Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 78, No. 6, 2020

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 78, No.
6, 2020
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
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Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr., Prof. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr., Prof. Muammer Calik, Trabzon University, Turkey
Dr. Saša A. Horvat, University of Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
Dr., Prof. Margaret Chan Kit Yok, MARA University of Technology (UiTM), Malaysia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., Prof. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Solange W. Locatelli, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
Dr., Prof. Raffaele Pisano, University of Lille, France
Dr., Prof. Katarzyna Potyrala, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, Educational Robotics and Science Organization, Cyprus
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Vol. 78, No. 6, 2020
Contents 879
Editorial
THE ROLE OF COMPLEXITY IN TEACHING

Saša A. Horvat ......................................................................................................... 881
Articles
DISTANCE EDUCATION DURING COVID-19: THE PERSPECTIVE

OF SLOVAK TEACHERS
Eva Ballová Mikušková, Marcela Verešová .......................................................................884
ABILITY TO FOSTER SCHOOLCHILDREN’S ECOLOGICAL LITERACY AS A RESULT

OF PROSPECTIVE BIOLOGY TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
Mariia Bilianska, Olga Yaroshenko ................................................................................907
PERCEPTIONS OF TODAY’S YOUNG GENERATION ABOUT

MEANINGFUL LEARNING OF STEM
Dagnija Cedere, Rita Birzina, Tamara Pigozne, Elena Vasilevskaya ...........................................920
ANALYSIS OF PRE-SERVICE FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS’ INCORRECT

ARTICULATIONS: FREQUENCY, INFLUENCE ON COMMUNICATION, AND
A SPECIFIC CORRECTIVE STRATEGY
Coral I. Hunt-Gómez, Macarena Navarro-Pablo ..................................................................933
DEVELOPING CHARACTER EDUCATION THROUGH ACADEMIC CULTURE

IN INDONESIAN PROGRAMMED ISLAMIC HIGH SCHOOL
Rohmatun Lukluk Isnaini, Farida Hanum, Lantip Diat Prasojo .................................................948
EXAMINATION OF PRE-SCHOOL STUDENTS’ SELF-REGULATION SKILLS

Kamil Arif Kırkıç, Büşra Demir .................................................................................... 967
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PRIOR EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR ACTUAL

EXPERIENCES OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS DURING PEDAGOGICAL
INTERNSHIP IN ZIMBABWE
Chipo Makamure .....................................................................................................983
UNDERGRADUATE ECONOMICS CURRICULUM AND EMPLOYABILITY

SKILLS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Beatrice Ngulube .....................................................................................................1000
MONITORING OF FACULTIES AND DEPARTMENTS RESEARCH ACTIVITY

AS A COMPONENT OF UNIVERSITY MANAGEMENT
Stanislav Podolyanchuk .............................................................................................1014
INFLUENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPEAN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS
Robert Podstawski, Krzysztof Borysławski, Marta Zurawik, Alena Bukova,
Bojan Masanovic, Ferenc Ihasz, Miloš Marković, Aneta Omelan .............................................1027

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880 CONCEPTUAL SUBITIZING AND PRESCHOOL CLASS CHILDREN’S LEARNING

OF THE PART-PART-WHOLE RELATIONS OF NUMBER
Catarina Anna Wästerlid .............................................................................................1038
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 1055

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THE ROLE OF COMPLEXITY IN TEACHING 881
Saša A. Horvat
University of Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
E-mail: sasa.horvat@dh.uns.ac.rs
Why complex problems are important in the modern teaching process? How to determine
how complex a task or content is? The key to complexity lies in the origin of life. With the
increase in complexity, from simple compounds, complex compounds were formed and from
complex compounds life was formed. It is the same in teaching, by solving simple problems
basic concepts are formed, and the growing complexity of the problem leads to the formation of
knowledge. But as all started from simple and later everything got more complex in Praoceaa,
can it be determined what the complex task is made of? What are the conditions that influenced
the formation of life on Earth, what are the conditions that affect how the student experiences
the complexity of the problem task? Does the assessment of a task have to take into account the
subjective component or characteristics of the problem solver? Is there a difference between the
complexity and difficulty of the problem?
The complexity of the tasks is a key characteristic that can be used to predict students'
performance on the task (Vakkari, 1999). The complexity of the tasks can be assessed in several
ways. The characteristics of the respondents must certainly be taken into account. Take, for
example, playing a composition. This is objectively more complex than playing a simple scale
if we compare an experienced student (expert) with someone who is just a beginner (novice).
But from a subjective point of view - for an expert, playing a composition is less complex than
for a beginner (Nadolski et al., 2005).
Task structure is a central feature in problem-solving. When the structure of the task is
taken into account, the complexity of the task is determined by the elements of the task and their
interrelationships (Partridge & Hussain, 1995). A problem is well structured if the elements of
the problem and their relations are well known. Based on that, a strategy that can be applied
for solving the problem and its sequencing can be determined. The absence of sequenced tasks
based on their complexity in textbooks results in that tasks are being sequenced based on the
subjective perception of the complexity of the problem by the textbook designer (Barrot, 2019).
This leads to poorly structured textbooks.
According to Heyworth (1999), the complexity of quantitative problems is determined by
the number of steps required to solve them. So, the problems that can be solved in several steps
are complex. When complexity is observed from the mathematical side, it refers to the number
of unknowns and the type of mathematical expressions that need to be solved (Ibrahim et al.,
2017). However, in solving complex tasks, some students manage to solve a complex task by
applying strategies to sequence the problem to more subproblems or to reduce several steps into
one step. Increasing the number of possible paths that can lead to a solution to a problem affects
the complexity of the problem (Campbell, 1988). These shortcuts and multiple pathways can
be confusing for students and impose a heavy load on the memory of respondents. If a cognitive
component is added, then we are talking about cognitive complexity.
Understanding the cognitive complexity of tasks is essential for task design, task sequence,
creation of syllabus, and curriculum (Sasayama, 2016). As Rodić (2018) has mentioned before,
basic parts of the curriculum of science subject are problem-solving tasks. The characteristic
of cognitive complexity is that it has a complex relationship with the difficulty of the task.
According to Robinson (2001), it is the opposite of the difficulty of the task, which refers to the
perception of the task in the respondents. The difficulty of the problem then can be taken as a
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Saša A. HORVAT. The role of complexity in teaching
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882 subjective measure - the mental effort of the respondents. Some tasks can be of a low level of
cognitive complexity, and be very difficult even though they require only one step in a problem
task (e.g. list 10 Nobel Prize winners in chemistry). In contrast, Oosterhof et al. (2004) argue
that cognitive complex tasks can be very easy to solve even if they require more steps to solve
the problem (e.g., ordering textbooks from a publishing house). Or for example, tasks related
to physical attributes, such as describing how some objects are similar or different at a lower
level of cognitive complexity than tasks containing abstract concepts, such as describing the
appearance and order for filling the atomic orbitals. As far as chemical education is concerned,
cognitive complexity is positively correlated with the difficulty of the problem. These studies
have shown that the cognitive complexity of a task can be used to predict performance (Knaus
et al., 2011; Horvat et al., 2016; Horvat et al., 2020). Developed methods for the assessment
of the numerical rating of cognitive complexity in chemistry have, in addition to the difficulty
of concepts, added degree of interactivity between concepts. For example, when learning the
chemical formulas of atoms and molecules, each formula (elements of information) can be
learned separately: formulas of potassium-iodide KI, hydrogen-peroxide H2O2, iodine I2, and
potassium-hydroxide KOH. There is no interactivity here because each of these elements
of information can be learned separately without establishing a connection between them.
However, in the chemical reaction equation, all four elements must be observed together:
2KI + H2O2 → I2 + 2KOH
where there is complex interactivity between them and we must take into account the
charge of the ions, the change in the oxidation number, the number of atoms on the left and the
right side of the chemical reaction equation in order to equalize this equation. So, without doubt
interactivity between elements contributes to the complexity of the problem.
Complexity is a component that depends on several factors of which the most important
are the amount of information in the task and the degree of interactivity between them, the
subject itself and the symbol system and the language used in it, the characteristics of the problem
solver, etc. But the question arises as to why it is important in teaching? By observing students'
answers on complex tasks and analyzing the steps that students use in problem-solving, one
can come to the misconceptions that students own and experience when solving a task. In this
way, the quality of the task and the teaching itself can be improved. More complex tasks lead
to the adoption and understanding of concepts, while simple tasks lead to a simple repetition
of adopted concepts and simple repetition. Calculating and manipulating the complexity of the
task is necessary because the complexity of the task undoubtedly affects the human cognitive
system. In future research, one of the possible directions should be whether complex tasks
can lead to the transition from the zone of the current development to the zone of proximal
development according to Vygotsky.
References
Barrot, J. S. (2019). Examining the task complexity in ELT coursebooks. The Asia-Pacific Education
Researcher 28(6), 469–481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-019-00448-2
Campbell, D. J. (1988). Task complexity: A review and analysis. The Academy of Management Review,
13(1), 40–52.
Heyworth, R. M. (1998). Quantitative problem solving in science: Cognitive factors and directions for
practice. Education Journal, 26(1), 12–29.
Horvat, S., Segedinac, M. D., Milenković, D. D., & Hrin T. N. (2016). Development of procedure for the
assessment of cognitive complexity of stoichiometric tasks. Macedonian Journal of Chemistry
and Chemical Engineering, 35(2), 275–284. https://doi.org/10.20450/mjcce.2016.893
Horvat, S. A., Rončević, T. N., Arsenović, D. Z., Rodić, D. D., & Segedinac, M. D. (2020). Validation of
the procedure for the assessment of cognitive complexity of chemical technology problem tasks.
Journal of Baltic Science Education, 19(1), 64-75. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/20.19.64
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.881 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Saša A. HORVAT. The role of complexity in teaching
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Ibrahim, B., Ding, L., Heckler, A. F., White, D. R., & Badeau, R. (2017). How students process equations 883
in solving quantitative synthesis problems? Role of mathematical complexity in students’
mathematical performance. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 13, Article 020120.
https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.13.020120
Knaus, K., Murphy, K., Blecking, A., & Holme, T. (2011). A valid and reliable instrument for cognitive
complexity rating assignment of chemistry exam items. Journal of Chemical Education, 88(5),
554–560. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed900070y
Nadolski, R. J., Kirschner, P. A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Wöretshofer, J. (2005). Development of an
instrument for measuring the complexity of learning task. Educational Research and Evaluation,
11(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803610500110125
Oosterhof, A., Rohani, F., Sanfilippo, C., Stillwell, P., & Hawkins, K. (2008). The Capabilities-Complexity
Model. Center for Advancement of Learning and Assessment. Florida State University, Tallahassee,
FL.
Partridge, D., & Hussain, K. (1995). Knowledge based information-systems. McGraw-Hill.
Robinson, P. (2001). Task complexity, task difficulty, and task production: Exploring interactions
in a componential framework. Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 27–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/
applin/22.1.27
Rodić, D., (2018). Best practices of assessment as a way to promote effective learning. Journal of Baltic
Science Education, 17(5), 748–750. https://dx.doi.org/10.33225/jbse/18.17.748
Sasayama, S. (2016). Is a ‘Complex’ task really complex? Validating the assumption of cognitive task
complexity. The Modern Language Journal, 100(1), 231–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12313
Vakkari, P. (1999). Task complexity, problem structure and information actions. Integrating studies on
information seeking and retrieval. Information Processing and Management, 35(6), 819-837.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4573(99)00028-X
Received: November 22, 2020 Accepted: December 02, 2020
Cite as: Horvat, A. S. (2020). The role of complexity in teaching. Problems of Education in
the 21st Century, 78(6), 881-883. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.881
Saša A. Horvat PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences,
Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Environmental Protection,
Novi Sad, Serbia.
E-mail :sasa.horvatdh.uns.ac.rs
Website: https://www.dh.uns.ac.rs/sasa-horvat-phd-assistant-professor/
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4744-0375

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884
DISTANCE EDUCATION DURING
COVID-19: THE PERSPECTIVE OF
SLOVAK TEACHERS
Eva Ballová Mikušková, Marcela Verešová
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia
E-mail: ebmikuskova@ukf.sk, mveresova@ukf.sk
Abstract
As the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19) has begun to spread around the world,
education has taken the form of distance education from one day to the next. To this day, little is known
about distance education during the pandemic period from teachers’ point of view, so the study focused
on perception and management of distance education in primary school (primary and lower secondary
education) and upper-secondary school (upper secondary education) teachers; and the main aim was
to explore the connection between teaching experience, personality traits, and emotions of teachers and
their perception and management of distance education during the coronavirus pandemic. The research
sample consisted of 379 teachers (89.7% women) aged 23 – 70 years (M = 44.91; SD = 10.38). They
completed the questionnaire which consisted of: demographic questions, questions related to perception
and management of distance education, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and the Big Five
Inventory 2. During the pandemic period, the negative emotions of teachers increased while positive
emotions decreased; distance education was closely related to emotions (and changes in emotions) and
personality; moreover, teachers reported willingness to implement partial changes into their teaching
after the pandemic period.
Keywords: distance education, personality traits, positive emotions, negative emotions
Introduction
As coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19) has begun to spread around the

world, many countries took various measures and recommendations in a very short time. One of
the key measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19 and slow down transmission was school
closures – from kindergarten to universities. Slovakia was one of the countries with the fastest
measures and responses to the new coronavirus pandemic. Based on the official statement of
the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, all schools in
the country were closed (hereinafter the Ministry of Education) from March 16, 2020 (some
schools were closed several days earlier, as the result of the prompt decision made by their
founders) and face to face education was transformed into distance education. From March 26,
2020, the specific portal for official communication during the state of emergency was created
in cooperation with several non-governmental organizations and the Ministry of Education.
They provided an overview of the possibilities of distance education, recommendations, and
guidelines for schools, teachers, professionals, and parents. Official guidelines regarding the
content and organization of education for schools from the Ministry of Education did not exist
until April 28, 2020. So, for six weeks, teachers had to organize distance teaching on their own.

Eva BALLOVÁ MIKUŠKOVÁ, Marcela VEREŠOVÁ. Distance education during Covid-19: The perspective of Slovak teachers
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Research Problem 885
In general, education has taken the distance form from one day to the next. Although
distance education was used to some extent also before, none of the teachers were fully prepared
for such a situation, neither materially, nor didactically, or in terms of the content. To this day,
little is known about distance education during the pandemic period from teachers’ point of
view (in this study, the term ‘during the pandemic’ reflects the time of school closures mandated
by the government).
Shohel (2012) saw the barrier of distance education in the lack of teachers' motivation for
such form of education and the poverty of the university training oriented on distance education.
For primary schools (primary and lower-secondary education) should be the problem also in
the cooperation of teachers with parents (online coordinated by teachers) – for the teacher, the
parent becomes a necessary mediator of the student's learning process. According to the Inter-
Agency Network for Emergency Education (INEE, 2020), parents (or other caretakers) may
consider their role in education completely independent on the role of teachers which result in
the lack of cooperation with teachers. Another problem lies in the low skills of parents in using
modern technologies or systems for distance education. Anyway, distance education during a
pandemic places significant demands on the whole education system, the most on teachers:
such a situation makes it difficult for teachers to work effectively with students (Shohel &
Banks, 2010; Shohel, 2012). On the other hand, compared to frontal or conventional education,
distance learning has the potential to be more innovative, efficient and effective in cooperation
with students and their results (Danaher & Umar, 2010; Latch & Jung, 2009).
In Slovakia, several surveys tried to measure how distance education was perceived by
parents and students (some of them were published in newspapers and were products of poll
agencies, some of the data collection prepared by universities or Slovak Academy of Sciences
have not been published yet), but none of them has provided reliable answers to questions such
as how the teachers arranged the education, what possibilities they had in order to provide
effective distance education (did they have school devices or did they use private ones? did they
pay for internet connection they needed themselves?), the amount of time spent on teaching
and preparing (voices are calling for a reduction in teachers’ salaries because of putative lower
job effort during home office); and what personality traits or characteristic could potentially
improve management of distance education.
Research Focus
The research focused on experience, perception and management of distance education.

One can expect that more experienced teachers are better in general, but the evidence is not
clear. On one hand, Podolsky et al. (2019) found out that teaching experience positively relates
to students’ achievement and that less experienced teachers can learn from those who are more
experienced. On the other hand, Irvine (2019) in an extensive literature review did not find
enough evidence for the positive effect of experience on teachers’ effectiveness. Moreover, longer
teaching experience contributes to lower positive affect among teachers (Fernández-Berrocal
et al., 2017) which is related to less effective teaching (Frenzel et al., 2016; Makhwathana et
al. 2017). Moreover, Shohel (2012) drew attention to the basic predictors of effective work
in the implementation of distance education - flexibility and adaptability of teachers in the
qualified mastery of new information technologies so that teaching is quality and attractive
for students. Paradoxically, young and less experienced teachers are more likely to be more
effective; more experienced teachers with fewer skills in the use of modern technologies may
perceive distance learning as threatening because they may fail in the conversion of teaching
material to the digital form, in evaluating students' knowledge or may lack the interaction

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886 between teachers and students (Tao & Yeh, 2008). The ambiguous findings in combination with
the lack of systematic research on distance education led to raise the question regarding the
relation between experience and the perception and management of distance education.
Teaching is considered to be an emotional profession associated with a high level of
stress (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2017), emotional exhaustion (Näring et al., 2006; Yoo &
Carter, 2017), and intense effort from teachers to regulate experienced emotions (Grandey,
2003). Emotions are viewed as important determinants of teachers’ burnout risk (Frenzel et al.,
2009), well-being (Diener & Chan, 2011; Näring et al., 2011), and work performance (Frenzel
et al., 2009). Moreover, teachers’ emotions are associated with teacher quality and relationship
with students (for review of studies, see Frenzel et al., 2016): positive emotions are related
to effective teaching (Frenzel et al., 2016; Makhwathana et al., 2017) and negative emotions
frequently result in loss of control and negative behavior (Makhwathana et al., 2017). Teacher’s
performance may suffer owing to high levels of stress and this may impact on student learning
(during distance education, too; Ferguson et al., 2017), and school reform (in our research
study the term reform is associated with transformation of education due to the coronavirus
pandemic) revealed potentially high levels of emotional stress triggered by externally mandated
performance criteria (Yoo & Carter, 2017). Emotion and emotional distress, therefore, cannot
be considered separate from the learning environment.
The pandemic brings with it a higher level of anxiety and feeling of hopelessness
(Cypryańska & Nezlek, 2020) and teachers in general experience increased anxiety and
helplessness in the same way as people from other professional backgrounds. Since the reform
(or pandemic situation from our point of view) is always a request for a change in teaching
practices, teachers need to learn new things (e.g. Yoo & Carter, 2017). The study conducted
during the pandemic situation (Burstein, 2020) found that the number of teachers who feel
successful dropped from 96% before the switch to distance education to 73% during distance
education; more than 5,000 educators co-administered by the Yale Center for Emotional
Intelligence and the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL)
mentioned the following frequently-felt emotional states during distance education in pandemic
situation: anxious, fearful, worried, overwhelmed, and sad. School leaders felt similarly. The
educational situation during the spread of COVID-19 highlighted teachers’ professional skills
and competences and significantly affected teachers’ emotions. Research regarding the impact
of emotion and cognition provides compelling evidence that the relation between emotion,
education and learning should be examined further (Cleveland-Innes & Campbell, 2012).
So, the question was how teachers’ emotions (and changes in emotions; both the prevailing
emotions before the pandemic and current emotions during the coronavirus pandemic were
measured) were related to the perception and management of distance education.
Finally, the teacher’s personality is an important and complex variable in the educational
process (Göncz, 2017) and is directly associated with teachers' work engagement and job
satisfaction (Kokkinos, 2007; Perera et al., 2018), as well as performance and retention outcomes
(Klassen & Tze, 2014; Rockoff et al., 2011). Liao and Lee (2009) revealed that engagement
in the workplace was positively correlated with nearly all the Big five dimensions, except
for neuroticism, which presented a negative relation. Göncz (2017) notes that pronounced
neuroticism (which encompasses negative emotions, pessimism, low tolerance for frustration,
impulsiveness and so forth) is not a desirable trait for teachers to have in most pedagogical
situations or in interactions with students (including distance learning). It is not very likely
that teachers with high neuroticism are capable to build dynamic communicative relationships
to their students, and many of them will need a great deal of time to improve their social
skills. With regard to the other dimensions, it is assumed that they would be more pronounced
in a good teacher than in the general population. Moderate extraversion is desirable as it is
associated with friendliness, self-confidence and positive emotions. Efficient teachers should

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be open to novelty, curious and creative and have a well-developed vocabulary. Moreover, 887
such teachers should be receptive to unconventional ideas and beliefs and accepting of different
cultural backgrounds and the various feelings and behaviors of their students. A high degree
of agreeableness is also necessary for successful pedagogic work. A good teacher should be
cooperative, willing to compromise, mild-mannered and benevolent with faith in mankind.
In addition, a good teacher must also have a reasonable level of conscientiousness so that
characteristics such as competence, order, sense of duty, planning, self-discipline, impulse
control and dedication can emerge in his / her work.
A lot of research has been carried out in this area, so Kim et al. (2019) conducted a
meta-analysis in order to examine the association between each of the Big Five personality
traits and teachers’ effectiveness and burnout. They analyzed 25 studies and found out that
extraversion, conscientiousness, negative emotionality, and open-mindedness of teachers could
account for students’ educational experiences and outcomes, while extraversion was slightly
more significantly associated with teacher effectiveness comparing to conscientiousness which
was considered to be a strong predictor of job performance in general (Barrick & Mount, 1993).
Also a meta-analysis conducted by Judges et al. (2002) revealed a positive correlation between
job satisfaction and extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and a negative correlation
with neuroticism, and they also emphasized a significant correlation between job satisfaction
and extraversion and neuroticism, regardless of profession. In the present study, the relation
between specific factors of personality and perception and management of distance education
(in both positive and negative ways) was examined.
Research Aim and Research Questions
The main aim of the research was (a) to describe perception and management of distance
education of primary school and upper-secondary school teachers and its comparison to situation
before the pandemic period, and (b) to explore the connection between teaching experience,
personality traits, and emotions on the one hand and perception and management of distance
education during new coronavirus pandemic on the other hand. In Slovakia, the primary schools
cover primary (grade 1-4) and lower secondary education (grade 5-9), and upper-secondary
schools cover upper-secondary education. Primary schools and upper-secondary schools have
their specific processes and needs, therefore, in present study, primary school teachers and
upper-secondary school teachers were first compared in their responses. Following research
questions were postulated for primary and upper-secondary school teachers:
1. What was the relation between experience and the perception and management of
distance education?
2. How teachers’ emotions (and changes in emotions) relate to the perception and
management of distance education?
3. What was the relation between specific factors of personality and perception and
management of distance education?
Research Methodology
General Background
The exploratory study was conducted to examine teaching experience, personality traits,
and emotions and their relation to perception and management of distance education during the
pandemic in primary and upper-secondary teachers.
All primary and upper-secondary schools in Slovakia–a total of 2,074 primary schools
and 673 upper-secondary schools–were asked to participate in the research via email (available

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888 on the portal of Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information); all principals were
asked to send call for participation to all teachers in their school. The data were collected in
April 2020 through on-line google form (before the Ministry of Education, Science, Research
and Sport of the Slovak Republic has published uniform guidelines for teachers on April 28,
2020).
Sample
The sample size was calculated using an alpha of .05 and a confidence interval 95%;
yielding a sample of 383+5%. Data collection was to be terminated after reaching the desired
number (400). A total of 412 teachers responded to the call and opened on-line form; 11 of
them did not agree with participation in the research, 2 of them did not qualify (they were not
teachers), 1 person filled in the questions schematically, and 19 did not finish all questionnaires.
Finally, 379 teachers (89.7% women) aged 23-70 years (M = 44.91; SD = 10.38) were included
in the analyses; 79.7% primary school teachers and 20.3% upper-secondary school teachers.
The teachers varied in their teaching experience from 1 to 45 years and they teach at average
3.23 subjects (Table 1). On average, teachers live with other 3.20 members (SD = 1.50) in a
household, 40.6% of them were living with at least one child (and 65.84% of home childcare
was provided by teachers).
Participation was voluntary and anonymous. The participants did not receive any reward
for their participation. The study was carried out following ethical principles introduced by
the American Psychological Association. The data were collected just for the purpose of the
research study and were anonymized so they could not be traced.
Instrument and Procedures
After signing a consent form, all teachers completed the questionnaire which included
demographic questions, questions about information and communications technology (ICT)
use, questions about perception and management of distance teaching, statements regarding
subjective and objective satisfaction with their teaching. Finally, teachers rated their emotions
and personality traits.
Demographic questions. All teachers answered questions about their age, sex, number of
people in the household (mainly school children), questions about years of teaching experience
[experience], type of school they work at (primary school – 1-4 grade, 5-9 grade; upper-
secondary school – vocational, general), number of subjects they teach, and the amount of free
time.
Information and communications technology (ICT) use. The teachers answered questions
about their ownership and use of phone, smartphone, tablet, computer, and internet connection
for teaching purposes on a 4-point scale (I do not own—I own, but do not use—I own and use
my personal—I have and use the business one).
Teaching management. All participants rated their use of different communication
channels in terms of its frequency (phone, mail, EduPage – cloud-based school management
system, Zoom, Webex, Moodle, Jitsi Meet, Skype, Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom,
Messenger, Facebook, WhatsApp, Viber, Hangouts, others) before and during the pandemic
period on a 7-point scale (0=I do not use; 7=4 and more hours a day). The total number of used
channels was computed for the time before [n of com_channels-before] and during [n of com_
channels-during] the pandemic period. The frequency of their use was recoded into hours per
day to estimate the number of hours per day spent on distance teaching and communication with
students. The mean of estimated hours before [hours of DT-before] and during the pandemic
period [hours of DT-during] was computed. Teachers estimated also the number of hours per

