprised of the students of the Voloshyna Faculty of Pre-school and Primary Education, while
the students of the Faculty of History formed the control group.
The results of the evaluation of the shift in the indicators of the cognitive interest in
experimental and control groups are presented in Table 6.
Table 6
Shift in the Indicators of the Cognitive Interest in the Alcoholism Related Problems in
Experimental and Control Groups
The number of students according to the levels of cognitive interest, persons
Medium, with active Medium, with passive

Group Strong Low
interest prevailing interest prevailing
Shift Shift Shift Shift

+ - 0 + - 0 + - 0 + - 0
Experimental 19 18 2 8 20 9 10 21 19
Control 6 8 4 9 10 6 14 22 8 35

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The rise of the indicators of the cognitive interest of the students in the experimental group 215
is probably linked to the factor of the new learning material on the topic “Socio-psychological
hazards for health and safety.” The attitude to self-study of the students from the experimental
group differed. I. e., given the freedom to choose the topics for the essays, they preferred the
themes about revealing the core of various types of addictive behavior; in addition, they were
considerably more active in presenting the results of their self-study and in the discussions at
the practical classes.
The results of the calculation of the G-criterion of signs are listed in Table 7.
Table 7
Calculation of G-criterion
Group Quantity (+) Quality (+) Quality (+) G experimental Number of students G critical
(-) 0 without the zero shift,
persons
Experimental 59 11 46 11 80 32
Control 18 29 75 18 45 16
The condition Ge ≤ Gc was fulfilled for the experimental group, with no proof for the
hypothesis H0 (Kyveryalg, 1980). Hence, the rise of the level of the students’ interest in alcohol-
related issues is credibly proven. For the control group Ge > Gc, hence, the hypothesis H0 was
not confirmed. Thus, the control group did not demonstrate a significant change in the level of
students’ cognitive interest.
Discussion
The study was conducted in order to observe the nature of the shift in the interest of the
first-year students of the Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University into
the concept of the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” discipline. The
data were obtained from the open questionnaires distributed to the students of the Valentyna
Voloshyna Faculty of Pre-School and Primary Education and to the students of the Faculty of
History. The first question of the open questionnaire was about the relevance of the concept of
“alcohol dependency” to the students. At the formative and control stages of the pedagogical
experiment, the answers were similar in the two faculties. For instance, the Valentyna Voloshyna
Faculty of Pre-School and Primary Education showed one-third more positive answers than the
Faculty of History; still, at both faculties, the initial interest was rather low. This result may
be explained, on the one hand, with the irrelevancy of this concept to the students (mostly
17-years old girls); on the other hand, with this concept being rooted in the medical context.
The fundamental understanding of medical issues is yet to be developed in the age group of the
first-year students. This corresponds to the conclusions of the previous studies, which reported
that understanding the meaning of the concept is the main pedagogical condition for initiating
students’ interest (Bondar & Makarenko, 2014).
The second item of the questionnaire was about the students’ interest in the casual alcohol
culture, customs, and traditions; the students were offered to respond if they wanted to learn
more about these customs. This item had the most positive responses from both faculties of
the university because it is relevant to the students and is in accord with their life experiences.
Therefore, this supports the conclusion that the relevance and value of the learning material for
the students depend on the students’ personal background (Karagölge & Ceyhun, 2002; Seçken
et al., 1998).

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216 The third item of the open questionnaire specified the interest in the pharmacology of
alcohol and inquired if the students wanted further information on this subject. The students of
both faculties responded positively to this item, with the students of the Faculty of History being
slightly more interested. The result illustrated the relevance of the problem and its probable
correspondence to the students’ personal experiences. In the body of literature examined, the
students’ attitude to the pharmacology of alcohol was not addressed; it can be thus suggested that
students’ interest in alcohol-related issues is grounded in the desire to experience inebriation,
new to them.
The fourth item of the open questionnaire inquired about the interest in alcohol as a
means of social interaction. This was the last item with predominantly affirmative responses
both at the ascertaining and control stages of the pedagogical experiment, which proves it to
be relevant to the students. Previous studies failed to address the students’ attitude to alcohol
as a means of social interaction, consequently, it is alleged in this paper that students’ interest
in this topic is based on their need to comprehend the mechanisms of socialization and one of
the mechanisms of stabilization of the interpersonal relationships in society. The connection
between the students’ interest and the possibility of further integration of scientific concepts
into real-life situations was thus indirectly confirmed (Kurt, 2021).
The fifth item of the open questionnaire focused on the students’ interest in the development
of alcohol dependency in small groups, offering a Soviet-rooted tradition of “sharing [a bottle
of vodka] for three” as an example. At the beginning of the experiment, the negative answers
to this item prevailed, as despite this expression being of common knowledge, most of the
students perceived it as a joke not reflecting real-life situations. This may be explained, on
the one hand, with the irrelevancy of this concept to the students; on the other hand, with this
concept being rooted in social psychology. This result highlighted the didactic problem of the
early use with first-year students of the concepts that are yet to be studied later in the educational
process. Because of the lack of literature on the students’ interest in the development of alcohol
dependency in small groups, it was suggested that this problem requires further psychological
and pedagogical study (Ivanchuk, 2020).
The sixth item of the questionnaire inquired about the interest in the acceptable range
of alcohol consumption. Notably, at the beginning of the pedagogical experiment, the students
of both faculties responded predominantly negatively; however, by the end of the experiment,
the majority of the answers were positive. That is to say, this item was the first one in the
experiment to evidently prove the change in the relevance of certain problems from negative
to positive. Such a result can be attributed to the influence of the learning material in both
groups, when the range of acceptable alcohol consumption was highlighted as a basic factor of
development of alcohol dependency. Because of the lack of literature on the students’ interest in
the range of acceptable alcohol consumption, it can be stated that this issue requires a separate
psychological and pedagogical study.
The seventh item of the questionnaire was about the students’ interest in the uncritical
alcohol consumption; the students were offered to respond if they wanted to learn more about
these customs. At the ascertaining stage of the experiment, the negative responses prevailed in
both groups, this prompted to consider this concept irrelevant to the students. The explanation
for such a result could be the lack of psychological knowledge about the psychological defense
mechanisms in first-year students. This result also underlines the didactic problem of the early
use of the concepts that are yet to be studied later in the educational process with first-year
students. Because of the lack of literature on the students’ interest in psychological defense
mechanisms, it was suggested that this problem requires further psychological and pedagogical
study (Ivanchuk, 2021).
The sixth item of the questionnaire addressed the interest in alcohol withdrawal
syndrome. This item received negative responses from the students of both faculties equally

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at the beginning and at the end of the experiment. The possible explanation of this result is its 217
low relevance and low correspondence to their life experience. Because of the lack of literature
on the students’ interest in the alcohol withdrawal syndrome, it can be hypothesized that the
students of higher pedagogical educational institutions consider it unnecessary to study the
attributes of individuals with alcohol addiction.
The results of the pedagogical experiment verified the expediency of the use of the range
of acceptable alcohol consumption and alcohol-related phenomena as the basic concepts for
building the learning material on the topic within the course content of the “Health, Safety,
and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” academic discipline (Alexander & Jetton, 1996;
Ivanchuk, 2015; 2020; 2021). The basic concepts of the learning material on alcohol-related
issues trigger the correction of one’s own behavior, limiting the range of acceptability of
alcohol consumption in the everyday life situations. The expediency of the new approaches to
the anti-alcohol campaigning on the basis of the concepts of cultural competence and alcohol
consumption as a form of enhancing social skills was corroborated as well (Makela, 1975;
Sulkunen, 1987). The results of the research comply with the conclusion about the positive impact
of narratives on students’ learning of scientific concepts (Afanas’ev, 2013). The effectiveness of
the social norms approach in shaping students' perceptions of the range of acceptable drinking
has been confirmed (McAlaney et. al., 2015), as well as the conclusion that developing students'
correct perceptions of alcohol use can be effective in reducing alcohol-related problems (Haug
et. al., 2011) and the conclusion that it is possible to correct youth misperceptions of the range
of acceptable drinking (Moreira et. al., 2009). The limitations regarding the development of
the narratives about the alcohol phenomena for meeting the objective of the early use of new
psychological and medical notions with the first-year students were discovered.
In general, the results of the pedagogical experiment prove the positive impact of the
change in the topic structure and content within the academic discipline “Health, Safety,
and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” on the students’ interest in safe social behavior.
Moreover, it gives grounds to formulate recommendations about modernizing the course
content of this discipline.
It was established that revealing the senses of the alcohol-related phenomena within
specifically designed narratives elevates the level of interest of the first-year students in the
corresponding topic within the course content of the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals
of Occupational Safety” academic discipline. It was confirmed that given indicators of the
students’ interest in the learning material characterize the levels of its development, provided
the use of the concept of the relevance of this material.
The main results of the research are: early introduction of the specialized psychological
concepts to the first-year students of the pedagogical university, development of methodology
for the narratives, and the use of these narratives in the practice of teaching the “Health,
Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” academic discipline. The change of the
traditional idea of intimidation, typical for anti-alcohol propaganda, to the concept of cultural
competence creates the environment for the students to apply the alcohol-related knowledge
in their everyday life. Consequently, the pre-service teachers will be trained to educate the
schoolchildren about the conscious choice of the acceptable range of alcohol consumption in
casual situations involving it. Knowledge about alcohol-related phenomena will contribute to
the conscious following customs and traditions while socializing and may eventually aid to the
self-control of the amount of consumed alcohol as a basic factor of the development of alcohol
addiction.

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218 An important issue of further research is the study of the rules of development of students’
interest in their safety according to the following logical chain: students’ interest in socialization
→ interest in the practical use of knowledge about the alcohol-related phenomena in everyday-
life situations → interest in the “Health, Safety, and Fundamentals of Occupational Safety”
academic discipline. An important matter to resolve for further studies is the development and
use of narratives for forming the fundamentals of behavioral competencies for the successful
socialization and critical reappropriation of traditional folk customs. The possible international
significance of the study is to clarify the basic concept of the concept of cultural competence
and alcohol consumption as a form of sociability. This will allow students to make a conscious
choice of their own range of acceptable alcohol consumption.
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Cite as: Ivanchuk, A., Zuziak, T., Marushchak, O., Solovei, V., Krasylnykova, I.,
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https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.206

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222
Anatolii Ivanchuk PhD in Pedagogics, Associate Professor of Fine and Decorative Art, Technology
(Corresponding author) and Life Safety Department, Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical
University, 21000, Vinnytsia, Ukraine.
E-mail: anatolij1196@gmail.com
Tetiana Zuziak PhD in Art History, Doctor of Science in Pedagogics, Professor, the Head of the
Faculty of Arts and Art-Educational Technologies, Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi
State Pedagogical University, 21000, Vinnytsia, Ukraine.
E-mail: zuzyak@ukr.net
Oksana Marushchak PhD in Pedagogics, Associate Professor, the Head of Fine and Decorative Art,
Technology and Life Safety Department, Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State
Pedagogical University, 21000, Vinnytsia, Ukraine.
E-mail: ksanamar77@gmail.com
Viktor Solovei PhD in Pedagogics, Associate Professor of Fine and Decorative Art, Technolog
and Life Safety Department, Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical
E-mail: victorsolovey79@gmail.com
Iryna Krasylnykova PhD in Pedagogics, Associate Professor of Fine and Decorative Art, Technolog
E-mail: ivs1327@gmail.com
Vitalii Hlukhaniuk PhD in Pedagogics, Associate Professor of Fine and Decorative Art, Technolog
E-mail: vito_g@meta.ua
Viktor Krupka PhD in Philology, Associate Professor of Ukrainian literature of Department,

Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University, 21000, Vinnytsia,
Ukraine.
E-mail: viktor_krupka@ukr.net

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AN ALGEBRAIC THINKING SKILL TEST 223
IN PROBLEM-SOLVING FOR SEVENTH

GRADERS
Janet Jahudin, Nyet Moi Siew
University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: janetjahudin@gmail.com, sopiah@ums.edu.my
Abstract
Diagnostic tests have been developed previously to measure algebraic thinking skills; however, the tests
do not specifically address algebraic problem-solving. Thus, an Algebraic Thinking Test (ATT) Instrument
was developed to measure algebraic thinking skills in problem-solving involving linear equations. ATT
comprises nine open-ended questions with three algebraic thinking constructs: Generalized Arithmetic,
Functions and Modelling. Generalized arithmetic involves students in efficient calculation and
generalization; functional involves identifying number patterns, while modelling involves solving open-
ended problems, identifying similarities, and performing calculations involving variables. This study is
meant to determine the quality of ATT instruments through the validity and reliability analysis using
the Rasch Measurement Model. The sample consisted of 120 seventh graders aged 12 to 13, selected
from two secondary schools in the Tuaran district, Malaysia. The instrument was found to have a strong
dimensionality and high construct validity. The reliability of Cronbach Alpha (KR-20) demonstrated a
value of .90 (very high), and item and respondent reliability of .98 (excellent) and .86 (good), respectively,
with an item separation index of 6.29 and 2.45 for the person separation index. ATT has good validity
and high reliability in measuring algebraic thinking skills among seventh graders in secondary schools.
Keywords: algebraic thinking skills, linear equations, problem-solving, Rasch analysis, validity and
reliability
Introduction
Thinking skill is a distinct human capability. Nickerson (1985) defines thinking skills
as a cognitive process an individual uses to solve problems. Beyer (1991) further elaborates
that thinking skills are rooted in human abilities to form concepts, reason, and make decisions.
Algebraic thinking skills are crucial components of mathematics education and have been the
foundation of the subject for centuries (Carraher et al., 2007). Ibrahim and Othman (2010)
suggested that algebra should be introduced to students at an early stage to stimulate their
thinking abilities. For example, scholars such as Carraher and Schliemann (2007), Katz (2007),
and National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000) argued that algebra, which
involves reasoning, should be integrated into primary school curricular as a preparation for
students to learn algebra in secondary school.
Mathematical processes are considered crucial for teaching and learning mathematics.
These processes provide the groundwork for developing problem-solving abilities, which can
be further enhanced through the application of various problem-solving strategies. As students
learn to employ these strategies, they can develop critical thinking, creativity, and innovation
skills.
In the past, the learning of algebra was mainly centred on symbol manipulation and
arithmetic procedures, without much connection to the real world. According to Van Amerom

Janet JAHUDIN, Nyet Moi SIEW. An algebraic thinking skill test in problem-solving for seventh graders
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224 (2002), this led students to perceive algebra as an abstract concept, making it challenging for
them to understand. Additionally, the teacher focused on rote memorization of formulas to obtain
correct exam answers without a deep understanding of the concepts and reasons. However, the
current approach has shifted to training students in high-level thinking skills (HOTS) questions,
which promote the development of conceptual, problem-solving, and application skills (Smith,
2014) related to algebraic thinking skills.

Research Problem
The average performance of Malaysian students in lower secondary schools in mastering

algebraic concepts is still below par, as indicated by the results of the Trends in International
Mathematics and Science Study (Mullis, 2019). Malaysia is ranked 29th out of 42 countries,
and only a small percentage of students (5%) were able to apply algebraic problem-solving
skills involving application, reasoning, and generalization. Similarly, studies in Finland, Swe-
den, and South Africa found that students struggled to master algebraic concepts, particularly
equality and function. According to research by Bishop and Stump (2000), Jacobs et al. (2007)
and Stephens (2008), one of the reasons for this difficulty is a lack of understanding of algebraic
features. This deficiency is exacerbated by the fact that algebra is not formally introduced to
students at the primary school level, which is emphasized more on arithmetic skills as reflected
in Malaysian's Standard Primary School Curriculum.
In 2019, there has been a notable rise in emphasis on the development of algebraic
thinking abilities in learning (Sibgatullin et al., 2022). Despite the attention given to this topic
by researchers, there is a lack of instruments available to measure the level of algebraic thinking
skills aligned with the Malaysian curriculum. The scarcity of assessment tools available to
teachers for evaluating their students' algebraic thinking skills has contributed to this problem.
Although a diagnostic test has been developed previously to measure generalization, function,
and modelling skills (Ralston, 2013), it does not specifically address algebraic problem-solving.
Consequently, the researcher developed a new instrument and assessed its validity and reliability
to ensure its applicability in field research, hence to provide a reference for other researchers in
the field to study the algebraic thinking abilities of secondary school students.
Literature Review
Algebraic Thinking Skills
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that employs symbols and letters as representations

of values and quantities, and it plays a crucial role in other mathematical disciplines such as
arithmetic, geometry, statistics, and calculus (Sianturi & Yang, 2021; Saundarajan et al., 2020).
However, when students are formally introduced to algebraic topics at a lower secondary level,
they often feel disinterested and not concerned (Lim & Lau, 2015). This leads to a barrier to
developing algebraic thinking skills. Algebraic thinking skills refer to a process in learning
mathematics that helps students to generalize mathematical ideas from examples to writing and
arguments and statements (Hadi & Faradillah, 2019). Kaput et al. (2008) classified algebraic
thinking skills into three main components: generalized arithmetic, function, and modelling.
Ralston (2013) has further elaborated on the related dimensions of these three constructs. The
construct of generalized arithmetic involves efficient calculation and generalization. The con-
struct of functional thinking skills involves identifying number patterns, while modelling in-
volves solving open problems, identifying similarities, and performing calculations involving
variables.