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day they spent on preparation, again before and during the pandemic period (0=less than one 889
hour; 5=5 and more hours). The mean of estimated hours before [hours of preparation-before]
and during [hours of preparation-during] the coronavirus pandemic was computed. Next, the
teachers rated the use of eight forms of teaching (e.g. ‘I send assignments to students, they work
at home alone.’; ‘We repeat the topics already taught before the pandemic period.’; ‘I assess
students verbally.’) on a 3-point scale (I do not use—I use sometimes—I use). The mean for
each form of teaching was computed; the higher score indicated a higher frequency of use.
Satisfaction. The teachers assessed the level of satisfaction with their own system of
distance education (2 items), with institutional support from headmasters, founders, and ministry
(5 items), and how satisfied with their teaching were students, parents and school leadership
teams (6 items) on a 6-point scale (1=completely dissatisfied; 6=completely satisfied). The
mean was computed for subjective satisfaction with the individually developed system of work
[subjective satisfaction], for satisfaction with institutional support [satisfaction with institution
support], and feedback [feedback]; the higher score indicated higher satisfaction and more
positive feedback.
Expectations for the future. The teachers expressed the attitudes toward the teaching
style they would like to implement into their work after the pandemic period. They could
choose from five options: from ‘Finally, teaching will return to the old ways and I will continue
using my teaching style.’ to ‘I will not return to my old teaching style.’ The mean was computed
for expectations [expectation]; the higher score indicated expecting more changes in teaching.
Feelings of anxiety and lack of control concerning the coronavirus pandemic. Participants
indicated their agreement with 6 statements reflecting feelings of anxiety and the 6 statements
reflecting the lack of control over their lives or health as the result of the COVID-19 pandemic
(Šrol et al., 2020) on a 6-point scale (1 = completely disagree; 6 = completely agree). Average
ratings for the feelings of anxiety [anxiety-COVID] and the lack of control [lack of control-
COVID] concerning the new coronavirus were computed. The higher score indicated more
intense feelings of anxiety and the lack of control.
Perceived risk of coronavirus. Participants rated 3 statements regarding the perceived
infectiousness, severity, and overall dangerousness of the new coronavirus (Šrol et al., 2020)
on a 6-point scale (1 = completely disagree; 6 = completely agree). The average score for
the perceived risk of the coronavirus [perceived risk-COVID] was computed; the higher score
indicated higher perceived risk of new coronavirus.
Positive and negative emotions. To measure positive and negative emotions the Positive
and negative affect schedule (PANAS; Watson & Clark, 1988) was administered. First, all
participants were asked to rate their prevailing mood and emotions before the coronavirus
pandemic; subsequently to measure changes in their emotions they were asked to rate their
current mood and emotions (during the pandemic period), both on a 6-point scale (1=not at all;
6=very often). The means for current positive [positive affect] and negative [negative affect]
emotions were computed; the higher score indicated stronger positive/negative emotions. The
difference between current emotions and emotions before the pandemic period as a measure of
the change in emotions [positive affect-changes; negative affect-changes] was computed; the
higher positive/negative score indicated increased/decreased current emotions.
Personality traits. To measure personality traits, the Big Five Inventory (BFI-2; Slovak
adaptation by Halama et al., 2020) was used. The teachers assessed 60 statements on a 6-point
scale (1=I do not agree at all; 6=I totally agree) in order to measure their extraversion [E],
agreeableness [A], conscientiousness [C], negative emotionality [N], and open-mindedness
[O]. The mean for 5 domains was computed; the higher score indicated the stronger particular
personality trait.

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890 Data Analysis
To examine potential differences between primary school and upper-secondary school

teachers in all measured variables, the independent sample t-test was used. The upper-secondary
correlation analysis was conducted to examine correlation between experience and the
perception and management of distance education, between emotions and the perception and
management of distance education, and between specific factors of personality and perception
and management of distance education.
Research Results
First, teachers from primary schools and upper-secondary schools have been compared
in all variables. There were significant differences in the number of subjects they teach, in using
tablets for distance education, in the number of communication channels they used, in the
amount of time spent on teaching through these channels, and in used ways of distance teaching
(Appendix A). Primary school teachers taught at average 4.79 subjects, while other teachers
taught approximately 2.07-3.14 disciplines, moreover primary school teachers also spent on
distance education at average 4.14 hours per day in comparison to upper-secondary school
teachers (M = 6.47 hours per day).
Descriptive statistics of all measured variables are presented in Table 1. Primary school
teachers reported 19.56 years (SD = 10.86) and upper-secondary school teachers reported
17.10 years (SD = 11.14) of teaching experience and they taught approximately 3 subjects. In
general, teachers most frequently used to send assignments to their students (students work at
home alone) and checked students’ tasks completion. The teachers also introduced new topics.
Primary school teachers assessed their students more often verbally; upper-secondary school
teachers used significantly more often marks to assess specific knowledge of students.
The subjective satisfaction and satisfaction with institutional support was at a medium
level, and teachers assessed feedback from students, parents, and headmasters/school leadership
teams as positive (about 5 points out of 6). Teachers’ expectations about their system of teaching
after the pandemic period were below the midpoint which corresponds with the expectation that
they would just partly return to their teaching style and partly implement some experience with
distance education during the pandemic period (only 5.6% of primary school teachers and 3.9%
of upper-secondary school teachers expressed a willingness to change their teaching style. On
the contrary, 8.9% of primary school teachers and 11.7% of upper-secondary school teachers
reported using again traditional teaching style after the pandemic period).

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Table 1 891
Descriptive Statistics of Measured Variables
Internal
M (SD) Md Mo
consistency
P U-S P U-S P U-S P U-S
Demography
45.14
Age - - 44.03 (11.86) 45 44 43b 42 b
(9.97)
Persons in household - - 3.27 (1.45) 2.91 (1.66) 3 3 4 2
Children in household - - 0.71 (0.91) 0.38 (0.67) 0 0 0 0
Number of subjects - - 3.35 (2.06) 2.77 (1.86) 3 2 2 2
19.56
Experience - - 17.10 (11.14) 20 17 20 3b
(10.86)
Forms of distance teaching
1. Sending assignments to students, they
- - 1.70 (0.52) 1.81 (0.43) 2 2 2 2
work at home alone
2. Checking students’ tasks completion - - 1.85 (0.41) 1.92 (0.27) 2 2 2 2
3. Repeating the topics that were covered
- - 1.40 (0.64) 1.30 (0.65) 1 1 2 1
before the pandemic.
4. Covering new topics - - 1.74 (0.52) 1.77 (0.51) 2 2 2 2
5. Verbal assessment of students ii
- - 1.79 (0.45) 1.34 (0.72) 2 1 2 2
6. Assessment of students using marks iii
- - 0.50 (0.69) 1.48 (0.68) 0 2 0 2
7. Verifying students' knowledge through
- - 0.46 (0.70) 0.39 (0.69) 0 0 0 0
oral examination
8. Verifying students' knowledge with testsiv - - 0.63 (0.69) 0.86 (0.77) 1 1 0 1
Perception of DT
Subjective satisfaction - - 3.89 (0.93) 3.79 (0.82) 4 3.5 4 3.5
Satisfaction with institutional support .877 .871 3.93 (1.27) 4.22 (1.19) 4 4.2 6 4.2b
Feedback v
.720 .690 4.96 (0.74) 4.78 (0.65ň 5 4.8 5.5 5.5
Expectation - - 2.42 (0.71) 2.40 (0.78) 2 2 3 3
Emotions
Anxiety (COVID) .644 .504 3.29 (0.77) 3.35 (0.70) 3.2 3.3 3 3.3
Lack of control (COVID) .609 .536 3.32 (0.68) 3.29 (0.63) 3.2 3.3 3 3
Perceived risk (COVID) .899 .851 4.64 (1.08) 4.88 (0.90) 4.7 5 6 5
Positive affect .896 .906 3.32 (0.70) 3.56 (0.70) 3.3 3.6 2.9 3.4b
Negative affect .892 .904 1.98 (0.67) 1.97 (0.73) 1.9 1.8 1b 1.5b
Positive affect – changes - - -0.33 (0.53) -0.29 (0.41) -0.2 -0.2 0 0
Negative affect – changes - - 0.31 (0.59) 0.31 (0.52) 0.2 0.2 0 0
Personality
Extraversion .766 .821 4.14 (0.66) 4.22 (0.75) 4.1 4.3 3.8 3.8
Agreeableness .826 .816 4.93 (0.63) 5.08 (0.53) 5 5.2 4.8 5.2
Conscientiousness .867 .878 4.79 (0.74) 4.81 (0.75) 4.8 5 4.8b 5.1
Negative emotionality .844 .866 2.82 (0.75) 2.78 (0.80) 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.5b
Open-mindedness .803 .818 4.54 (0.71) 4.77 (0.72) 4.5 4.8 4.7 5.6
Note: Nprimary=302; Nupper-secondary=77; internal consistency was measured by omega; P – primary school teachers, U-S –
upper-secondary school teachers, bMultiple modes exist – the smallest value is shown; significant differences between
primary and upper-secondary school teachers: i(t = 2.238; p = .026); ii(t = 6.864; p < .001), iii(t = 11.256; p < .001), iv(t =
2.495; p = .013), v(t = 2.001; p = .046)

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892 To conduct distance education, most of the teachers used their own devices (smartphones,
computers, tablets) and all teachers used private internet connection without refunding these
fees by the employer (Table 2); and only about a quarter of teachers used staff computers.
Table 2
ICT Ownership and Use (%)
Phone Smartphone PC Tablet Internet
P U-S P U-S P U-S P U-S P U-S
I do not own 56.3 57.1 12.3 10.4 0.7 0.0 49.7 37.7 0.0 0.0
I own, but don't use 11.3 18.2 7.9 13 0.0 0.0 27.2 27.3 0.0 0.0
I own and use private
31.5 23.4 77.5 74 74.2 76.6 18.2 24.7 100 100
one
I use school one 1 1.3 2.3 2.6 25.2 23.4 5 10.4 0.0 0.0
Note: P – primary school teachers, U-S – upper-secondary school teachers
Changes in Teaching Management
All aspects of teaching management changed during the pandemic period compared to
the situation before the pandemic period (Table 3); teachers used more communication channels
(more applications and internet portals), they spent more hours on distance education and more
time on preparation (and have less free time; on the contrary, upper-secondary school teachers
reported having as much free time as before the pandemic period). Increased negative and
decreased positive emotions were identified in both samples during the pandemic period (Table
1).
Table 3
Differences between Teaching Management before and during Pandemic
Primary school Upper-secondary school

N M SD N M SD
N of com_channels – t(301)=14.581; t(76)=6.310;
302 3.00 1.70 3.69 1.28
beforei p < .001; p < .001;
N of com_channels –
302 4.25 1.50 d=0.839 77 4.47 1.35 d=0.719
during
Hours of DT – beforeii 302 1.71 2.36 t(301)=17.999; 77 2.45 2.59 t(76)=10.837;
p < .001; p < .001;
Hours of DT– during iii 302 4.88 3.43 d=1.036 77 6.08 3.66 d=1.235
Hours of preparation- t(301)=12.164; t(76)=6.068;
302 2.18 1.04 77 2.23 1.22
before p < .001; p < .001;
Hours of preparation –
302 3.01 1.22 d=0.700 77 3.12 1.42 d=0.691
during
Hours of free time -
302 2.55 1.49 t(301)=3.281; 77 2.55 1.59 t(76)=0.962;
before p = .001; p = .339;
Hours of free time -
302 2.32 1.53 d=0.189 77 2.42 1.63 d=0.110
during
Note: , d – Cohen’s d; significant differences between primary and upper-secondary school teachers: i(t = 3.334; p =
.001), ii(t = 2.404; p = .017), iii(t = 2.703; p = .007)

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Teaching During the Pandemic Period, Teaching Experience, 893

Emotions, and Personality
First, correlation analysis between experience and the perception and management of
distance education was conducted. In the group of primary school teachers, teaching experience
related positively to the number of communication channels (r = .160; p = .005) and negatively
to the form of teaching labelled as ‘introducing new topics’ (r = -.132; p = .022). In the group
of upper-secondary school teachers, there was no correlation between teaching experience and
the perception and management of distance education.
Next, whether emotions were related to the way teachers conducted and perceived
distance education during the new coronavirus pandemic was examined. In the sample of
primary school teachers (Table 4a), results showed that positive emotions correlated positively
with satisfaction with institutional support, perceived feedback, expectations regarding the
future teaching style, and the form of teaching labelled as ‘verifying students' knowledge using
tests‘. Decreased positive emotions during the pandemic period related to the lower satisfaction
with institutional support and more frequent use of ‘repeating the topics that were already
taught.
Negative emotions were related positively to the amount of time spent on distance
teaching and the form ‘repeating the topics that were already taught’ and negatively to the
perceived feedback and expectations regarding the future teaching style. Increased negative
emotions were related to more time spent on distance education, to more frequent use of
‘repeating the topics that were already taught’, and less frequent use of ‘sending assignments to
students, they work alone’.
Specific emotions related to the COVID-19 were analyzed. COVID related anxiety as
well as COVID related lack of control were negatively correlated with expectations regarding
the future teaching style, and perceived risk of COVID-19 was positively correlated with
the time teachers spent on preparing to each teaching day and the form labelled as ‘verbal
assessment of students’.

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894 Table 4a
Correlations between Perception and Management of Teaching and Emotions – Primary
School during the Pandemic
Negative emotions related to

Changes in
Emotions (PANAS) COVID-19
emotions (PANAS)
Lack of Perceived
Positive Negative Positive Negative Anxiety
control risk
Management of DT
N of com_channels -.019 .070 -.082 .031 -.029 -.003 -.029
Hours of DT .046 .125* -.086 .169** .035 .066 .085
Hours of preparation .102 .073 -.032 .111 .100 .080 .146*

1. Sending assignments to
.039 -.048 .046 -.120* .063 -.026 .011
students, they work alone
2. Check students’ tasks
.028 -.002 -.055 .042 -.043 -.032 .031
completion
3. Repeating the topics that
-.028 .139* -.141* .166** .108 -.021 .036
were covered
4. Covering new topics .009 -.050 -.019 -.064 -.001 -.022 .066
5. Verbal assessment of
.074 .069 -.040 .093 -.005 .008 .142*
students
6. Assessment of students
.009 -.023 -.074 .023 -.027 -.060 -.052
using marks
7. Verifying students' knowledge
.023 .030 -.050 .061 -.031 .005 -.025
through oral examination r
.157** -.097 .096 -.083 -.059 .031 -.080
with tests
Perception of DT
Subjective satisfaction .054 -.105 .006 .039 -.015 -.057 -.058

Satisfaction with institutional
.167** -.100 .196** -.108 .049 .107 .065
support
Feedback .233** -.148* .083 -.019 -.032 .002 .086
Expectations .131* -.155** .089 -.111 -.197** -.147* -.094
Note: *correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed);**correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)
In the sample of upper-secondary school teachers (Table 4b), positive emotions were
related positively only to the time spent on distance education; decreased positive emotions
during the pandemic period were related to more frequent use of ‘verbal assessment of students’.
Negative emotions were negatively correlated with satisfaction with institutional support; and
increased negative emotions were correlated with lower subjective satisfaction.
COVID-19 related anxiety correlated positively with the form ‘verbal assessment of
students’ and perceived risk of COVID-19 was positively correlated with the amount of time
spent on preparing for each teaching day and the form labelled as ‘assessment of students using
marks’.

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Table 4b 895
Correlations between Perception and Management of Teaching and Emotions – Upper-
Secondary School Teachers during the Pandemic
Negative emotions related to

Changes in
Emotions (PANAS) COVID-19
emotions (PANAS)
Lack of Perceived
Positive Negative Positive Negative Anxiety
control risk
Management of DT
N of com_channels-during .161 -.130 -.037 -.103 .126 .101 .177
Hours of DT .270* -.048 -.030 .147 .112 -.009 .179
Hours of preparation .016 .170 .001 .191 .162 -.140 .169

-.086 .019 .001 -.047 -.031 .033 -.142
.145 -.173 .077 -.193 .066 -.046 -.040
completion
-.010 .072 -.014 .029 .117 .197 .123
were covered
4. Covering new topics -.147 .034 -.104 .026 -.067 .036 .110
-.105 .007 -.254* .135 .321** .013 .112
students
.041 .098 -.108 .095 -.001 .069 .248*
using marks
.083 -.018 -.108 .117 .111 -.031 .098
through oral examination
.012 -.015 .111 .038 .138 .140 .051
with tests
Perception of DT
Subjective satisfaction -.066 -.143 .109 -.252* -.012 -.014 .024

.163 -.248* -.049 .134 .139 .061 .057
support
Feedback .196 -.186 -.177 .088 .171 -.128 .153
Expectations -.150 .021 .080 -.036 .121 -.009 .033
Note: *correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed);**correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)
Next, correlation between personality and the perception and management of distance
education was examined. In the group of primary school teachers (Table 5a), all personality
factors were positively related to the perceived feedback except for the negative emotionality
which correlated negatively with all personality factors. Next, agreeableness related positively
and negative emotionality negatively to satisfaction with institutional support. Finally, open-
mindedness related negatively to subjective satisfaction and positively to expectations regarding
the future teaching style and recommended ‘repeating the topics that were already taught’.

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896 Table 5a
Correlations between Perception and Management of Teaching and Personality –Primary
School Teachers during the Pandemic
Personality traits
Negative Open-
Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness
emotionality mindedness
Management of DT
N of com_channels-during .018 .047 -.020 .083 .013
Hours of DT .066 .047 .075 .068 .031
Hours of preparation -.051 .101 .112 .010 .088
.035 -.035 -.013 .002 .067
.026 -.010 -.001 .009 .047
completion
.090 .042 .096 -.029 .118*
were covered
4. Covering new topics -.035 -.010 .010 .041 -.029
.041 .068 .041 .019 .097
students
.018 -.031 .023 -.017 .008
using marks
7. Verifying students'
knowledge through oral .093 .070 .034 -.017 .097
examination
.099 -.027 .078 -.100 .012
knowledge with tests
Perception of DT
Subjective satisfaction .003 .045 .104 -.052 -.142*
.055 .141* .099 -.136* .098
support
Feedback .126* .295** .179** -.147* .164**
Expectations .069 .104 .027 -.098 .156**
In the group of upper-secondary school teachers (Table 5b), extraversion, agreeableness,

and open-mindedness related positively (negative emotionality related negatively) to
the amount of time spent on distance education. The extraversion and open-mindedness
correlated positively with perceived feedback; positive correlations were identified also
between satisfaction with institutional support and open-mindedness, ‘checking students’
tasks completion’ and conscientiousness, and ‘verifying students' knowledge through oral
examination’ and extraversion and open-mindedness.

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Table 5b 897
Correlations between Perception and Management of Teaching and Personality – Upper-
Secondary School Teachers during the Pandemic
Personality traits
Negative Open-
Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness
emotionality mindedness
Management of DT
N of com_channels-during .215 .109 -.223 -.106 .075
Hours of DT .343** .384** .174 -.233* .283*
Hours of preparation -.046 .036 -.061 -.123 .001

-.167 -.058 -.006 -.038 -.035
.164 .028 .248* -.141 -.042
completion
-.001 .021 .099 -.051 .110
were covered
4. Covering new topics -.121 .060 -.099 .020 .069
.040 .034 .053 .014 -.026
students
.028 .062 .088 .117 .029
using marks
knowledge through oral .295** .168 .088 -.048 .313**
examination
-.208 .044 .076 -.106 .034
knowledge with tests
Perception of DT
Subjective satisfaction -.039 -.089 .041 .033 -.160
Satisfaction with instit_support .199 .080 -.037 -.206 .241*
Feedback .255* .210 .134 -.222 .227*
Expectations -.208 -.101 -.083 .047 -.145
Discussion
The main aim of the research was to examine perception and management of distance
education in primary and upper-secondary school teachers and to explore connection between
teaching experience, personality traits, and emotions of teachers and their perception and
management of distance education during the new coronavirus pandemic. First, it is important
to know the conditions under which teachers provided the distance education. Present research
showed that primary school teachers taught more subjects, mainly the teachers of 1-4 grades
because they often teach all subjects in one group. They also used fewer types of communication
channels and spent less time on distance education, nevertheless the number of hours spent
on distance education was still higher than recommended by Ministry of Education regarding

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898 the number of hours spent on education (announced after data collection) is 5-8 hours per
week for 1-4 grades and 10-15 hours per week for 5-9 grades. And finally, primary school
teachers assessed students more verbally and less by using marks (and through tests)–which
was in accordance with later ministry recommendations–and they also received more positive
feedback from parents and students. The spontaneous switch to more independent mode of
teaching (mainly in primary school teachers) could explain the reason they described the
feedback from parents and students as more positive. Although most of the teachers used their
private devices and all of them used their private internet, they were still working very hard and
doing their job as well as they could; they spent about 5-6 hours per day on distance education
and another 3 hours on preparation. Of course, the amount of time devoted to the distance
education was significantly higher than before the pandemic period when the education was
conducted face to face. On the other hand, during the pandemic period teachers needed more
time (at least one hour more) to plan and prepare activities for the next day, to check all tasks
performed by students, and to send them feedbacks. To be in contact with students, teachers
used different communication channels (primary school teachers used most often EduPage,
e-mails, and Facebook groups and Messenger, upper-secondary school teachers used most
frequently EduPage, e-mails, and Zoom; Appendix A) mainly for sending assignments and
feedbacks to students and introducing new topics. Although the current recommendation of the
Ministry of Education was to repeat the topics that were already taught before the pandemic
period (during the data collection there were not any official recommendations), during the first
weeks most of the teachers managed teaching in their own way and continued with new topics.
The possible explanation is that at the beginning of the pandemic period, teachers did not know
anything about the sanctions for noncompliance with the state educational programs, so they
decided to follow the school curriculum.
In these conditions, experience, emotions, and personality were examined in relation
to the perception and management of distance education. Present findings are consistent with
Irvine's (2019) meta-analysis conclusions that positive effect of teaching experience on their
effectiveness does not exist: the association of teaching experience with the perception and
management of distance education has not been confirmed (although teaching experience
of primary school teachers related positively to the number of communication channels and
(negatively) to the introducing new topics, the effect size was small). It seems that there are
more significant factors related to the methods and quality of teaching than just pure teaching
experience.
On the other hand, both emotions and personality factors were related to the perception
and management of distance education. In general, positive emotions were associated to more
positive perceptions of distance education (higher satisfaction with institutional support,
positive feedback, and expectations regarding future changes in teaching style), and negative
emotions were associated with more time-consuming management of distance education
(more hours spent on distance education and preparation) and negative perception of distance
education (less perceived positive feedback, and expectations that teaching style will change
just a little after the pandemic period). More importantly, significantly increased negative
emotions and decreased positive emotions in our teachers during the pandemic period were
observed and these changes were related to the lower subjective satisfaction with their own
teaching, lower satisfaction with institutional support, to the amount of time spent on distance
education, to more frequent use of ‘repeating the topics that were already taught’ and less
frequent use of ‘sending assignments to students, they work alone’. Specifically, in the group of
upper-secondary school teachers, anxiety related to the COVID-19 was associated with more
frequent ‘verbal assessment of students’, but perceived risk of COVID-19 was related to the
more frequent ‘assessment of students using marks’. Previous research showed that emotions
were determinants of teachers’ burnout risk (Frenzel et al., 2009), emotional exhaustion (Näring

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et al., 2006), well-being (Diener & Chan, 2011; Näring et al., 2011), and work performance 899
(Frenzel et al., 2009; Yoo & Carter, 2017), and changes in teachers’ emotions–as in present
study–might have negative consequences, from the loss of control and negative behavior
(Makhwathana et al., 2017) to less effective teaching (Frenzel et al., 2016; Makhwathana et al.,
2017 as well as present results).
Present findings further support previous ones that personality is associated with
teachers' work engagement, job satisfaction, performance and retention outcomes (Klassen
& Tze, 2014; Kokkinos, 2007; Perera et al., 2018; Rockoff et al., 2011). The trait negative
emotionality contributed to reduced satisfaction with institutional support, to perceived negative
feedback from parents, students and school leadership team, and lower teaching engagement.
Other personality traits were related to the perception and management of distance education
rather positively (all related to more positive feedback). Both agreeableness and extraversion
were related to more time spent on distance education, agreeableness also to satisfaction with
institutional support and extraversion to verifying students' knowledge through oral examination.
Consistently conscientiousness was associated with the tendency to check students’ task
completion. The most associations were revealed in the trait open-mindedness. Open-minded
teachers were more satisfied with institutional support, but demanded more of themselves
(lower satisfaction with own system of work) which might explain their greater willingness to
change the teaching style (there was negative correlation between subjective satisfaction and
willingness to change the teaching style, Appendix B), more hours spent on distance education,
and preference to implement methods that are not as common (using oral examination rather
than tests and repeating the topics that were already taught rather than introducing new topics).
Conclusions and Implications
Although not all schools in the country participated in the research and all indicators
of perception and management of distance education were merely self-reported, the findings
sufficiently revealed how teachers worked and what was different in their work during the
pandemic period. There are two important findings in our study. The first one is associated
with significantly increased negative emotions (and decreased positive emotions) due to school
closures. The second finding relates to the relation between teaching emotions, personality and
distance education.
Personality and emotions are related to teachers’ work engagements, performance, and
satisfaction. The assessment of the above-mentioned factors should be a part of pre-service
teachers’ training. It can be also used as an effective tool that might enable teachers explore
their own predispositions and control or regulate their own emotions. Present findings highlight
the importance of courses focused on improving social and psychological skills during the
university training from self-exploration, self-knowledge, meta-cognitions, through knowing
own emotions, coping strategies, and communication styles, to better understanding of the
relation between personality and work engagement and effectiveness. These skills should help
(both pre-service and in-service) teachers manage difficult situations, similar to the coronavirus
pandemic.
The last but even more important finding was that despite of disadvantages related to on-
line education in the pandemic period (e.g. no contact with some students, limited opportunities
for motivation and support), the majority of teachers reported willingness for partial changes
in their teaching style (88.1% of primary school teachers and 84.5% of upper-secondary school
teachers). It seems that new experience in the pandemic era could lead to a bottom-up change
in the education system. The question now is whether teachers will have enough energy and
motivation to insist on changes in the education system and whether their requests will be heard.

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902 Appendix A
Table A
Differences between Primary and Upper-Secondary School Teachers in Perception and
Management of Distance Teaching
M (SD) 95% CI
P U-S t df p Lower upper
Demography
Age 45.14 (9.97) 44.03 (11.86) 0.840 377 .401 -1.49 3.72
Experience 19.56 (10.86) 17.10 (11.14) 2.238 377 .026 0.07 1.08
Number of subjects 3.35 (2.06) 2.77 (1.86) 1.766 377 .078 -0.28 5.20
Communication channels
N of com_channels – beforei 3.00 (1.70) 3.69 (1.28) -3.334 377 .001 -1.10 -0.28
N of com_channels – during 4.25 (1.50) 4.47 (1.35) -1.151 377 .251 -0.58 0.15
Phone 0.42 (0.78) 0.35 (0.82) 0.738 377 .461 -0.12 0.27
E-mail 0.89 (1.05) 1.68 (1.37) -5.385 377 .000 -1.06 -0.49
Edupage 1.43 (1.49) 1.88 (1.49) -2.32 377 .021 -0.81 -0.07
Zoom, webex, moodle, jitsi meet,
0.42 (0.84) 0.68 (1.14) -2.154 377 .032 -0.48 -0.02
skype
Microsoft teams, google classroom 0.34 (0.84) 0.41 (1.02) -0.667 377 .505 -0.30 0.15
Messenger, facebook 0.88 (1.26) 0.69 (1.17) 1.18 377 .239 -0.12 0.50
Whatsapp, Viber, Hangouts 0.26 (0.71) 0.28 (0.83) -0.184 377 .854 -0.20 0.17
Others 0.41 (0.90) 0.32 (0.81) 0.805 377 .421 -0.13 0.31
Management of DT
Hours of DT – before 1.71 (2.35) 2.45 (2.59) -2.404 377 .017 -1.34 -0.13
Hours of DT– during 4.88 (3.43) 6.08 (3.66) -2.703 377 .007 -2.07 -0.33
Hours of preparation – before 2.18 (1.04) 2.23 (1.22) -0.424 377 .672 -0.33 0.21
Hours of preparation – during 3.01 (1.22) 3.12 (1.42) -0.684 377 .495 -0.43 0.21
1. Sending assignments to students,
1.70 (0.52) 1.81 (0.43) -1.704 377 .089 -0.24 0.02
they work at home alone
2. Checking all tasks students send 1.85 (0.41) 1.92 (0.27) -1.388 377 .166 -0.16 0.03
3. Repeating the topics that were
1.40 (0.64) 1.30 (0.65) 1.207 377 .228 -0.06 0.26
covered before the pandemic.
4. Covering new topics 1.74 (0.52) 1.77 (0.51) -0.472 377 .637 -0.16 0.10
5. Verbal assessment of students 1.79 (0.45) 1.34 (0.72) 6.864 377 .000 0.32 0.58
6. Assessing students by marks 0.50 (0.69) 1.48 (0.68) -11.256 377 .000 -1.16 -0.81
7. Verifying students' knowledge with
0.46 (0.70) 0.39 (0.69) 0.794 377 .428 -0.10 0.25
an oral answer
8. Verifying students' knowledge with
0.63 (0.69) 0.86 (0.77) -2.495 377 .013 -0.40 -0.05
tests
Perception of DT
Subjective satisfaction 3.89 (0.93) 3.79 (0.82) 0.918 377 .359 -0.12 0.34
Satisfaction with instit_support 3.93 (1.27) 4.22 (1.19) -1.778 377 .076 -0.60 0.03
Feedback 4.96 (0.74) 4.78 (0.65ň 2.001 377 .046 0.00 0.36
Expectation 2.42 (0.71) 2.40 (0.78) 0.195 377 .846 -0.16 0.20
Note: Nprimary=302; Nupper-secondary=77; P – primary school teachers, U-S – upper-secondary school teachers

Appendix B
Table B1
Correlations between All Measured Variables – Primary School Teachers
1: 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
1. Age
2.
.90**
Experience
3. N of
-.08 .00
subjects
4. N_
.11 .16** .07

channels
5. H_DT -.04 -.01 .12* .49**
6. H_
-.07 -.07 .05 .13* .28**
preparat.
7. H_free
.04 .02 -.02 -.08 -.15* -.13*
time
8. Form1 .00 -.04 .02 -.20** -.14* .06 .02
9. Form2 -.04 -.03 -.07 .07 .21** .21** -.14* -.01
10. Form3 .06 .11 -.05 .03 .05 .02 -.02 .02 .15*
11. Form4 -.12* -.13* .13* .11 .10 .13 .02 .02 .12* -.16**
12. Form5 .05 .04 .09 .06 .11* .05 .01 .05 .12* .10 .08
13. Form6 -.03 .00 .14* .14* .06 .14* -.06 -.10 .17** -.04 .12* -.18**
14. Form7 .09 .07 .19** .17** .10 -.09 -.06 -.30** -.03 .07 .13* .11 .22**
15. Form8 -.03 -.06 -.13* -.02 .07 .18** -.06 .05 .13* -.04 .12* -.08 .26** -.02
16. Subj.
.01 .07 .10 .08 -.03 -.13* .11 -.09 -.09 -.09 .14* .02 -.01 .14* -.03
satisf.
17. Satisfact.
–instit. -.05 -.09 .02 -.11 -.02 -.09 .03 -.10 -.04 .04 -.03 .06 -.16** .03 -.04 .13*
support
18. Feedback.08 .11 .12* .14* .09 -.02 -.05 -.19** .00 .07 .08 .13* .11* .21** .01 .34** .26**
19. Expectat. .10 .04 -.14* .15* .08 .06 -.07 .03 .06 -.08 -.05 -.05 .05 -.04 .08 -.16** -.08 -.03
20. PA .09 .02 -.10 -.02 .05 .10 .01 .04 .03 -.03 .01 .07 .01 .02 .16** .05 .17** .23** .13*
21. NA -.13* -.08 .10 .07 .13* .07 -.09 -.05 .00 .14* -.05 .07 -.02 .03 -.10 -.11 -.10 -.15* -.16** -.34**
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22. Anxiety .09 .09 .04 -.03 .04 .10 .05 .06 -.04 .11 .00 -.01 -.03 -.03 -.06 -.02 .05 -.03 -.20** -.08 .39**
23. Lack of
.05 .08 .05 .00 .07 .08 .02 -.03 -.03 -.02 -.02 .01 -.06 .01 .03 -.06 .11 .00 -.15* .02 .27** .56**
control
24. Perc. risk .17** .18** .09 -.03 .09 .15* -.05 .01 .03 .04 .07 .14* -.05 -.03 -.08 -.06 .07 .09 -.09 .01 .26** .45** .40**
25. E .06 .06 -.01 .02 .07 -.05 -.12* .04 .03 .09 -.04 .04 .02 .09 .10 .00 .06 .13* .07 .37** -.15** -.07 .01 -.03
26. A .22** .19** -.03 .05 .05 .10 -.07 -.04 -.01 .04 -.01 .07 -.03 .07 -.03 .05 .14* .30** .10 .41** -.24** -.01 .04 .11 .33**
27. C .19** .17** .06 -.02 .08 .11 -.13* -.01 .00 .10 .01 .04 .02 .03 .08 .10 .10 .18** .03 .40** -.16** .04 .16** .14* .46** .56**
28. E -.11 -.07 .07 .08 .07 .01 .03 .00 .01 -.03 .04 .02 -.02 -.02 -.10 -.05 -.14* -.15* -.10 -.50** .52** .16** .13* .10 -.49** -.50** -.44**
29. O .14* .11 .00 .01 .03 .09 -.09 .07 .05 .12* -.03 .10 .01 .10 .01 -.14* .10 .16** .16** .43** -.11* .04 .13* .15* .51** .53** .51** -.37**
Note: N – number, H – hours; DT – distance teaching, preparat. – preparation, subj.satisf. – subjective satisfaction, stisf.IS – satisfaction with institutional support, expectat. – expectation, PA
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884
– positive affect, NA – negative affect, lack_control – lack of control, perc.risk – perceived risk, E – extraversion, A – agreeableness, C – conscientiousness, N – negative emotionality, O – open-
mindedness
Table B2
Correlations between All Measured Variables – Upper-Secondary School Teachers
1: 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.
1. Age
2. Experience .86**
3. N of subjects.08 -.05
4. N_channels -.06 -.04 .03

5. H_DT .00 -.02 .18 .40**
6. H_preparat. -.02 -.01 .19 .12 .35**
7. H_free time -.16 -.17 -.17 .00 -.16 -.04

8. Form1 -.19 -.13 .11 -.34** -.37** -.13 .04
9. Form2 -.09 -.10 -.01 -.01 -.03 .02 .07 .09
10. Form3 .08 .15 -.10 .09 .10 -.11 -.02 -.02 .06
11. Form4 .04 -.05 .01 .14 .26* .07 -.20 -.15 -.13 .29**
12. Form5 .06 .07 -.02 .13 .12 .04 -.17 -.08 .21 .18 .29*
13. Form6 -.15 -.15 -.03 -.08 .01 -.02 -.14 .05 -.01 .09 .03 .01

14. Form7 .12 .11 .04 .17 .27* -.11 -.26* -.27* -.12 .06 .22* .08 -.18
15. Form8 .00 -.05 .27* .00 .19 .27* -.12 .03 -.18 .35** .25* -.05 .16 .06
16. Subj.satisf. -.06 -.03 -.20 -.09 -.15 -.23* -.08 -.01 .01 .01 .02 -.01 -.06 -.01 -.19
17. Satisfact. –
.08 .05 .18 .27* .03 -.11 .01 -.06 .04 .21 .13 -.02 -.23* .24* .08 -.02
instit. support
18. Feedback .13 .08 .25* .24* .08 .08 -.20 .01 .13 .06 -.03 .22 .00 .33** .10 -.08 .19
19. Expectat. .22 .15 -.04 .14 -.06 .16 .02 -.19 -.10 .07 .24* .36** -.17 -.05 -.01 -.03 .09 .07

20. PA -.02 .04 -.03 .16 .27* .02 .09 -.09 .15 -.01 -.15 -.11 .04 .08 .01 -.07 .16 .20 -.15
21. NA -.03 .01 .04 -.13 -.05 .17 -.08 .02 -.17 .07 .03 .01 .10 -.02 -.02 -.14 -.25* -.19 .02 -.56**
22. Anxiety .10 .20 .19 .13 .11 .16 -.11 -.03 .07 .12 -.07 .32** -.00 .11 .14 -.01 .14 .17 .12 -.03 .39**
23. Lack of
.11 .16 .09 .10 -.01 -.14 -.12 .03 -.05 .20 .04 .01 .07 -.03 .14 -.01 .06 -.13 -.01 -.08 .21 .40**
control
24. Perc. risk .05 .08 .18 .18 .18 .17 -.14 -.14 -.04 .12 .11 .11 .25* .10 .05 .02 .06 .15 .03 -.02 .22 .37** .20
25. E .04 .09 -.09 .22 .34** -.05 .04 -.17 .16 -.00 -.12 .04 .03 .30** -.21 -.04 .20 .26* -.21 .57** -.36** -.06 -.09 .15
26. A .24* .21 .21 .11 .38** .04 -.00 -.06 .03 .02 .06 .03 .06 .17 .04 -.09 .08 .21 -.10 .50** -.29* .16 .03 .26* .33**
27. C .39** .38** .14 -.22 .17 -.06 -.26* -.01 .25* .10 -.10 .05 .09 .09 .08 .04 -.04 .13 -.08 .18 -.20 .00 .05 .09 .21 .41**
28. E -.09 -.09 -.24* -.11 -.23* -.12 .01 -.04 -.14 -.05 .02 .01 .12 -.05 -.11 .03 -.21 -.22 .05 -.54** .67** .21 .19 .09 -.46** -.40** -.33**
29. O -.07 -.07 .17 .08 .28* .00 -.08 -.04 -.04 .11 .07 -.03 .03 .31** .03 -.16 .24* .23* -.15 .53** -.26* .00 -.12 .26* .49** .37** .05 -.35**
Note: N – number, H – hours, DT – distance teaching, preparat. – preparation, subj.satisf. – subjective satisfaction, stisf.IS – satisfaction with institutional support, expectat. – expectation, PA – positive affect, NA –
negative affect, lack_control – lack of control, perc.risk – perceived risk, E – extraversion, A – agreeableness, C – conscientiousness, N – negative emotionality, O – open-mindedness
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Received: September 08, 2020 Accepted: November 30, 2020
Cite as: Ballova Mikuškova, E., & Verešova, M. (2020). Distance education during Covid-19:
The perspective of Slovak teachers. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 884-
906. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884
Eva Ballová Mikušková PhD, Assistant Professor, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Drážovská
(Corresponding author) 4, 941 01 Nitra, Slovakia.
E-mail: ebmikuskova@ukf.sk
Marcela Verešová PhD, Associate Professor, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra,
Drážovská 4, 941 01 Nitra, Slovakia.
E-mail: mveresova@ukf.sk

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ABILITY TO FOSTER SCHOOLCHILDREN’S 907
ECOLOGICAL LITERACY AS A RESULT

OF PROSPECTIVE BIOLOGY TEACHERS’
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
Mariia Bilianska
National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Ukraine
E-mail: mbilianska@ukr.net
Olga Yaroshenko
Institute of Higher Education of the National Academy of
Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine
E-mail: o.yaroshenko@ihed.org.ua
Abstract
An important role in preventing the negative effects of human impact on the environment is played by
environmental literacy, which is connected with developing the ability to use natural resources wisely and
reduce waste as well as awareness of the role of the environment for safe and healthy living.
The scientific studies on formation of students’ ecological literacy were analyzed. It was revealed that
the current state of training future Biology teachers for developing students’ environmental literacy is
not efficient. Ability of prospective Biology teachers to form students’ ecological literacy is identified by
the unity of value, cognitive and procedural components. Theoretical substantiation of the technology
of training future Biology teachers for increasing students’ ecological literacy is carried out. The
peculiarity of the technological process is the study of the elective courses “Conducting Ecological
Pedagogical Activities”, “Technologies of Environmental Education and Upbringing”, “Methods of
Teaching Ecology”, use of interactive teaching methods, combination of training sessions, independent
work, practical training, and control measures. Criteria for the formation of each component are
students' attitude to the environment and its preservation, the level of knowledge acquisition, the level of
mastery of the methods of developing school students’ environmental literacy. A three-level approach to
evaluating the results was used. The average level of formation of each component dominated. During the
experimental training, statistically significant positive changes in the formation of each component took
place. This confirms the feasibility of further implementation of the technology.
Keywords: ecological literacy, elective courses, environmental upbringing, pre-service biology teachers
Introduction
Mastering ecological literacy is essential for preservation of the environment and

obtaining basic rules of behavior in nature. Ensuring the sustainable development of society
requires solving global environmental problems such as climate change, pandemics, the
effects of human pollution, irrational use of natural resources, and so on. The UN Sustainable
Development Goals (Global Goals) (2015) enhanced the importance of ecological literacy in
general and students’ in particular. This makes environmental pedagogical activities an integral
part of teachers’ professional activities. They organize and conduct environmental activities
during classes, hold extracurricular and after school activities, enhance students' desire to
protect and preserve the environment.

Mariia BILIANSKA, Olga YAROSHENKO. Ability to foster schoolchildren’s ecological literacy as a result of prospective biology
teachers’ professional training
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908 The modern educational process in Ukrainian institutions of complete general secondary
education is aimed at shaping schoolchildren’s key competencies, one of which is ecological
literacy. At present, Ukrainian scientists adhere to the views of ecological literacy as “the ability
to use natural resources wisely and rationally in the framework of sustainable development,
awareness of the role of the environment for human life and health” (The new Ukrainian
School. Conceptual principles of secondary school reform, 2016, p. 12).
Ecological literacy of teachers of natural sciences is important, because in the future, they
will work on its formation in students. This view is also confirmed by the research (Turner et al.,
2009) that the formation of environmental literacy of students will be successful provided that
teachers have gained environmental knowledge. Aksan and Çelikler (2020) also substantiated
the need for awareness of teachers of natural sciences with environmental problems, in particular
on the reduction of waste and the need for their processing in terms of the concept of sustainable
development.
Analysis of scientific works has shown that ecological literacy is the subject of research
by many domestic and foreign scientists. “Ecological literacy is the ability to understand the
natural system that is related to our life. It is a way of thinking about the world in terms of
interactions within natural systems including a consideration of the consequences of human
actions. An ecological literacy equips students with the knowledge and competencies necessary
to address solution of environmental issues in an integrated way” (Adawiah & Esa, 2013).
Panfilova (2002) interpreted ecological literacy as people’s ability to participate competently in
activities aimed at preventing and eliminating damage caused to nature by industrial activities.
McBride et al. (2013) connected ecological literacy with awareness of environmental care,
knowledge, skills, motives for solving environmental problems and preventing their occurrence.
Orr (1992) considered ecological literacy from the point of view of the impact of human
activity not only on the environment, but also on how this activity fits into the complex system
(web) of ecological relationships within which we live. According to the researcher, future
generations must become environmentally literate, i.e. learn how to interact with nature for
mutual benefit. The concepts of ecological literacy and ecological awareness were used as
identical in these studies. Berkowitz et al. (2005) interpreted ecological literacy as a combination
of environmental education and civic literacy.
In 1989, UNESCO-UNEP positioned ecological literacy as the main goal of
environmental education (McBride et al., 2013). This view is shared by the North American
Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE, 2004). They highlight the following
aspects of environmental education: awareness of local, regional and global environmental
issues; ability to identify and analyze environmental problems, assess, seek, propose and justify
solutions; ecological knowledge, knowledge of the ecological system, ecological problems and
strategies for their solution; development of personal qualities (interest, sensitivity, self-control,
responsibility, intention to act) (NAAEE, 2011).
It is logical that McBeth et al. (2008) distinguished the following components of
ecological literacy: foundational ecological knowledge, environmental affect, cognitive skills,
and pro-environmental behavior. Powers (2010) assumed ecological literacy to be based on
ecological knowledge of Trade-offs, Succession, Element Cycles, Population Dynamics, and
Global Ecology. The views of Jordan et al. (2009) slightly differed from the above-mentioned
by focusing on the following components of ecological literacy: ecological connections
and key concepts of ecology as a science (functional connections between species, between
species and the environment; biotic and abiotic factors and their impact on distribution species,
ecological processes); environmental scientific skills (modeling, awareness and understanding
of the scale of the problem); human actions related to the impact on ecosystems. According to
the researcher, ecological literacy allows a person to understand the connection of their own
existence with environmental processes and helps to solve environmental problems. Students’

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ecological literacy includes knowledge of the following basic concepts: “…the ecosystem, 909
succession, energy flow, conservation of resources, competition niche, materials cycling,
the community, life history strategies, ecosystem fragility, food webs, ecological adaptation,
environmental heterogeneity, species diversity, density dependent regulation, limiting factors,
carrying capacity, maximum sustainable yield, population cycles, predator-prey interactions”
(Adawiah & Esa, 2013).
Researchers pay much attention to future teachers’ environmental training. In particular,
Traulko (2004) considered this training to be a component of both professional and general
cultural education. The researcher sees its result in the psychological and practical readiness
of graduates to make responsible and environmentally sound decisions in their professional
activities. Panfilova (2002) characterized the ecological training of higher pedagogical
education students as one that provides shaping their readiness for interaction with nature,
for ecologically oriented educational work with adults (including students’ parents), for
environmental upbringing of schoolchildren, for shaping values during educational, scientific
activities, various activities in nature fostering the need to preserve it.
Kaiser and Fuhrer (2003) emphasized that gaining knowledge about the functioning of
ecological systems and natural processes (e.g. climate change, its causes and consequences),
conservation of natural resources and environment, ways to preserve the environment, etc. is
the key component of prospective specialists’ ecological training. Boychenko and Sayenko
(2013) defined the concept of ecological and creative training of higher education students,
which is based on innovative learning, introducing new educational programs and disciplines
in the educational process to develop students’ ecological mindset. The factors influencing
the behavior of teacher candidates in the environment were analyzed by Avaroğulları and
Ayılmazdır (2019). Such behavior was described by the researchers taking into account gender,
position, institution, level of training.
The Model of Environmental Education Competency Development for Teachers
in Secondary School deserves special attention. The components of the competency are
environmental knowledge, fundamental understanding on Environmental Education,
responsibility on Environmental Education teacher actualization, Environmental Education
planning and operating, promoting Environmental Education learning, and Environmental
Education evaluation. Scientists focus on integrated learning and project activities. There are
five steps in integrated learning: Analyzing the educational policy, Studying the community
environmental problems, Designing the environmental learning project, Identifying the
Standard of learning, Performing the integrated lesson plan (Wanchana et al., 2019).
The research carried out by Bilianska (2017) proved the importance of training pre-
service Biology teachers for ecological and pedagogical activities in order to develop students’
ecological culture, enhance motives for preserving the environment, as well as to do educational
work with parents and members of the teaching staff. Training future biology teachers for
shaping students' ecological literacy was not included in the research aims.
Formation of a person’s ecological literacy begins in the family and preschool education
institution and continues in school, where it is carried out during the study of all subjects.
Therefore, a teacher of any specialty must know and apply the basic methods and forms of
environmental and pedagogical activities for fostering students’ ecological literacy. Biology in
this sense is marked by the fact that it creates a wide range of opportunities for developing the
students’ key competence that is chosen as a subject for the research. Therefore, preparedness
for using these opportunities should become an important component of prospective biology
teachers’ training. The analysis of the results of scientific works and normative legal documents
allowed to conclude that the ability of the future teacher to form students’ ecological literacy is
represented by the unity and interrelation of value, cognitive and procedural components. Their
formation takes place in the process of studying the disciplines of the cycles of general and

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910 professional training, as well as the cycle of elective disciplines. The analysis of the scientific
papers showed that university training mainly focuses on shaping ecological literacy of higher
education students. However, ecological literacy as one of the key competencies of school age
children and the ability of future teachers to shape it have not been purposefully studied and
need further research.
The purpose of the study was to improve the content of professional training of pre-
service Biology teachers by creating and applying optional disciplines in the educational
process.
Research Focus
The research focused on the ways of training future Biology teachers for shaping students’
ecological literacy in the process of studying elective disciplines “Conducting Ecological
Pedagogical Activities”, “Technologies of Ecological Education and Upbringing”, “Methods
of Teaching Ecology”. The target was to develop technology to make students prepared for the
type of professional activity. The objectives of the research were as follows: 1) to investigate
pre-service Biology teachers' ability to form students' environmental literacy; 2) to develop and
substantiate the technology of practice-oriented training and experimentally test its effectiveness
in a real educational process.
General Background
The research was conducted using the methods of pedagogical experiment (ascertaining
and formative stages), and a survey. Experimental verification of the technology of training
pre-service Biology teachers to shape students’ ecological literacy was carried out in a real
educational process without violating its integrity with applicants for the first (bachelor’s) level
of higher education in specialty “Secondary education (Biology)” during 2017/2019 years. The
study involved undergraduate students of higher education institutions of Ukraine.
Sample
240 students took part in the pedagogical experiment (128 at the ascertaining and 112
at the formative stage), including 223 girls and 17 boys. The students studied both at public
expense and at the expense of individuals. The selection was made by random sampling
from four institutions of higher pedagogical education from different regions of Ukraine. The
selection was based on the results of the final semester attestation of students with average,
sufficient and high levels of academic achievement.
To establish the reliability of the obtained results the constant method was used, which
does not involve the creation of control groups (Shtul’man, 1988). The research was carried out
in the process of successive pedagogical experiment at its ascertaining and formative stages, and
the dynamics of development of future Biology teachers’ ability to increase students’ ecological
literacy was identified by comparing the results of two measurements, the initial and final.
In order to find out the attitude of in-service Biology teachers to the issue of shaping
schoolchildren’s ecological literacy, a survey was conducted. It involved 183 Biology teachers
with work experience from 1 to 5 years from 109 schools located in cities and villages of
Ukraine.