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Generalized Arithmetic 225
According to Kaput et al. (2008), generalized arithmetic is the study of algebra involving
the examination of structures and systems that relate to computational and relational laws with-
in mathematics. Fujii and Stephens (2001) suggested that students should be exposed to gener-
alized arithmetic as an evolution from arithmetic to algebraic thinking skills. The development
of algebraic thinking is described in some literature as a process that involves identifying and
representing structures in mathematical expressions (Mason, 1989; Sfard & Linchevski, 1994).
This process is related to an individual's cognitive ability to extract and establish generaliza-
tions, and to use appropriate forms of representation to express those generalizations (Carraher
& Schliemann, 2007). This ability is the foundation for developing algebraic thinking skills,
beginning with the basics of arithmetic (Carpenter et al., 2003; Jacobs et al., 2007).
Function
In Blanton and Kaput (2005)'s research, it was discovered that even primary school
children have the ability to use different representations concerning function reasoning. This
includes their capacity to verbally and symbolically describe recursive relations, covariations,
and data matching and their ability to model and solve equations with unknown quantities
using symbolic language. Blanton and Kaput's findings are supported by studies conducted by
Brizuela and Lara-Roth (2000), Carraher et al. (2007), Moss and London McNab (2011), and
Carraher and Schliemann (2007). In Lins and Kaput (2004)’s study with fifth-grade students, it
was found that functional algebraic thinking skills can be developed through scaffolding. The
gradual introduction of tables, graphs, pictures, words and symbols can shape students' thinking
so that they can understand data and interpret functional relations more effectively.
Modelling
According to Ralston (2013), modelling is an essential component of algebraic thinking

skills and involves solving open-number sentences, understanding similarities, and performing
calculations involving variables. The use of variables and unknown values is indirectly
introduced to students through activities that require them to find a value in an empty space,
allowing them to understand the relations between arithmetic operations. Many researchers also
emphasize equality as a means to develop algebraic thinking skills among students (Carpenter
et al., 2005; Rittle-Johnson & Alibali, 1999). The symbol "equal to" has three distinct meanings:
indicating that two quantities are equal, representing a relation, and suggesting the existence
of two sides of an equation (Rittle-Johnson & Alibali, 1999, p.177). However, studies have
shown that many students struggle with the conceptual understanding of variables, especially
regarding the symbolic use of variables in algebra (Küchemann, 1978; Usiskin, 1988).
Algebraic Problem Solving
Solving algebraic problems is important because it helps students understand real-

world situations and build meaning in real life (Kim & Chang, 2010; NCTM, 2000). However,
students may require guidance in solving algebraic problems (Capraro & Joffrion, 2006), as
these problems tend to be less popular among students due to their abstract nature (Baysal
& Sevinc, 2021). Consequently, students often struggle with the understanding of problem
statements, identifying variables, expressing known and unknown relations, comprehending
information, and translating algebraic problems into expressions or equations, leading to a
tendency to make mistakes (Clements, 1980; Egodawatte, 2011; Nathan & Koedinger, 2000).

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226 Ralston et al. (2018) developed a diagnostic assessment tool with 25 items, containing
eight components of algebraic skills related to 1745 elementary school students, demonstrating
good item fit but low reliability. There is still a need for a comprehensive instrument that
incorporates the constructs of generalized arithmetic, function, and modelling through problem-
solving. To fill this gap, this study developed and tested an assessment tool for its validity and
reliability that focuses on measuring these three constructs of algebraic thinking skills among
high school students in terms of problem-solving ability.
Rasch Measurement Model
The Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) has been employed to measure validity and
reliability in ATT items. This model is a useful tool for obtaining high instrument validity
and reliability levels through advanced statistical techniques (Bond & Fox, 2007). The RMM
assesses respondents' abilities to answer the instrument and evaluates the difficulty level of
each item (Wolins, 1982). Additionally, the RMM can measure underlying characteristics such
as human thoughts and emotions (Azrilah et al., 2015). While Rasch analysis may require a
longer process than traditional analysis, it offers a more in-depth understanding of the strengths
and weaknesses of the instrument (Boone & Scantlebury, 2006). According to Bond and Fox
(2007), the RMM effectively creates highly valid and reliable instruments through statistical
analysis.
The Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) is based on Item Response Theory and is
considered an appropriate statistical model as it can simultaneously measure the difficulty and
ability of individuals to respond to the items (Deane et al., 2016). The RMM analysis provides
information about the reliability of individuals and items, the separation of item and person
indices, and Cronbach's alpha value. Moreover, the construct validity of an instrument can be
evaluated through item and person fit, as well as unidimensionality. The researcher used Rasch
analysis to establish the reliability and validity of the ATT instrument by applying these key
concepts.
Research Aim and Questions
The aim of this study was to develop a reliable and valid tool for assessing algebraic-
related problem-solving abilities among seventh-grade students, using the Rasch Measurement
Model. The study was guided by three research questions:
Q1: Is ATT feasible in assessing algebraic thinking skills related to problem-solving

among seventh graders?
Q2: How valid is ATT in assessing seventh graders’ algebraic thinking skills related to
problem-solving?
Q3: How reliable is ATT in assessing the algebraic thinking skills involving problem-
solving among seventh graders?

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Research Methodology 227
Research Design
This research utilized a descriptive research design. The descriptive research design
focused on evaluating the validity and reliability of the ATT instrument. The development of
ATT involved a four-step process, which included construct identification, item formulation,
pre-testing ATT, and validity and reliability testing. Prior to item construction, a literature review
was conducted to gain an overview of the construct of algebraic thinking and the objectives
of the national curriculum. This was followed by a comparison of the learning objectives of
Mathematics in problem solving, as well as the results of TIMSS and PISA in algebra. Item
pre-testing took place from 10 to 24 August 2022 to check if the questions and instructions were
clear, after which modifications and refinements were made. The validity and reliability testing
was conducted on 5 October 2022.
Sample
The research employed a purposive sampling technique. The selection of the research
sample was based on the criteria that the students possessed a similar level of mathematics
achievement as assessed by their teachers in the end-of-semester test marks (70-80%). The
schools were categorized in the middle band in terms of mathematics achievement based on
the Subject Average Grade set by the Tuaran District Education. A total of 120 seventh graders,
consisting of 64 females (53.3%) and 56 males (46.7%) aged 12 to 13, were randomly selected
from two rural secondary schools in the Tuaran district of Sabah, Malaysia. According to
Linacre (1994), a sample size ranging from 108 to 243 can provide reliable and consistent data
with a 99% confidence level for estimating item difficulty within ± ½ logit of its stable value.
Instrumentation
The Algebraic Thinking Test (ATT) consists of nine open-ended subjective questions.
Multiple approaches can be taken to solve these subjective questions. As noted by Tofade et al.,
(2013), the process of answering these types of subjective questions is more vital to learning
than attaining the correct answers as seen in objective questions. As such, these subjective
questions promote high-level thinking skills. Table 1 gives more information regarding the
ATT.
Table 1
ATT’s Format
Format Description
Skills tested Algebraic problem solving based on the construct of Algebraic Thinking
Duration 1 hour 15 minutes
Number of Items 9
Language Use Malay / English
Total Marks 45
Total Full Score (%) 100
Type of Item Subjective (Open-ended response)
Applying
Cognitive level Analyze
Evaluate

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228 The ATT items were developed based on the content of the Curriculum Standard of
Secondary School (CSSS) as well as the Standard Document of Curriculum and Assessment
(SDCA) of Form One Mathematics under the field of Relations and Algebra (Curriculum
Development Division, 2017: 53 – 56). Based on SDCA, with discussion and advice from the
Coach of CSSS Mathematics and a Head of Mathematics, the researcher built a test specification
table (TST) for one of the topics involved, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Algebraic Thinking Skills Test Specification Table
Item Content Standards Learning Standards Performance Standard Difficulty Level

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.2.2 6.32 GA F M Low Medium High
1 / / / / / / /
2 / / / / / / /
3 / / / / / / /
4 / / / / / / /
5 / / / / / / /
6 / / / / / / /
7 / / / / / /
8 / / / / / / /
9 / / / / / / /
Total 4 3 2
Each question in ATT includes three algebraic thinking skill constructs adapted from
Kaput et al. (2008)’s algebraic thinking skills model: generalized arithmetic (GA), function (F),
and modelling (M). Table 3 provides examples of questions based on each construct, while the
solutions are illustrated in Figure 1. Each ATT item has a scoring system ranging from 0 to 6,
with a minimum and maximum score of 0 and 6 respectively. The student's response determines
the score awarded for each item, with a range of 0 to 6 marks for each item.
Table 3
The Constructs of ATT and Sample Questions
Sample Questions in ATT: The sum of three odd numbers in a row is 237. What is the number?
Constructs Definition Ability tested in the sample question
1. Using arithmetic laws and being able to Students can show an understanding that
Generalized
manipulate numbers efficiently. odd numbers have a sequence plus two
Arithmetic (GA)
2. Doing generalized arithmetic. from the previous odd number.
1. Specifying the relations between two or more
Students can express the sequence of odd
variables in the form of quantity.
Function (F) numbers in a pattern of numbers involving
2. Expressing the relations between two or more
variables.
variables as a number pattern.
1. Using variables, especially in problem-solving.
Students can show linear equations
Modelling (M) 2. Understanding the "equal" symbol means
similarity.

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Figure 1 229
Demonstration of a Solution Using Conceptual Components of Algebraic Thinking
Figure 2 shows an example of the problem posed to the students in ATT. Attempting
to solve the problem, the student was able to demonstrate the ability to apply the concept of
variables in equality. The student also attempted to indicate the relation between variable and
equality by showing that the sum of 7x, 10, and 30 are the same as 180. To solve the problem,
the student manipulated the equality concept and the numbers effectively by subtracting 40
from both sides of the equation, hence obtaining the value of x.

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230 Figure 2
Student’s Answer for Item 7
Variable and equality

concept
Using arithmetic laws and

manipulate the numbers.
Meanwhile, in Figure 3, the student not only was able to demonstrate the ability to use
variables and equality but also was able to specify the relation between the two variables.

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Figure 3 231
Student’s Answer for Item 8
Specify the relation between

the two variables in the form
of quantity
Variable and equality concept
Using arithmetic laws and

manipulate the numbers
Ethical Considerations
Prior to the administering of ATT, written consent was acquired from the participants'
parents and school principals. The consent letter contained information about the students’ in-
volvement in the research, and the parents indicated that they had a clear understanding of the
research objectives. Other than that, they were also provided with an outline of ATT’s purpose
to measure the level of algebraic thinking skills of the students. Participants were reassured that
their responses would be kept confidential and anonymous, and that they were free to pull out
of the study at any time without any consequences. Afterwards, a follow-up briefing was con-
ducted to explain the instructions regarding how to answer the questions in ATT.
Administration of ATT
During the assessment, the students were instructed to read the ATT attentively, use their
own knowledge to answer the questions, and avoid seeking assistance from external sources.
They were given one hour to analyze and respond to the open-ended prompts. Following the
completion of the task, the responses were collected, verified for correctness, and analyzed
utilizing WINSTEPS software version 3.73.

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232 Content Validity
Validity pertains to the precision of the measurement in an instrument. Content validity

evaluates the adequacy of the items in representing the trait's content that the researcher intends
to measure, and experts' review ensures construct precision and content clarity, as cited by
Creswell & Creswell (2017) and Kline (2005). To assess content validity value, the researcher
utilized the Content Validity Index (CVI), which assesses the rating for all items evaluated by
experts. Previous research specified that the Scale Content Validity Index (S-CVI) of .80 or
higher (Davis, 1992) when the assessment of content validation involves three or more experts
for a new instrument. This study applied a benchmark of .80, proposed by Davis (1992) for
ATT. The analysis of CVI, based on Polit and Beck (2006), is presented below.
Content Validity Index (CVI) = (Total score agreed by experts)

(Total Score)
To enhance ATT's validity, the research conducted a content validity process with the
assistance of four Mathematical Education experts. The researcher adopted an evaluation form
suggested by the Malaysian Examinations Board to evaluate ATT items in terms of the suitability
of algebraic thinking skills, language clarity, and item relevance. The experts' feedback was
documented and used to improve the ATT items and refine their meaning, language, and
presentation. Table 4 provides a list of the experts who participated in content validation.
Table 4
Content Validation Panel for ATT
Expert Representative Position Expertise

Associate Professor Measurement and Assessment in
Expert A Public Universities
Mathematical Education
Expert B Public Universities Academic Lecturer (PhD) Mathematics Education, Statistics
Expert C Institute of Teacher Education Lecturer (PhD) Mathematical Education
Lecturer
Head Coach of KSSM HOTS in Mathematics, Mathematics
Expert D Mathematics, Curriculum, Digital Mathematical
Institute of Teacher Education
Head Coach of Literacy and Mathematical
Mathematics Educator, Assessment
Mathematics’ Examiner

Table 5 shows that the Scale content validity index yielded a value of .94, surpassing the
minimum requirement of .80, as Davis (1992) stipulated for new instruments. A S-CVI score of
0.94 indicates that the ATT instrument has a very high level of content validity, as assessed by
the expert panel, and is deemed acceptable.

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Table 5: 233
Content Validity Index (CVI) Result of the ATT instrument
Expert Assent
Item I - CVI Decision
1 2 3 4 Expert
1 / / / / 4 1.00 Maintained
2 / - / / 3 .75 Modified
3 / - / / 3 .75 Modified
4 / / / / 4 1.00 Maintained
5 / / / / 4 1.00 Maintained
6 / / / / 4 1.00 Maintained
7 / / / / 4 1.00 Maintained
8 / / / / 4 1.00 Maintained
9 / / / / 4 1.00 Maintained
Scale Content Validity Index (S-CVI/ Average) .94

Construct Validity
The application of five statistical tests is required to conduct a basic Rasch analysis,
which involves: (1) Measuring item polarity through Point Measure Correlation (2) Measuring
item fit through the mean square (3) Confirming dimensionality (4) Determining Cronbach's
alpha coefficient (KR-20) (5) Determining both item and person reliability by assessing their
respective separation indices.
The item polarity is determined by the Point Measure Correlation (PTMEA-CORR)
value analysis. A positive PTMEA-CORR value indicates that the item accurately measures its
intended measure, and a negative value indicates the opposite. Additionally, item fit analysis
was conducted using Outfit MNSQ, Outfit ZSTD, and PTMEA-CORR values, as suggested
by Bond and Fox (2007), Boone et al. (2014), and Leitao and Waugh (2012). The purpose of
item fit analysis is to determine if an item can perform its intended measurement (Sumintono
& Widhiarso, 2015). Any items that fail to meet the criteria in Table 6 should be revised or
removed to increase the item's fair value (Sumintono & Widhiarso, 2015).
To ensure the instrument's ability to measure algebraic thinking proficiency, the
researcher conducted a dimensionality analysis using Principal Component Analysis (PCA),
in accordance with Shea et al. (2009) and Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015). The dimensional
criteria were based on the "raw variance explained by measures" value, which is considered
good if it exceeds 20%, excellent if it exceeds 60%, and 40% or more is considered acceptable
(Sumintono & Widhiarso, 2015). Additionally, the "unexplained variance in first contrast"
value should not exceed 15%.

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234 Table 6
Fit Indices for Item Fit
Statistics Fit Indices
Outfit Means Square Values (MNSQ) .50 – 1.50
Outfits Z-Standard Values (ZSTD) -2.00 – 2.00
Point Measure Correlation (PTMEA CORR) .40 – .85
Source: Boone et al. (2014)
Reliability

Sumintono and Widhiarso's (2015) work is referenced by the researcher for evaluating
reliability in terms of Cronbach's Alpha (KR-20) values, as well as item-person reliability and
separation indices, as shown in Table 7.
Table 7
Reliability Measured via Rasch Analysis
Statistics Index Interpretation

<.5 Low
<.6 Moderate
Alpha Cronbach (KR-20)
.6 – .7 Good
.7 – .8 High
.9 – 1.0 Very High
<.67 Low
.67 – .80 Sufficient
Item and Person Reliability Index
.81 – .90 Good
.91 – .94 Very Good
>.94 Excellent
A high exile value indicates good persistence
between the item and the person and describes
Item and Person Separation Index > 3.0
the strata of the item and person in the
instruments.
Source: Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015)
Research Results
Item Statistics
Linacre (2007) emphasized the importance of Outfit MNSQ values in evaluating the
suitability of measurement items for a construct. For productive items, Boone et al. (2014)
specified that the Outfit MNSQ range should be between .5 and 1.5, the Outfit ZSTD range
should be within -2.0 to +2.0, and the PTMEA-CORR range should fall between .4 to .85.
Based on Table 8, item 5's Outfit MNSQ value falls outside the range. As explained by Boone

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et al. (2014) and Abdul Aziz et al. (2014), an item that does not meet all three criteria and falls 235
outside the range is considered unsuitable. However, if an item meets any criteria, it should be
retained, as suggested by Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015). Since all items meet at least one
criterion in Table 8, no changes were made to the instrument.
Table 8
Item Statistics
Outfit MNSQ Outfit ZSTD PTMEA-CORR

Item Decision
(.50 - 1.50) (-2.0 - 2.0) (.40 - .85)
5 1.94 5.10 .46 Remain
1 .48 - 4.70 .92 Remain
6 .82 - 1.30 .72 Remain
7 .93 - .40 .81 Remain
2 1.10 .60 .68 Remain
3 .91 -.40 .67 Remain
4 .86 - .50 .66 Remain
8 .92 - .20 .68 Remain
9 .42 - 2.10 .75 Remain
Item Polarity
The assessment of item polarity was conducted using the PTMEA-CORR values, which
determined whether the items in ATT moved congruently with the measured construct. A
positive value indicated that all items functioned consistently, while a negative value indicated
items that required improvement or elimination. As shown in Figure 4, all items had positive
values, with PTMEA-CORR scores ranging from .46 to .92.
Figure 4
Analysis of Point Measure Correlation

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236 Confirmation of Dimensionality
Determining the unidimensionality of an instrument is crucial to ensure accurate results

are obtained from the study. The Principal Component Analysis of Rasch Residual (PCAR)
is frequently used to detect unidimensionality. Based on the results presented in Figure 5, the
Raw Variance Explained by Measures value's observed value is 61.1%, which according to
Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015), is an excellent level of unidimensionality. This indicates that
the ATT instrument is capable of measuring algebraic thinking skills. The unexplained variance
in the first contrast was found to be 9.5%, which is below the threshold of 15%. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the ATT instrument has strong unidimensionality.
Figure 5
Principal Component Analysis of Rasch Residual (PCAR)
Reliability and Separation Indices
To assess ATT's reliability, person measure reliability was used to distinguish students
based on their responses, while item measure reliability was used to differentiate between
items based on their approved authenticity by respondents. Table 9 presents an overview of
the reliability findings. Based on Cronbach's alpha coefficient (KR-20), Table 9 indicates that
ATT has strong reliability, with a value of .90. The item reliability score of .98 is classified
as excellent (Sumintono & Widhiarso, 2015), and the item separation index of 6.29 is greater
than 3.0, suggesting that ATT has a good distribution of items. According to Krishnan and
Idris (2014), for instruments to accurately measure students, the separation of respondents
should surpass 1.00. An item separation value above 2.00 is considered good (Linacre, 2003).
Ardiyanti (2016) proposed an equation, H = [(4 x separation index) + 1] / 3, to determine the
number of strata of separate items (H) based on the separation index. The resulting H value in
this study is 8.72, rounded up to 9, indicating that ATT has nine levels of items.

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Table 9 237
Summary of the Reliability Findings
Statistics Value Interpretation

Cronbach Alpha Rated (KR -20) .90 High
Item Reliability .98 Excellent
Item Separation Index 6.29 Good
Person Reliability .86 Good
Person Separation Index 2.45 Good
In addition, Rasch's analysis also recorded a good respondent reliability value of .86
(Sumintono & Widhiarso, 2015). Bond and Fox (2007) also supported that the respondent's
reliability rating higher than .80 indicates that respondents provide good and consistent
feedback. The separation value of 2.45 is 'good' if its value exceeds 2.00 (Linacre, 2003). The
separation value of 2.45 produces strata, H = 3.60 (can be rounded to 4). This value shows that
students can be divided into four groups (weak, moderate, good and excellent) according to
their responses based on items in ATT.
Figure 6
Principal Component Analysis of Rasch Residual (PCAR)

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238 Discussion
The research conducted a comprehensive analysis of the validity and reliability of the
ATT instrument for measuring algebraic thinking skills among seventh graders from secondary
school, as summarized in Table 5 to Table 9. The validity analysis covered item suitability,
polarity, and dimensionality.
After conducting an item conformity analysis, it was found that all items in the ATT
instrument were deemed suitable for use as they met the criteria of Outfit MNSQ, Outfit ZSTD
and PTMEA-CORR. A positive PTMEA-CORR analysis indicates that all instrument items
are consistent in interpreting the measured constructs (Bond & Fox, 2007). Moreover, the Raw
Variance Explained by Measures of the ATT instrument analysis shows a value of over 60%,
indicating good dimensionality and confirming the instrument's ability to measure algebraic
thinking skills in three constructs: generalized arithmetic, function, and modelling.
The reliability assessment of the ATT instrument indicates a high level of trustworthiness
in measuring algebraic thinking skills among seventh graders. This is supported by the very
high Cronbach's alpha value, the excellent reliability value of the instrument items, and the good
reliability of the respondents. The ATT instrument also shows the good item and respondent
separation values, indicating that the instrument has nine strata according to the number of
items in ATT and the respondents are divided into four strata based on their level of ability
(weak, medium, good, excellent).
While previous research has produced several instruments for assessing elementary
students' level of algebraic thinking skills, such as those developed by Ralston et al. (2018),
Alghtani et al. (2010), and Somasundram et al. (2016), there has been a need for a tool to assess
these skills among secondary school students. ATT was developed to address this limitation
and is explicitly designed to evaluate the level of algebraic thinking skills in problem-solving.
Beyond its use in determining the extent of students' algebraic thinking skills, ATT also offers
an important means of analyzing these skills in secondary Mathematics Education.
In general, the validity and reliability of ATT were evaluated using the Rasch Measure-
ment Model. The ATT instrument focused on three constructs: Generalized Arithmetic, Func-
tions, and Modelling. To ensure content validity, four experts reviewed all nine open-ended
items. Item two was revised to avoid confusion in language writing. Additionally, the question's
keyword was changed from "original perimeter of a garden" to "original perimeter of a rect-
angular shape garden" to encourage high-level thinking among students. The third item was
modified to ensure that the meaning of sentences in Malay and English is consistent. Experts
suggested that the question's intent should be aligned in both languages.
The research suggests that ATT, a new instrument in secondary mathematics education,
aligns with Kaput's algebraic thinking skills model and can provide educators with valuable data
on the extent of students' algebraic thinking skills. This data can be used to develop appropriate
educational programs aimed at enhancing students' algebraic thinking abilities. Earlier studies,
such as Hiebert et al. (1999), have established the significance of possessing algebraic thinking
skills and have shown that it is a robust indicator of success in mathematics in the future. The
findings of this study suggest that an appropriate algebraic thinking model can be used to assess
the level of algebraic thinking skills among secondary students. Moreover, the ATT instrument
utilizes problem-solving questions to enable learners to effectively tackle complex and non-
routine mathematical problems. These results further support the idea that a strong foundation
in algebraic thinking is critical for students to develop problem-solving skills and excel in
mathematics, as emphasized by Fong and Lee (2009).
Furthermore, it is worth noting that while most previous instruments developed to assess
algebraic thinking have used the exploratory factor analysis method, the ATT instrument employs

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Rasch analysis. This approach is associated with greater accuracy in instrument development, 239
which is an important advantage of ATT over previous instruments. Using Rasch analysis, the
ATT instrument is better equipped to accurately measure students' algebraic thinking skills and
provide valuable insights into areas where students may need additional support to improve
their mathematical abilities.
Conclusion and Implications
Constructing an algebraic thinking skills instrument with a high level of validity and
reliability is essential to ensure that the developed instrument can be used repeatedly. This
is particularly important in enabling researchers to make informed decisions based on the
instrument's findings. The results of this study also support the use of Rasch analysis in the
development of the ATT instrument for measuring the algebraic thinking skills of students in
other areas. By demonstrating the validity and reliability of the instrument using the Rasch
Measurement Model, this study offers a strong foundation for its use in measuring the algebraic
thinking skills of seventh-grade students in secondary schools.
This study has important practical and methodological implications. From a practical
standpoint, the Algebraic Thinking Test (ATT) is a new instrument developed based on the
algebraic thinking model. The algebraic thinking model can be adapted to suit the context of
mathematics education in any country. The ATT instrument is well-suited to address the gap in
mathematics education research, specifically in measuring algebraic thinking in problem-solv-
ing among secondary school students. The development of this instrument is a significant con-
tribution towards ensuring the continuity of the application of algebraic thinking in mathemat-
ics education.
On the methodological side, the Rasch Measurement Model used to assess the validity
and reliability of the ATT instrument is highly specific and detailed. This model's analysis indi-
cates that the ATT instrument is highly valid for measuring algebraic thinking in problem-solv-
ing based on item-person fit, item polarity, and unidimensionality. High-reliability analysis of
the ATT instrument, as indicated by a good item-person separation value, proves its reliability
in measuring algebraic thinking involving three constructs: Generalized Arithmetic, Functions,
and Modelling for seventh-grade students. Validity and reliability analysis of the ATT instru-
ment is essential for accurate measurement of the variables studied and informed decision-mak-
ing based on analysis of the findings. Furthermore, these findings provide a basis for other
researchers to use the ATT instrument in assessing algebraic thinking in mathematics education
among seventh-grade students in other contexts. Ultimately, the Rasch Measurement Model has
successfully demonstrated the ATT instrument's suitability for actual field study in assessing al-
gebraic thinking in mathematics education among seventh-grade students in secondary schools.
While the results demonstrate the reliability and validity of the ATT instrument for as-
sessing algebraic thinking skills in secondary school, it is important to acknowledge its limita-
tions. The study was conducted in rural schools and involved a sample size of only 120 students,
which may not represent the broader population of secondary school students. Future research
should expand the sample size to include urban schools to increase generalizability. Moreover,
ATT can be integrated into STEM curriculum models to enhance critical and inventive thinking
skills in Mathematics. To enhance the generalizability of the findings, it is recommended to
extend the research of ATT to other regions and diverse student populations.

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240 Acknowledgements

The researchers would like to express their appreciation to the Ministry of Higher
Education Malaysia which funded this study under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(FRGS) Year 2021, FRGS/1/2021/SSI0/UMS/02/7.
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Janet Jahudin MEd. (Curriculum & Instructional Design), PhD Candidate, Faculty of
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Nyet Moi Siew PhD, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University Malaysia
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E-mail: sopiah@ums.edu.my

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244
DIGITAL CITIZEN PARTICIPATION OF
COLLEGE STUDENTS: REALITY AND
OPTIMIZATION PATH
Haili Lu, Kefeng Fu, Xiaolin Liu, Wanshan Hu
Shaanxi Normal University, People’s Republic of China
E-mail: yjxxiaomao@163.com, 232731056@qq.com,
xiaolinliu@snnu.edu.cn, huws@snnu.edu.cn
Abstract
Digital citizenship participation refers to the utilization of digital technology by individuals or groups for
the purpose of engaging in networked participatory behaviors. It involves four interconnected elements:
individual, policy, political, and social participation. This study surveyed 446 college students from a
private university in China and conducted interviews to explore their digital citizenship participation. It
is found that college students' digital citizen participation is characterized by "strong individual interest-
driven participation", "weak political concern", and "good digital citizen literacy". In order to improve
college students' participation as digital citizens, it is crucial to cultivate digital literacy by applying the
core competency framework of digital citizenship as a guiding principle. To create a sustainable path
for students' participation, a four-pronged approach is proposed involving multi-stakeholders, namely
society, government, schools, and teachers.
Keywords: college students, digital citizenship participation, multi-stakeholders, optimization path,
participation characteristics
Introduction
Digital citizenship participation (DCP) is a crucial aspect of digital citizenship literacy,

reflecting the ability of digital citizens to respond effectively within digital communities and
participate meaningfully in a digital society. DCP is essential in enhancing digital literacy,
accelerating digital development, and building a networked nation (Choi, 2016). It is also a
must for both promoting education digitization and building educational and talent power in
the process of educational transformation. UNESCO has recognized the importance of the
age group between 15 to 24, which is "the most closely connected age group in the world".
Policy makers throughout the world are focusing on cultivating their skills and core values to
deliver highly literate digital citizens and create a safe digital environment. College students
in contemporary society are the first generation of true "digital natives" (Al-Zahrani, 2015),
whose daily communication is mainly based on digital tools, social media, and mobile devices.
And they are vulnerable to being victims of digital risks. Problems related to digital citizenship
literacy, such as online fraud, online speech disputes, and cyberbullying have become serious
social issues in the digital age. The Global Digital Citizen Foundation (GDCF) has stated that
"being a digital citizen is less about civilization and security than it is about a range of complex
skills for online participation" (Global Digital–Global Digital Skills Blog, 2022). In essence,
the form of citizen participation among college students has evolved, and due attention should
be paid to their online participation (Dmitrik, 2020) and a sustainable path is in need to guide
their digital participation.

Haili LU, Kefeng FU, Xiaolin LIU, Wanshan HU. Digital citizen participation of college students: Reality and optimization path
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Relevant Constructs of Digital Citizenship Participation 245
Citizenship serves as the ontological category of digital citizen participation. The concept
of citizenship, to a certain extent, entails digital citizen participation. The classic definition of
citizenship refers to an individual, as a member of a group, who enjoys rights and obligations
within the legal framework. This definition is based on the law and the group and emphasizes
the rights and responsibilities of citizens. From a political perspective, citizenship, having
national citizenship and the status of a member (Fischman & Haas, 2012) means participating
in political activities and assuming political responsibilities. From a social-cultural perspective,
citizenship means being a member who participates in activities and enjoys social and cultural
rights and welfare (Banks, 2020). In the present study, accordingly, citizenship refers to different
forms of existence of citizens in different contexts and is a complex and multifaceted concept
that encompasses various aspects of an individual’s identity and participation in society.
The rapid iteration of technology has extended traditional citizenship into the online
context, allowing citizens to exist in both physical and the virtual world, and connect with
each other (Brandau et al., 2022). According to Shakuntala, digital technology has influenced
human activities, enabling individuals to actively participate in community activities and life,
surpassing traditional forms of participation (Banaji & Buckingham, 2010). In March 2022,
the European Commission released the Digital Competence Framework 2.2 (DigComp 2.2,
The Digital Competence framework for citizens - Publications Office of the EU, 2022), which
updates the interaction between citizens and intelligent systems based on DigComp1.0 and
DigComp2.0, and emphasizes the field of "communication and collaboration." It has been
pointed out that the development of information technology provides people with virtual
citizenship and obligations, as well as rights and responsibilities on the Internet (Langran et al,
2011; Simsek et al,2013). Mossberger defines digital citizenship as "the ability to participate
in online social activities" (Mossberger et al., 2007). Digital citizenship in the present study
focuses on citizens using digital technology to interact, share, collaborate, and participate in
civic activities in the digital age.
In order to understand the concept of digital citizen participation, it is essential to first
clarify the concept of citizen participation. Citizen participation is defined as citizen participating
in the life of communities to improve the situation of others or change the future of the community
(Adler & Goggin, 2005), which is a kind of active political engagement and media consumption.
Meanwhile, the United Nations Children's Fund defines it as "individual or collective action by
people to improve and optimize the well-being of communities or society as a whole" (2017). In
a sense, citizen participation is a broader form of participation that encompasses both political
and social participation, intertwining people's lives and affecting their own lives and communities
in various ways (Dagger, 1997). With the advancement of information technology, the style and
methods of citizen participation have also evolved (Gaventa & Barrett, 2012). Young citizens in
the digital age tend to focus on "political behavior in online social life" (Bennett et al. , 2009),
while Ekman and Amnå propose citizen participation behaviors that are more self-oriented or
non-political or even semi-political (Ekman & Amnå, 2012). Non-political or semi-political
participation can be seen as implicit political participation, with political participation being
a central element of citizen participation (Turner, 2002). Virtually, DCP encompasses two
main dimensions. The first dimension involves citizens' potential online participation behavior
in their personal lives or individual political needs, often expressed as personal expression
or self-realization, which frees citizens from the constraints of physical space and presence,
enabling them to fulfill their individual needs through digital space. The second dimension
is the explicit online participation form of citizens within their social communities, which is
closely related to political, social, economic, and cultural practices. Political participation is
considered a core element of DCP, and citizens should actively participate in public affairs and

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246 assume corresponding public responsibilities, promoting their own political identity and social-
political integration as members of social communities. The present study defines digital citizen
participation as the use of new media, digital information and digital technologies to create and
enhance communication channels, and promote responsible and secure individual or collective
online activities.
Four Dimensions of Digital Citizen Participation
Moonsun Choi's identified four dimensions that contributed to the ability to participate in
online social activities: digital ethics, digital literacy, digital participation, and critical thinking.
Digital participation further encompassed four types of participation, including political,
economic, cultural, and individual participation (Choi et al. , 2017). Political participation
refers to the use of the Internet as a new tool for discussing or engaging in political policies,
or using social networking sites for election or public communication; economic participation
refers to consumption or financial transactions conducted online; cultural participation refers
to cultural behaviors in which individuals engage in group activities; individual participation
refers to the ways in which users are more focused on personal online activities. Mike Ribble
emphasized the importance of appropriate online behaviors, access to digital resources, and
protection of digital security and health, which were further developed into nine sub-categories,
with some describing specific ways, others focusing on digital citizens participation awareness
(Ribble, 2015).
Admittedly, these constructs suggest that DCP is a critical aspect of digital literacy,
reflecting the quality of digital citizens' engagement in the digital community. Based on
the previous literature, the present study categorizes digital citizen participation into two
fundamental levels: the individual-based network participation behavior and the collective-
based network participation behavior. The individual-based network participation behavior
involves a clear awareness of individuals’ digital skills and needs that can be met by using the
Internet, which consists of two aspects: "objective awareness" and "subjective awareness". The
former emphasizes network participation behavior as an objective and necessary responsibility,
which serves as the basis and premise for individuals to maintain their relationship with the
social community and become members of the community. The latter can be referred to as
individual participation, which is based on an individual's personal needs, such as one’ own
value, self-experience, emotional identity (Choi et al. , 2017) .
Furthermore, network participation behavior is an attempt to improve the situation of
others or change the future of the community through online participation. It can be achieved
from two channels. One is through direct online channels, which means citizens improve the
situation of others, known as social participation or potential participation. The other, called
political participation (VanFossen, 2006) or internet political action (Kim & Choi, 2018),
involves an explicit or indirect channels, as a way of using the Internet as a new tool to discuss
or participate in political policies, thus indirectly and explicitly affecting the future of the whole
community.
Although digital citizen participation was proven to increase the effective use of digital
technology (Bennett et al. , 2009), the level and characteristics of participation is still unknown.
Few studies, in particular, have paid little attention to the digital citizen participation of college
students. As a core index of digital citizen literacy, it is not advisable to solely describe digital
citizen literacy while ignoring digital citizen participation. To address the general research
question–what the general situation of digital citizen participation among college students is–
three specific research questions were generated.
1. What is the level of digital citizen participation among college students?
2. What are the characteristics of digital citizen participation among college students?
3. How to optimize the path of college students' digital citizen participation?