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Instrument and Procedures 911
The practical state of training pre-service Biology teachers for fostering students’
ecological literacy was determined by the results of the ascertaining stage of the pedagogical
experiment. The criterion of forming the value component of the ability to foster students’
ecological literacy was chosen by students’ attitude to the environment and its preservation, the
indicator was the coefficient of forming value component (Cv). The criterion for forming the
cognitive component of the studied phenomenon was the level of knowledge acquisition, and
its indicator, the coefficient of knowledge acquisition (Cc). The formation of the procedural
component was proved by the level of students’ mastery of the method of increasing
schoolchildren’s environmental literacy, which was determined by a comprehensive indicator
(Cp), that is methodically correct planning and conducting environmental activities with
students, appropriate use of environmental information in the educational process.
Sharing the opinion of researchers (Kapskaya, 1989; Kuzmina, 1990; Molyako, 1989;
Urus’kyy, 2005), a level approach to the studied phenomenon was applied. Three levels of
pre-service Biology teachers’ ability to form students' environmental literacy were singled
out: low, average and high. The level of formation of the value component of future Biology
teachers’ ability to foster students’ ecological literacy was determined by their attitude to the
living beings, to themselves, to life as the highest value, awareness of personal involvement and
responsibility for natural resources, motivation to preserve the environment and perception of
nature as a source of wealth.
The formation of the procedural component of the studied phenomenon was proved
by the following students’ skills: cognitive (select and use environmental information in the
process of teaching Biology; apply the educational potential of the school subject of Biology
to increase students’ ecological literacy); projective (set the goals and objectives of classes and
predict their outcomes; plan activities for fostering students’ ecological literacy); organizational
(hold environmental activities such as excursions, ecological trails, environmental holidays,
exhibitions, games, theaters, landscaping, environmental events, etc.); communicative (establish
communication with students in the process of environmental activities, create an atmosphere
of trust in communication); constructive (use tools, teaching methods to achieve goals and
objectives, to transform scientific information into educational material and develop lesson
outlines); evaluative reflexive (analyze and evaluate the level of students’ ecological literacy,
to exercise self-control and self-assessment), research (mastery of research methods) nature,
the ability to conduct field research, use modern equipment for this purpose); special creative
skills (design posters and wall newspapers, arrange exhibitions, sketch objects in nature, take
photographs, make video); the ability to follow the rules of behavior in nature (Bilіanska, 2017).
Measurement of the formation of value and procedural components of the students'
ability to form schoolchildren’s ecological literacy was carried out using a three-point scale (0,
1, 2 points). The maximum possible amount of points scored was as follows: value component –
14 points, procedural – 18 points. The cognitive component was measured by the results of
students’ control work, which consisted of 40 tests, 10 short-answer tasks and was rated at 50
points maximum.
Data Analysis
During the analysis, the minimum (Cmin) and maximum (Cmax) coefficients of forming
value, cognitive and procedural components of future Biology teachers’ ability to foster students’
ecological literacy were used. The calculations were carried out based on the research model
by Prybora (2011). Based on the obtained results, the calculation of the limits of oscillations
∆C for each component and the value ∆c, which changed the results of two measurements for
each of the indicators.

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912 For the cognitive component, the average value of the coefficient of knowledge acquisition
Ck aver was calculated according to the formula adapted for research (Kyveryalg, 1980):
where ∑ nk i – the number of correct answers of all students,

∑ Nk – the number of maximum possible correct answers.
The obtained results of pedagogical research were checked to the extent of their
randomness by means of the criterion of homogeneity χ2.
In order to identify coincidences and differences for the experimental data, the two
statistical hypotheses: zero and alternative were compared. According to the zero hypothesis,
the obtained results do not contain differences; according to the alternative, the probability of
error does not exceed 5% (significance level .05). Hypotheses were tested for each component
of the studied phenomenon by comparing the results of the ascertaining and formative (final
section) stages of the pedagogical experiment.
Research Results
At the ascertaining stage of the pedagogical experiment, it was revealed that the cycle of
elective disciplines is less involved in training future Biology teachers for increasing students’
ecological literacy. It lacks disciplines, the tasks of which is to provide a purposeful influence
on developing future Biology teachers’ research ability. The predominance of the average level
of prospective Biology teachers’ ability to form students’ ecological literacy in all components
has also been revealed. Among the participants of the ascertaining stage of the pedagogical
experiment, there was identified the least number of students with a high level of formation of
each component as presented in Table 1.
Table 1
The Results of the Ascertaining Stage of the Pedagogical Experiment
Levels of formation
Components of ability Low Average High
N % N % N %
Value 47 37 68 53 13 10
Cognitive 37 29 66 51 25 20
Procedural 52 41 66 51 10 8
The training of future biology teachers for increasing students’ ecological literacy was
carried out in the process of studying elective disciplines “Conducting Ecological Pedagogical
Activities”, “Technologies of Environmental Education and Upbringing”, “Methods of Teaching
Ecology”. The duration of studying each discipline was 2 ECTS credits (Bilіanska, 2016).
In accordance with the content of these disciplines, lectures and practical classes were
aimed at developing pre-service teachers’ ability to form students’ environmental literacy.
In practical classes, future biology teachers trained in conducting environmental games,
environmental events, environmental parties, debates, exhibitions, poster competitions, and
environmental tours. They learned how to organize students’ research activities in the Small
Academy of Sciences and do environmental projects. In the process, the interactive teaching
methods were used. The students also analyzed the content and structure of current curricula
in Biology and Ecology; determined what didactic opportunities for the formation of students’

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environmental literacy are endowed with specific topics; trained in planning lessons and 913
extracurricular activities; learned to rationally combine methods and means of teaching, to
model educational projects of ecological content. Experimental training also included the
implementation of higher education students’ tasks for the development of training sessions
and educational activities on environmental issues.
In order to get prepared for the formation of students’ environmental literacy, future
teachers created concept maps for conducting environmental pedagogical activities with students
of all age groups. Interactive learning was used during working process (Skyba, 2016а; 2016b).
The designed programs of elective disciplines “Conducting Ecological Pedagogical Activities”,
“Technologies of Environmental Education and Upbringing”, “Methods of Teaching Ecology”
and appropriate teaching and methodological support for their studying modernized the training
of pre-service Biology teachers for increasing students’ ecological literacy.
The dynamics of developing future Biology teachers’ ability to form students’ ecological
literacy during the formative stage of the pedagogical experiment can be traced according to
Table 2, comparing the results of the initial (F1) and final (F2) sections.
Table 2
The Results of the Formative Stage of the Pedagogical Experiment (In %)
Levels of formation
Components Low Average High
of ability
F1 F2 Increase F1 F2 Increase F1 F2 Increase
Value 38 28 -10 41 48 +7 21 24 +3
Cognitive 22 14 -8 54 57 +3 24 29 +5
Procedural 36 29 -7 50 53 +3 14 18 +4
The average value of the coefficient of knowledge acquisition Ck aver. at the ascertaining
stage of the pedagogical experiment was .522, at the formative stage (initial section) – .641.
Using the established in didactics approach to the assessment of learning outcomes as positive,
if the coefficient of knowledge acquisition is .7 and higher (Bespalko, 1977), both results were
concluded to correspond to a low level. At the same time, this indicator was equal to .720,
according to the results of the final section, i.e., confirmed the effectiveness of the experimental
method. Visually, the results of the pedagogical experiment are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1
The Results of the Ascertaining (A) and Formative Stages (F1, F2) of the Pedagogical
Experiment

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914 Verification of the results of the pedagogical experiment concerning their randomness
showed that the value of χ2emp for the value component is 8.76, cognitive – 8.18, procedural –
6.93, while the critical value of the homogeneity criterion χ2 .05 is 5.99 (Novikov, 2004). Thus,
the null hypothesis was not confirmed. Verification of statistical significance confirmed the
reliability of the obtained results at the level of 95%.
Based on a survey of teachers with teaching experience up to 5 years, it was found
out that 13.2% consider themselves fully prepared for increasing students’ ecological literacy,
21.9% – more prepared than unprepared, 62.8% – more unprepared, than prepared and only
2.1% – completely unprepared. Regarding the desire to develop their ability to form students’
ecological literacy, the answers of the respondents were as follows: 68.3% had a stable desire,
28.8% – more unstable than stable, 1.8% – unstable, 1.1% – lack of desire. The teachers have
proved to be aware of the importance and necessity of developing students' ecological literacy.
At the same time, most of them consider themselves insufficiently prepared for this type of
activity and in individual interviews noted that preparation for this type of professional activity
at university is carried out sporadically.
Discussion
The diagnosis of prospective Biology teachers’ readiness for increasing students’

environmental literacy was carried out by value, cognitive and procedural components and at
three levels, which generally coincides with the position of Kornilova (2020). However, the
researcher prefers the concept “motivation to work” instead of “values”. Shapran (2012) paid
attention to the aesthetic perception of nature, which can be attributed to the value component.
For each component of the phenomenon under analysis, the results obtained in the
research are characterized by a negative increase in the number of students with a low level
of ability to form ecological literacy and a positive increase with average and high levels.
The largest negative increase in the number of students with a low level of ability to develop
schoolchildren’s environmental literacy is observed for the value component (-10%). At the
same time, at the average level there is the largest positive increase in the formation of this
component. This suggests a change in future Biology teachers’ beliefs concerning the awareness
of their personal involvement and responsibility for the conservation of natural resources;
caring for the living beings and conducting environmental activities have become a priority
for them. According to the observations of the teachers taking part in the experiment, future
Biology teachers began to become more involved in environmental activities and they tried to
conduct them with students during teaching practice at school.
This conclusion correlates with the results of the research by Avdyeyeva (2003), which
showed the fact that students care about environmental issues, are aware of the need to preserve
it, but do not realize the need to solve problems comprehensively.
It is explained by the fact that according to the experimental method, the students took
an active part in environmental activities, and organized them during their pedagogical practice
at school. The use of project activities, creative (exhibitions, poster competitions, etc.) and
situational tasks in the process of studying the developed elective disciplines proved favorable.
These results coincide with the conclusions about the positive impact of interactive methods
on the formation of future teachers’ environmental competence (Koldomasova, 2005; Shapran,
2012; Wanchana et al., 2019).
It is assumed that the decrease in the number of respondents with the low level of the
cognitive component is due to increasing information by introducing elective disciplines
“Conducting Ecological Pedagogical Activities”, “Technologies of Environmental and
Upbringing”, “Methods of Teaching Ecology” and the use of interactive teaching methods. The
study of these disciplines proved helpful and gave future Biology teachers the opportunity to

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learn about the forms, methods and means of developing ecological literacy, to get acquainted 915
with advanced pedagogical experience, modern achievements of domestic and foreign teachers
in ecological education and upbringing, with interactive technologies for increasing ecological
literacy. The positive increase in the formation of this component was the largest at a high
level. This is correlated with the growth of the value of the coefficient of knowledge acquisition
during the pedagogical experiment.
There are also other, alternative ways of developing ecological awareness (cognitive
component) – in the process of studying only obligatory disciplines of biological and ecological
slant (Koldomasova, 2005; Kornilova, 2020). One of the pedagogical conditions for the
formation of ecological culture of pre-service teachers of natural sciences is the greening of the
content of education on the basis of interdisciplinary integration (Honcharuk, 2019).
The test results were unexpected. The students gave the most incorrect answers to a block
of questions concerning theoretical questions of General Ecology – the doctrine of population,
the relationship of living organisms with the environment, and global environmental problems.
This suggests the need to pay more attention to the study of the discipline “General Ecology”,
as this knowledge is the basis for teaching the topics “Ecology” and “Sustainable Development
and Environmental Management” in the course “Biology” in high school (11th grade)
(Navchal’ni prohramy 10-11 klasiv, 2018а, 2018b). In addition, the analysis of the students'
responses showed that more attention should be paid to educational material related to methods
of forming students’ ecological literacy, as 31% of students did not cope with these tasks at the
initial testing of the formative stage.
Such research results in this aspect coincide with the conclusions of Roczen et al.
(2013) on the low level of students' mastery of theoretical knowledge, in particular about the
ecosystem. However, a careful attitude to nature encourages people to expand and deepen their
knowledge (Esa, (2010).
It should be mentioned that the increase in the high level of formation of the future
Biology teachers’ ability to develop students’ ecological literacy for the value and procedural
components was also positive, although somewhat smaller. Regarding the formation of
students skills in fostering schoolchildren’s ecological literacy, according to the observations
of experimental teachers, there were no problems with the formation of organizational, and
research skills’, as well as the ability to follow the rules of behavior in nature. The formation
of cognitive (the ability to apply the educational potential of the school subject of Biology for
increasing students’ ecological literacy); projective (ability to plan activities for the formation
of students’ ecological literacy); constructive (ability to use tools, teaching methods to achieve
goals and objectives) skills needs special attention. For their formation, practical classes in
the introduced elective disciplines prove promising. However, Kornilova (2020) has singled
out a much narrower range of skills – the ability to formulate a problem question, the ability
to determine the purpose of the conversation, the ability to select the content of material,
the ability to stimulate student activity, the ability to analyze the conversation and achieve
results. Experimental teachers showed a somewhat slow formation of students' ability to use
the educational potential of the school subject of Biology for increasing students’ ecological
literacy. Based on this, the use of interactive methods for educational purposes seems promising
in the future.
Thus, the dynamics of development of prospective Biology teachers' ability to form
students’ ecological literacy by using the experimental technology of student training is positive.
This indicates that introducing the elective disciplines “Conducting Ecological Pedagogical
Activities”, “Technologies of Environmental Education and Upbringing”, “Methods of
Teaching Ecology” and the developed for their study educational and methodological support
was appropriate.

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916 Conclusions and Implications
The practice-oriented nature of the experimental technology of training pre-service

teachers to form students’ ecological literacy, its implementation in the educational process
in the classroom, in independent work, practical training, control activities, and extensive use
of interactive teaching methods optimized the educational process and provided successful
training for pre-service teachers for increasing schoolchildren’s ecological literacy. The results
of the pedagogical experiment give evidence to it. Within statistically significant limits, there
have been positive changes in the levels of formation of all components of pre-service Biology
teachers’ ability to foster students’ ecological literacy. The average level of formation of all the
components prevails.
This confirms the expediency of widespread introduction of the developed technology
of training future biology teachers for the formation of students’ ecological literacy in order
to improve the quality of professional training of students of higher pedagogical education.
As a result, schools will be provided with teachers who, in the process of studying Biology,
will form ecological literacy of conscious students who are responsible for preservation of the
environment.
The research was conducted during a real educational process. However, with the
introduction of quarantine restrictions due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the share of online classes
has increased. Additional research is required on the impact of distance learning on the results
of training pre-service Biology teachers to form students’ ecological literacy. In the future,
research on the use of information technology, as well as preparing university students for the
implementation of scientific environmentally oriented education of schoolchildren is relevant.
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Wanchana, Y., Inprom, P., Rawang, W., & Ayudhya Art-ong Jumsai Na. (2019). A model of environmental 919
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Received: July 30, 2020 Accepted: November 18, 2020
Cite as: Bilianska, M., & Yaroshenko, O. (2020). Ability to foster schoolchildren’s ecological
literacy as a result of prospective biology teachers’ professional training. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 907-919. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.907
Mariia Bilіanska Doctor, Associate Professor at National Pedagogical Dragomanov University,

(Corresponding author) Pyrohova str., 9 Kyiv 01601, Ukraine.
E-mail: mmbilianska@gmail.com, mbilianska@ukr.net
Website: https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=list_
works&hl=ru&user=KXqnrn8AAAAJ
Olga Yaroshenko Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Full Member (academician) of

the National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine, Leading Scientific
Researcher of the Department of integration of higher education and science,
Institute of Higher Education of the National Academy of Educational Sciences
of Ukraine, Bastionna str., 9 Kyiv 01014, Ukraine.
E-mail: o.yaroshenko@ihed.org.ua, yaroshenko_o@ukr.net
Website: https://scholar.google.com.ua/citations?user=_Y1NQ3QAAAAJ&hl=ru

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920
PERCEPTIONS OF TODAY’S YOUNG
GENERATION ABOUT MEANINGFUL
LEARNING OF STEM
Dagnija Cedere, Rita Birzina, Tamara Pigozne
University of Latvia, Latvia
E-mail: dagnija.cedere@lu.lv, rita.birzina@lu.lv, tamara.pigozne@lu.lv
Elena Vasilevskaya
Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
E-mail: vasileli@bsu.by
Abstract
The necessity of STEM knowledge is being more widely acknowledged as the priority in the development
of education; however, students lack sufficient knowledge and interest in the acquisition of STEM subjects.
Therefore, more attention should be paid to the teaching and learning methods that would correspond to
the contemporary young generation and that would facilitate meaningful learning of modern students.
Performing the survey of 256 students in Grades 10 – 12 of Latvia, students’ perceptions on how they
understand and interpret their STEM learning and methods used by teachers have been explored. The
questionnaire in the QuestionPro e-environment was designed according to the criteria describing
meaningful learning considering the peculiarities of the young generation. Respondents’ answers were
analyzed with the help of the SPSS program, using the methods of non-parametric statistics. Many
representatives of the young generation tend to avoid difficulties which confirms a typical feature of
this generation – to achieve an immediate result easily and quickly. These students also have a weaker
understanding about the importance of STEM that testifies the lack of the learning motivation. The
majority of students consider that it is necessary to acquire STEM only at school, failing to connect it with
the everyday life. The study describes the national context, yet the presented trends could be significant
also on the international level for understanding meaningful learning of STEM.
Keywords: meaningful learning, STEM education, teaching/learning methods, today’s new generation
Introduction

A person needs qualitative education to be able to realize oneself successfully in the
rapidly changing world of the future. It is the knowledge system that takes shape by adjusting
to new kinds of actions and means of communication being in a continuous self-development.
One of the most important and at the same time most complicated cornerstones in the 21st
century education is STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) (Berk, 2009;
Chin & Osborne, 2008).
When generations change, one has to be aware that each generation not only has its
own opinions but also its own values, motivation and attitude. Although there does not exist
strict, common opinion about the division of generations and criteria that define it, usually the
duration allotted to each generation lasts from fifteen to twenty years (Moore et al., 2017).
According to the generational theory also known as the Fourth Turning theory (Howe &
Strauss, 1997), all students of today belong to the Generation Y and Generation Z (Generation
Y, 1984-1999 year of birth and Generation Next or Z, 2000 - …… year of birth). Generation Y

Dagnija CEDERE, Rita BIRZINA, Tamara PIGOZNE, Elena VASILEVSKAYA. Perceptions of today’s young generation about
meaningful learning of STEM
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is also known as Millennial generation. There are still discussions whether it is possible to draw 921
a border between the Millennials and Generation Z. Both generations have much in common,
especially regarding the use of technology (computers, smart phones, and the Internet). Prensky
(2001) introduced the term “Digital Natives” to describe the representatives of the Millennium
generation. However, Generation Z members have been especially influenced by immersion in
technology since birth. Today’s students who belong to Generation Z use the digital environment
on everyday basis – social media, the services of immediate news exchange, social networks;
they use applications in their mobile gadgets that are continuously available. A great part of
students’ life happens and develops in the digital environment. “Digital Natives” think and
learn fundamentally differently owing to their experience in the digital world (Moore et al.,
2017). The 21st century is considered to be the beginning of the digital age – the age with
unprecedented advance of the progress of technologies and information explosion following
it. Although the Millennium and Z generations at present are ascribed to various differences
in opinions and behavior, yet the most important is the fact that today’s new generation, their
thinking and learning style are strongly affected by technologies and the strength of this impact
is ever growing (Kirschner & De Bruyckere, 2017; Seemiller & Grace, 2017).
The current educational context requires the transition from the dominant positive
behaviorism model that gives preference to mechanic learning and to cognitively constructivist
that would stimulate meaningful learning. This new paradigm allows students to construe
knowledge becoming creative and critically thinking citizens where students play an active role
not only learning about the product but through the process itself (metacognition). Learners'
knowledge construction and reconstruction of meanings requires that they should actively
integrate new knowledge with existing knowledge (González et al., 2001; Novak, 2002).World-
wide economic changes are forcing major changes in business and industry placing a premium
on the power and value of knowledge and new knowledge production. The necessity to develop
students’ higher order thinking skills becomes more and more topical (Darling-Hammond,
2020).
Research Problem
Education process has to change under the impact of the rapid spread of information
technologies. The internationally acknowledged skills necessary for life in the 21st century
include creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication,
collaboration, information management, effective use of technology, career and life skills, and
cultural awareness that are closely connected with the learning peculiarities of today’s new
generation. STEM domain is extremely intrinsic for the acquisition of the above-mentioned
skills. It is necessary to find new approaches, to seek an individual approach to every student
according to his or her needs in the teaching/learning process (Beers, 2011, Sharples et al.,
2016) to make the acquisition of STEM meaningful at school.
Meaningful acquisition of science and mathematics means not only connecting the
content knowledge of learning with the real life examples and problem situations but also deep
understanding of learning by focusing on projects and problems. Meaningful learning helps
students to understand and develops their thinking. The use of technologies gives students an
opportunity to access, analyze, organize and share the information to be acquired with others,
choosing independently applications that are the most appropriate for them. Thus, the student
functions not only in a reproductive way as the consumer of information but also becomes
productive – the creator of knowledge (Beers
The knowledge of the STEM subject domain rests on the understanding of nature
phenomena/processes, evidence, data and observations. This means that a student has to
perform practical experiments, has to be able to evaluate and interpret the obtained data and be

meaningful learning of STEMlearning of STEM
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922 able to draw conclusions (Lederman et al., 2002). The acquisition of science in the laboratory
is connected not only with the argumentation and formation of scientific substantiation of
statements but also students’ attitude, conditions of effective learning, students’ ideas about
the teaching/learning environment, social interaction and differences in learning styles and
cognitive abilities (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004).
At present, there are contradictions between the years’ old customary approach of
teaching science and the new education development trends, the expansively developing
digital environment and schools’ infrastructure, the student who has adjusted to the digital
environment and the teacher who has to manage to adapt to these changes. Thus, when
organizing the teaching/learning process the teacher should adjust to the needs of the new
generation and in the acquisition of STEM the teacher should concentrate on the development
of higher order thinking applying technologies in the context of the teaching/learning process,
e-communication and collaboration.
As confirmed by previously performed studies, students’ interest in STEM is low which,
in turn, causes the decrease in the level of knowledge (Potvin & Hasni, 2014). Studies show
that first year students in higher education institutions encounter difficulties with science
subjects and mathematics because they do not have sufficient preliminary knowledge in these
subjects (Birzina & Cedere, 2017; Birzina et al., 2019). Learning of science and mathematics
presents serious difficulties to the majority of today’s students, thus the level of their knowledge
decreases (Mahmoud, 2018; Playfoot, 2017). It is possible that insufficiency of knowledge
is determined by the fact that the teaching/learning process fails to use real life examples
and hands-on experience (Fadzil et al., 2019; Tsaparlis, 2020). However, in literature there
are few broader studies on the connection between students’ perception about STEM and the
peculiarities of them as the contemporary young generation.
Research Focus
Modern students are open to changes; they adjust quickly to them and are oriented to
themselves and their needs (Rubene, 2018). Differently from the previous generation, they
do not like the feeling of "being taught" and they try to learn to be the master of the situation
therefore it is advisable to ensure the teaching/learning environment that would stimulate self-
directed, self-managed learning. This means that a teacher has to focus on the individualized
teaching/learning process. The new generation prefers a more inclusive environment therefore
they need to be ensured by strong peer learning and group work. They are focused on
acquiring practical skills that are needed for the concrete situation and life, therefore the STEM
acquisition has to include practical activities that are connected with the solution of real life
situations (Howell et al., 2009). In order to ensure student appropriate learning, the process
should include diverse learning strategies, suitable technologies, project- and problem-based
learning, the integration of interdisciplinary topics, enquiry-based and practical cognitive
activities, students’ collaboration, high levels of visualization and the use of visuals to increase
the understanding and giving immediate feedback, including the student’s self-assessment. The
teacher’s role in the 21st century classroom changes from the knowledge provider, an “expert”
to the learning “facilitator”, and the teaching/learning approach shifts from “knowing” to being
able to use and apply information in relevant ways (Beers, 2011).
The most important of all the elements of the teaching/learning process are planning
(programming), implementation (activities) and assessment (the acquisition of skills or
competencies). It is exactly the assessment, using such methods as Portfolio and incubator
(Pollard, 2018), that in this new education scenario has the key role in promoting continuous
improvements and eliminating the shortcomings (Godino et al., 2013).
The new generation prefers an inclusive environment – the orientation to teamwork and

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collaboration is the desired teaching/learning environment of today’s students that ensures 923
strong peer learning. They see their success in group dynamics because independent work is
connected with greater risk of personal failure giving preference to collaboration in projects, in
solving practical situations, in exploring cases, to simulations in role plays using multimedia
and social learning platforms (Seemiller & Grace, 2017; Swanzen, 2018). However,) maintain
that modern new generation prefers working alone and they sometimes lack creativity. These
students more willingly seek precise references and examples to follow and at the same time
they consider themselves to be thinking, open and responsible persons. A clear and concrete aim
that shows the sense for self-development thus building the motivation for learning is important
for today’s students (Nel, 2017). The possibility to use their own digital gadgets in the learning
process which ensures the access to learning tools and materials that they consider the most
appropriate for fulfilling their personal learning needs necessary for gaining a meaningful and
binding learning experience, corresponds to their needs and interests (Rosen, 2010; Tapscott,
2009).
The peculiarities of each new generation present challenges to teachers’ professionalism.
The studies performed in Latvia have a philosophical perspective and they are more related to
the social environment than the teaching/learning process (Rubene, 2018). The organization
of the STEM teaching/learning process and methods in relation with the peculiarities of the
new generation have been little studied in Latvia. The question to what extent the school today
ensures the STEM teaching/learning process according to the peculiarities and needs of the
new generation and whether the teaching strategies and methods are effective, and learning is
meaningful is still open. The performed study on students’ opinion puts forward the following
research questions:
• How do students perceive STEM learning at school?
• How does the STEM teaching/learning process correspond to the peculiarities of the
modern new generation?
General Background
The problems that exist in the acquisition of STEM are connected with the teaching/
learning in which the gap develops between the ideally organized meaningful learning and
students’ learning that takes place in reality. In order to explore it, the study looks at students’
perception of STEM learning from the point of view of their personal gains as well as the aspects
of the awareness of learning difficulties, the use of teaching/learning methods and strategies, the
use of technologies, collaboration, communication and receiving the feedback.
A study is based on students’ survey that describes the learning of STEM at school.
Students’ answers are analyzed in the context of intergenerational change in relation to
peculiarities of the contemporary young generation. Grade 10 – 12 students from Latvian
schools participated in the survey. Continuing the previous study (Cedere et al., 2019), students’
perceptions and learning habits have been interpreted more profoundly. Respondents’ answers
have been analyzed with the SPSS program, applying the methods of non-parametric statistics.
The study was conducted in 2017.
Sample
The participants of the study were Grade 10 - 12 students from general comprehensive
schools, including secondary schools and gymnasia, of Latvia that learn according to the
common Latvian National curriculum (mathematics from Grade 1 and biology, physics and

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924 chemistry from Grade 7 or 8). There can be a greater number of lessons in some of the subjects
of the STEM domain in gymnasia (differing from secondary schools) which depends on the
respective profile of the school or class. The school profile was not considered in the study.
Schools involved in the study represent all regions of Latvia.
256 students from secondary schools and gymnasia of Latvia learning in Grade 10 (n=96;
37%), 11 (n=112; 44%) and 12 (n=48; 19%) participated in the study. Of the total number of
respondents 161 (63%) are female and 95 (37%) male students. The average age of respondents
is 17.3 years. The sample is appropriate to describe the general trends and problems in the
teaching/learning process of STEM.
The questionnaire of the survey is designed based on the research ideas of authors from
different countries (Berk, 2009; Chin & Osborne, 2008; DiLullo, 2015; Grabinger & Dunlap,
1995; Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; Lederman et al., 2002) and the previous studies of the article’s
authors about learning of STEM at school (Cedere et al., 2018; Birzina et al., 2019).
The questionnaire is designed taking into account two aspects – characteristic features
of a meaningful STEM teaching/learning process and learning peculiarities of today’s young
generation by employing closed-open questions using 5-point Likert scale (from 1-strongly
disagree to 5-strongly agree). The reliability of the questionnaire according to Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient was 0.94.
Students participated in the survey on the voluntary principle; they filled in the
questionnaire in the online platform of QuestionPro. Teachers of the involved schools helped
to organize the survey acting as mediators and sending their students the link to the electronic
questionnaire.
According to the theoretical basis of the research, six criteria characterizing students’
learning and indicators that correspond to these criteria have been defined (Table 1). 43 questions
of the questionnaire were used in the data analysis.
Table 1
Criteria and Indicators Characterizing Meaningful STEM Learning According to Learning
Peculiarities of Today’s New Generation
Code Criteria Indicators

C1 Personal benefits Interest and motivation. Knowledge and skills. Usefulness in a real life situation.
Learning methods and Active learning. Projects. Formation of argumentation skills. Experimental and
C2
strategies practical works. Visualization. Problem solving. Creativity.
Collaboration and Expressing personal opinion and listening to others’ opinions. Discussions. Team
C3
communication work. Collaboration in project work.
E-class. Searching for information in the internet. Use of Microsoft Office

C4 Use of technologies applications. Use of the interactive board. Use of E-study materials. Chats,
forums and e-mail. Social networks. Video.
Teacher’s assessment. Self-assessment. Assessing the classmate. Receiving the

C5 Feedback
assessment from the classmate.
C6 Learning difficulties Tests and taking them. Unwillingness to make an effort.

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Data Analysis 925
The Cronbach’s alpha test was used for internal consistency of the questionnaire. One
sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test helped to test that data followed a normal distribution. As
the empirical data did not follow the normal distribution then Spearman's correlation analysis
was used to determine the relations of the variables. The Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to
determine whether there were statistically significant differences between several groups of
respondents. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare differences between two groups
of respondents.
Research Results
Having surveyed the students, the results gained from the questionnaires were first
analyzed according to the criteria characterizing the new generation, then separate factors were
looked upon in detail which revealed the most essential features of learning and allowed judging
about the possibilities of further improvement of the teaching/learning process.
Analysis of the Criteria of the STEM Teaching/Learning Process
The Cronbach’s alpha value .94 testifies to the good consistency of the questionnaire
items in general. The Cronbach’s alpha values calculated for describing the internal consistency
of each separate criterion are presented in Table 2. Looking at the summarized data per criterion,
one can see that respondents, in general, have different features characteristic to today’s new
generation. This is proved by the mean value M of answers that according to all criteria on
the 5- point scale is above “3” (Table 2). Criteria C1 – C5 indicate that teachers’ methods and
strategies of teaching and the teaching/learning environment in general are oriented to the young
generation and students approve of the teaching/learning in STEM domain at school. However,
the criterion C6 (M = 3.19; SD = 0.98) proves that the majority of students are unwilling to make
an effort when learning. Such a conclusion resulted also from the previously performed studies
in Latvia. (Cēdere et al., 2018); thus, it is possible to consider that evasion from difficulties, the
propensity to fast and easy result is a characteristic feature of today’s students which greatly
burdens the acquisition of the s. c. “hard” subjects - chemistry, physics and mathematics.
Table 2
Internal Consistency of Criteria and Their Mean Values (N = 256)
Criteria Cronbach-α M SD
C1 Personal benefits .75 3.41 0.94
C2 Learning methods and strategies .82 3.48 0.89
C3 Collaboration and communication .73 3.39 0.88
C4 Use of technologies .68 3.26 1.10
C5 Feedback .73 3.20 0.94
C6 Learning difficulties .69 3.19 0.98
The correlation analysis shows the mutual relations of the criteria characterizing
students’ learning. As the distribution of data did not correspond to the normal distribution,
then Spearman's correlation coefficients were used (Table 3). Average to high correlation
was observed among the criteria C1, C2, C3 and C5. There existed high correlation between
the student’s personal benefits, teacher’s methods of teaching and possibilities for student’s

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926 collaboration and communication during learning (rs = .62, rs =.53 and rs = .58 respectively).
These correlations confirmed that learning was personally significant for students if the teaching
methods were directed to active learning.
If the young generation is more or less considered to be the “digital natives” then
surprisingly the use of technologies (C4) correlates only on average with the student’s personal
benefits (rs = .33), learning methods (rs = .38) and communication (rs = .40).
Table 3
Correlations among Criteria that Describe Meaningful STEM Learning
Criteria C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
C1 Personal benefits 1 .62** .53** .33** .37** -.27**
C2 Learning methods and strategies 1 .58** .38** .47** -.17**
C3 Collaboration and communication 1 .40** .54** -.10
C4 Use of technologies 1 .49** .08
C5 Feedback 1 .04
C6 Learning difficulties 1
** Correlation is significant at .01 level (2-tailed).
The criterion C6 (learning difficulties), should be specifically noted as it has no

pronounced correlation with other criteria (Table 3). One can judge that irrespective of how
positively the student has assessed some teaching/learning activity it still has not caused high
enough cognitive interest. This is the general trend; however, the average strong negative
correlation between C6 and C1 (rs = -.27) points to the purposefulness, namely, for the learning
to be personally significant the student needs to make an effort.
Comparison of Students’ Learning per Groups of Grades
In order to compare students’ perception per groups of grades, the Kruskal-Wallis test
(Table 4) was used. No significant differences among students from different grades were stated.
The identified differences about some items can be mainly connected with the differences in the
teaching/learning content among the groups of grades as well as different approaches used by
teachers according to the age of their students.

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Table 4 927
Parameters Describing Meaningful Learning: Comparison per Grades
Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Total

n=96 n=112 n=48 N=256
χ2 df p
Question
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
2.3. Development of skills and

3.74 (0.95) 3.35 (0.98) 3.62 (0.79) 3.55 (0.95) 10.70 2 .005
creative abilities
3.12. Problem solving skills 3.60 (0.83) 3.47 (0.85) 3.50 (0.83) 3.53 (0.84) 1.89 2 .388
4.5. Science is not useful in
2.64 (0.95) 2.84 (1.05) 2.65 (1.10) 2.73 (1.02) 3.21 2 .201
everyday life
4.9. STEM is important only
2.81 (0.99) 2.74 (1.05) 2.75 (1.08) 2.77 (1.03) 0.93 2 .954
at school
4.13. Real life situations in
3.51 (0.88) 3.26 (1.01) 3.44 (0.99) 3.39 (0.96) 3.43 2 .180
lessons
4.14. Interest in science 3.46 (0.95) 3.05 (1.09) 3.17 (0.83) 3.23 (1.01) 7.29 2 .026
6.4. Tests are difficult 3.41 (0.85) 3.38 (1.09) 3.46 (0.97) 3.40 (0.98) .50 2 .781
4.1. Prior knowledge 3.46 (0.88) 3.24 (0.93) 3.25 (0.98) 3.32 (0.93) 2.87 2 .238
4.2. Experience 3.61 (0.86) 3.47 (0.90) 3.58 (0.85) 3.55 (0.88) 1.93 2 .382
4.11. My thoughts are
3.78 (0.74) 3.46 (0.85) 3.60 (0.89) 3.61 (0.83) 9.54 2 .008
respected
6.13. Possibility of self-
3.02 (1.07) 2.96 (1.02) 3.23 (0.86) 3.03 (1.01) 2.88 2 .237
assessment
6.14. Possibility to assess
2.78 (1.08) 2.71 (0.99) 2.98 (1.06) 2.79 (1.04) 3.05 2 .218
classmates
6.15. Possibility to receive
2.71 (1.13) 2.67 (1.01) 2.83 (1.04) 2.71 (1.06) 1.12 2 .571
classmates’ assessment
Grade 11 students have a more critical attitude to science and mathematics and lower
mean values of answers in comparison with grade 10 and Grade 12 students serve as evidence
to that. The attention is drawn to the fact that respondents from all grades assess relatively
low (M = 2.73) the usefulness of the STEM knowledge and skills acquired at school in their
everyday life although teachers in science lessons use the real life situations (M = 3.39) and
science learning rather attracts than not students’ interest and students in general feel good in
lessons (M = 3.23).
It is characteristic that assessment is important for today’s students – both the assessment
given by the teacher and the classmate, as well as the assessment as a process, also the exchange
of thoughts with classmates and the teacher is important. Students, mainly, have had a possibility
to assess themselves (M = 3.03), there have been less possibilities to assess the classmates and
to receive the classmates’ assessment (M = 2.79 and 2.71 respectively).
The Factor “Learning Difficulties” Affecting the Learning
In order to obtain more information about students’ unwillingness to make an effort and
its impact on STEM learning, two groups of respondents were singled out: group A comprising
students who considered that it is not difficult to learn STEM and group B – that learning is
difficult. The Mann-Whitney U test was used for comparing the groups, and according to it
statistically significant differences between the two groups can be observed (Table 5).

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928 Table 5
Comparison of the practical importance of learning STEM
M Mann-
Whitney p
Question Group A Group B U
n = 80 n = 51
2.3. Learning develops my skills and creative abilities 3.64 3.33 1612.0 .030
3.12. Learning develops my problem solving and thinking skills 3.70 3.25 1553.5 .010
4.5. Usually science topics that are acquired at school are not
2.55 2.96 1563.0 .019
useful for everyday life
4.9. I think that it is important to acquire science and mathematics
2.51 3.08 1442.5 .003
only at school
4.14. Learning science at school is interesting for me and allows
3.46 2.84 1388.5 .001
me feeling good
6.4. Usually tests in science are difficult 3.19 3.67 1420.5 .002
Group A assesses higher than group B the importance of learning science and mathematics
in the development of their skills (2.3 and 3.12); however, they do not express conviction
about the usefulness of the acquired skills in everyday life (4. 5 and 4.9). Group B has a more
pronounced lack of learning motivation because students belonging to this group consider that
STEM is needed only at school (4.9).
Another group of questions describes the teacher’s action. Regarding teaching methods,
the methods that are directed towards students’ active participation are assessed the highest:
teacher acting as a consultant (M = 3.75, SD = 0.88), the use of experiments (M = 3.54, SD =
0.96), the use of practical, everyday life connected examples in the lessons (M = 3.89, SD =
0.79). Despite the diversity of the used methods and ensuring possibilities for students’ active
learning, one third (32%) of all respondents consider that the content of lessons is of little use
in everyday life (4.5 and 4.9). This, as if a contradiction, can be explained by the tendency
characteristic to modern students for a fast, immediate result and unwillingness to go into depth
in the content of learning.
Discussion
The results of the study proved that in general students of the new generation understood
the role of STEM subjects and the relatively high mean values of respondents’ answers
served as evidence to this. The majority of students saw the link between the knowledge and
skills acquired at school with the everyday life and they expressed the willingness to engage
actively in the teaching/learning process at school. The identified sharp differences in students’
perception testified that different students perceive STEM learning and its role in their future
life rather differently.
Comparing the current study with previous studies (Cedere et al., 2018) which have
concluded that students’ interest in STEM domain is insufficient, it also indicates problems in
this sphere. Students acknowledged the diversity of teaching methods that made the lessons
interesting and exciting, yet at the same time this interest often did not go beyond the lesson and
was not effective, productive (the statement “Acquiring science and mathematics is important
only at school” M = 2.77, SD = 1.03).
The modern young generation is characterized by their ability to adjust to the new
conditions and to react to the fast and diverse stimuli. Differently from the three “r” (reading,
writing, and rithmetic) characterizing the learning of the older generation, this generation is

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characterized by other three “r”- rigor, relevance, and real world skills (McCoog, 2008). The 929
principles mentioned in our study clearly come into sight in the methods used by teachers yet
not in the students’ understanding, for they do not always perceive the importance of STEM
lessons in real life.
Studies have been performed about the impact of technologies on the functioning of
human brain. It has been found that the thinking of young people whose life is spent under the
impact of internet and digital gadgets has changed. The fragmented information that a person
receives simultaneously through several channels hinders the concentration on one task for
a longer period of time (multitasking). Besides, if the information to be obtained does not
require deep logical processing, its receivers gradually lose the ability to think logically and to
abstract. Students’ multitasking behavior can be easily seen – both in lessons and in practical
classes they are regularly busy with the “on the side things”, in laboratory works they desire an
immediate result; they quickly forget the obtained information, they are unable to concentrate
for a longer time when doing the task (Kirschner & De Bruyckere, 2017; Rosen, 2010). These
studies coincide with the results of the questionnaire (short-lived interest, unwillingness to
make an effort, tests are difficult) and mark the direction of further pedagogical solutions so
that the teaching/learning process could be realized according to the peculiarities of the modern
new generation.
According to DiLullo (2015), the teaching/learning process should keep learners focused
with the engagement in active learning, offering multitask activities (e.g., reading of the text,
surfing the net and gaming tasks at the same time). This could promote concentration when
learning. Also giving frequent and immediate feedback can ease the focusing on learning. As
students are oriented to the use of technologies and collaboration in team, then receiving the
feedback can happen through interactive social discourse. The interaction of group members,
irrespective of whether it is physical or virtual always stimulates the student’s motivation to
learn. As the new generation is kinesthetic, experiential, hands-on learners, they prefer learning
by doing not reading texts or manuals (Berk, 2009). This means that they try to connect the
acquired knowledge with practical situations and the real life uses.
A very significant aspect in the STEM domain is learning that is based on the constructivist
approach where great importance is laid on the skill to construe connected knowledge. The
performed survey shows that a part of students have insufficiently developed critical thinking
skills; besides, no differences were identified among students of different grades. New generation
students have unprecedented access to information, but they need help forming a meaningful
framework to understand and process this information (Moore et al., 2017).
Although students of Latvia highly approve their digital skills, the use of different
technologies in learning is rather limited. Another study (Birzina & Pigozne, 2020) confirms
that there are problems with the use of the STEM specific technologies (data registration
and processing systems, computer simulations of experiments). Students’ answers prove
that schools use social nets and on-line discussions relatively little for the teaching/learning
purposes. Unfortunately, school resources not always give the possibility to use technologies
to full capacity during the lessons. Students use them mainly reproductively – for searching the
information, preparing the presentations, not for constructing new knowledge. This means that
the assessment of the impact of technologies needed for the acquisition of science in STEM
education still is provisional and allows drawing the conclusion that the teacher encounters
difficulties in ensuring a meaningful use of technologies for students in the teaching/learning
process.

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The new generation of today is open to changes and ready for new challenges that
are presented by the 21st century with the rapid spread of information technologies. Being
conscientious and purposeful, the representatives of this generation in general can assess the
importance of STEM in their further advancement. However, a part of students who participated
in the survey were found to be unable to delve into the essence of things and they have the
desire for an immediate and easy result.
Students, in general, approve of the STEM teaching/learning process. The teacher’s
role has changed, the diverse teaching/learning methods have created a pleasant learning
environment for students. Students are active participants of the teaching/learning process, they
have a possibility to receive the feedback. The use of technologies is especially important for
them and they are convinced about their digital skills. The teaching and learning organized
in such a way corresponds to the peculiarities of the new generation proving that technology
resources are accessible to all students for learning needs.
It is possible to observe that accepting and acknowledging the learning peculiarities
characteristic to their generation, the majority of students undervalue the importance of STEM
in their future life and consider that they need to learn STEM only at school.
The differences in students’ perception serve as evidence that there are problems related
to STEM subjects that emphasize students’ diversity, differences in their thinking, views and
learning styles achieving that STEM learning becomes meaningful and personally significant
for every student.
Limitation of the Study
There may be some possible limitations in this study. The use of students’ sample was
restrictive because teachers offered filling in the questionnaire to a concrete class, thus, the
population of the study included respondents with a similar profile. Teachers, mainly those
working in gymnasia, volunteered to be the mediators, thus the gymnasia students prevailed in
the survey. The research allows considering that the obtained results can be more interpreted
as positive and the situation in all schools of Latvia could be different. Therefore, the research
data describe the concrete sample.
Continuing the study, the researchers intend to compare the perceptions of students and
teachers in order to gain a more comprehensive idea about the situation in teaching/learning
STEM. Although it is difficult to generalize the research data of the current study and they
describe more the national context, yet the characteristic trends could be important also on the
international level for understanding meaningful acquisition of STEM.
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Received: September 28, 2020 Accepted: December 03, 2020
Cite as: Cedere, D., Birzina, R., Pigozne, T., & Vasilevskaya, E. (2020). Perceptions of
today’s young generation about meaningful learning of STEM. Problems of Education in the
21st Century, 78(6), 920-932. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.920
Dr.chem., Leading Researcher, University of Latvia, Jelgavas Str. 1, LV-1004,

Riga, Latvia.
Dagnija Cedere
E-mail: dagnija.cedere@lu.lv
(Corresponding author)
Website: https://www.lu.lv
Dr. paed., Leading Researcher, University of Latvia, Jelgavas Str. 1, LV-1004,
Riga, Latvia.
Rita Birzina E-mail: rita.birzina@lu.lv
Dr. paed., Leading Researcher, University of Latvia, Imantas linija 7/1, LV–
1083, Riga, Latvia.
Tamara Pigozne
E-mail: tamara.pigozne@lu.lv
Dr.chem., Associate Professor, Belarusian State University, Nezavisimosti
avenue 4, 220030, Minsk, Republic of Belarus.
Elena Vasilevskaya
E-mail: vasileli@bsu.by
Website: https://bsu.by

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ANALYSIS OF PRE-SERVICE FOREIGN 933
LANGUAGE TEACHERS’ INCORRECT

ARTICULATIONS: FREQUENCY,
INFLUENCE ON COMMUNICATION, AND A
SPECIFIC CORRECTIVE STRATEGY
Coral I. Hunt-Gómez, Macarena Navarro-Pablo
University of Seville, Spain
E-mail: coralhuntg@us.es, mnp@us.es
Abstract
English Foreign Language (EFL) teachers need to be especially aware of their own articulatory errors
and to manage strategies to overcome them. A specific corrective strategy using phonetic notation to
destabilise the most recurrent articulatory errors to be applied to Spanish pre-service English Primary
School teachers is presented. Firstly, the presence of incorrectly articulated sounds in a corpus of 238
minutes of recorded improvised production of 34 pre-service EFL teachers was identified. Incorrect
articulations were classified in two groups, those that presented a higher frequency were classified as
fossilised errors and those appearing only once were considered mistakes. A categorisation of the most
frequent articulatory errors and their possible origins was offered. Errors were also examined attending
the effect they posed on communication, if they hindered it, they were considered unintelligible. Results
showed that more than 80% of fossilised incorrect articulations were perfectly understandable and
did not disrupt communication. Even if these results can be considered positive, research shows that
pronunciation highly influences the learning process of other skills, and that it affects learners in terms
of confidence, social and work advancement. Therefore, to get rid of their own fossilised errors, future
teachers need effective pronunciation skills training strategies. For that reason, a specific error corrective
strategy based on phonetic notation and self-learning is proposed.
Keywords: EFL (English as a foreign language), higher education, second language acquisition, teacher
training
Introduction
An acceptable pronunciation in a foreign language is not only desirable but also one
of the skills a fluent speaker should manage, as a grammatically perfect utterance containing
pronunciation mistakes can present difficulties to be understood, or even, make the speaker be
perceived as less intelligent (Dlaska & Klekeler, 2008). A good comprehensible pronunciation
is thought to help L2 learners to keep improving, as it benefits integration process into the L2
speakers' community (Robertson, 2003) and, as a logical consequence of that integration, L2
speakers improve their communicative competence (Fraser, 1999). Even if it has been proved
that pronunciation has an impact in communication and perception, it has been overlooked
in most Primary Education schools in Spain (Riquelme Gil et al., 2017). Even if the origin of
this situation remains unclear, it can be connected with way L2 which has been traditionally
taught in Spain, that is, in an artificial environment using restricted input and without many
opportunities for practicing; often without applying any particular pedagogical methodology
and without a real communicative purpose. What is undeniable is that, even if the advance
of English as a lingua franca has been reflected in the implementation of English-Spanish