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Procedures
To address the research questions, a mixed-method approach both qualitative and

quantitative was employed. Data were collected through a survey questionnaire to explore
the characteristics and general level of college students' digital citizen participation, and in-
depth interviews with selected participating students to analyze its causes to provide detailed
evidence for the optimization of the path of college students' digital citizen participation. It was
done in five steps:
1. Based on the previous literature, the dimensions of college students' DCP were
determined, a scale for measuring their participation was developed, and its validity
and reliability were tested.
2. Data was collected and descriptive analysis was performed on students' basic
information to gain a general understanding of their online purposes and participation.
3. K-means clustering analysis and one-sample t-test analysis were performed to explore
the differences in students' DCP levels based on their individual needs and political
participation, respectively.
4. One-way ANOVA was applied to explore the characteristics of DCP among different
levels.
5. Selected participants were interviewed in-depth to collect qualitative data to
corroborate the quantitative findings, and the path of digital citizen participation
among college students was put forward.
Sampling
In the present study, probability sampling was performed to ensure that each college
student in the survey sample has an equal chance of being selected (Mertens, 2019). Participants
were recruited from a private undergraduate university in China. Researchers distributed
questionnaires to schools through e-distribution means named Questionnaire Star, and a total
of 478 questionnaires were collected with 32 invalid questionnaires eliminated, and 446 valid
questionnaires obtained. In the sample, there are 250 male students, accounting for 56.05%, and
196 female students, accounting for 43.95%. After the cluster analysis on the questionnaire data
(see Analysis), eight participants were invited to complete an in-depth interview.
Instruments
The survey questionnaire consists of four main sections: (a) demographic information,
(b) DCP scale, (c) digital citizenship literacy scale, and (d) The Internet attitude scale. Except for
the demographic information, a 5-point Likert scale (5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree)
was applied for categorization. A digital citizenship self-assessment scale developed by Choi (
2016) was adapted and modified into a college student online participation scale with 14 items.
The digital citizenship literacy scale (34 items) and the Internet attitude scale (5 items) used in
this study were adapted from the college students' digital citizenship literacy scale and internet
attitude scale developed by Al-Zahrani ( 2015). According to Bennett's classification of young
citizens' political behavior in real-life situations (self-realization in political aspects), political
aspects of life were classified into four categories: campus action, personal social action,
volunteer service, and online groups participation (Bennett et al. , 2009). In order to localize
the original scales, high-proficient language teachers were first invited to render the original
version into Chinese version independently. The Chinese version was then carried out based

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248 on the students’ performance. To better understand the characteristics and attitudes of college
students' DCP at different levels, the "Survey of Netizens' Social Consciousness (2019 Edition)"
from the China General Social Survey (CGSS), led by Ma Deyong of Renmin University of
China, were also refereed during the adaptation process. The coding of the questionnaire for
college students' DCP is presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Categories for the College Students "Digital Citizen Participation"
Category Subcategory Extraction Factors Explanation
Some differences in identity

Individual Age, gender, grade,
characteristics can indirectly reflect
identity Internet purpose, online Gender, Internet purpose
the characteristics of digital citizen
characteristics time
participation
Interpersonal interaction,
individual Individual participation Help to understand participation
e-commerce
demand levels, and forms of DCP among
partake college students.
Policy participation --
Campus action, social action

social participation (personally related), volunteer
Participation service, joining online groups
as a Explore the level and form of
community student participation
member Political engagement awareness,
Political participation critical awareness, local / global
awareness
Internet Focus on awareness, network Understand the cognitive level of a

--
attitude security awareness student's active participation
An outline of semi-structured interview was then designed. Two main themes were
addressed:(a) The digital citizenship competencies and internet attitudes (i.e., how did they
engage in online participation? and (b) the level of digital engagement.
Reliability and Validity Analysis
Based on the statistical analysis using SPSS software, the KMO value is found to be
.974, and the Bartlett sphericity test shows a significance of p <.001, indicating a good fit of the
factor model. The Cronbach's α coefficients for the three sub-scales of college students' digital
citizenship literacy, the Internet attitudes, and political participation are .982, .891, and .969,
respectively, indicating good internal consistency. Since the questionnaire items were adapted
from previous scales, this study used confirmatory factor analysis to verify the construct validity
of each scale. The combination reliability (CR) values of digital citizenship literacy, the Internet
attitudes, and political participation are .976, .874, and .96, respectively, and the average
variance extracted (AVE) values are .548, .592, and .638, indicating good composite reliability
and convergent validity of the questionnaire developed in this study (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
The discriminant validity of each dimension was analyzed using the HTMT method. The results
show that all HTMT values are less than .85, indicating good discriminant validity between the
factors and a good differentiation of the research data (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

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Research Results 249
The Level of Digital Citizen Participation among College Students
The present study conducted a survey on the fundamental aspects and competencies of
students' Internet usage, in terms of their preference of utilized digital devices, daily online
duration, purpose. The data in Table 2 show the preference to surf the Internet via the mobile
phone, the purpose for entertainment (89.5%), followed by learning-related purposes (79.6%),
and social media access (54.5%), with targeted news search (30.0%) being relatively low.
Table 2
The Status Quo of Digital Citizen Participation among College Students
Online Expertise Group N % M SD
Cellphone 435 97.5

Tablet PC 388 87.0
Access to digital devices 0.42 0.18
Computer 206 46.2
Others 429 96.2
More than 10 hours 27 6.1

Between 6-10 hours 72 16.1
Between 3-6 hours 59 13.2
Internet duration
Between 1-3 hours 25 5.6 0.54 0.23
(everyday)
Less than 1 hour 9 2.0
Uncertain duration 235 52.7
Never 3 .7
Entertainment 399 89.5

Homework 355 79.6
Purpose Searching for news 134 30.0 2.62 1.92
Visiting social media sites 243 54.5
Without specific purpose or killing time 75 16.8
Classification of Digital Citizen Participation Level
K-means clustering was used for multiple iterations to analyze the differences in online
participation. Based on these differences, DCP among college students is divided into five
types, as shown in Table 3. The first type, referred to as "Marginalized Participation type"
has the lowest average score in each participation behavior, indicating an overall indifferent
performance. The second type, "Passive Participation type" has higher levels of participation
than the first type, but students' engagement is influenced by external factors, and they tend
to refrain from participating unless coerced. The third type, "Integrated Participation type"
has higher levels of participation than the second type, but students' engagement is relatively
changeable and focused more on entertainment and individual interests. The fourth type,
"Voluntary Participation type" has even higher levels of participation, with students actively
engaging and integrating into activities. The fifth type, "Radical Participation type" has the
highest level of participation, with students not only integrating into activities but also having
a certain level of critical thinking. One-sample t-test further reveals the differences in the level
of digital citizen participation among college students.

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250 Table 3
Categories for the College Students "Levels for Digital Citizen Participation"
Marginalized Passive Integrated Voluntary Radical

Performance dimension
Participation Participation Participation Participation Participation
(446) M/t
type (7) M/t type (171) M/t type (92) M/t type (96) M/t type (80) M/t
Digital citizenship(3.889) 3.247/1.10* 3.284/9.69*** 3.904/20.77*** 4.152/31.82*** 4.893/87.22***

Internet attitude(3.688) 3.085/0.26* 3.195/5.48*** 3.667/11.39*** 3.893/15.71*** 4.575/20.86***
Political
1.571/-9.38*** 2.801/-8.72*** 3.052/1.28* 3.845/22.56*** 4.880/58.94***
participation(3.431)
Individual needs to
2.631/-2.50** 3.136/7.54*** 3.729/11.39*** 4.100/39.00*** 4.931/99.98***
participate(3.781)
*p>05; **p <.01; ***p <.001; M/t, Mean / t-value.
Differences in the Levels of Digital Citizen Participation
To explore whether there was heterogeneity in the classification of DCP levels among
college students, a comparison was made between the individual participation and political
participation in life aspects of the five types of DCP. Except online interpersonal relationships
and online shopping, there were significant differences in the forms of political participation in
life aspects, as shown in Table 4. The results showed that the radical participation type> voluntary
participation type > integrated participation type>passive participation type >marginalized
participation type. It can be seen that this classification effectively distinguishes and screens the
level of DCP among college students, and once again validates the validity of the classification.
Table 4
One-way ANOVA for "Digital Citizenship Participation Level"
Social participation (politics in life)

Online Electronic
interpersonal Commerce Online Online
Project relationships Social action Campus news
volunteer community
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
MPT 3.214 0.324 3.142 0.839 2.290 0.951 2.294 1.604 1.286 0.488 1.709 1.113
PPT 3.277 0.497 3.233 0.466 3.194 0.477 3.022 0.503 2.963 0.404 2.872 0.542
IPT 4.027 0.551 3.918 0.613 3.892 0.687 3.357 0.720 3.261 0.627 3.050 0.521
VPT 4.197 0.515 4.153 0.441 4.210 0.521 4.012 0.513 3.962 0.521 3.832 0.574
RPT 4.981 0.124 4.918 0.241 4.979 0.157 4.931 0.417 4.900 0.518 4.880 0.537
F-value 188.980*** 190.336*** 196.589*** 172.447*** 259.774*** 219.013***
MCR e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a
**p < .01; ***p < .001; MCR, multiple comparisons.
Differences in Cognitive Attitudes
The awareness of participation is an important indicator of individual's active cognition.

From the perspective of cognitive psychology, an individual's cognitive ability is closely related

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to their behavioral motivation. The higher the degree of cognition, the stronger the action 251
consciousness. Therefore, exploring different types of digital citizens' awareness of participation
can judge the degree of positive cognition and active participation of university students' digital
citizenship. Comparing the sense of participation in the five types of university students' digital
literacy, except for the perception of network security, other items showed a trend of variation
according to the level of university students' DCP. Among them, media attention awareness,
political participation awareness, critical awareness, and local/global awareness are all shown
as follows: radical participation type > voluntary participation type > integrated participation
type > passive participation type > marginalized participation type, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Ideological Aspects for "Different Levels of Digital Citizenship Participation"
Political
Critical Local / Global Cyber security
Media awareness participation
Project consciousness awareness perception
consciousness
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
MPT 1.809 0.741 1.571 0.534 1.381 0.487 1.714 0.951 3.200 0.748
PPT 2.863 0.355 2.935 0.323 2.690 0.553 3.14 0.455 3.194 0.388
IPT 3.177 0.573 3.179 0.494 2.847 0.699 3.543 0.636 3.804 0.593
VPT 3.885 0.495 3.932 0.414 3.746 0.624 4.052 0.489 4.102 0.468
RPT 4.854 0.363 4.956 0.197 4.820 0.497 4.950 0.219 4.822 0.409
F-value 324.065*** 498.574*** 222.595*** 231.786*** 182.527***
MCR e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>b>a e>d>c>a>b
**p < .01; ***p < .001; MCR, multiple comparisons.
Interview
Based on the results of the quantitative study, the researchers found that among the eight
interviewed university students, one participant belonged to radical participation type (S1), two
participants belonged to the voluntary participation type (S2, S3), two participants belonged to
the integrated participation type(S4, S5), two participants belonged to the passive participation
type(S6 S7), and one participant belonged to marginalized participation type(S8). Through
in-depth interviews, it was found that the most participants were engaged in personalized
participation based on their interests, which mainly focused on individually-driven network
activities. Their participation was characterized by being of various levels. Noticeably, one
participant(S08) expressed his unwillingness to participate in any kind of activities.
Discussion
The Level of Digital Citizenship Participation Among College Students
The results revealed that the level of digital citizen participation among university
students varied a lot, as shown in Figure 1.

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252 Figure 1
The Level of Digital Citizen Participation Among University Students
Radical participation type (RPT) shows very strong willingness to participate in

online activities, and the overall level of participation is the highest among the five types.
Respondent S1 replied, "Well, I think the Internet is good for all. I can achieve everything on
the internet, and my life will be in the darkness without it. Previous research has found similar
tributes in these participants (Choi, 2016), who have higher digital citizen literacy and internet
attitudes (Al-Zahrani, 2015); voluntary participation type (VPT) shows personal interest-
driven participation, such as self-realization or personal expression based on personal interests.
Through the results in Table 3, it can also be found that individuals have the greatest diversity
in participation compared to digital participation. This also confirms Bennett's explanation
of changes in citizen participation (Bennett, 1998); integrated participation type (IPT) means
that one flexibly participates in various activities on the Internet and the participants (S4, S5)
belong to this type. Just as the respondent (S4) "Er, it all depends, and I would like to use
digital devices to search for some resources and meet my digital needs, but you know, we are
real human, and prefer to enjoy the real communication with others."; passive participation
type (PPT) mainly shows involuntary or compulsory participation, and may also involve some
emotional aspects. It is common that online learning types, like MOOCS, witness high dropout
rate and low satisfaction. Two participants (S6, S7) from the interview reported that they were
unwilling to attend the online course but for earning credits; marginalized participation type
(MPT) has lower levels of participation and awareness than the overall level, indicating that
their participation in the online environment is low and passive. As one of the participants (S8)
reported he preferred to buy daily wares in cash rather than e-bank for it is rather insecure with
online transaction. This also verifies the "Dutiful Citizen" tendency proposed by the Digital
Engagement Evaluation Team (DEET) (Peixoto, et al. , 2016) and (Bennett, 1998). Respondent
S8 said, "I feel bored and upset on the Internet. I don’t want to interact with anyone. I just want
to pass the exam at college.".

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The Characteristics of Digital Citizen Participation Among College Students 253
The digital citizen participation style of college students is primarily driven by their
interests. This aligns with previous studies (Bennett et al., 2009) which found that college
students were engaged in digital citizen participation primarily for self-realization purposes
and preferred to participate in relaxed online activities. Research has also shown that college
students widely use digital devices like computers and smartphones, which is consistent with
the previous finding that college students prioritized instant information over new social
technologies such as blogs and wikis (Jones & Healing, 2010; Kennedy et al., 2009)
In addition, college students exhibit a weak sense of responsibility and low awareness
of political participation. From Table 4 and in-depth interviews it is displayed that the level
of political participation in daily life was lower than the means for interpersonal interaction
and online shopping activities. College students have weak awareness and interest in political
participation on the Internet. Early research has also noted this shift in political engagement
(Graaf & Inglehart, 1998; Zukin, 2006), characterized by young people showing increasing
interest in politics based on themselves.
Again, college students demonstrate a strong digital citizenship literacy and a positive
attitude towards the internet. By combining the results of qualitative and quantitative analyses, it
has been found that they are generally at a slightly above-average level although slight variations
exist in the types of college students' DCP and attitudes towards the Internet. College students
expressed their desire for more convenient and relaxed ways of communication. Therefore,
they have higher demands and expectations for interpersonal communication on the internet
(Al-Zahrani, 2015). They are constantly learning and growing through their participation.
An Optimized Path
As digital citizen participation is a component of digital citizenship literacy, it is necessary

to cultivate the most fundamental digital citizenship literacy of college students in order to
promote their reasonable and positive participation. Against this background, popularizing
the core literacy of digital citizenship among college students is particularly important. This
enables them to think critically, participate safely, and use technology reasonably. Combining
with the general situation of digital citizen participation among college students, the present
study proposes a cultivation model for the core literacy of digital citizenship among college
students, based on the "core literacy of digital citizenship" of students and the four-in-one
implementation path of multi-stakeholders, namely, society, government, schools, and teachers,
to guide students to achieve the goals of "active participation" and "all-round development" in
the digital age, as shown in Figure 2.

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254 Figure 2
An Optimized Path
Firstly, with the continuous integration of technology and social development, society
cannot do without talents with digital technology. Therefore, paying attention to the development
of digital citizenship literacy, especially the core literacy of digital citizens among college
students, can not only promote college students' active participation in the digital environment,
but also promote the healthy development of social digitization. Society is the basic unit of
citizens’ life and the driving force of human development. Therefore, improving the digital
citizenship literacy of college students and cultivating their participation cannot be separated
from this basic unit of society. At the social level, the most fundamental thing is to strive to
create a safe digital space, establish and improve laws and regulations related to the network,
strengthen the popularization and deepening of digital literacy education, promote digital tools
and skills, and understand social media etiquette, so that college students can better adapt to the
development and changes of the digital age. Secondly, promote the construction of platforms
for digital citizen participation, provide more open, fair, and transparent participation platforms,
and enable college students to better participate in the construction of digital citizenship.
Finally, strengthen network security construction, enhance social trust, establish digital citizen
communities, and enable students to participate in the construction of digital citizenship with
confidence.
In addition, a secure online environment cannot be constructed only by social forces,
but government intervention is needed. Some social virtual platforms not only distort the core
values of college students, but also generate some misleading types of participation. This
is likely to impair the mainstream culture and dilute local customs and practices. Emerging
technologies such as data mining and machine learning have not fundamentally solved the
problem, but instead make users feel the formality of the content. Therefore, the government
should strengthen intervention and control, prevent inappropriate behaviors and risks in the
process of digital governance, and establish a relationship of mutual trust and cooperation with
citizens. At the same time, the government is also expected to strengthen digital construction to
provide more convenient and efficient public services to meet citizens' digital needs.
Still, schools play a crucial role in creating a healthy and green digital campus environment
by preventing network fraud, online violence, and harmful online content. A series of courses

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related to digital citizenship should be offered, imparting knowledge of digital literacy and 255
network security to improve students' digital skills and cognitive levels. At the same time,
schools should fully establish digital education resources via the national smart education
public service platform to integrate digital citizenship awareness, skills, and good wills into the
elective courses. A variety of digital participation activities can be launched, such as digital
volunteering, digital media production, and digital project competitions to encourage students
to participate in digital citizenship.
Finally, the updating technology has changed people's way of life, but teachers still
play a guiding role in students' digital behaviors. And teachers need to realize their social
responsibility and guide students to participate in online activities reasonably, use technology
responsibly, and increase their sympathy and understanding of others. The basic responsibility
of teachers after all is to create or disseminate knowledge.
Conclusion and Implications
This study revealed different levels of digital citizen participation among university
students. Although students demonstrated good digital citizenship literacy and attitude towards
the internet, they tended to focus more on interest-driven participation and had a weaker
willingness to engage in political participation. However, digital development cannot proceed
without the political participation of digital citizens, which is one of the essential elements of
digital citizenship. Therefore, more attention should be paid to cultivating university students'
digital citizen participation and enhancing their comprehensive willingness to participate.
Moreover, this study found that external environment guidance is the key to developing university
students' digital citizen participation in the educational digital environment. This study could
also help to implement solutions that address the common phenomenon of university students'
digital citizen participation. Despite these findings, further research will be in need to identify
the factors affecting university students' digital citizen participation.
Acknowledgements
This study is funded by Shaanxi Social Science Fund Project (2022P038) and key
research project results of Heilongjiang Education Science Plan in 2023 (GJB1423310)
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Received: March 07, 2023 Revised: March 29, 2023 Accepted: April 05, 2023
Cite as: Lu, H., Fu, K., Liu, X., & Hu, W. (2023). Digital citizen participation of college
students: Reality and optimization path. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 81(2),
244-257. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.244
Haili Lu PhD Student, School of College of Education, Shaanxi Normal University,Chang'an

south road 199, China.
E-mail: yjxxiaomao@163.com
Kefeng Fu PhD Student, School of College of Education, Shaanxi Normal University,Chang'an

south road 199, China.
E-mail: 232731056@qq.com
Xiaolin Liu PhD, Associate Professor, School of College of Education, Shaanxi Normal
(Corresponding author) University,Chang'an south road 199, China.
E-mail: xiaolinliu@snnu.edu.cn
Wanshan Hu PhD, Associate Professor, School of College of Education, Shaanxi Normal

University,Chang'an south road 199, China.
E-mail: huws@snnu.edu.cn

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258
EXPLORING CURRENT TRENDS IN
EDUCATION: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH
TOPICS IN THE PROBLEMS OF
EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY
JOURNAL
Haris Memisevic, Inga Biscevic, Selmir Hadzic, Azur Kuduzovic
E-mail: hmemisevic@gmail.com, ibralic.inga@gmail.com,
selmir_hadzic@yahoo.com, azurkuduz@gmail.com
University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract
Scientific journals play a critical role in disseminating knowledge, and staying up to date with research
findings in a particular field can be challenging given the vast number of journals and research topics
available. Therefore, there is a need for researchers to occasionally summarize the main research topics
in order to help fellow researchers navigate the contents more effectively. In this context, this article
aims to review the research topics published in the Problems of Education in the 21st Century journal
between 2018 and 2022. A total of 285 abstracts were retrieved from the Web of Science database
and analyzed to identify the most common research topics and the contributing countries. The top 10
research topics identified were self-efficacy, distance education, professional development, critical
thinking, foreign language, thinking skills, Covid-19, academic achievement, emotional intelligence, and
special education. The authors of the papers came from 62 countries, with most of the papers coming
from Türkiye, South Africa, Indonesia, Brazil, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Malaysia, Sweden, Lithuania,
and Serbia. In conclusion, this study highlights the relevance and diversity of research topics in the
Problems of Education in the 21st Century journal, underscoring the need for a nuanced, context-specific
approach to education research. The findings of this study have important implications for researchers,
policymakers, and educators seeking to address the key challenges and opportunities facing education
in the 21st century.
Keywords: content analysis, scientific journals, Problems of Education in the 21st Century, research
topics
Introduction
Due to its complex and multifaceted nature, the field of education is packed with various
challenges. The opinions on the goals of education vary both within the field of education and
among broader society. What should be the goal of education is a matter of different viewpoints.
Should the focus of schools be on democratic equality (preparing citizens), social efficiency
(training workers), social mobility (preparing individuals to compete for social positions) or on
something else is a matter of great debate (Labaree, 1997). Add to these diverse perspectives of
stakeholders involved in the field, political and ideological differences, new technologies, and
one can only grasp a part of the challenges in education. These challenges need to be addressed
through the science and rigorous research, which might help in finding the best answers to these
questions. This research and new knowledge should find its place in scientific journals.