Coral I. HUNT-GÓMEZ, Macarena NAVARRO-PABLO. Analysis of pre-service foreign language teachers’ incorrect articulations:
Frequency, influence on communication, and a specific corrective strategy
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934 bilingual programmes in Primary Education Centres, foreign language teachers in Spain still
have room for improvement, and, as stated in the scientific literature, this is particularly true
when dealing with fossilized errors at a phonological level.
The fact that pre-service Primary teachers, specifically those in their final year inscribed
at the English as a Foreign Language specialty, present repeated phonological errors is
intriguing and disturbing at the same time. Despite having received linguistic training for more
than a decade, the production of these teachers still contains fossilized errors that have not
been remedied. This leads to the conclusion that pre-service teachers lack awareness of their
own phonological errors as well as strategies to correct them, but it also points to the worrying
conclusion that these phonological errors are probably going to be transferred to their future
students.
The research had a two-fold aim. First, it was necessary to identify and analyse the most
frequent articulatory errors to be applied to Spanish pre-service EFL teachers for them to be
aware of their errors. The second aim was to provide them with a specific systematic corrective
strategy using phonetic notation to destabilise their errors. For that purpose, the presence of
articulatory errors in the improvised oral production of 34 last-year students of the Primary
Education degree was corroborated. Incorrect articulations were classified considering different
perspectives. From a communicative perspective, two groups were established: unintelligible
-hampering-communication- and intelligible-non-hampering communication. From the
pedagogical perspective punctual mistakes were differentiated from fossilised incorrect
articulations, denominated errors. Highly recurrent fossilised errors were identified and
analysed in order to provide possible explanations for their persistence in terms of contrastive
articulatory phonetics and communication achievement. This information allowed us to select
the appropriate corrective strategy.
The following research questions were addressed: RQ1) Are non-correctly articulated
sounds present in Spanish pre-service English Primary School teachers’ natural improvised
oral production? RQ2) Are they punctual mistakes or persistent fossilised errors? RQ3) What
articulatory fossilised errors present a higher frequency? Are there any articulatory errors
more frequent than others for Spanish speakers? RQ4) Do they hamper communication? How
does communication achievement influence the persistence of fossilised articulatory errors
in Spanish pre-service English Primary School teachers’ natural improvised oral production?
Finally, a proposal for a specific corrective strategy is presented with the double aim to have it
applied to the subjects examined as well as to their future students.
Literature Review
Pronunciation, the Cinderella of EFL Teaching
Even if pronunciation is generally recognized as an important integrative part of the

mastering of a language in the field of EFL teaching, it has been considered a neglected skill.
This area has been ignored in many training programmes and teaching materials and in the EFL
classroom in general (Baker & Murphy, 2011; Derwing & Munro, 2005; Gilner, 2008; Kelly,
1969, p. 87).
Many reasons have caused pronunciation to be overlooked. To start with, pronunciation
has received different degrees of attention depending on the teaching method used at a time.
In the 70´s behaviouristic methods gave way to communicative approaches and consequently,
the importance of pronunciation errors lost presence in favour of fluency, rather than accuracy,
fostering authentic communicative situations. From the communicative approach, pronunciation
was perceived to be more related to accuracy (Breitreutz et al. 2001) and communicative based
approaches also favoured a descending pronunciation system, considering aspects such as

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rhythm, stress sentence and intonation (Mompean & Lintunen, 2015, p. 293). Kelly (2000) 935
attributed this inattention to the fact that teaching pronunciation is a complex matter, which
lacks a sound didactic foundation and teaching materials.
Despite being the Cinderella of EFL, from a pedagogical perspective, evidence suggests
that pronunciation influences the learning process of other language skills. Learning to listen
can be crucial for new methodologies such as Problem Based Learning (Remedios, et al.
2012). In line with this, pronunciation improvement has been considered beneficial to listening
ability, as when someone is listening there is a constant assessment of delivery (Underhill,
2005). Goswami (2000), and also Wood and Farrington-Flint (2002) established a link between
pronunciation, spelling, and reading proved by orthographic analogies employed when reading,
i.e., the ability to read new words applying knowledge used for reading already known words.
Likewise, phonological skills also improve spelling abilities, as they make the L2 learner aware
of the different sounds. Reading ability has also been related to phonological skills, as phonemic
processing strategies are required for reading (Birch, 2011). A recent study concluded that the
coordination of auditory and visual components helps EFL learning (Teng, 2019). Reinforcing
this statement, Walter (2009) highlighted that comprehension skills are language-independent
and that, consequently, they cannot be transferred from native language (L1) to L2. In addition,
the researcher claimed that L2 readers achieving good reading comprehension were able to
access their already acquired mental structures from the L2 (Walter, 2009).
Another aspect that should be considered from the pedagogical perspective is that
pronunciation poses a great deal of influence on learners' confidence. Poor pronunciation can
threaten learners' self-confidence and hamper social communication (Morley, 1998). Varasarin
(2007) stated that many L2 learners considered pronunciation a matter of importance and
wished to receive training. For L2 basic-level students, pronunciation was considered a major
barrier when trying to be understood and that had negative consequences on their self-esteem
(Brawn, 2010). From a social perspective, pronunciation affects the way in which L2 speakers
are perceived as a “poor pronunciation degrades good language skills and condemns learners
to less than their deserved social, academic and work advancement” (Varasarin, 2007, p. 45).
Pronunciation and Intelligibility
It is generally acknowledged that good pronunciation facilitates communication and

fosters intelligibility (Varasarin, 2007). Intelligibility may generally be determined by how well
a speaker is understood; and, in many occasions, this concept has been directly associated to
accentedness, a term coined by Munro and Derwing (1999) to refer to the manner in which
a native speaker sounds. Thus, if an L2 speaker aims to be understood in the best possible
way, seeking for accentedness may seem the logical option. However, the association between
accentedness and intelligibility is not a straight one as it can be influenced by many factors. The
most obvious example of influencing factor is the physical conditions of the place where the
listener is receiving the input, posing a tremendous influence on intelligibility results (isolation,
use of headphones, background noises, etc.). Other factors that may affect intelligibility are the
listener's ease of understanding, the influence of the language background, if the listener shares
L1 with the speaker and if the listener is aware of the context (Behram, 2017).
It can be stated that a non-native accent is a communication difference characterized by
phonetic and phonological features and it systematically differs from those of native speakers
(Behrman, 2017, p. 2), yet it may not always affect intelligibility. As intelligibility has been
proved to be a complex concept that can be influenced by many factors, throughout this paper,
the concept is going to be reduced to its effects on communication.

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936 Advanced Learners with Repeated Phonological Errors
Despite being advanced learners, some speakers present enduring phonological errors in
their production in L2 that are incongruent with their other linguistic skills. In order to research
this phenomenon, several aspects of Error Analysis (EA) applied to L2 teaching have to be
taken into account, as well as the concept of interlanguage, the difference between fossilised
and stabilised errors, and their repercussion to teacher training.
Here, it becomes necessary to establish a distinction between mistakes, which are “punctual
lapses in the performance”, and errors, which are “systematic deviation from a selected norm
or set of norms” (Dulay, et al. 1982) that reflects an inadequate competence (Norrish, 1987, p.
7). The analysis of errors in L2 teaching has been widely studied from several perspectives. In
the past, teachers considered errors something to be avoided. Applied Linguistics helped this
notion evolved, and, from the '70s onward, errors have been treated as indicators of the learners'
progress, and are deemed essential for hypothesis testing (Selinker, 1972).
Nearly ten years ago, three practical applications of EA were established: identifying
learning strategies; the causes of errors; and common difficulties in order to be dealt with
(Richards & Schmidt, 2010). In this line, during the last decades, studies of L2 acquisition
have analysed learners’ errors to prevent difficulties in the learning process and design remedial
exercises and to focus more attention on problematic features. For that purpose, EA compares
errors made in the target language with the target language itself, and also considers possible
interferences of the speakers’ L1 in the L2 learning process. Ferguson (1965) pointed out that
one of the major problems in the learning of an L2 is the interference caused by the structural
differences between the native language of the learner and the L2. An interlingual transfer
from the L1 to the L2 takes place because the learner’s deep knowledge of rules needs to be
modified and this modification does not merely affect formal properties but also the way in
which the speaker conceptualizes the reality (countable or uncountable nouns, gender assigned
to words…), which requires a serious conceptual restructuring (Lucy, 1992).
While this restructuration is taking place, the learner is installed in a stage which Selinker
(1972) named interlanguage which “reflects the learner’s evolving system of rules, and results
from a variety of processes, including the influence of the first language (transfer), contrastive
interference from the target language, and the overgeneralization of newly encountered rules”
(Cristal, 1997). According to Han (2004, p. 168) transfer is an “an unconscious process, driven
by L1-based thinking for speaking systems, whereby the L1 specific way of verbalizing one’s
conceptualization of experience finds its expression in the interlanguage production and
comprehension”.
As some aspects from L1 are not positively transferred into L2, in the linguistic state
called interlanguage, some new forms in-between L1 and L2 appear, which Selinker (1972)
named fossilisations. In 1992, Corder established four different types of stages in the analysis
of linguistic transfer; pre-systemic, emerging, systematic, and post systematic. He claimed
that only those were to be considered fossilised errors persisting in the discourse of advanced
learners, which occur at a post-systemic stage when the system is consolidated, and the learner
is fluent and communicatively competent. However, the concept of fossilisation has received
different interpretations in the last decades. According to the Fossilisation Hypothesis (Selinker
1972, p. 224), the L2 learning process is inevitably linked to an incomplete command of the
language and fossilised units indicate the existence of parallel features in three spheres: the L1,
the L2, and the interlanguage. Fossilisation means that a general command of an L2 has not been
achieved, and this can occur in different degrees to the same person depending on the situations.
Thus, fossilisation has been defined as a generalised phenomenon, based on the influence of
L1, which becomes more noticeable when learners are expressing their own thinking (Selinker
& Lakshmanan, 1992). However, as Richards already pointed out in 1971, not all errors in

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L2 are originated by interferences with the speaker’s native language; some are caused by 937
overgeneralization (Jakobovits & Lambert, 1961), ignorance of the rule restriction, incomplete
application of rules, false concepts hypothesized or weaknesses or failure of memory.
As in the case of L1 transfer, the germ of fossilisations has also been attributed to
restrictions regarding the learner’s maturity, instruction or attention; or attributed to the fact
that their presence still allows learners to satisfy their communicative necessities. Selinker
and Lakshmanan (1992) came to the conclusion that the origin of fossilisation resided in the
convergence of multiple factors and that two of them predisposed learners towards it: cognitive
maturity and L1 influence. The concept of fossilisation has recently been revised and the
result is a more pedagogically oriented definition of fossilisation as “an interlanguage-unique
phenomenon in which a semi-developed linguistic form or construction shows permanent
resistance to environmental influence and this fails to progress towards the target” (Han 2013,
p. 133).
According to Han's definition (2004, p. 170) for an error to be considered fossilised it
has to be learnt prematurely, and it has to persist despite the learners' continuous exposition
to L2 input, their adequate motivation, and sufficiency of practicing opportunities. Another
remarkable feature is that it has been proved that a higher degree of errors occurs when the
speaker participates in a natural improvised communicative discourse, identifying what they
call L1 thinking for L2 speaking as a possible cause for fossilisation and the frequent asymmetry
between L2 production and comprehension (De Keyser, 2005; Ellis 2006; Han & Lew, 2012;
Jiang 2011).
By its definition fossilisation is an irreversible process. However, Han (2011) identified a
reversible previous stage that he called stabilisation. He formulated three different stabilisation
phases: a natural slowing down in the learning process, an unrecovered restructuration
of mental representations, and a fossilisation prelude. This new categorisation supposes an
enormous advance in the field of EA and directly affects teachers, as it “enable [s] them to make
more effective changes to their practice and achieve better learning outcomes- the goal of L2
education” (Han 2013, p. 165).
EA Applied to EFL Teaching
One of the main practical results of EA applied to EFL teaching consists of the
identification of frequent mistakes among a specific group of learners' production in L2.
According to Gutiérrez-Oduber and Miquilena Matos (2009, p. 352), phonetic or phonological
are the most frequent type of error in L2 speakers. In their study they amounted for nearly 60%
of the total. In the case of Spanish as EFL speakers, from the EA perspective, several authors
have compiled their most frequent errors such as Catford (1987), Coe (1987), Avery and Ehrilch
(1992), Gleason, (2012) and Pronunciation (2013). Some of the most recurrent identified errors
are confusion between or unawareness of vowel sound articulatory positions, replacing /v/ by
/b/, lack of aspiration of plosive sounds, a tendency to de-voicing at the end of syllables, among
others.
Traditionally in oral practice, different ways of correcting errors have been used. The
taxonomy created by Lyster and Ranta (1977) covers several of the corrective techniques:
recast, elicitation, clarification request, metalinguistic clues, explicit correction and repetition.
Errors are part of the learning process and they allow current and future teachers, not
only their identification and correction but also the generation of mechanisms and strategies
to overcome them. Different authors have proposed strategies to eradicate errors in L2. Harley
(1993) regarded interlinguistic analysis as a helping tool to avoid fossilised errors; Tarone (2000)
opted for communication strategies and linguistic games to prevent fossilisation through the
destabilisation of the interlanguage and Johnson (1992) created a specific pedagogical strategy

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938 to help those advanced learners with fossilised errors improve. In a more updated analysis,
Pavón Vázquez (2001, p. 112) suggested strategies for those errors that are susceptible to be
corrected by means of instruction.
In 2015, Mompean and Lintunen explored the potential advantages of the use of phonetic
notation in language teaching and learning, and results showed that its use was perceived
positively by a majority of learners in terms of raising awareness of the L2 pronunciation
features and favouring autonomous learning. This initiative of applying phonetic notation in
EFL teaching and learning presents an excellent opportunity to develop a methodology to
destabilise errors in L2.
In the field of teacher training, despite Henderson (2013) denouncing insufficient teacher
phonological training in Europe; in the Spanish university system, in the Degree of Primary
Education students receive intensive phonological and pronunciation related training because
pronunciation is considered to be an essential part of the L2 curriculum and a fundamental
skill for the teaching practice. However, pre-service teachers do not have the tools to apply the
received phonological training (Gilbert, 2010).
Han’s (2013, p. 165) recommendations for the analysis of learners’ phonetic mistakes
using a corpus include the recordings of improvised situations in which students create their
discourse in a way that shows their real competence in communicative contexts, that is, the
study goes beyond sentence-levels and include contextualized, natural, discourse data.
General Background
This research is based on an emerging design in grounded theory (Creswell, 2012, p. 433),
as data were collected and immediately analysed with the aim of establishing a categorisation
of actual errors in a descriptive way. Even if the nature of video-recordings allowed the
researchers to be unobtrusive by not being present, an observational protocol was applied.
Three experts analysed the corpus and identified those sounds that were not correctly uttered,
then, classified them as intelligible or unintelligible. The three of them were EFL teachers with
more than 10 years of professional experience and a vast knowledge on phonetics. According
to the classification made by Bravo, et al. (2009), this study applied a prospective ex-post fact
methodology, as the interdependent variables cannot be manipulated and are to be studied to
determine their degree of influence. The research took place at the end of the year 2019.
Sample
A corpus of 238 minutes of improvised discourse was analysed. The corpus consisted
of the improvised oral production collected from 34 participants. 27 participants were women
and 7 men. All participants were Spanish native speakers. They were final-year students of
the Degree on Primary Education in the University of Seville during the academic year 2018-
2019. All subjects participated voluntarily, and their data were anonymised. Every participant
produced a lesson in English that lasted from 5 to 10 minutes. The lessons were recorded which
resulted in a corpus of recorded oral improvised production of 238 minutes, which corresponds
to the duration of the video recording.
The aforementioned corpus was viewed, and the incorrectly articulated sounds were
identified. Three different expert researchers performed data analysis and management.

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According to articulatory phonetics, they were divided into two main groups: vowels and 939
consonants. Once located, incorrectly articulated sounds were categorised following two of the
possible classifying ways established by Vazquez (1991, p. 21): pedagogical and communicative.
From a communicative perspective they were classified according to the effect they posed on
communication, those hampering communication were classified as unintelligible, and those not
hampering it were considered intelligible. From a pedagogical perspective and for the purpose
of the analysis, the frequency of the same incorrectly articulated sound was a decisive feature,
as only those errors that were present more than once were considered recurrent stabilised
errors.
Data Analysis
Collected data were statistically analysed. Means and standard deviations were calculated
with the purpose of identifying those articulatory fossilised errors that presented a higher
frequency. In order to contrast the differences between unintelligible and intelligible utterances,
a Chi-square test was performed.
Research Results
Those incorrectly articulated sounds that were present more than once were considered
recurrent stabilised errors. The results show a compendium of 19 recurrent stabilised errors
selected exprofeso and categorised in two different groups according to articulatory phonetics:
vowels, and consonants (Tables 1 and 2, respectively). In the first place, the frequency of errors
was analysed.
Table 1
Errors (vowels)
μ SD
/æ/ 0.53 0.74
/ə/ 1.12 0.84
/ɑː/ 0.59 0.85
/ɜː/ 1.03 0.87
/iː/ 0.59 0.78
/ɔː/ 0.53 0.82
/uː/ 0.44 0.66
/eɪ/ 0.44 0.74
/aɪ/ 0.24 0.55
/aʊə/ 0.24 0.49
/əʊ/ /aʊ/ /eə/ 0.35 0.73
/juː/ 0.50 0.86
/ɒ‎/ 0.24 0.55
/ʌ/ 1.06 0.95
Table 2
Errors (consonants)
μ SD
/‎ s‎/ 0.15 0.43
/v/ 1.21 0.91
/z‎/ 0.82 0.90
/tʃ/ /ʃ/ 0.35 0.69
De-voicing at the end of syllable 1.97 1.62

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940 Of those 19 errors, five present mean higher than 1: three vowels and two consonants. The
sounds /ə /, /ɜ:/ and /ʌ/ for the vowels and devoicing at the end of syllable and mispronouncing
the sound /v/ for the consonants.
Following Vázquez (1991, p. 21) communicative criteria, errors were categorised in
two groups. Table 3 shows the statistics for the intelligible and the unintelligible, the mean
of the intelligible being very superior. Chi-square for 1 degree of freedom is equal to 26.354,
corresponding to a level of significance of p < .001, so with a confidence level of 99.9 %, there
are statistically significant differences between the number of the intelligible and unintelligible
utterances.
Table 3
Errors Categorised according to the Communicative Criteria (Vázquez, 1991, p. 21).
Intelligible Non-intelligible
μ 11.50 2.82
SD 6.354 3.672
∑ 391 96
% 19.1 80.29
Discussion
Results provided by the present study regarding the presence of phonological errors
in advanced learners gave rise to several findings already observed by the researchers due
to their experience as teacher trainers assessing students’ oral production for many years.
To answer RQ1, the hypothesis that advanced learners with an adequate English command
present recurrent errors at a phonological level is confirmed by the errors identified in the
sample. Spanish pre-service teachers of English with an intermediate-high command of the
language in other skills presented recurrent errors in their natural improvised speech, mostly at
a phonological level. This is consistent with previous research on the field of Second Language
Acquisition (Gutiérrez Oduber & Miquilena Matos 2009, p. 352). Regarding RQ2, a clear
difference was established between errors that happened once, that were considered punctual
mistakes and those at a phonological level that were repeated, that were considered persistent
fossilised errors and therefore central to this research.
The results provided by this distinction lead to RQ3, that was to identify the most
recurrent errors of pre-service teachers that have a good command of the English language in
improvised natural situations. The identified errors can be described as partially consistent with
the classifications regarding common pronunciation errors among Spanish speakers of English
in the previously examined literature. Nonetheless, the corpus analysis shows 19 recurrent
types of errors, from which five obtained a frequency rate higher than 1 and they were analysed
in detail in terms of articulatory phonetics and from both a communicative and a pedagogical
perspective.
The first type of articulatory error is vowel pronunciation. Unlike English, which is
normally referred to as an opaque language, Spanish is considered a transparent one (Meschyan
& Hernandez, 2006). Also, according to the classification of vowels in these two languages
created by Finch and Ortiz-Lira (1982, p. 35), in Spanish, there are no central vowels. The
higher frequency of errors in the vowels /ə /, /ɜ:/ and /ʌ/ (see Table 1) can be explained by
the fact that they are central and are not included in the Spanish phonological system, thus
Spanish speakers have a tendency to substitute them by close sounds they are familiarized with.
Similarly, one of the most recurrent pronunciation errors found is substituting the /ə/ sound for

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another vowel based on spelling. For example, when pronouncing about /əˈbaʊt/, the first /a/ 941
will be substituted for another vowel sound closer to the ones included in the Spanish phonetic
system such as /a/ or /ɑː/. As the /ə / sound is the most common vowel in oral English, the
impact off a non-desirable pronunciation is to be considered. Another error which presented a
very high frequency was the vowel /ɜ:/. As in the previous case, the mispronunciations consisted
of substituting the sound for another spelling based on the way they would be pronounced
following the Spanish phonetic system. Examples of this can be the pronunciation of words
such as first /fɜːst/ in which the vowel is substituted for the sound /i/ or word /wɜːdz/ in which
the sound is substituted by the sound /o/. In the case of the /ʌ/ sound, it was substituted in most
cases by another vowel based on the spelling of the Spanish system.
The remaining errors which present a mean higher than one are linked to the incorrect
pronunciation of consonants, specifically replacing the /v/ sound by /b/, not being the grapheme
v articulated as voiced in the Spanish phonological system, in opposition to what happens in
the English one; and de-voicing consonants at the end of the syllable (see Table 2). Negative
transfer can be the origin of these repeated errors. In Spanish, the grapheme v is pronounced as
/b/. Errors consisting of devoicing in word endings, which according to the studied literature
is a common error among Spanish native speakers when communicating in English, can also
possibly be influenced by a particular characteristic of Southern Spain, an extremely evolved
realization of consonants in syllable coda position (Moreno-Fernández, 2004; Villena-Ponsoda,
2008, p. 144).
Once these errors have been identified, a strategy to defossilise them by using phonological
notation is presented suggested. It is a double aimed strategy: firstly, it is helping future teachers
to correct their own stabilised errors and, the second one consists on transferring the use of this
methodology to their future profession and, in that way helping their prospective students to
overcome phonetic stabilisation. Therefore, they could use this technique in their classes.
The literature analysis undertaken here has provided a deeper insight into fossilised errors
and stabilised ones. The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that errors are part
of the learning process and that L2 students need to activate strategies and tools to overcome
them. Consequently, the relevance of awareness in the L2 learning process has been proved to
be paramount. If errors are not consciously identified and dealt with, they can become fossilised
and negatively affect not only the L2 learning process but also the EFL speaker self-esteem and
social or work-related aspects.
Considering RQ4, recurrent errors were categorised considering their effect on
communication, i.e., if they hampered communication or not. 80’21% errors did not
seriously affect communication. Therefore, only a minority of the errors analysed hampered
communication, 96 out of 391 (Table 3). According to the studies on intelligibility discussed on
the section Pronunciation and Intelligibility, this result can be influenced by the circumstances,
the knowledge of the speaker’s first language that the listener has, among many other factors.
Nonetheless, overall, these results indicate that only a reduced percentage of errors (19’71%)
affected communication negatively.
Together, these results provide important insights into the recurrence and persistence of
errors at a phonological level in advanced learners of EFL. However, the lack of correction of
recurrent mistakes can be due to the fact that they do not hamper communication, as previous
research indicates (Behram, 2017). Even if communication can occur when the speaker presents
phonological mistakes, poor pronunciation can negatively affect social, academic or work-
related advances for that particular speaker (Brawn, 2010) or damage that person self-esteem
(Morley, 1998).

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942 Pedagogical Implications and Suggestions
Several implications for pronunciation teaching and destabilisation of mistakes in L2

can be drawn from the results discussed in the previous section. The first one is that good
phonological training for teachers and EFL learners can be very useful in order to raise
awareness regarding pronunciation problems. Recent research has focused on how to deal with
the persistence of phonetical errors in advanced learners and ways of improving pronunciation
in a foreign language (Mompean & Lintunen, 2015; Riquelme Gil, et al., 2017; Simon, et
al. 2015). The most recent study encourages phonetic transcription combined with reading
aloud to raise learners’ awareness of their own pronunciation (Riquelme Gil et al., 2017, p. 17),
which adds to the benefits provided by reading aloud claimed by previous researchers, such as
strengthening grapho-phonemic correspondences of the L2, regardless the complexity of the
orthographic system (Lázaro Ibarrola, 2011). In 2015, Mompean and Lintunen researched the
potential advantages the use of phonetic notation has to language teaching and learning and
examined the learners’ perception of their own pronunciation after applying it.
In this study, a detailed strategy for destabilising errors at a phonetic level is described.
The strategy encourages learners to be aware of their own mistakes and provides them with
specific stages to overcome their fossilised errors in an uncomplicated and autonomous way.
The implementation of the strategy is illustrated in six steps. In the first one, the learner
has to listen to a recording of a natural oral intervention and write it down including its full
transcription (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Script from Student’s Production
wiː ɑː ˈgəʊɪŋ tuː pleɪ ə geɪm.
We are going to play a game.
aɪæm ˈgəʊɪŋtuː ɑːskjuː faɪv ˈkwɛsʧənzændjuː wɪlhæv
I am going to ask you five questions and you will have
wʌn ˈmɪnɪt ɔː ʤʌst ə fjuː ˈsɛkəndztuːθɪŋkəˈbaʊtɪtwɪðjɔː tiːm
one minute or just a few seconds to think about it with your team.
sleɪvzwɜː nɒtfriː, ðeɪhædnəʊ... (raɪts)
Slaves were not free, they had no... (rights)
The second stage consists of reading the transcription of the oral intervention aloud and
identifying those words that the learner has mispronounced. Phonetic notation plays the role of
helping the students being aware of their articulation errors. After years using this strategy in
our classroom, most students get extremely surprised when they read texts together with their
transcriptions and they find out that they mispronounced familiar and/or frequent daily used
words. From a pedagogical point of view, this is a crucial stage. Students develop awareness
about the existence of these type of errors and they become prepared to use their knowledge on
phonetic notation in order to improve their overall oral speech.
In the third stage, the phonetic transcription is only maintained on top of those words
or sounds that were not correctly pronounced and the mispronounced words are marked in a
different colour (see Figure 2). The reduction of phonetic transcription has the aim of facilitating
the reading process.

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Figure 2 943
Second and Third Steps
pleɪ geɪm.
ˈkwɛsʧənz
ʤʌst fjuː əˈbaʊt tiːm
sleɪvzfriː, nəʊ... (raɪts)
In the fourth step, the learner reads aloud the text with the help of the phonetic notation and
records it. Learners are to listen to the recording and progressively eliminate the transcription
in those words that are correctly pronounced. This step can be repeated as many times as
required (Figure 3). Repetition at this stage is important since it is proved to be quite effective
as corrective feedback.
Figure 3
Fourth Step
eɪ eɪ
Z
ʌ juː əˈ
eɪiː, əʊ.. aɪ
In the fifth stage, the supporting phonetic transcription is not maintained and only the
words or sounds that are being destabilised are marked in a different colour, as a warning sign
which helps the students to avoid reading the text paying attention to the spelling. Learners are
to listen to the recording and progressively eliminate the marks in those words or sounds that
are now correctly pronounced. This step can be repeated as many times as required (Figure 4).
Figure 4
Fifth Step

Once all errors have been overcome and the correct pronunciation has been acquired, all
marks are to be removed from the text. Finally, the text is to be read aloud, recorded, and the
final recording without mispronunciations to be listened to.

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A good intelligible pronunciation is, in general, desirable for every L2 speaker. It has been
proved that it not only makes the speakers’ utterances intelligible, but also favours integration
and even can be beneficial in social and work spheres.
Despite its positive influence on the learning of other skills been proven, pronunciation
has not been given a prominent place in EFL Teaching in Spain in Primary Education.
Consequently, pre-service schoolteachers for EFL in Spain, besides most of them having an
upper-intermediate level of English language and phonological knowledge, present a lower
level in pronunciation skills. This means that they need strategies and techniques to improve
their own pronunciation skills and to help others to improve theirs.
One of the main conclusions that can be driven from the results of this research is that,
in most cases, a poor pronunciation does not hinder communication. This might be the reason
why pre-service teachers present recurrent pronunciation mistakes, as they are able to produce
comprehensible output with no evidence of communication breakdown, from a communicative
perspective. From a pedagogical perspective, another possible reason might be that they lack
awareness regarding their own fossilised mistakes. This is a major problem that emphasizes the
need for further research. This becomes especially relevant in the case of EFL teachers since
pronunciation errors can be transferred to their future students and, therefore, they need to
identify them and to master strategies and techniques to destabilised them.
The relatively small size of the data set means that it is not possible to generalise the
results concerning recurrent stabilised errors and make them extensible to all Spanish learning
EFL. However, the error taxonomy was created using a sample from a consistent group and,
therefore, some errors are expected to be present in subjects with similar characteristics. Future
teachers need to be familiarised with the possible causes of frequent errors, to be aware of the
complexity of the learning process and of the difficulties encountered by learners of different
native languages. Based on this taxonomy, a specific phonetic notation with a corrective strategy
is proposed. It can be used to overcome pre-service EFL teachers’ fossilised pronunciation
errors as well as the ones of their future students.
Despite its exploratory nature, this piece of research adds to the growing body of literature
that highlights the importance of good phonological training for teachers in order to be able to
apply and provide strategies and methodologies to overcome stabilisation in the phonological
level. A natural following of this work would be to analyse the progression of students using the
suggested methodology and to determine its efficiency.
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Received: September 18, 2020 Accepted: December 01, 2020
Cite as: Hunt-Gomez, C. I., & Navarro-Pablo, M. (2020). Analysis of pre-service foreign
language teachers’ incorrect articulations: Frequency, influence on communication, and
a specific corrective strategy. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 933-947.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.933
Coral I. Hunt-Gómez PhD, Lecturer, Department of Language Education, University of Seville, C/

(Corresponding author) Pirotecnia s/n, Sevilla, 41013, Spain.
E-mail: coralhuntg@us.es
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6261-927X
Macarena Navarro-Pablo PhD, Lecturer, Department of Language Education, University of Seville, C/

Pirotecnia s/n, Sevilla, 41013, Spain.
E-mail: mnp@us.es

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948
DEVELOPING CHARACTER EDUCATION
THROUGH ACADEMIC CULTURE IN
INDONESIAN PROGRAMMED ISLAMIC
HIGH SCHOOL
Rohmatun Lukluk Isnaini
State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta & Yogyakarta State University,
Indonesia
E-mail: lukluk_isnaini@yahoo.com
Farida Hanum, Lantip Diat Prasojo

Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia
E-mail: faridahanum@uny.ac.id, lantip@uny.ac.id
Abstract
Academic dishonesty, which is a part of educational problems, occurs mostly in religious-based high
schools. The dishonest behavior of these students is contrary to the application of character education
in educational institutions. This research aimed to describe the experiences of teachers and students
in the Programmed Islamic High School (PIHS) relating to academic culture in the development of
student character education. The data collection method used in this research was a phenomenological
qualitative method by conducting in-depth interviews with four teachers and six students in a PIHS.
Apart from the results of the interviews, the acquisition of data was also supported by documentation and
observations of the daily activities of the students, which reflected the application of character education.
The results showed that the academic culture at PIHS contributes greatly to developing student character
education. Character education developed from academic culture can be seen from their academic
discourse, publications, knowledge acquisition, disciplinary, and academic activities management. From
the academic culture, students have a religious, honest, nationalistic, responsible, cooperative, and
independent character. This research suggests that the pattern of academic culture in the development of
character education in PIHS can be adopted by other religion-based schools.
Keywords: academic culture, character education, daily activities, Programmed Islamic high school
Introduction
Character education is an integral part of academic culture, considering the importance

of character and its potential to be developed from every academic activity (Mahendra, 2013).
The ideal academic culture is a culture that contains positive character values (Silahuddin,
2016). Academic culture is not only aimed at improving intellectual but also honesty, truth, and
devotion to humanity. The development of academic culture is a meeting point between efforts to
develop character and improve the quality of the education process (Peterson & Deal, 2002). The
academic culture adopted in schools in Indonesia is aimed at developing character education.
The development of character education can be realized through several methods, one
of which is through academic culture. Aynur Pala's (2011) research results have stated that
character education can be developed through disciplinary practice, curriculum, reading,
discussion, research, essay writing, journal writing, and debate. Other research specifically
conducted at the Pabelan Islamic boarding school by Hidayat (2016) has revealed that

Rohmatun Lukluk ISNAINI, Farida HANUM, Lantip Diat PRASOJO. Developing character education through academic culture in
Indonesian programmed Islamic high school
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character education can be developed through exemplary and habitual behavior from kyai or 949
the religious leader at the institution. Exemplary and habituation behavior of the kyai include
models of social care, direct education, living modestly, educating with humanity, educating
with exemplary, scientific culture model, developing local culture/local wisdom, developing
education, work ethic, and independent learning. From these methods, the character values that
can be developed are discipline, work ethic/hard work, independence, social care, religiosity,
and a sense of responsibility (Hidayat, 2016).
Academic culture is grouped into three levels, namely, macro, micro, and social relations
(Okamoto, 2015). The present discusses more about the micro-level of academic culture that
explores the daily practical academic work of academics at an educational institution. Several
forms of academic culture can be categorized into five factors that are identified, namely the
practice of academic discourse, the practice of publication, managing academic activities, the
practice of knowledge acquisition, and practice of disciplines (Okamoto, 2015). The five factors
of academic culture include the various daily activities of students at school and at the dorm.
From these activities, students' religious, honest, nationalistic, responsible, cooperative, and
independent characters can be developed (Muttaqien & Raharjo, 2018).
The basis of character education policies reflects the values that are prevalent from a
particular political context or jurisdiction. National cultural traditions are the main determinants,
and they can influence the education system. Therefore, this system depends on the regional level
that is culturally formed (Arthur, 2017). In Indonesia, based on Article 3 of Law Number 20 of
2003 concerning the National Education System, the function of national education is to develop
capabilities and shape the dignified character and civilization of the nation in the context of
educating the life of the nation. The goals of national education are to develop students' potential
to have faith and be devoted to God Almighty, noble, healthy, knowledgeable, capable, creative,
independent, democratic, and responsible (Kurniawan, 2013). Therefore, character education
cannot be separated from academic education. Both must be integrated into the education process
so that character education can be developed in a unified National Education system and National
Education Objectives (Lickona, 2018).
In the Center of Academic Integrity (2013), there are six basic values of manifestation
in building character education in academic integrity that must exist in educational institutions,
i.e., honesty, trust, fairness, respect, responsibility, and courage. Honesty is a very important
foundation in the process of teaching, learning, research, and service (McCabe et al., 1999).
Honesty is a prerequisite for realizing trust, justice, respect, and responsibility (Anshori, 2017).
How is honest behavior that has been enforced in educational institutions? Why do academic
violations involving dishonesty in educational institutions occur?
Previous research on academic violations found that 64.6% of students from 113 high
school students in a religion-based school committed dishonesty when the examiner left the
room in the middle of the test. In another situation, 71.7% of students were honest when the exam
supervisor was a disciplined teacher. Some reasons for the emergence of dishonesty consist of
wanting to finish quickly, to know the answers, and to get good grades. In contrast, the reasons
for the emergence of honesty were divided into two types, i.e., internal factor (want to continue
to behave honestly, do not want to sin) and external factor (fear of being caught) (Kirana &
Lestari, 2017). Ungusari (2015) has also shown that academic dishonesty has occurred in 124
religious high school students. The results of the research explained that 12.90% of cases of
dishonesty occur because students face two examinations at once in a day. 58.90% of cases of
dishonesty occur because of difficulties in taking the exam and seeing other students cheating.
The rest, 25.80% of cases of dishonesty occur because they have not yet finished learning, so
make small notes and bring them during the exam (Ungusari, 2015).
There are many forms of academic dishonesty shown by students. Asking for answers
is the most common one (Herdian, 2017). Cheating and being dishonest have incorporated into

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950 the student's life because they think that other students do the same (Yuliyanto, 2016). Students
believe that if they do not commit to these, they will be cast out by their comrades (McKay et
al., 2019; Rehman & Waheed, 2014). The results of another more shocking research are related
to information about the existence of educational institutions that teach tips on how to commit
academic dishonesty. This survey also revealed that there was a continuation of dishonest
behavior at the next level of education (Rehman & Waheed, 2014). The results of this research
are in line with the research by Finelli (2007) that academic dishonesty conducted while in high
school tends to be carried out later in further studies at the university level.
From the above-mentioned problems, developing the quality of character education
requires the development of academic culture. Academic culture is intended to build values and
norms that display an academic atmosphere, which is an atmosphere that is in accordance with
scientific values and principles in an effort to acquire and develop knowledge. The atmosphere
needs to be maintained and fostered in educational institutions (Asih, 2012; Masruroh, 2013).
One of the educational institutions that can be used as role models is the PIHS, which
has a good academic culture. PIHS is a boarding school that leading madrasa of the Ministry of
Religion of the Republic of Indonesia established in 1993. This madrasa is the oldest PIHS in
Indonesia (Rohmah & Zainal, 2017). This is confirmed by the results of research that states that
character education is not formed automatically but has been developed by an institution that
has long existed through a process of teaching, examples, learning, and sustainable practices
(Pala, 2011).
Madrasas emphasize religious education for producing individuals who excel in both
academic and character (Anshori, 2017). The Ministry of Religion Republic Indonesia has
revitalized PIHS throughout Indonesia to address moral issues in this country. This educational
program is intended to create a generation of "ulama plus" who are proficient in mastering the
classical and contemporary sciences. This effort could revive the education program of PIHS
or the like has the vision to build the character and intelligence of the students. PIHS students who
live at the dormitory provided by the school with all the activities in the vicinity are known as
an effective form in realizing this vision (Rohmah & Zainal, 2017).
Previous research by Pourrajab & Ghani (2017) has identified character education at
the level of organizational culture at large in Iranian schools. Although both discuss character
education and school culture, they did not specifically discuss academic culture in Islamic Senior
High School. Another research on academic culture by Leithwood and Sun (2017) showed
that academic culture is a significant mediator that influences school leadership on student
achievement. However, the research did not link academic culture with the development of
character education. Therefore, the research on the development of character education through
academic culture in the religion-based school is needed for strengthening the character students
in Indonesia. The objective of the research was to analyze the formation of academic culture to
develop character education students in PIHS. The contribution of the results of this research
can be adopted by other educational institutions that require an overview of the patterns of
academic culture in the development of character education.
Theoretical Perspective
Character education is crucial for a nation (Junaedi & Syukur, 2017). Character education
is a source of life in the nation and state. If a nation wants to survive, this nation needs ethics and
rules. Character education has a role as a steering wheel and strength so that the nation does not lose
its direction. Character education also determines the fate of the nation's next generation. There are
three main levels of character development in the context of nationalism, namely to foster and
strengthen national identity, to maintain the integrity of Indonesia, and to shape human beings
and Indonesian people who have noble character and a dignified nation (Zubaedi, 2015).

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Formal education in schools is ideally positioned as an educational institution that should 951
provide provisions for students with character education (Isnaini, 2016; Samani & Hariyanto,
2013). This is intended so that students understand and possess the values of goodness as well
as practice it in daily life, be it to God Almighty, self, fellow human beings, the environment,
nation, country, and international relations as fellow citizens of the world (Azzet, 2016). Bennett
(1993) has listed ten virtues of moral education, namely compassion, responsibility, honesty,
friendship, work, courage, self-discipline, perseverance, loyalty, and faith. The program
developed by the Heartwood Institute also promotes seven virtues: respect, loyalty, honesty,
love, justice, courage, and hope (Sutomo, 2014).
One of the keys to success in implementing character education in schools is to create a
conducive academic environment, both physically and non-physically. A conducive physical
environment is supported by a variety of conducive learning facilities such as laboratories, study
rooms, environmental arrangements so as to foster a harmonious attitude of students and teachers
and then supported by good organizational management and appropriate learning materials in
accordance with the development and ability of the students. A non-physical environment is a
school environment that can maintain security, comfort, and order combined with optimism
and high expectations of all school residents. Other forms of non-physical environment can be
realized through activities that are centered on students so as to create an environment that can
increase optimism, creativity, and enthusiasm for Learning (Mulyasa, 2012; Richardson et al.,
2009).
Education at the dormitory that is densely packed with academic activities is considered
effective in overcoming negative influences. The dorm is packed with scheduled activities in
the context of character building. The activity is arranged for the habituation of students to live
orderly. The dormitory environment is formed by the dorm's resident's compliance with the
activities of the dorm. Good traditions that uphold the values of character are then formed. This
gives effect to the new dorm's dwellers (new students) to continue the tradition. Education in
the dorm, which was born from the engineering of life, can be said to be a miniature form of
society in a narrow social order. This tradition continues on in the lives of the next students after
leaving the dormitory (Izfanna & Hisyam, 2012).
Academic culture can be identified from the daily academic activities of academics
(teachers and students) at PIHS. Data on academic culture obtained from the field are
categorized into the following five factors, namely academic discourse practices, publication
practices, managing academic activities, knowledge acquisition practices, and disciplinary
practices (Okamoto, 2015). After identifying the five factors, it can be seen what characters
can be developed from the character of ulama plus PIHS. The definition of ulama plus here
is that scholars are not only scholars who are knowledgeable (fakih) in religious studies but
religious scholars who master all aspects of science such as economics, politics, and so on.
Every PIHS student is required to master the seven survival skills of Tony Wagner (2008), that
is, first, think critically and be able to solve problems. Second, working together in networks
and leading with influence. Third, agility and being able to adapt. Fourth, initiative and
entrepreneurship. Fifth, effective communication, both oral and written. Sixth, being able to
access and analyze information. Seventh, curiosity and imagination. As a result of the mastery
of the seven skills, the characteristics of ulama plus that characterizes PIHS are students who
have a religious attitude (which includes tasamuh (tolerant), tawasuth (moderate), and tawazun
(balanced) in addressing differences of opinion), honest, nationalistic, responsible, cooperative
and independent (Syaifudin, 2015).

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952 Research Methodology

Research Design
This research used the phenomenological qualitative approach to examine how members
of a community describe their daily lives, especially how individuals with their consciousness
construct meaning from the results of interactions with other individuals (Creswell, 1998). The
same was done in this research, which is finding information about the academic culture formed
in madrasas and the daily activities of madrasa residents (interactions between the teachers and
students) that reflect the application of character education. Data were obtained from informants
through interviews. This research was conducted for 5 months, starting from September 2019
to January 2020.
Participants and Procedures
The primary data collection technique in phenomenology studies was through in-depth
interviews with informants, in this case, teachers and students. All interviews were recorded.
In addition, the researchers used other techniques to obtain more complete data, such as
participatory observation and documentation (Hasbiansyah, 2008). The participant observation
was carried out by observing the interactions between the teachers and students. Furthermore,
documents of regulations in madrasas were used as additional data.
The informants in this research consisted of four teachers and six students. The four
teachers interviewed were teachers who serve as deputy heads of the curriculum. The teachers
were also PIHS alumni. Whereas the other three teachers, apart from being alumni, served as
teachers and are also responsible as the dormitory's supervisors. This means that the teachers
were also once a student at the school and are now acting as a learning manager in their alma
mater. The determination of the informants interviewed was based on the assumption that
the experiences of the teachers who were also alumni could meet the research data needed.
The student informants are students who are in the 12th grade. This selection is based on the
assumption that students in the 12th grade have taken longer education than other students at
PIHS. Grade 12 students have also experienced the orientation process, various organizations,
and publications. Further description of the informants can be seen in Table 1 below:
Table 1
Description of Teacher Informants
Informants Teaching Experiences

Gender Positions
Identifier (year)
T1 The teacher who serves as Deputy
Male 23
Head of Curriculum
T2 Female Dormitory Teacher and Trustee 15
Note: Description: T = Teacher; 1 = number of interview informants
Data collection procedures at the school began with the submission of permits through
official letters addressed to the principal. From the school principal, the letter was distributed to
the deputy head of the academic and curriculum in order to appoint any suitable informants to be
interviewed. Then the deputy's head directs the course of the research process that is tailored to
the data requirements in question. Before digging up information, the researcher first explained
briefly about the purpose of the research. To guide the interview process, the researcher used a list of

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questions that covered the core question: How can academic culture develop character education 953
in PIHS? From this core question, it is elaborated into five factors, namely academic discourse
practices, publication practices, managing academic activities, knowledge acquisition practices,
and disciplinary practices. The interview process takes about 60 to 100 minutes in duration.
Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is the stage of the researcher in compiling data systematically
from interviews, observations, and document searches. The data can then be displayed and
analyzed into simpler and more meaningful data. Three methods are used in data analysis,
according to Miles and Huberman (2014), namely by data condensation, data presentation, and
conclusion drawing. In addition, the qualitative data analysis strategy is an attempt to conduct
an inductive analysis of research data and the entire research process. The use of this qualitative
analysis strategy aimed to analyze the ongoing social processes and various meanings of various
facts that are seen empirically.
In detail, data analysis techniques in phenomenology studies have important procedures
that must be carried out gradually. These stages are (Creswell, 1998): First, researchers
fully describe the phenomena/experiences experienced by research subjects regarding the
development of character education through academic culture at PIHS. All the results of the
in-depth interview in the form of a recording are outlined in a written transcript. Second, the
researcher finds statements (interviews) about the focus of the research, the details of the
statements, and each statement has an equivalent value, then the details are developed by
avoiding repetition. Third, researchers began to exclude repeated and overlapping statements.
Fourth, the researcher then constructs all explanations about the meaning and essence of the
experiences of the informants. Fifth, researchers submit the research report by providing an
understanding of how a person experiences a phenomenon.
This research report indicated the unity of a single meaning from the experience that the
whole has an urgent structure (Dewanti et al., 2020). Because Interpretive Phenomenological
Analysis acknowledges an important aspect of symbolic interactionism, according to which the
meanings that individuals assign to their encounters in their personal and social world are the
subjective constructions out of their interactions with others. That means that individuals derive
meanings of their experiences while communicating these experiences to others during social
interactions (Bhanot & Verma, 2020). From the results of the report that has been arranged,
the researchers reconfirm the answers from the informants that have not led to the focus of the
question. Second, the researcher presented the data according to the group of answers from
the participants to the sheet of paper that had been given codes previously. The presentation of
this data is intended to facilitate the researchers in describing the answers of each informant.
Third, the researchers are very careful in drawing conclusions from informants' answers that
have been presented on paper so that no mistakes occur (Fadlillah et al., 2020). The three things
above are intended so that the conclusions drawn from the research results are free from errors.
Role of the Researcher
The researcher acts as data collectors who come directly to the field (research settings).
After the data is obtained, the researcher then acts as a data analyst and interprets it in the form of
a results report for publication. This is because the researcher is an academic who works at State
Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta and is pursuing a doctoral degree at Yogyakarta
State University in the field of education. In addition, there are also expert researchers who
also play a role in preparing instruments, analyzing data, and testing the validity of the data.
This research aims to enrich insights about strengthening character education in schools.

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954 Research Results
Data from interviews, observations, and document searches showed that academic culture
could be identified from the daily academic activities of academics (teachers and students) at
Programmed Islamic Senior High School (PIHS). Data on academic culture obtained were
categorized into the following five factors, namely academic discourse practices, publication
practices, managing academic activities, knowledge acquisition practices, and disciplinary
practices. Research findings indicate that of the five factors, six-core character education
virtues can be developed in students, namely religiosity, honesty, nationalism, responsibility,
cooperativeness, and independence.
Academic Discourse Practices
The interview findings suggested that one of the characteristics of the academic culture
can be seen from the development of the practice of academic discourse.
Table 3
Result of Teacher Interview on Academic Discourse Practices
Teacher interview Activities Conclusion

T3: We apply learning models based on the national Scientific discussion Teachers can encourage
curriculum. The learning model includes the inquiry learning students to conduct moral
model, project-based learning, and problem-based learning. Use of three learning reflection through reading,
models. writing, discussion, and
debate.
T1: The teachers have been trained in active learning with a I was trained in using
variety of learning methods. The training is Internal HOTS, active learning.
writing teaching materials, foreign language, and various
workshops.
T2: The method chosen in one learning with another

learning is different.
T4: This depends on the conditions in the class, the material
being discussed, and the mood or psychological conditions
of the students.
T3: If the students are not in the mood to study, then the
teacher must think of a more enjoyable learning method.
T4: To boost student motivation, I also informed the

students that each assignment would be assessed. Every
student's effort in doing an assignment will be appreciated.
This practice also appears in regular scientific discussions. PIHS students are familiar
with scientific discussion activities, both at school and at the dormitory.