Haris MEMISEVIC, Inga BISCEVIC, Selmir HADZIC, Azur KUDUZOVIC. Exploring current trends in education: A review of research
topics in the Problems of Education in the 21st Century journal
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Scientific journals are the most important source of knowledge in any scientific field, 259
including education. Scientific journals are the best way to disseminate research findings and
advance the scientific knowledge in any field (Leta, 2012). Scientific article writing is an
integral part of academic activity, and publishing in science journals is crucial for researchers
to demonstrate the value of their work and make it understandable to both the academic
community and society as a whole, regardless of the type of publication (Lamanauskas, 2019).
In particular, educational journals play a crucial role in advancing the field of education
and serve as an excellent platform for sharing research with a wider audience (Cook-Sather,
2002). These journals are important not only for scientists, but also for the practitioners, as they
often contain up-to-date knowledge on practices that are relevant to practical work. Research
has shown that teachers are willing to use research as it provides support and assists them in
dealing with new educational challenges (Sato & Loewen, 2019). Additionally, journals play
a role in fostering collaboration and exchange among scholars and practitioners (Bonwell &
Eison, 1991). Although at face value it may not appear so, educational research is difficult
to conduct, or in other words, it is “the hardest science of all” (Berliner, 2002). Authors have
identified numerous factors for why conducting educational research is so complex. Some of
these factors are related to the complexity of the educational systems (Erçetin et al., 2015),
ethical considerations (Head, 2020), and resistance to change (Head, 2020). Educational
researchers need to properly address these and other challenges, and in turn, through their
published work, help improve the educational systems throughout the world.
There are literally thousands of academic journals around the world that cover various
educational research. The exact number is hard to determine as new journals are continually
being established, and some journals are discontinued. However, in all cases, scientists, and
practitioners alike, should rely on the information published in reputable journals and avoid
untrustworthy journals. Reputable journals are indexed in major scientific databases such
as ERIC, Scopus, PsychInfo, and Web of Science (WOS). The WOS is a research database
that provides access to high-quality, scholarly research in all fields of science. Researchers
can use WOS to find the most relevant and up-to-date information on a particular topic. The
WOS database applies rigorous selection criteria and indexes only high-quality, peer-reviewed
publications.
One of the educational journals that is indexed in WOS is the journal Problems of
Education in the 21st Century (PEC). It is an international scientific journal published by
SCIENTIA SOCIALIS in Lithuania. Given the relative paucity of educational journals indexed
in WOS from Eastern Europe, we wanted to perform a content analysis of the articles that
were published in PEC. A qualitative approach was employed as qualitative studies are gaining
momentum in social sciences. Qualitative studies can be defined as a systematic approach to
understanding the quality of certain phenomena within a particular context (Brantlinger et al.,
2005). Content analysis is one of the techniques within the qualitative research framework
and represents a flexible method for analyzing different contents, but is primarily used for text
analysis (Cavanagh, 1997). It can be used to examine the frequency and context of specific
topics or words in a large volume of data (Krippendorff, 2018). By conducting a content analysis
of the articles published in PEC between 2018 and 2022, this study offers valuable insights
into the most studied research topics and contributing countries in this journal. Moreover, by
employing a qualitative approach and specifically using content analysis as a research method,
this study highlights the flexibility and usefulness of qualitative research techniques in the field
of education. Additionally, this is the first paper to qualitatively explore topics in the Problems
of Education in the 21st Century Journal. This study is of great importance for advancing the
understanding of education research and for informing policy and practice in the field. Thus,
the aim of the present study was to examine the most frequent research topics published in the
PEC journal.

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260 Research Methodology
Data Collection
This study belongs to the descriptive content analysis (Calik & Sözbilir, 2014). The
WOS database was used to extract the information for the article information published in the
PEC journal. A similar methodology was previously used in analyzing the contents published in
the area of argumentation, chemistry and autism journals (Bağ & Çalık, 2017; Çalık & Wiyarsi,
2021; Memisevic & Djipa, 2022). All articles that were published from 2018 to 2022, indexed
in WOS on 31 January were included in the study. A 5-year timeframe was used due to the
relevance of research, as it is a relatively recent period, and by focusing on articles published
within that time, one can gain insight into current research trends and topics that are most
relevant to the current state of education.
Data Analysis
There were 285 such articles and the following information was extracted for each article:
1. Title of the article, 2. Country of the corresponding author, and 3. Abstract. From the analysis
output, two categories were made. The first is related to the research topic. Phrases that contain
two or more words were extracted, and meaningful research topics were manually selected. The
first and third authors of this study were involved in the data extraction and analysis process.
They independently extracted research topics and there was only one discrepancy in extracted
topics, which was resolved through discussion and consensus.
The second category was related to the subjects (participants) of the studies. Again,
the first and third authors of this study were involved in the data extraction and there were
no discrepancies between the raters. The data were analyzed with the R computer program
(R Core Team, 2021). In addition to this, information regarding the country of origin of the
corresponding author was extracted as a proxy for geographical contribution to the PEC.
Research Results
The most common research topics published in the PEC were first presented. These
results are presented in Table 1. The frequency of studies in relation to the participants of the
research is presented in Table 2.

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Table 1 261
The 15 Most Common Research Topics Published in the PEC
Research topic Frequency*

Self-efficacy 30
Distance education 29
Professional development 21
Critical thinking 20
Foreign language 18
Thinking skills 18
Covid-19 16
Academic achievement 14
Emotional intelligence 14
Special education 12
Physical activity 12
Mathematics teaching 12
Risky sexual behavior 11
Second language 10
Financial literacy 9
Note. *Frequency refers to the number of times the term appeared in the Abstracts. It does not necessarily
correspond to the number of articles.
Table 2
Frequency of Terms Related to the Category Participants
Participants Frequency*
Preservice teachers 52
Primary school students 29
University students 22
Secondary school students 18
Preschool teachers 17
School teachers 17
Science teachers 11
Novice teachers 9
High-school students 8
Prospective teachers 8
Note. *Frequency refers to the number of times the term appeared in the Abstracts. It does not necessarily
correspond to the number of articles.
In total, authors from 62 countries contributed to the papers published in PEC in this time
frame, making it a truly global educational journal. These countries spanned five continents,

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262 including North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. This broad range of
geographical representation underscores the journal's international reach and the diverse
perspectives it offers on issues in education. These results are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Corresponding Author’s Country
Country Number of articles

Turkiye 31
South Africa 27
Indonesia 18
Brazil 17
Slovakia 17
Czech Republic 16
Malaysia 15
Sweden 10
Lithuania 9
Serbia 9
Discussion
The aim of the present review was to examine the most frequent research topics in the
PEC. The most frequent research topic was self-efficacy. This is not surprising given that self-
efficacy was among the top 10 research topics in autism journals as well (Memisevic & Djipa,
2022). Articles published in PEC regarding self-efficacy dealt with its different aspects. For
example, one study examined whether the paradigm of good teaching dimensions can predict
students’ self-efficacy in e-learning (Davidovitch & Yavich, 2022). The authors concluded that
self-efficacy rose with age and years of schooling. Another study was dealing with motivational
factors that play a role in the learning process, including self-efficacy (Gomes de Freitas et al.,
2020). Again, motivation seemed to increase during the course and was mainly driven by internal
factors. In an interesting study by Hassan (2019), the author examined the effects of teachers’
self-efficacy on students’ achievement scores. The author found that teachers’ self-efficacy
had a huge impact on students’ success, explaining as much as 65% of students’ achievement
scores. Lastly, there is a study by Dofková (2019) on the level of self-efficacy among primary
pre-service teachers of mathematics. In this study, the author used a newly developed research
tool named Self-Efficacy of Prospective Teachers in Mathematics which contains 37 items. The
study’s result showed that prospective teachers assess their readiness for teaching in a positive
manner, and they trust their own abilities to apply various methods and procedures.
The next topic on the list was the topic of distance education. In the article by de Oliveira
Durso and Arruda (2022), the authors examined the effects of artificial intelligence (AI) on
distance learning. In conclusion, the authors stress the need for wider application of AI in
distance education, given the number of students who enroll in Brazilian higher education
institutions. The pandemic of COVID-19 opened the way for more studies regarding distance
education. Researchers in Serbia have evaluated the quality of distance education during the
COVID-19 pandemic in a sample of Serbian citizens (Krstić & Radulović, 2021). The authors
found that certain modalities of distance education have received a very positive evaluation

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(Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom). The authors have pointed out that citizens in Serbia 263
feel that distance education is useful as it enables efficient learning-teaching processes. Distance
education was also evaluated from the teachers’ point of view (Mikušková & Verešová, 2020).
The authors found that the negative emotions of teachers increased during the pandemic, and
that distance education was closely related to emotions and personality.
The third most frequent research topic was professional development. In a study by
Tran et al. (2020), the authors pointed out that professional development plays a crucial role
in enhancing student achievement and impacts educational quality. Professional development
is considered to be a key measure in successfully implementing educational reforms including
the curriculum, teaching methodology, and textbook replacement. In conclusion, the authors
stated that both principals and teachers regard professional development to be highly important
for the educational improvement. In a study conducted in Malaysia, the authors have examined
the effects of the 16-hour professional development workshop aimed at resolving conflicts at
the workplace (Siew & Jones, 2018). Positive attitudes towards professional development were
found to be beneficiary in resolving work-related conflict situations along with other factors
such as culturally relevant negotiations, stakeholder and conflict analysis, and reflecting on
personal conflict management styles.
The next topic on the list was critical thinking. Critical thinking is crucial to education. It
can be defined as the process of actively and objectively analyzing information, arguments, or
data to form a judgement or solve a problem. Critical thinking involves questioning assumptions,
reasoning logically, and considering multiple perspectives (Fisher, 2011). An interesting study
published in the PEC dealt with the uncertainty of Saudi teachers on how to include critical
thinking into their classrooms (Alharbi, 2022). However, the results of this study revealed that
the knowledge of critical thinking was high among Saudi teachers, and their attitudes towards
improving students’ critical thinking were positive. Another study focused on architectural
faculty students and the importance of critical thinking for their profession (Kiliçaslan, 2018).
One of the conclusions that the authors reached was that all students needed guidance to attach
importance to critical thinking starting from the first year of the faculty program.
The fifth-ranked research topic was a foreign language. Many different studies were
conducted in relation to this research topic. A study conducted in Indonesia explored the anxiety
faced by students when writing in English (Mulyono et al., 2020). Given that students face
moderate levels of anxiety, the authors suggest that there is a need to help students develop a
positive perception of their writing in a foreign language, besides their content knowledge in
writing skills. Another study on foreign languages comes from Libya (Owen et al., 2019). In this
study, the authors stressed the importance of the English language as it became essential in all
disciplines. In line with this, the authors examined the effects of the Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) approach on Libyan students' English-speaking performance. The authors
concluded that implementing communicative activities based on the principles of CLT in the
Libyan English language classroom helps enhance students' English-speaking performance.
The next frequent research topic was thinking skills. It is closely related to the previously
mentioned critical thinking, but we decided to treat it as a different topic, as it is found in
different studies. A rationale for one study was the weak performance of Indonesian students in
TIMMS and PISA international assessments (Hadi et al., 2018) which might be an indicator of
their low performance on higher-order thinking skills. The authors reported that the prevalence
level of difficulties in comprehension was around 8.3%, 15.59% of students had difficulties
in transformation, 32.53% in process skills, and 1.34 % in encoding. In an interesting study
by Özgenel et al. (2019), the authors have examined the effects of training given to preschool
children on their creative thinking skills. The results revealed that enriched workshop training
has developed students’ creative thinking skills positively.

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264 The seventh-ranked research topic was COVID-19. The pandemic of Covid 19 has
affected all domains of life, including health, safety, and well-being of individuals (insecurity,
emotional isolation, stigma) and communities (economic loss, school closures) (Betty & North
Carol, 2020). In addition, the pandemic had a detrimental effect on the mental health of teachers
(Kovac et al., 2021). The topic of COVID-19 has appeared in different contexts. We have already
referenced some studies that were dealing with distance education because of the pandemic.
COVID-19 had affected all areas of education, but it probably had the greatest negative impact
on special education. That was the topic of a study by Givigi et al. (2022), in which the authors
compared services in Canada and Brazil. In both these countries children with disabilities were
in a difficult situation due to social isolation. However, Canada provided more support services
to families and students than Brazil.
Next on the list was the topic of academic achievement. One study explored the
explicative model of academic achievement (de la Iglesia & Castro Solano, 2019). It was found
that myriad factors can affect academic achievements, such as mental health and academic
adjustment. Thus, positive personality traits play an important role in academic outcomes,
besides content knowledge. In one study conducted in Zambia, authors explored the benefits
of cooperative learning on students’ academic achievement and attitude towards mathematics
(Mukuka et al., 2019), as the cooperative learning has been a challenge in many schools. The
authors found that the majority of participants preferred expository teaching to cooperative
learning. Data showed that more than 64% of the participants indicated that they resisted
implementing cooperative learning in their classrooms due to various factors such as: assessing
learners, ensuring a disciplined class environment, completing syllabus, large classes, etc.
The ninth topic on the list was emotional intelligence. Ever since psychologist Daniel
Goleman coined up the term “emotional intelligence” (Goleman, 1995), the interest in this
topic has grown tremendously. The concept of emotional intelligence pertains to an individual's
capacity to identify, comprehend, and regulate their own emotions, as well as those of others.
It involves the capacity for empathy, self-awareness, self-regulation, and the ability to build
positive relationships. Research into this topic is also quite wide. Some researchers explored
the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement (AL-Qadri &
Zhao, 2021). The authors have found a statistically significant correlation between emotional
intelligence and academic achievement. Whether cognitive flexibility can be predicted by
emotional intelligence and self-leadership was explored in a study by Kösterelioğlu (2021).
The author concluded that both emotional intelligence and self-leadership can predict cognitive
flexibility. The study's findings suggested that enhancing administrators' emotional intelligence
and self-leadership awareness through training and practice can influence the development of
their cognitive flexibility skills.
The final topic that will be covered in this short overview of the main research topics in
PEC is special education. Its complexity and variability of students that require special education
make additional demands for teachers who are individualizing and adapting curriculum to
suit every child’s needs. Teachers are required to use evidence-based treatments in their work
with students with disabilities, including children with autistic spectrum disorder (Mursi &
Sulaimani, 2022). That study indicated that teachers are not familiar with evidence-based
practices, and they often regard their own teaching methods as evidence-based. The authors
point to the need of bridging the theory to practice gap in special education. Another study
was aimed at exploring teachers’ preparedness to teach students with special education needs
(Holmqvist et al., 2019). The results of this study are related to the professional development
of teachers. The teachers who had mandatory courses on how to teach students with special
educational needs showed higher self-rated competence.
Articles published in the PEC journal have also demonstrated a wide range of participants
involved in the studies. Although most of the studies dealt with pre-service teachers, numerous

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studies covered participants in all educational stages, from kindergarten to university, and both 265
students and their teachers. Additionally, scientific contributions to PEC come almost equally
from developed countries as well as developing countries, which makes it being recognized as
a genuinely global educational journal.
Content analysis of research topics is an important endeavor as it helps to identify
educational trends and potential research directions. In this study, several of the most common
topics that were published in the PEC were explored. This kind of study also has some
limitations that need to be mentioned. To begin with, the authors' subjective judgment played
a role in identifying the ten most frequent research topics in the study's description. Not all
references to the published papers on the certain research topic could be made and probably
the selection of articles would be different if the other authors conducted the analysis. Second,
the selection of research topics was performed manually among the numerous terms and some
two-word phrases that could be regarded as research topics might have been omitted from this
review. Finally, as in any content analysis study, content analysis may not be able to capture
all aspects of a complex issue or phenomenon. However, the hope is that this short overview
of topics published in the PEC would be useful to other researchers and might inspire them to
conduct these kinds of exploratory studies.
Content analysis is an objective and systematic method for exploring, evaluating,

and summarizing research topics within a particular field. By conducting a content analysis
of abstracts published in the Problems of Education in the 21st Century journal between
2018 and 2022, this study has provided insights into the most frequent research topics and
contributing countries in the field of education. The findings reveal that self-efficacy, distance
education, professional development, critical thinking, foreign language, thinking skills,
Covid-19, academic achievement, emotional intelligence, and special education are among the
most commonly studied topics in this journal. Additionally, authors from 62 countries have
contributed to the journal, highlighting its global reach and significance.
These findings have several implications for researchers, policymakers, and educators
in the field of education. For researchers, this study provides a comprehensive overview of
the research topics that have been studied in the Problems of Education in the 21st Century
journal over the past five years. These findings can inform future research directions and help
researchers identify potential gaps in the literature that need to be addressed. Policymakers
and educators can also use this information to inform their decisions about educational policy
and practice and to stay up-to-date on the latest research trends and topics. Future research
should aim to explore larger units of analysis, such as the full text of the articles, to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of the research topics and findings in this field.
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268
Cite as: Memisevic, H., Biscevic, I., Hadzic, S., & Kuduzovic, A. (2023). Exploring
current trends in education: A review of research topics in the Problems of Education
in the 21st Century journal. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 81(2), 258-268.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.258
Haris Memisevic PhD, Associate Professor, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of

(Corresponding author) Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
E-mail: hmemisevic@gmail.com
Inga Biscevic PhD, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
E-mail: ibralic.inga@gmail.com
Selmir Hadzic MA, Lecturer, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Sarajevo,

Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: selmir_hadzic@yahoo.com
Azur Kuduzovic MA, Lecturer, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Sarajevo,

Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: azurkuduz@gmail.com

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REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: THE ONLINE 269
TEACHING QUALITY IN THE TIME OF THE

CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC
Jelena S. Osmanović Zajić, Jelena Ž. Maksimović, Sanja R. Sretić
University of Niš, Republic of Serbia
E-mail: jelena.osmanovic.zajic@filfak.ni.ac.rs,
jelena.maksimovic@filfak.ni.ac.rs, s.sretic-15797@filfak.ni.ac.rs
Abstract
This research is focused on the necessity to determine the impact of reflective practice on the quality of
teaching conducted by means of various network platforms since the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic.
The aim of this research was to examine teachers’ attitudes towards the applicative potentials of reflective
practice considering the improvement of online teaching and learning. These attitudes were studied by
means of the empirical method, i.e. the quantitative research method and the scaling technique. The
sample comprised Serbian primary school teachers and was voluntary. The results of the research showed
that teachers’ reflective practice influenced the quality of online teaching during the pandemic. The
findings proved that the influence of reflective practice on the quality of online teaching was recognized
by primary school teachers, but that it was not applied consistently and accordingly by all teachers. The
obtained results confirmed that for the reflective practice to become an inherent attribute of contemporary
teachers, it would be necessary that it be acquired both as part of teachers’ university education and
their continuous professional training. There has been little research on reflective practice and its impact
on the quality of teaching. Therefore, this study contributes to a further understanding of the reflective
practice aspects that directly influence online teaching within the framework of the Serbian educational
system.
Keywords: contemporary teacher, Covid-19 pandemic, quality of online teaching, reflective practice
Introduction
The new millennium is characterized by continuous and rapid changes occurring in all
spheres of social life. This is particularly evident in the sphere of education, which appears to
be challenging and significant in the contemporary multicultural world. Notwithstanding the
fact that modern technology, being a constitutive element of the modern age, has an enormous
impact on planning, organizing and performing teaching, teachers are still conditio sine qua
non in the process of teaching and lecturing. The accomplishment of the basic educational
goal, the preparation of students for an adequate participation in the constantly changing
and developing world, requires the teachers who are highly competent educators that can
ensure high-quality teaching. The concept of reflective practice has been recognized as a vital
instrument in teaching profession that definitely improves the quality of contemporary teaching
and instruction. Bavaneh et al. (2019) determine that reflective practice is a cyclic strategy used
for the assessment of the actual teaching efficiency as well as for its improvement.
The characteristics of contemporary life such as uncertainty and insecurity are
unavoidably reflected in teaching profession, demanding that teachers adapt their knowledge,
skills and experience to changeable and novel situations. For only a few weeeks, the newest
danger caused by the global Covid-19 pandemic has had such a rapid and significant impact on

Jelena S. OSMANOVIĆ ZAJIĆ, Jelena Ž. MAKSIMOVIĆ, Sanja R. SRETIĆ. Reflective practice: The online teaching quality in the
time of the Coronavirus pandemic
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270 teaching that is unprecedented in the modern history. However, unlike other social activities that
were generally terminated due to the pandemic, teaching only changed its form. The traditional
classroom was soon replaced by digital and virtual classrooms and traditional teaching became
online teaching (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021). Although teachers had already been familiar with
the concept of online teaching, it was with the outbreak of the pandemic that they encountered
serious challenges since this manner of teaching was implemented without any prior preparation
or notice. The new circumstances demanded that teachers react quickly and master the tools
necessary for online teaching. Adapting to the new conditions, teachers found themselves in
the position that meant a persistent analysis and reevaluation of their competencies, skills and
abilities for online teaching with the purpose of its improvement.
Phenomenological and Epistemological Perspective of Reflexivity
Reflexivity (lat. reflectere) is the term with various meanings. In its broadest sense, it
denotes reconsideration, contemplation and review of certain problems or mulling over various
possible solutions (Bharuthram, 2018). The disparity between the theoretical and empirical
definitions of reflexivity derives from both its own complexity and the impact of various learning
taxonomies and multidisciplinary approaches to the origin of the term. As regards education,
Higgins defines reflexivity (reflective practice, reflective thinking, reflective knowledge) as the
practice of “turning (one’s back) or focusing one’s thoughts about a topic with the purpose
of learning” (Higgins, 2011, p. 583). Therefore, reflective practice may be understood as the
practice of retrospection, based upon introspection and self-evaluation, which presupposes
the use of professional knowledge, acting in accordance with professional values and creating
possibilities for continuous learning and improvement (Thompson & Pascal, 2012). According
to Moghadam (2019), reflexivity encourages teachers to develop and maintain a critical and
analytical approach to teaching.
Considering the fact that reflective practice is a dynamic and complex phenomenon, it
can be best understood by reviewing it diachronically. Thus, the germs of reflective thinking
are found in the works of the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and later elaborated in
the philosophy of the Enlightenment period by Jean Jacques Russeau and John Locke, the
latter of whom determined the process of metacognition for reflexive action (Denton, 2011).
Regarding the constructivism research paradigm, which defines learning as an active process
of constructing understanding and knowledge of the world by action and reflection (Ma & Ren,
2011; Vijaya Kumari, 2014), the reflective practice was further influenced by Jean Piaget and
his theory of cognitive development. He perceived the reflective process as a retrospection of
past events and situations that enabled a critical introspection (Bruster & Peterson, 2012).
The concept of reflective practice was variously defined throughout history, from its
perception of being the process of intelligent decision making, as stated by John Dewey (John
Dewey, 1859-1957), the proponent of the concept of reflexivity in the field of education and
teaching, to the perception of reflexivity of being a professional development strategy, as
expressed by Donald Schön (Donald Schön, 1930-1997), whose term the reflective practitioner
has gained its significance in contemporary society as a new term for teaching profession. The
review of recent reference materials (Thompson & Pascal, 2012; Çimer, Odabaşi Çimer &
Vekli, 2013; Jones & Jones, 2013; Mintz, 2016; Brady, 2020) proves that Schön’s concepts
of reflection in action and reflection on action were based on the use of the knowledge and
competencies with the purpose of further understanding problematic situations and improving
the existing knowledge about teaching and learning. Owing to the research and experimental
study of David Kolb (1939 - ), the reflective practice integrates theoretical and practical
knowledge. Learning is understood as a process that generates the ideas transformed and altered
by experience, not the ideas that are a priori unchangeable and irreversible (Reynolds, 2011;

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Priddis & Rogers, 2017). The second phase of Kolb’s ‘experiential learning cycle’ has a direct 271
influence on the reflective practice since it presupposes that a teacher observes and reflects upon
some actual and real experience of their student. Reflection allows the teacher to connect and
integrate past and present experience and knowledge, which can be then applied in teaching
(Zalipour, 2015). The above mentioned educational experts have contributed significantly to
the reflective practice becoming a contemporary paradigm that assigns the teacher a central role
in the process of learning, which means that the teacher becomes responsible for both their own
personal improvement and for the improvement and academic achievement of their students.
Reflective Online Teaching: Teachers as Reflective Practitioners
Reflective online teaching is a valid database used by teachers in their everyday

teaching practice. The reflective action occurs once the teacher has identified the problem
to be tackled and solved, or has encountered a confusing or upsetting situation (Kayapınar,
2013; Impedovo & Khatoon Malik, 2016; Priddis & Rogers, 2018). Solving problems and
discovering relevant reasons are closely related to action research conducted with the purpose
of identifying teachers’ fossilized convictions regarding their teaching style and quality of
teaching in order to change them with the application of efficient teaching methods (Ma & Ren,
2011; Çimer & Odabaşi Çimer, 2012; Çimer, Odabaşi Çimer & Vekli, 2013; Kayapınar, 2013;
Fatemipour, 2013; Farell & Cirocki, 2017; Mathew et al., 2017). Online teaching is followed
by teachers’ post-reflection on and analysis of their further steps and teaching plans, which all
results in their constant improvement (Mathew, 2012). Teachers are actually researchers who
perform their profession in a structural, systematic and critical manner in order to improve
it. The aspect of criticism is considered to be the most important aspect of the reflective
practice since simple reflection on teaching does not increase teaching and learning efficiency.
Critical reflection presumes thorough contemplation owing to which teachers are able to
regard their own practice from a wider perspective, analyze causes and effects of teaching
and learning and their interconnectedness, discern alternative ideas and attitudes that involve
social (political, cultural) and socio-demographic factors (Çimer, Odabaşi Çimer, Sezen Vekli,
2013; Soisangwarn & Wongwanich, 2014; Glasswell & Ryan, 2017; Farell & Cirocki, 2017).
Bharuthram (2018) emphasizes that critical thinking and lifelong learning of teachers represent
a constitutive component of comprehensive and efficient teaching at all levels of education. A
critical approach and efficiency assessment of teachers are particularly significant to examine
at present when online teaching is based on the use of various internet applications (Mathew,
2012; Baporikar, 2016) as the resources that unavoidably contribute to the improvement of the
quality of education.
Teachers who apply reflexivity in teaching are reflective practitioners who improve
their methods of instruction by critical reflection on the contents of school subjects they teach,
their curricula, teaching methods, i.e. pedagogical, methodological and didactic postulates
(Ahmed & Al-Khalili, 2013; Soisangwarn & Wongwanich, 2014). Reflexivity enables teachers
to reconsider their online teaching and search for the most adequate methods for testing their
students’ knowledge, the methods that are quantitative indicators, such as grading (James &
Pollard, 2011; Çimer, Odabaşi Çimer & Vekli, 2013).
Regarding the premise that reflective practice involves “a metacognitive enterprise and
personal engagement” (Sellars, 2012, p. 463), online teaching depends on the ingrained tenets
of teachers as reflective practitioners, which, being a fusion of their personal characteristics,
their systems of values and convictions, previous experience and ethical perspective, have
become the subject of scientific research (Sellars, 2012; Devine, 2013). Teaching philosophy, or
teaching tenets, is an important aspect of the teacher’s reflective identity that actually represents
a thorough reflection on the teacher’s past, present, and future teaching experience within a

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272 particular social context (Farell & Cirocki 2017). The teachers who possess the reflective
identity are able to contemplate the purpose and significance of their teaching profession,
identify the advantages and limitations of the present mode of teaching in comparison to
the traditional one and accordingly change the perception of their own role in the process of
education. Online teaching has assigned the roles of mentors, moderators, and supervisors
to teachers in a glowingly multicultural education community. Therefore, reflective practice
helps teachers expand and improve their knowledge and skills, which they can use to promote
tolerance and democracy in their classrooms, support their students to develop the appropriate
techniques necessary for peaceful and nonviolent resolution of conflicts, their mutual respect
and dignity (Vijaya Kumari, 2014). Moreover, reflective practice is a powerful tool that
enables teachers to assess and evaluate the relevance and significance of teaching materials
based on their students’ individual needs, cognitive abilities and interests in order to create an
enthusiastic, encouraging and interesting teaching and learning environment. The quality of that
environment in which teachers reflect on their own teaching practice is a vital determinant of
reflective practice (Çimer, Odabaşi Çimer & Sezen Vekli, 2013; Farell & Cirocki, 2017). Online
teaching is a personalized mode of teaching that is focused on each individual student in the
classroom (Mathew, 2012). Thus, teachers encourage their students to think, evaluate, analyze
and improve their own studying, with the purpose of developing a sense of self-correction and
better academic performance (Mathew, 2012). The quality of instruction largely depends on the
analysis of crucial aspects of the teaching and learning environment, such as care for students’
feelings and focus on communication between students and teachers (Impedovo & Khatoon
Malik, 2016).
The discussion of reflective teaching in the context of online teaching implies two
complementary processes, characterized by accessibility, flexibility in respect of everyone’s
needs, pedagogy of learning and lifelong learning. A reflective approach to online teaching
enables both teachers and students to master the novel skills of learning, such as critical thinking,
problem solving, collaborative learning, as well as the skills related to computer science,
media and technological literacy, which appear to be of crucial importance for overcoming the
challenges of the economy based on knowledge (Baporikar, 2016).
Reflective Practice: Quality Component of Online Teaching
Educational systems have been affected globally by the Covid-19 pandemic, undergoing
profound changes with far-reaching consequences. The paradigm related to the manner in
which teachers give instruction has been altered, being transferred to various internet platforms
(Pokhrel1&Chhetri, 2021). After more than a year of teaching in this manner, there has emerged
the question of applying reflexivity in online teaching and of the quality of online teaching as
such.
Recently published reference materials (Hrevnack, 2011; Ahmed & Al-Khalili, 2013;
Belvis et al., 2013; Soisangwarn & Wongwanich, 2014; Farrell & Cirocki, 2017; Hashim
& Mohd Yusoff, 2021) have confirmed that reflective practice is an extremely important
component of quality teaching and learning, and that the fundamental quality of good teachers
is their ability to revise and expand their knowledge continuously. According to Vijaya Kumari
(2014), the primary task of reflective practice is to study the implications of all complex factors
with the purpose of improving the quality of teaching. The research conducted with teachers
by Pinski et al. (1998) showed that reflective practice was not only an integral part of planning
and organizing teaching, but also of teachers’ reflection on possibilities to improve the quality
of teaching.
Reflection being a highly personalized cognitive activity, teachers apply various
strategies that are beneficial for the quality of online learning and teaching. The teachers

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who are reflection practitioners improve their skills of continuous learning by reading books 273
and papers on teaching efficiency. They are intrinsically motivated to participate in online
workshops and conferences about the quality of online teaching and learning, they are engaged
in writing papers and articles based on their own personal experience. All this contributes to
the development of their profession. The authors who study the concept of reflective practice
(Fatemipour, 2013; Abedinia et al., 2013; Lane et al., 2014; Fakazli & Kuru Gȍnen, 2017;
Farell & Cirocki, 2017) emphasize that writing articles in the field is an important reflective
tool that helps in the achievement of self-awareness, improvement of the deductive skills and
clarification of problems and needs in a particular teaching environment.
Besides being personalized, reflective practice is also a group practical activity. It
provides collaborative learning (Çimer, Odabaşi Çimer & Sezen Vekli, 2013; Vijaya Kumari,
2014; Mathew et al., 2017; Glasswell & Ryan, 2017), which presupposes a cooperation between
teachers and their colleagues, students and all experts who could be helpful in critical reflection
and in the attainment of feedback information on the quality of teaching in their mutual academic
environment. Constructive feedback (Zalipour, 2015; Kayapinar, 2016; Farell & Cirocki, 2017;
Mathew et al., 2017) induces teachers to ponder about their methods of teaching, their future
plans and strategies in order to encourage students’ improvement. Reflective capacity can be
thus best developed by professionals in the context of their regular, mutual and certain reflective
relationships (Farell & Cirocki, 2017; Priddis & Rogers, 2018).
Observing online classes taught by their colleagues, teachers are enabled to review their
own experience, reshape their own theories, accept new perspectives and insights necessary
for the improvement of their teaching skills (Ma & Ren, 2013; Mathew et al., 2017). A
reflective approach actually gives teachers an opportunity to examine their personal convictions
thoroughly and to think critically about the consequences of their teaching practice and, thus,
become aware of their own strengths and weaknesses (Ahmed & Al-Khalili, 2013; Impedovo
& Khatoon Malik, 2016; Fakazli & Kuru Gȍnen, 2017; Brady, 2020; Hashim & Mohd Yusoff,
2021) with the purpose of achieving better results in teaching. Being a means of professional
development and continuous academic improvement, reflective practice creates in teachers a
feeling of satisfaction with both their vocation and the results achieved. Reflective activity is
a professional challenge that requires competence in teaching, which is in positive correlation
with the teachers’ sense of satisfaction with their vocation. Conducted research studies by
(Thoonen, Sleegers, Oort, Peetsma & Geijsel, 2011; Ullah & Jundran, 2014) prove that those
teachers who apply reflective practice in teaching display a high level of satisfaction with their
teaching vocation. Portfolios are not only beneficial for exhibiting teachers’ self-reflection
but also for directing and instructing students in their further studies. Earlier research studies
(Beecher et al., 1997) as well as the recent ones (Odabaşı Çimer, 2011; Vijaya Kumari, 2014;
Zalipour, 2015) state that portofilio, owing to its numerous benefits for learning and grading
students, shapes and encourages reflective thinking as the platform that has become one of the
most innovative learning tools in the last two decades.
Reflective practice increases the quality of teaching only if teachers act proactively
and learn continuously, use their teaching experience and are encouraged and supported by
authorities, parents and society as a whole. Devin et al. (Devin et al., 2013) emphasize that
reflection on high-quality teaching should consider broad contextual and sociocultural factors
that influence the manner in which teachers organize their classes and teach.

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274 Research Problem
It is evident the concept of reflective practice is an essential and significant tool that
teachers can use in order to understand and improve the quality of teaching. The online teaching
environment has become dominant since the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic, which has
put teachers in additionally burdensome circumstances (besides the already existing ones, such
as the manner of devising curricula, cumbersome red tape, insufficient support from the relevant
ministry, insufficient professional education in the field of reflective practice, etc.), but which
has also created certain advantages related to digital learning and teaching. Regarding the fact
that the application of reflective practice, as a crucial factor in the improvement of teaching, is
still rather new in the Republic of Serbia, and considering this concept in the existing situation,
there has arisen a problem of determining teachers’ perception of reflective practice as the factor
crucial in examining the quality of online teaching. The questions related to teachers’ competency
for online teaching, insufficient support from colleagues and the lack of straightforward and
direct communication with students, on one hand, and accessibility to information sources and
relevant training, flexibility in respecting students’ needs and requirements, growing demand
for lifelong learning, on the other hand, have resulted in the development and improvement of
teachers’ reflective skills and the quality of teaching. The subject matter of this research is to
determine not only these issues and professional challenges that teachers encounter but also all
the benefits of online teaching. The objective of the research is to define the interconnectedness
of reflective practice and the quality of online teaching.
Research Focus
The concept of teachers, reflective practitioners, is theoretically defined as a dynamic

entity comprising several dimensions (pedagogical, methodological, didactic, metacognitive,
cognitive, practical, critical, and student). The research is based on the examination of teachers’
attitudes towards the impact that these dimensions have on the quality of online teaching during
the pandemic period and towards their correlativity.
Research Aim and Research Questions
The aim of this research is to determine teachers’ perceptions of reflective practice as

a predictor of online teaching quality during the coronavirus pandemic. Actually, the research
strives to specify teachers’ attitudes towards reflective practice and its application with the
purpose of improving the quality of online teaching. The general hypothesis proposed that
reflective practice of teachers, reflective practitioners, had a direct impact on the quality of
online teaching during the global coronavirus pandemic. The special hypotheses assume that
each dimension of reflective practice (pedagogical, methodological, didactic, metacognitive,
cognitive, practical, critical and student), relevant to traditional teaching, particularly influenced
the quality of online teaching during the pandemic period and that they are explicitly connected
with this mode of teaching. It was also assumed that these dimensions were correlated with the
independent variables: level of teachers’ education, type of teachers’ education, school subject
taught by teachers, and type of employment.
The most significant limitation of this research is the online teaching environment in
which the research was conducted, which was inevitably caused by the actual epidemiological
issues. These circumstances meant insufficient control of variables and an inclination towards
providing the answers that were expected from the participants. Therefore, it is necessary to
compare the obtained results with the results of future research studies that will be conducted in
a regular classroom atmosphere and under regular circumstances.

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General Background
The quality of online teaching represents the ideal of the educational policy adopted by
the Republic of Serbia. The application of reflective practice in the online environment as an
aspect of teachers’ professional competencies is recognized as a multidimensional phenomenon
that is of key importance for the accomplishment of the established standard. The methods used
are the methods of data collection and analysis.
Sample
The research was conducted with a sample that comprised 409 teachers from the south of
the Republic of Serbia. The research was conducted by means of the Google questionnaire and
the participation in the research was voluntary. The list of schools was created and the school
e-mails were collected from the schools’ official sites. The research instruments were distributed
to teachers by school principals and professional associates. The sample also involved the
teachers from those schools with which the authors cooperate as a means to promote the Faculty
of Philosophy, University of Niš. The Google questionnaire was anonymous and voluntary,
filled exclusively by those teachers who were willing to do it.
Female teachers comprised the largest part of the sample (f = 338), whereas the number
of male teachers was considerably smaller (f = 71). The research results prove that the largest
number of the respondents were from 35 to 45 years of age (f = 200). Those aged from 25 to 35
were fewer in number (f = 142) as well as the teachers aged from 45 to 55 (f = 46). The smallest
part was comprised of the teachers aged from 55 to 65 (f = 21). The sample included mostly
teachers with less teaching experience, up to 10 years of experience (f = 234). There followed
those with 10 to 20 years of teaching experience (f = 104), then the teachers with 20 to 30 years
of experience (f = 62), and finally those whose teaching experience ranged from 30 to 40 years
(f = 9). The sample did not include the teachers with more than 40 years of teaching experience.
The majority of the teachers who participated in the research (f = 314) were full-time teachers.
A considerably smaller number of the respondents (f = 95) were part-time teachers. The sample
consisted mostly of the teachers who taught in schools located in large urban areas (f = 252). A
smaller number of the teachers taught in both urban and rural areas (f = 68), whereas an almost
identical number of the respondents taught in small towns (f = 46) and in rural areas (f = 43).
The instrument used was the RPEEQOT-DP (RPFIKON-DP) (Reflection Practice

Employed in the Examination of Online Teaching during the Pandemic) five-level scale (1 =
strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree).
The instrument was constructed respecting the Reflective Teaching Attitude Scale (according
to Moghaddam, 2019) and The Reflective Teaching Instrument (Faghihi & Sarab, 2016) but
modified so as to be adapted to the educational system of the Republic of Serbia and the present
mode of teaching during the global Covid-19 pandemic. The instrument RPEEQOT-DP consisted
of 6 sub-scales of reflective practice employed to examine the quality of online teaching during
the Covid-19 pandemic: pedagogical, methodological and didactic (Statements 1 to 6 refer to
school subjects, curricula, teaching principles, methods and means, educational technology,
grading system and evaluation); metacognitive (Statements 7 to 12 refer to teachers’ awareness
of their own personalities, their definition of learning and teaching, their attitude towards
teaching profession); cognitive (Statements 13 to 18 refer to teachers’ professional improvement

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276 and training, their participation in conferences, knowledge of professional reference materials,
conducting researches); practical (Statements 19 to 24 refer to the critical attitude towards the
current mode of teaching, communication with colleagues, documentation); critical (Statements
31 to 36 refer to the social and political aspects of teaching); students (Statements 25 to 30 refer
to students’ knowledge and their affective and cognitive state).
Data Analysis
The obtained results were processed in the software package SPSS (Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences 15.0). The data were processed by means of descriptive statistics
and statistical conclusion. To be more precise, the prevalence of the basic variables of the
research was determined by means of descriptive statistics – standard deviation, arithmetic
mean, frequency and percentage. The connection between the basic variables was determined
by means of the correlation technique, Pearson coefficient, while the predictive ability of the
model was determined by the standard multiple regression.
Research Results
The collected data were first analyzed using the descriptive analysis of the sub-scales of
reflective practice, which was applied to examine the quality of online teaching.
Table 1
Descriptive Measures of All Sub-scales
N Min Max AS SD
Pedagogical, methodological and didactic dimension 409 6.00 30.00 23.54 4.63
Metacognitive dimension 409 14.00 30.00 24.44 4.06
Cognitive dimension 409 6.00 30.00 21.13 4.38
Practical dimension 409 6.00 30.00 21.83 4.14
Students’ dimension 409 6.00 30.00 22.90 3.96
Critical dimension 409 6.00 30.00 22.70 4.56
Table 1 shows the descriptive and statistical data for all sub-scales used in the research –
the empirical minimum and maximum, arithmetic mean and standard deviation, i.e. the total
values of the arithmetic mean formed within each sub-scale.
Тable 2
Reliability of the instrument (RPEEQOT-DP scale)
Cronbach's alfa N
.922 36
Table 2 displays the reliability of the RPEEQOT-DP scale, constructed by the combination
of the Reflective Teaching Attitude Scale (according to Moghaddam, 2019) and the Reflective
Teaching Instrument (according to Faghihi & Sarab, 2016). The obtained results imply that
the research was conducted by the instrument with good reliability and internal consistency
(α=0.9).

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Table 3 277
Connection between Sub-scales and Independent Variables (Pearson coefficient)
Level of
Type of teachers’ School subject Type of employment
teachers’
education taught by teachers
education
Pedagogical, methodological, Correlative
.19** -.19** -.28 -.001
didactic dimensions coefficient
p .0001 .0001 .57 .99
Metacognitive dimension Correlative
.20** -.30** -.17** -.19**
coefficient
p .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001
Cognitive dimension Correlative
.19** -.25** -.62 -.03
coefficient
p .0001 .0001 .21 .60
Practical dimension Correlative
.09 -.08 .04 .08
coefficient
p .053 .09 .35 .08
Correlative
Students’ dimension -.03 -.09 -.26 .11*
coefficient
p .59 .06 .59 .03
Correlative
Critical dimension .22** -.13** -.13** -.04
coefficient
p .0001 .01 .01 .38
* - statistically significant at .05
** - statistically significant at .01
Table 3 exhibits the connection between the dimensions of reflective practice

(pedagogical, methodological and didactic, metacognitive, cognitive, practical, students’ and
critical) and independent variables (level of teachers’ education, type of teachers’ education,
school subject and type of employment).
The obtained results related to the connection of the pedagogical, methodological and
didactic dimensions with the variable level of teachers’ education demonstrated a statistically
significant low positive correlation at .01. There was observed a statistically significant low
correlation at .01 between the aforementioned dimension and type of teachers’ education
(natural or social sciences).
The obtained results related to the connection between the metacognitive dimension
of reflective practice and independent variables demonstrated a statistically significant low
positive correlation at 0.01 when compared to the variable level of teachers’ education. There
was observed a statistically significant medial negative correlation at .01 obtained in the
comparison between the metacognitive dimension and the variables of a school subject and
type of employment.
The comparison between the cognitive dimension of reflective practice and the variable
level of teachers’ education resulted in a statistically significant low positive correlation at .01,
whereas there was observed a low negative correlation at .01 between the cognitive dimension
and the independent variable type of teachers’ education.
The analysis of the practical dimension of reflective practice displayed a statistically
significant positive and negative correlation at .01 and .05 when compared to the independent
variable level and type of teachers’ education, school subject and type of employment.

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278 The comparison of the students’ dimension and the independent variable type of
employment showed a statistically significant low positive correlation at .05. This dimension
did not demonstrate either positive or negative correlation with other variables.
As regards the critical dimension, there was observed a statistically significant low
positive correlation with the independent variable level of teachers’ education at .01, while
this dimension showed a statistically significant low negative correlation at 0.01 with the
independent variable type of teachers’ education and school subject.
Prediction of the Quality of Reflective Online Teaching Based On the Set of Predictive
Research Variables

The possibility predicting the reflective online teaching quality, based on the set of
predictive variables, i.e. level and type of teachers’ education, type of employment and school
subject, was examined by means of the standard multiple regression.
Table 4
Independent variables as predictors of the pedagogical, methodological and didactic
dimension of the reflective practice online teaching quality
Beta
Predictors p Summary of models
Coefficient (β)
Level of teachers’ education .31 .0001 R = .33
Type of teachers’ education -.26 .0001 R² = .11
df = 4
Type of employment .23 .0001
F = 12.71
School subject -.11 .042 p = .0001
Table 4 proves the predictive strength of the independent variables (level and type of
teachers’ education, type of employment and school subject) which explains 11.2% variance
in the dependent variable, pedagogical, methodological and didactic (R² = .11; p = .0001).
The research proved that all independent variables, level of teachers’ education (p = .0001; β
= .31), type of teachers’ education (p = .0001; β = -.26), type of employment (p = .0001; β =
.232) and school subject (p = .04; β = -.11) were statistically significant predictors. The positive
regression coefficient for the variable level of teachers’ education and type of employment led
to a higher value for the pedagogical, methodological and didactic dimensions. The negative
regression coefficient indicated that a lower score for the variable type of teachers’ education
and school subject caused an increase in the value for the pedagogical, methodological and
didactic dimensions. The obtained results confirmed the first of the special hypotheses, i.e.,
the interrelation between the independent variables and the pedagogical, methodological and
didactic dimensions.

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Table 5 279
Independent Variables as the Predictors of the Metacognitive Dimension of the Reflective
Online Teaching Quality
Beta
Coefficient (β)
Type of teachers’ education .-34 .0001 R² = .17
Type of employment .06 .34 df = 4
F = 21.32
School subject -.20 .0001
p = .0001
Table 5 shows the predictive ability of the independent variables (level and type of
teachers’ education, type of employment and school subject), which explains 17.4% variance
in the dependent variable, the metacognitive dimension (R² = .17; p = .0001). The following
variables proved to be statistically significant predictors: level of teachers’ education (p = .0001;
β = .23), type of teachers’ education (p = .0001; β = .-34) and school subject (p = .0001; β = .-20).
The positive regression coefficient indicated that a higher score of the variable termed the level
of teachers’ education implied a higher score of the metacognitive dimension. The negative
regression coefficient indicated that a lower score of the variable type of teachers’ education
and school subject led to a higher score of the metacognitive dimension. The obtained results
confirmed the second hypothesis, i.e., the correlation between the independent variables and the
metacognitive dimension.
Table 6
Independent Variables as the Predictors of the Cognitive Dimension of the Reflective Online
Teaching Quality
Beta coefficient
(β)
F = 16.12
Table 6 displays the predictive ability of the independent variables (level and type of
teachers’ education, type of employment and school subject), which explains 13.8 % variance
in the independent variable, the cognitive dimension (R² = .14; p = .0001). The following
independent variables proved to be statistically significant predictors: level of teachers’ education
(p = .0001; β = .31), type of teachers’ education (p = .0001; β = .31), type of employment (p
= .0001; β = .23) and school subject (p = .006; β = .-14). The positive regression coefficient
indicated that higher scores of the variable level of teachers’ education and type of employment
implied a higher score of the cognitive dimension. The negative regression coefficient indicated
that a lower score of the variable type of teachers’ education and school subject led to an
increased score of the cognitive dimension. The obtained results confirmed the third hypothesis,
i.e., the interrelation between the independent variables and the cognitive dimension.

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280 Table 7
Independent Variables as the Predictors of the Practical Dimension of the Reflective Online
Teaching Quality
Beta
Coefficient (β)
Level of teachers’ education .21 .0001
R = .22
df = 4
Type of employment .22 .0001 F = 5.25
p = .0001
School subject -.03 .58
The data presented in Table 7 prove that the predictive ability of the independent
variables (level and type of teachers’ education, type of employment and school subject)
explain 4.9% variance (R² = .05; p = .0001) in the dependent variable, the practical dimension.
The independent variables that proved to be statistically significant predictors were the level
of teachers’ education (p = .0001; β = .21), type of teachers’ education (p = .01; β = -.14) and
type of employment (p = .0001; β = .22). The positive regression coefficient indicated that
higher scores of the variables level of education and type of employment implied a higher score
of the practical dimension. The negative regression coefficient indicated that a lower score in
the variables termed the type of teachers’ education and school subject implied an increased
score in the practical dimension. The obtained results confirmed the fourth hypothesis, i.e., the
independent variables, shown in the table, were correlated to the practical dimension.
Table 8
Independent Variables as the Predictors of the Students’ Dimension of the Reflective Online
Teaching Quality
Beta
Coefficient (β)
F = 3.77
The results shown in Table 8 denote that the predictive ability of the independent
explains 3.6 % variance (R² = .04; p = .01) of the dependent variable, the students’ dimension.
The following independent variables proved to be statistically significant predictors: type of
teachers’ education (p = .01; β = -.14), type of employment (p = .001; β = .21) and school
subject (p = .04; β = -.11). The positive regression coefficient indicated that higher scores of
the variables termed the level of teachers’ education and type of employment implied a higher
score of the students’ dimension. The negative regression coefficient indicated that a lower
score in the variable type of teachers’ education and school subject led to an increased score of
the students’ dimension. The obtained results confirmed the fifth hypothesis, which implied a
correlation between the independent variables and the students’ dimensions.

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Table 9 281
Independent Variables as the Predictors of the Critical Dimension of the Reflective Online
Teaching Quality
Beta coefficient
(β)
df = 4
Type of employment -.21 .0001
F = 13.75
School subject .23 .0001 p = .0001
The results shown in Table 9 denote that the predictive ability of the independent
explains 1.2 % variance (R² = .120; p = .0001) of the dependent variable, the critical dimension.
The following independent variables proved to be statistically significant predictors: level of
teachers’ education (p = .0001; β = .33), type of teachers’ education (p = .0001; β = -.21), type
of employment (p = .0001; β = -.21) and school subject (p = .0001; β = .23). The positive
regression coefficient indicated that higher scores of the variables level of teachers’ education
and school subject implied a higher score of the critical dimension. The negative regression
coefficient showed that a lower score in the variable type of teachers’ education and type of
employment led to an increased score of the critical dimension. The obtained results confirmed
the sixth hypothesis, i.e., the correlation between the independent variables and the critical
dimension.
Discussion
The theoretical and empirical research presented in this paper further proves that the
subject discussed is very complex and intricate. School teachers in our country as well as in
other countries all over the world have encountered various challenges related to new modes
of teaching performed by means of numerous internet platforms and caused by the global
coronavirus pandemic. Therefore, this research aims to examine the influence of reflective
practice on one important aspect of teaching – the aspect of the quality of online teaching.
Prior to the analysis of the specific hypotheses, it is necessary to emphasize that, analogous to
our expectations and recent research (Thoonen et al., 2011; Odabaşı Çimer, 2011; Faghihi et
al., 2016; Fakazli & Kuru Gȍnen, 2017), the majority of the respondents were female teachers,
which reflects the structure of teaching staff in the schools in which the research was conducted.
Also, similar to previous research (Impedovo & Khatoon Malik, 2016; Faghihi et al., 2016;
Priddis & Rogers, 2017), the majority of the respondents were teachers aged from 35 to 45 (f
= 200) with 10 years of teaching experience (f = 234), who were full-time teachers (f = 314) in
schools located in large cities (f = 252). This fact had an important and positive impact on their
attitude to reflective practice and its application with the purpose of improving teaching quality.
This paper perceives reflective practice as a holistic approach which includes pedagogical,
methodological, didactic, metacognitive, cognitive, practical, students’ and critical dimensions
of teaching. Each of these dimensions was examined by means of predictive variables: level of
teachers’ education (college, bachelor, master or doctoral degree), type of teachers’ education
(natural or social sciences), type of employment (full-time teachers or part-time teachers
teaching in one or more schools) and school subjects taught by teachers (mandatory or elective).
The correlation technique results prove a statistically significant connection of the
predictive variables with almost all of the reflective practice dimensions. The correlation was

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282 not observed only between the practical dimension and the independent variables. Considering
the correlations between the dimensions of reflective practice and the predictive variables, it
was observed that, apart from the predictive variable level of teachers’ education and type
of employment, all other dimensions displayed negative correlations, which only proves that
teachers are still not aware of the significance that reflective practice has in the improvement of
the teaching quality. The obtained results are congruent with our expectations that the reflective
approach to teaching has not yet been accepted adequately in the Serbian educational system.
The statistically significant positive correlation of all the dimensions of reflective practice with
the variable level of teachers’ education was in line with our expectations and the results obtained
in previous research (e.g. Ghaye, 2011) regarding the fact that the majority of the respondents
had a university education (i.e. master’s degree). The priority of the educational policy adopted
by the Republic of Serbia is that teachers should be highly qualified and competent enough in
order to teach in schools, which is proved by the Law on the Fundamentals of the Education
System (2017, Article 140, p. 1) which states that teachers who teach in schools have to possess
a master’s degree.
The first hypothesis proposed that the pedagogical, methodical and didactic dimensions
had an impact on the quality of online teaching. The regression analysis results showed that
all of the independent variables (level and type of teachers’ education, type of employment
and school subject) could principally predict the influence of the pedagogical, methodological
and didactic dimensions on the quality of online teaching and explain around 11.2% variance
regarding all four criteria. The obtained high values of the arithmetic mean AS = 23.5 (SD =
4.6) prove that teachers who participated in this research were reflective practitioners, who
shared the opinion that reflective practice directly influenced the quality of online teaching.
This means that the obtained results confirmed the results from the previously conducted
research studies (James & Pollard, 2011; Ahmed & Al-Khalili, 2013; Çimer, Odabaşi Çimer &
Vekli, 2013; Soisangwarn & Wongwanich, 2014 ) that the quality of teaching realized as online
teaching during the pandemic was determined by teachers’ awareness of reflective practice as
a necessary teaching skill.
The second hypothesis proposed that the metacognitive dimension of reflective practice
influenced the quality of online teaching. The research proved that the level and type of
teachers’ education, as well as a school subject, were significant predictors of the metacognitive
dimension of reflective practice and its impact on the quality of online teaching, explaining
around 17.4% variance in relation to all three variables. Considering the teachers’ attitudes
towards the influence of this dimension on the quality of online teaching, the average score
was AS = 24.4 (SD = 4.06), which shows that the teachers who were university graduates,
majors in either social or natural sciences, teaching either mandatory or elective school subjects
contemplated profoundly about the influence of their teaching principles on the quality of
online teaching. The majority of our sample was comprised of highly educated young teachers,
regarding both their age and teaching experience, so that their academic research and skills
obtained during their master studies helped them to recognize the potential of reflective practice
aimed at solving problems identified in classes, which improves the quality of teaching. The
results of the previously conducted research studies (Ahmed & Al-Khalili, 2013; Impedovo &
Khatoon Malik, 2016; Fakazli & Kuru Gȍnen, 2017; Brady, 2020; Hashim & Mohd Yusoff,
2021) proved to be similar to those obtained in this research, i.e. school teachers identified their
own strengths and weaknesses in teaching, based on their personal convictions and reflection,
which was beneficial for the quality of online teaching. An important aspect of the metacognitive
dimension proved to be the sense of satisfaction with teaching vocation, which was confirmed
by the results obtained in both previous research studies (Thoonen, Sleegers, Oort, Peetsma &
Geijsel, 2011; Ullah & Jundran, 2014) and by the results obtained in our research. Teachers’
reflection on the importance of teaching vocation was additionally intensified by the online

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teaching environment, which proved to be a crucial determinant of the online teaching quality. 283
The second hypothesis was confirmed.
The third hypothesis proposed that the cognitive dimension of reflective practice
influenced the quality of online teaching. The results presented in Table 3 showed that the
teachers with a university degree, majors in either natural or social sciences who taught
either mandatory or elective school subjects in one or more schools recognized the important
influence that the cognitive dimension had on the quality of teaching, which explains around
13.8% variance. The distribution of the replies (AS = 21.1; SD = 4.03) demonstrated that the
respondents had positive attitudes towards the aspects of reflective practice which were defined
as cognitive aspects. Even before the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic, certain aspects of
the cognitive dimension of reflective practice were already included in the educational process
through relevant referential materials and academic papers and participation in seminars and
conferences. Also, they were required to write their own papers as part of their own professional
advancement prescribed by the law. The new circumstances caused by the pandemic caused
various changes in planning and organizing teaching, which provided easier access to
information and teachers’ training by means of internet platforms, already used by teachers.
This situation only reinforced the necessity for lifelong learning as the only way in which
teachers could continuously apply reflective practice with the purpose of improvement of the
teaching quality. Considering the aforementioned and in line with the social and demographic
characteristics of teachers, the obtained results were analogous to our expectations. Therefore,
the third hypothesis was confirmed.
The fourth hypothesis proposed that the practical dimension of reflective practice
influenced the quality of online teaching. The obtained results of the regression analysis showed
that the variable level and type of teachers’ education, as well as school subjects, were very
significant predictors of the impact that this dimension of reflective practice had on the quality
of teaching, proved by the fact that it explained 4.9% variance. Regarding the processive nature
of this dimension, explored in the theoretical approach, and the obtained results (AS = 21.8; SD
= 4.01), it was concluded that the teachers who participated in the research had an affirmative
attitude towards this dimension of reflective practice that evidently influenced the quality of
teaching. However, the circumstances created by the pandemic seemed to be most influential
for this aspect of reflective practice on both quantitative and qualitative levels since it was
founded on collaborative learning (Çimer et al., 2013; Vijaya Kumari, 2014; Mathew et al,
2017; Glasswell & Ryan, 2017), constructive feedback information (Zalipour, 2015; Kayapinar,
2016; Farell & Cirocki, 2017; Mathew et al., 2017), direct access to classes of peer teachers
(Ma et al., 2013; Mathew et al., 2017), which is certainly not consistent with the real situation.
It is assumed that the online context demanded that teachers, who are reflective practitioners,
display high adaptability and flexibility in the application of the practical dimension in order
to provide quality teaching. Similarly to the results obtained in previous research studies
(Beecher et al., 1997; Odabaşı Çimer, 2011; Vijaya Kumari, 2014; Zalipour, 2015), our research
confirmed that the portfolio was a significant reflective means used by teachers that contributed
to the improvement of the learning quality. The fourth hypothesis was confirmed.
The fifth hypothesis proposed that the students’ dimension of reflective practice influenced
the quality of online teaching. The variable type of teachers’ education, type of employment
and school subjects were significant predictors of the students’ dimension of reflective practice,
which explained 3.6% variance. The obtained findings of the arithmetic mean (AS = 22.9; SD
= 3.9) showed that the respondents perceived the students’ dimension of reflective practice
as one of the crucial preconditions for the improvement of teaching quality. Actually, the
results demonstrated the teachers’ convictions that the quality of teaching could be achieved by
reflecting on the position of students in the novel circumstances, the teaching environment and
its inspiring potential, which was in accordance with the results obtained in previous research

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284 studies (Çimer et al., 2013; Farell & Cirocki, 2017). Moreover, this research showed that the
respondents recognized the necessity of a reflective and critical approach to the issue related
to the adaptability of teaching materials to the cognitive and affective characteristics of their
students, their interests and individual needs. This research also proved that the communication
between teachers and students, as the aspect of the students’ dimension of reflective practice
aimed at stimulating students to reflect on their learning and its improvement, was rather
qualitative.
The sixth hypothesis proposed that the critical dimension of reflective practice influenced
the quality of online teaching. Analogous to the results obtained for other dimensions, all
independent variables (level and type of education, type of employment and school subjects)
proved to be statistically significant predictors of the critical dimension, which explained 1.2%
variance. This means that the respondents comprehended the necessity to critically reconsider
their current teaching activities and practice, analysis of causal relationships between
teaching and students’ academic achievement, pursuit of alternative propositions aimed at
the improvement of the teaching quality. The teachers who participated in this research also
recognized that critical reflection is inevitable in contemporary teaching (AS = 22.7; SD =
4.5) since the educational system has always been a point which mirrors all the strengths and
weaknesses of one society. In addition, since schools are becoming multicultural communities
due to constant migrations, this research also demonstrated that teachers were aware of the skills
and knowledge with which to promote tolerance and democracy among their students, instruct
them in the assertive resolution of conflicts, teach them how to respect cultural differences
in their environment, which is of utter importance considering the increase of the electronic
violence among peers.
The analysis which examined the ‘influence’ presupposed a certain correlation but not a
definite cause and effect relationship between the examined phenomena, which is a limitation
of this research since its results cannot be generalized to all of the respondents but also its
advantage since this problem is prone to further examination in all of the aforementioned
domains.
The analysis of the research results proves that the teachers mostly regard reflective
practice as an important aspect of contemporary teaching activities and teachers’ professional
competencies but that they still apply reflective practice insufficiently. The general hypothesis,
which proposed that reflective practice of teachers, who acted as reflective practitioners, had
a direct impact on the quality of online teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic was partially
confirmed.
Conclusions and implications

This research is significant because the empirical study of reflective practice, and
particularly of its influence on the quality of teaching, has been rarely conducted in the Republic
of Serbia. This kind of research became necessary with the outbreak of the pandemic that created
various changes in numerous social spheres and therefore, in the field of education. Although
teachers in Serbian primary schools already had some knowledge about online teaching, it still
represented something new, a real professional challenge that required a reflective approach to
teaching and opened the question of its influence on the quality of online teaching. The results of
this research are important since they indicate that teachers have an affirmative attitude towards
the aspects, i.e. dimensions of reflective practice which improve the quality of teaching, but that
reflective practice is insufficiently applied, which is proved by the negative correlations of these
dimensions with the independent variables whereas these correlations with certain dimensions
are nonexistent. The research results are in line with our expectations, considering the fact that
reflexivity is still a new concept, particularly in online teaching. The reasons may be found in

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the fact that teachers are not yet prepared to teach in an online teaching environment but also in 285
the fact that they are overburdened by plans and programs, administrative tasks, a large number
of students in classes, etc. Reflexivity being a necessary skill of contemporary teaching that
is progressing and advancing rapidly, the obtained results also reveal the weaknesses of the
Serbian educational system reflected in teachers’ insufficient training in the field of reflection
and their ability to adapt to challenges and sudden changes that are becoming an integral part
of contemporary education. Therefore, the obtained results may be beneficial for the creators
of educational policy in our country, who are expected to support teachers as the pillars of
education to further develop and apply reflective skills and to adapt education to the needs of
the constantly changing and evolving society. Regarding the far-reaching consequences of the
pandemic related to education and the tendency to continue online teaching in the future, the
obtained results emphasize the necessity of conducting new research that would include teachers
of different levels of education in order to examine their attitudes to reflective practice and its
influence on the online teaching quality, compare obtained findings and thus contribute to the
improvement of teaching performed by teachers in all educational stages, primary, secondary
and tertiary. This research does not aspire to generalize its findings to include online teaching
quality in other countries. However, it can contribute to some further studies in the field.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological
Development of the Republic of Serbia (Contract No. 451-03-68/2022-14/200165).
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Cite as: Osmanović Zajić, J. S., Maksimović, J. Ž., & Sretić, S. R. (2023). Reflective practice:
The online teaching quality in the time of the coronavirus pandemic. Problems of Education
in the 21st Century, 81(2), 269-288. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.269
Jelena S. Osmanović Zajić PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Niš, 18 000 Niš, Republic of Serbia.
(Corresponding author) E-mail: jelena.osmanovic.zajic@filfak.ni.ac.rs
Website: https://www.filfak.ni.ac.rs/nastavno-osoblje/pedagogija/item/143-
jelena-osmanovic-zajic
Jelena Ž. Maksimović PhD, Full Professor, University of Niš, 18 000 Niš, Republic of Serbia.
E-mail: jelena.maksimovic@filfak.ni.ac.rs
Website: https://www.filfak.ni.ac.rs/nastavno-osoblje/pedagogija/item/137-
jelena-maksimovic
Sanja R. Sretić MA Pedagogy, Social Pedagogy, PhD Student, University of Niš, 18 000 Niš,
Republic of Serbia.
E-mail: s.sretic-15797@filfak.ni.ac.rs
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7019-374X

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the abstract. The abstract should grip the reader’s attention.
Keywords
Please provide 3 to 5 keywords in alphabetical order. Note that a keyword does not have to be
made of only one word. At least one of these should indicate the topic area and one should indicate
the methodology of the research.
The structure of the manuscript (recommended)

The body of the text of the manuscript must generally have the following parts:
• abstract + keywords;
• introduction (it can be divided into some subchapters if needed);
• methodology of research (it is recommended to divide /rubricate);
• results of research;
• discussion;
• conclusions and/or implications;
• acknowledgements (if any);
• references (in APA style, 7th Ed);
• appendix (if any).
P.S. The structure can be different if the paper is only theoretical qualitative research.
The length of the manuscript
The manuscript should be not shorter than 6 pages (including references, tables and figures).
Manuscripts should be typed on A4, in Times New Roman 12-point font size, single-spaced, 2.5 cm
with all the margins, word-document (Word 6.0 or later) format.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 81, No. 2, 2023
290 Acronyms
Acronyms should be defined the first time they appear.
Tables and figures
Tables and figures should be valuable, relevant, and visually attractive. Tables (made in Word or
another software) and figures must be referred to in the text and numbered in the order of their
appearance. Each table and figure should have a complete, descriptive title; and each table column
an appropriate heading. The texts in tables and figures should be 11-point (in some cases 10) and
their width should be 12 cm at maximum. The figures should be in format .jpg (unless done in Word
or Excel); resolution 1200 dpi. Figures, tables (black and white colour, without ground-colour) and
captions should be inserted within the manuscript at their appropriate locations. All the graphics
(figures) must be editable. The font size should be Times New Roman for all figures and tables.
Figures should be carefully explained in the text and cited in numerical order.
It is the author’s responsibility to obtain permission to reproduce illustrations, tables, etc. from
other publications.
Discussion
Focus the discussion to the two important questions: What is already known about your topic?
What your research adds? It is recommended that the aim and major findings of the research
should be reminded. And then the similarities and differences of the findings with previous research
studies should be exemplified in detail.
Conclusions
This part is not a summary. Bring out the significance of your research. Show how you’ve brought
closure to the research problem, and point out remaining gaps in knowledge by suggesting issues
for further research. The main research outcome should be clearly seen.
References
The title „References“ must be used. APA style for writing references in the text and in the reference
list must be used. References in the text should be presented in parentheses (Knox, 1988; Martin,
1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin, 1995, p. 48). The list of references should
be presented after the text.
The author should make sure that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the names
and years in the text and those on the list. All the references should be listed in alphabeti¬cal order
by author’s name.
For the sake of accuracy, references should always be as updated as possible, also in the interest of
the readers and researchers on the topic the paper is dealing with.
Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APAstyle will be returned without review.
Note 2: References to online sources should include the type of medium (such as “serial online”
or “monograph online”), the date of that specific reference (if applicable), the uniform resource
locator (URL), and the date that the source was accessed. A source accessed online should al-ways
be referenced accordingly, even if it is also published in printed form.
Note 3: All papers must meet the criteria of originality and scientific quality. Obviously, they must
also comply with style and format requirements. The paper will not be subject to further review,
if the manuscript is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF LANGUAGE (all
manuscripts must be written in clear and grammatical English).
Note 4: Submitted papers will be assessed based on their novelty, technical quality, potential
impact, and clarity of writing.
Note 5: All papers are checked by CrossCheck system.
Editorial Board
Updated: July 2018
Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 81, No. 2, 2023
GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS 291
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION

ISSN 1648-939X /Print/, ISSN 2669-1140 /Online/
Dear colleagues,
GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS / NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION – is a periodical, peer reviewed,

scientific-methodical journal, issued by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“ in cooperation with
Scientia Socialis Ltd. It is an international journal, wherein the scientific and methodical/
applied articles published in Lithuanian and English languages. This journal is intended for the
teachers of general education schools, the lecturers of higher educational institutions and all,
who are interested in the problems of natural science education.
The GU/NSE journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of
scientific and methodical (practical/applied) papers.
GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS / NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION
ISSN 1648-939X /Print/, ISSN 2669-1140 /Online/
http://gu.puslapiai.lt/gu/
http://gu.puslapiai.lt/gu/jr-online_article_submission/
http://oaji.net/journal-detail.html?number=514
Fast Publication This journal is abstracted / listed / indexed / cited in:

COPERNICUS INDEX , LIST OF SCIENCE EDUCATION JOURNALS, JOURNALS OF
Peer Reviewed
INTEREST TO CHEMICAL EDUCATORS, SKYLIGHT, OAJI, WebQualis (QUALIS/CAPES ),
Open Access MIAR, EuroPub, QOAM, ESJI, Crossref, DOI, Internet Archive.
Applied research/practical/methodical work. This type of submission is best suited for
practical/didactical work and reports, as well as position papers raising original and provocative
theoretical or practical discourses and questions (small-scale research, applied research,
didactical/methodical papers, case studies, best educational practices etc.). Each submission is
carefully reviewed by two independent reviewers and ranked based on: quality of preparation,
relevance to the educational community, didactical quality, originality, and importance of the
contribution.
Instruction for authors and other details are available on the journal`s website at:
http://gu.puslapiai.lt/gu/aut-info/
GU/NSE is an Open Access journal accessible for free on the Internet. Papers must be submitted
on the understanding that they have not been published elsewhere and are not currently
under consideration by another publisher. Optimal paper`s size: 8/12 pages. Partial article
processing charges are: 5-8 EUR per one A4 page.
For contacts, questions and papers submission: gu@gu.puslapiai.lt
Sincerely yours, Editorial Board

Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
Vol. 81, No. 2, 2023
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
English language proofreader Ilona Ratkevičienė
25 April 2023. Publishing in Quires 7,75. Edition 80.
Publisher Scientia Socialis Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: scientia@scientiasocialis.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668

Printing „Šiaulių spaustuvė“ Ltd.

9A P. Lukšio Street
LT-76207 Šiauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 41 500 333.
Fax: +370 41 500 336
E-mail: info@dailu.lt

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 81, No. 2, 2023

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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 81, No.

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

STUDY ABROAD AND PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ GLOBAL COMPETENCE

CONTRIBUTIONS OF LAKATOSIAN THEORY TO THE EVALUATION OF EXPLANATORY

PREDICTIVE POWER OF BIOLOGY TEACHER’S SELF-EFFICACY ON ACCEPTABILITY

INTEREST OF THE PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS IN THE ALCOHOL-RELATED ISSUES

AN ALGEBRAIC THINKING SKILL TEST IN PROBLEM-SOLVING

DIGITAL CITIZEN PARTICIPATION OF COLLEGE STUDENTS:

EXPLORING CURRENT TRENDS IN EDUCATION: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH TOPICS

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: THE ONLINE TEACHING QUALITY IN THE TIME

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS .............................................................................. 289

NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION / GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS ............................... 291

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What is global competence? Global competence combines knowledge, skills, attitudes,

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.172 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Study Abroad Program Reviews

According to a meta-analysis by Huang, Cheung, and Xuan (2023), prior studies on

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Maurícius Selvero Pazinato

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codes and nomenclatures to characterize materials, substances or chemical transformations; 177

The study of intermolecular forces is of critical importance to understand phenomena

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178 Research Focus

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Instrument and Procedures 179

London Force and Dipole-Dipole Interactions DU

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Percentage per research phase %

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Students Progressive Transition

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Conclusions and Implications

The Federal University of Ouro Preto, CAPES and CNPq.

The authors declare no competing interest.

Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood (6th ed.). MIT Press.

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186 Hair, J. R. (2005). Análise Multivariada de Dados (5th ed). Bookman.

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Cite as: Miranda, A. C. G., & Pazinato, M. S. (2023). Contributions of Lakatosian

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https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.188 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

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192 Research Aim

To obtain the answers to research questions, a survey administered to a sample of Czech

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Instrument and Procedures

Dissection Practice Scale

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Acceptance of Different Kinds of Organisms as a Hands-on and Virtual Activity in School

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Hands-on dissection Virtual dissection

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Hands-on dissection Virtual dissection

Results of the Self-Efficacy Scale

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Hands-on dissection Virtual dissection

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198 Correlations between Self-Efficacy, Acceptance of Different Organisms, and Actual