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Table 4 955
Result of Student Interview on Academic Discourse Practices
Student interview Activities Conclusion

S4: We are also regularly having discussions at the Scientific discussion Students learn to express
dormitory. opinions and learn to be
responsible for making
S3: Most discussion topics are about politics, such as decisions about the
reviewing regional elections, presidential elections, new opinions expressed.
cabinet ministers, government policies, relocation of
the country’s capital, S1: increasing health insurance
contributions, presidential promises, and presidential work
programs”.
S4: The results of each discussion are written down and
read at the end of each discussion. In addition, every
day, the students are also trained to write, summarize,
translating –whether using Indonesian, English, or Arabic–
academic paper.
In addition to discussing and writing, the practice of academic discourse at PIHS was
also realized by debate, speech, and story-telling competitions in 3 languages (Indonesian,
Arabic, and English) held by various departments of the school. Students also must converse
in Arabic and English daily. The students said, “We have to speak English one week and
speak Arabic the following week and so on alternately like that” (S1-S6). The use of foreign
languages in everyday conversation is also supported by the competence of teachers who
always speak in those languages and a conducive language environment both in the classroom
and at the dormitory. S2, S4, and S5 said, "I like to study here because the teacher is proficient
in foreign languages" (S2); "I like the teachers here. Every day I can learn foreign languages
from them" (S4); "Learning here supports the creation of a language environment, because
all material is delivered in Arabic. The teacher also explained the lessons in Arabic"(S5).
Publication
At PIHS, teachers and students are introduced to practice publishing their writing.
Table 5
Result of Teacher Interview on Publication

T4: Every year, the school holds a writing workshop for Productive in writing The application of
teaching material that invites educational experts from textbooks character education can
universities. be implemented through
an inspiring teacher
T3: Many teachers at PIHS often write books. The book is model.
also used in other schools.
T4: Teachers publish their works in different publishing Productive in publishing

houses. Writing scientific papers and anthologies with their textbooks
colleagues at the Subject Teacher Forum helped them to
grow as writers.

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956 Table 6
Result of Student Interview on Publication

S1-S6: We are active in publishing our writings, for Productive in publishing One of the activities for
example, in-wall magazines, bulletins, and magazines. wall magazines, character education is
two bulletins, and the creation of attractive,
magazines interactive bulletin boards,
S3 explained: the wall magazine contains light topics and is informative bulletins, and
released once a month. bookmarks that are made
S4 said: the wall magazine is decorated attractively by the every month.
students.
S3 also explained: this wall magazine consists of the
main topics, short stories, poems, rhymes, anecdotes,
crosswords, and jokes. The wall magazine is intended to
develop students' creative abilities and foster a culture of
reading.
S1 said: we have El-Qudsy's mini bulletin. This bulletin is

written in Indonesian and published twice a year.
S2: The topics discussed are current events, such as the
latest political issues.
S3: Students pour out their ideas in the form of headlines,

opinions, criticisms, and suggestions. Another one is a
bilingual bulletin called Languadrenaline.
S4 explained: this bulletin is written in Arabic and English”.
S2 also revealed: the topic discussed is related to
educational issues. The last one is Inthilaq magazine.
The same statement is said by S1-S6. This magazine is
published once a year.
S5 explained: all students can contribute by submitting

their writing to the magazine. The selection process of the
manuscript goes through a rigorous review process from
the editorial team. The team then determines the best
manuscripts that are suitable for publication.
Managing Academic Activities
PIHS has many academic activities that are organized by student organizations. PIHS
students are familiar with the organizational environment. All aspects of students' daily
activities are governed by the regulations made by PISO.

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Table 7 957
Result of Teacher Interview on Managing Academic Activities

T2: The students independently manage academic activities Teachers monitor the Educational institutions
through two organizations, namely the Programmed activities handled by have sought the formation
Islamic Student's Organization (PISO) and the Al-Hasyimie students. of academic culture
Calligraphy Group (ACG). through the optimization
of the functions of student
Each department of PISO has a set of work programs. The organizations.
work programs are arranged to start from daily, weekly, and
annual work programs.
T4: Students are responsible for various conditions and

facilities in the dormitory, such as security, education,
hygiene, health, and infrastructure.
Students begin the practice of managing academic activities

since they are in tenth grade. Students are trained to
organize events from the class level at school and the rayon
level at the dormitory. In the 11th grade, students serve in a
larger organization that manages all activities at school and
in the dormitory.
Table 8
Result of Student Interview on Managing Academic Activities

S1-S6: PISO is the most vital organization that regulates all Getting involved in Organizations here
daily activities of the students. organizations function as a tool to
The core organizational structure consists of the chairman, develop intellectual,
secretary, and treasurer. The three core structures affective, kinesthetic,
supervise seven departments, namely: 1) Security and emotional abilities.
department; 2) Language department; 3) Education and By being involved in an
teaching department; 4) The department of hygiene, health, organization, students
and sports; 5) The department of research, development, can learn to work together
and library; 6) The department of art, decoration, and with others.
documentation; 7) The department of public relations.
S6: Every day, students are scheduled to take part in all

the activities held by PISO, from waking up to going back
to sleep.
S3: The students are accustomed to holding various big Organizing academic
events at school, dormitory, and even at provincial, regional, competitions
and national levels. The major annual activities held by
PISO are Pena PIHS, PIHS Arts Festival, PIHS Fair,
Camping Da'wah Ramadan, Language Fair, and Journalistic
Education Festival (JEF).

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958 In addition to students being preoccupied with PISO and ACG activities,
students are also busy with school organization activities such as scouts. S5
said, "the scout is intended, so that students are not confined in the school
and dormitory, but also increasingly familiar with the outside world"(S5).
Knowledge Acquisition
Knowledge acquisition can be made by acquiring knowledge that is sourced

from outside or from within the organization and reflects on the learning process.
Table 9
Result of Teacher Interview on Knowledge Acquisition

T2: Knowledge acquisition has been carried out by several Research One of the keys to
teachers at PIHS through classroom action research (CAR). successful character
T3: CAR has become a teacher required to be promoted to education is the creation
a functional position of a conducive school
environment with friendly
T4: The implementation of CAR is constrained by the full teachers and student
teaching hours of teachers so that we have limited time to preparation in Learning.
write.
T1: The teacher provides opportunities for students; Friendly teacher
whenever students want to learn, they can go to the
teacher's house both individually and in groups.
T2: The relationship between teacher and student is not a

transactional relationship, but there is emotional closeness.
T3: Students are asked to make a summary of each lesson. Exam preparation
T4: Students have to understand the forms of questions
that are usually tested by each teacher. Each teacher has a
different style.
Table 10
Result of Student Interview on Knowledge Acquisition

S2: I think that the assistance provided by the teachers is Friendly teacher A conducive learning
good. environment is also
supported by individual
S3: The teacher positions himself as a friend. awareness in upholding
S6: Teachers repeatedly suggest making a summary of the Exam preparation the value of honesty.
subject matter every day. It is intended that students are
always ready to face a test.
S5: The atmosphere at the time of the exam is always

conducive and quiet. Honesty at the exam is very high.
S1: Cheating during an exam is very embarrassing.
Based on its characteristics, knowledge acquisition is divided into two, namely,

internal and external knowledge acquisition. The acquisition of internal knowledge

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can be made by conducting knowledge research and applying the results of research 959
into work, the ability of academics in mastering technology, absorbing new ideas and
applying them into a process of continuous change, and learning from past experiences.
Discipline Practices
PIHS, as a boarding school system, has a set of rules.
Table 11
Result of Teacher Interview on Discipline Practice

T3: The rules in PIHS govern students' actions every day. Teachers monitor the The application of
PISO is in charge of the activities in the dormitory from activities handled by regulations is an attempt
morning to night. students. to foster moral reasoning,
self-control, and respect
T4: The stipulated regulations are made known to students. for others.
Enforcement of regulations is intended to instill discipline
in students. This regulation also applies to a reward-and-
punishment system.
T2: Teachers always try to instill awareness in students'

minds and foster their emotional closeness. The application
of the code of conduct will not be meaningful if it is forced.
T1: Most students are still reluctant and embarrassed when

breaking the rules.
Table 12
Result of Student Interview on Discipline Practice

S2: Regulation of PISO applies punishment system. Each Punishment system. The application of
department in the PISO defines the types of violations and regulations is an attempt
the penalties for each violation. to foster moral reasoning,
S1: Violation of every order also has a different amount of self-control, and respect
points. for others.
The following are examples of regulations applied by PISO in PIHS that researchers
obtained from document searching:

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960 Table 13
Examples of Regulations in Discipline Practices
Department of PISO The regulation

Security department The range of violation points starts from 5 points to 100 points accompanied by the
classification of the punishment.
The lowest violation point is 5 points. This is because students are late for the morning
ceremony, then the penalty is to pay of Rp1,000 and memorize 2 Arbain Nawawi hadiths.
The middle is a violation that is worth 60 points, namely meeting with the opposite sex
without the permission of the central Security Department. The punishment consists of
10 types, namely 1) Warning, 2) wearing a veil of violation for one week, 3) 4x reading
the Quran 45 minutes in a place determined by the central security department, 4)
memorizing 5 Arbain Nawawi hadiths, 5) memorizing ten verses of the Qur'an and 25
English Arabic vocabulary that will be determined by the Central Security Department and
must be checked by the supervisor of the dormitory, 6) clean up a designated place, 7)
make a statement, 8) perform repentance prayers 1x, 9) notification to parents via SMS,
and 10) pay a fine of Rp. 30,000.
The heaviest violation point is 100 points. The type of violation is to associate freely
with members of the opposite sex outside the limits of the Islamic Shari'a, the punishment
being the summoning of parents through the school counselor. If the student keeps doing
the same thing, they will be expelled from school.
Language department The language department classifies violations and sentences into three, namely mild,
moderate, and severe.
The mildest language violations, for example, speaking using language that is not in
accordance with the provisions of the language of the day. The punishment is memorizing
ten vocabularies and their translation and a fine of Rp. 1,000.
Medium language violations, such as committing minor violations three times. The
penalties are memorizing 15 vocabularies, writing essays, paying a fine of Rp 1,500, and
carrying a dictionary for three days.
An example of a serious violation is speaking loudly using a language other than what
has been prescribed for the day. The penalties are memorizing 20 English words and
5 Arabic sets of words (tashrif), writing essays, paying a fine of Rp 5,000, wearing a
violation hijab (whenever getting out of their room for seven days), carrying a dictionary
for seven days, and leading a conversation twice.
The education and The education and teaching department regulates the rules relating to morals, worship
teaching department and teaching, and the use of clothing. Punishment is given based on the level of violation
committed. In this department, there are seven levels of punishment.
The lowest punishment is reading the Quran by standing in front of the dormitory for 10
minutes and memorizing a hadith. This is to punish those who are eating or drinking while
standing or not performing prayer in congregation at the mosque for no apparent reason.
When there are students who have committed violations repeatedly, there is an
accumulation of penalties. The harshest punishment is wearing a veil of violations for
three days, reading the Qur'an for four days in public places, and reading the Statement
of Violation during the morning ceremony in front of all students.
The department of This department is responsible for environmental cleanliness. The code of conduct
hygiene, health, and regulates the prohibition of littering, leaving a messy bed, hanging leaving dirty dishes
sports. in the bedroom, etc. The punishments are divided into three levels; mild, moderate,
and severe. The form of punishment is more emphasized on the amount of money. For
example, if you do not put your shoes on the shelves, you will be fined Rp. 2,000.

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Through the application of discipline practices, most students are reluctant and 961
embarrassed when breaking the rules.
Discussion
The above research findings proved that the main values of character education were
included in the practice of academic culture (Silahuddin, 2016). The main values i n strengthening
character education are religiosity, nationalism, independence, mutual cooperation, and
integrity (Muttaqin & Raharjo, 2018). All agendas within the framework of academic culture
and regulations applied at PIHS contain these values. Implementation of character education
here is done through the implementation of integrated character education in school culture
(Bipath & Moyo, 2016; Pourrajab & Ghani, 2017; Schein, 2010).
Visually, the development of character education through academic culture in PIHS can
be explained in the following figure:
Figure 1
The Pattern of Academic Culture and Character Education Development at PIHS
The practice of academic discourse manifested in discussions, debates, and writing not
only teaches students to be skillful in mastering academic materials but also take valuable moral
lessons. Students are taught about the ethics of expressing opinions and respecting the opinions
of others (Abdurrahman, 2016; Hidayat, 2016; Pala, 2011). Fighting in realizing justice is their
main focus in their discussions. Students are also taught to be responsible for what they say
(Guthrie & Scuermann, 2011; Muttaqin & Raharjo, 2018). Students have been accustomed to
defending their opinions with a strong or logical foundation.

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962 The practice of publication in PIHS is based on the value of honesty (Pala, 2011). All
students' writing is the result of their thought and Learning. Students already understand the
ethics of writing proper scientific papers that must write down sources when quoting other
people's opinions (Moten, 2014), because they are well aware that the results of their writings
will be published and read by many people. Therefore, the editing process for bulletins and
magazines is done with a serious review process. This involves the teacher to make corrections
before it is published.
Management of academic activities trains students to collaborate. For example, in the
management of the organization, students are required to be able to interact with administrators
or other members of the organization. On the other hand, students within the scope of the
organization must also show an attitude of responsibility in order to gain the trust of their
members (Hidayat, 2016). Through the optimization of PISO, students can learn many things,
such as being independent, disciplined, confident, and knowing how to lead, be honest, and take
responsibility (Pourrajab & Ghani, 2017).
The practice of knowledge acquisition has a positive impact. This process has become
a tradition that can foster teacher motivation to conduct classroom action research, and the
solution can be applied to student learning. In this process, the teachers are very helpful for
students in the learning process or reviewing the material every day so that students are ready
to face the exam at any time. Cheating during an exam has been considered as a big shame
that is very embarrassing (Moten, 2014). In line with the movement to strengthen character
education, honesty is the main value that underlies the mindset, attitude, and behavior students
(Grant, 2009).
The practice of discipline is formed from various regulations set by the PISO, along with
the consequences. The application of student discipline rules is aimed at developing religious
attitudes and responsibilities (Zurqoni, 2018). Religious attitudes are developed through all
regulations based on religious values, for example, implementation of worship practices in
a timely manner (Abdurrahman, 2016; Hidayat, 2016). Whereas in terms of responsibility,
students are given the understanding that that living in school and in the dormitory has rules
that must be obeyed (Aasebø et al., 2017). They are taught to be disciplined, to respect the time,
and to take responsibility for their actions (Muttaqin & Raharjo, 2018).
The main findings of this research show that academic culture could develop character
education in religious-based high school, particularly in Indonesia. Academic culture is
represented, such as academic discourse, publication practices, managing academic activities,
knowledge acquisition, and discipline practices. The academic discourse was associated with
the character of responsibility and nationality. This result was in agreement with the previous
research from Abdurrahman (2016), Hidayat (2016), and Pala (2011). Publication practices
were represented in the character of honesty and responsibility. This result was in line with
the previous research from Pala (2011). Managing academic activities was associated with the
character of independence, honesty, responsibility, and cooperativeness (Izfanna & Hisyam,
2012). Knowledge acquisition was developed to the character of honesty. Discipline practices
were represented in the character of religiosity and responsibility (Hidayat, 2016; Muttaqin &
Raharjo, 2018; Purnama, 2014).
Conclusions
The academic culture at PIHS is formed at the school system and the dormitory
system. The formation of academic culture in PIHS is characterized by the following aspects,
namely the respect for the opinions of others objectively (scientific discussions), the growth of
rational and critical-analytical thinking with moral responsibility, the development of reading
habits, the intensity of the addition of knowledge and insight, the habit of researching and

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serving the community, the writing of articles, papers, and books, and the implementation of 963
good management of educational institutions. The implications of a good academic culture can
develop student character education. Students have a religious, honest, nationalist, cooperative,
responsible, and independent character. The results of this research indicated that character
education in religion-based high schools could be developed through academic culture.
Five factors of academic culture are academic discourse practices, publication practices,
managing academic activities, knowledge acquisition practices, and disciplinary practices.
Research Limitations
The results of this research cannot be used generically in all school conditions. The
reason is that the research setting is an educational institution that implements a school and
boarding system based on Islamic teachings and values. In addition, this research setting is
still limited to the oldest PIHS in Indonesia, located in the city of Surakarta. The researchers
were also still limited to only interviewing female students. This is due to the limitations of the
researchers as women to enter the area of male students. Another limitation of this research is
the lack of representativeness and susceptibility to the subjective assessment of the researcher.
Acknowledgments
Appreciation is given to The Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia, which

has provided funding for this research, Yogyakarta State University and State Islamic University
Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, which have provided research facilities. Thank you also to Dr.
Nani Ratnaningsih for giving advice and input to this article and to resource persons who have
helped in the research process.
References
Aasebø, T. S., Midtsundstad, J. H., & Willbergh, I. (2017). Teaching in the age of
accountability: Restrained by school culture? Journal of Curriculum Studies, 49(3),
273–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2015.1072249
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Received: August 06, 2020 Accepted: November 29, 2020

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966
Cite as: Isnaini, L. R., Hanum, F., & Prasojo, L. D. (2020). Developing character education
through academic culture in Indonesian programmed Islamic high school. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 948-966. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.948
Rohmatun Lukluk Isnaini Master in Islamic Educational Management, Lecturer, State Islamic University
(Corresponding author) Sunan Kalijaga, Jl Marsda Adisucipto, Sleman, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
PhD Student, Yogyakarta State University, Jl. Colombo, Karang Malang,
Caturtunggal, Depok, Sleman, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
E-mail: lukluk_isnaini@yahoo.com
Farida Hanum Professor in Sociology of Education, Yogyakarta State University, Jl.

Colombo, Karang Malang, Caturtunggal, Depok, Sleman, Yogyakarta 55281,
Indonesia.
E-mail: faridahanum@uny.ac.id
Lantip Diat Prasojo Professor in Educational Management, Yogyakarta State University, Jl.
Colombo, Karang Malang, Caturtunggal, Depok, Sleman, Daerah Istimewa
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
E-mail: lantip@uny.ac.id

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EXAMINATION OF PRE-SCHOOL 967
STUDENTS’ SELF-REGULATION SKILLS

Kamil Arif Kırkıç
İstanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, Turkey
E-mail: kamil.kirkic@izu.edu.tr
Büşra Demir
Ministry of National Education, Turkey
E-mail: busradursunn@hotmail.com
Abstract
Children should have some essential characteristics to follow primary school education. Pre-schools
prepare children for the first years of primary school by teaching them to attain the necessary skills.
The main aim of this study was to explore the self-regulation skill levels of 4-6 age group students
attending pre-school education institutions, according to various demographic variables. In this survey,
a descriptive research method, one of the quantitative research methods, was used. The population is
10336 students who attend the public preschool education institutions in Küçükçekmece, İstanbul, and
the sample consists of 203 students. The ‘Personal Information Form’ and the Development of the Self-
Regulation Skills Scale for 4-6 Years Old Children (Teacher Form) were used in the research to collect
data. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-test were implemented to analyze the data. In terms
of findings of the research, when teachers consider the self-regulation skills of 4-6 years old students as
sub-dimensions, they stated that they had “mostly” obstructive control sub-dimension, “mostly” and
“always” had sub-dimension of working memory. In general, it can be said that the children participating
in the research mostly had self-regulation skills. Although significant differences existed between the self-
regulation skills of preschool students in terms of gender, age, and class size, no significant difference was
found according to whether the mothers working in a job or not.
Keywords: self-regulation, self-regulation skills, preschool students, preschool teacher
Introduction
Children meet formal education with preschool institutions. The preschool period is when
the brain and synaptic connections show the fastest growth (MoNE [Turkish Ministry of National
Education], 2013). Children start to direct their feelings and thoughts following the goals they
set for themselves and begin using mental strategies to control activities during this period.
These skills are the highest skills expected from children. They are termed as self-regulation
skills (Bayındır, 2016). Therefore, supporting self-regulation skills during these early years can
empower children’s enthusiasm to solve the problems they encounter in education and their life,
fight against various challenges, and find ways to cope with the stress they experience (Aydın
& Ulutaş, 2017). Studies showed that students with self-regulated skills could manage their
learning process, take steps to achieve success, and take more responsibilities (Zimmerman,
1989). People, who have self-regulation skills, are aware of their duties; they are successful
people who can control and organize their lives in this direction (Aydın & Atalay Demir, 2015).
In today’s society, education aims to educate each individual who can think fast and
creatively. All these skills expected from individuals are self-regulation skills. The term “self-
regulation” emerged with studies done by researchers such as Lecky (1945) and Thorne (1946)
in psychology, and the concept of self-regulation is added to the literature. Pintrich defined

Kamil Arif KIRKIÇ, Büşra DEMIR. Examination of pre-school students’ self-regulation skills
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968 self-regulation in the general sense as the individuals controlling and regulating their thoughts,
emotions, impulses, attention, and behavior (as cited in Fındık Tanrıbuyurdu and Güler Yıldız,
2014). When it is accepted that individuals show their every behavior for a specific purpose, it
may be derived that each individual has unique self-regulation skill; the only difference is that
the self-regulation levels vary from one individual to another. According to Zimmerman (2000),
self-regulation skills are present in each individual to a certain extent and are sometimes used
more efficiently and sometimes at lower levels. For example, an overweight individual is aware
of this, but breaking his/her diet and buying the food on the bakery display without restraint
shows that an individual has a low level of self-regulation. On the other hand, someone with
a sufficient and balanced diet who plans for activities and abide by these plans has high self-
regulation skills.
Self-regulation skills are a system that includes certain aspects in terms of structure
and function (Fındık Tanrıbuyurdu & Güler Yıldız, 2014). The literature review shows that
self-regulation has several subdimensions: behavioral regulation, emotional regulation, and
cognitive regulation. These subdimensions work as an interconnected system and affect each
other (Ertürk Kara et al., 2018). It is known that all living beings regulate their systems, but
sentience is what separates humans from other living people. Individuals attempt to self-
regulate based on particular imaginations, long-term goals, and their circle’s expectations. As
in all other developmental areas, the development of self-regulation skills also increases over
time. Self-regulation, which has a considerable impact on individuals’ social relationships and
life quality, starts with birth (Fındık Tanrıbuyurdu & Güler Yıldız, 2014). Even the crying of
a baby to fulfill its needs is a basic form of self-regulation. Children begin exhibiting goal-
directed behavior at age one. They can deliberately prefer to repeat actions that receive praise.
At around age two, they start to delay their desires and control their behavior even if there are
no adults to observe them; and around age three, they start trying to self-regulate according to
changing circumstances (Aydın & Ulutaş; 2017). As they grow, they increase their tendency to
refrain from thoughtless action and to act consciously. Self-regulation skills can be observed
better with the brain’s development in the following years (Fındık Tanrıbuyurdu & Güler Yıldız,
2014; Güler Yıldız et al., 2014).
It can be said that the child’s ability to self-regulate in the early childhood period is
the basis of self-regulation skills. Self-regulation skills gained in preschool education were
observed to positively affect processes such as adapting to school, academic achievement,
positive empathic abilities, and social adaptation. Besides, individuals with high self-regulation
skills are less prone to negative situations like substance abuse, antisocial behavior, or eating
disorders in their lives (Fındık Tanrıbuyurdu & Güler Yıldız, 2014).
The children mostly share their first experiences with their parents starting from infancy,
and the behaviors adopted in the first years of their life leave permanent effects in the following
years. The parents need to be aware of the importance of the connection between all of the
behavioral characteristics of children, self-regulation skills in particular. Therefore, parents’
attitudes to children have affected whether they are self-confident individuals who have high
self-control (Üredi & Erden, 2009). Apart from parents, peers that children socially interact
with and teachers in the preschool education institutions also influence the development of
children’s self-regulation skills.
The preschool period carries high importance because, during this period, children
develop creative thinking, establish social relationships, and experience intense cognitive
developments and learn the rules, cultures, and values of their society. Therefore, improving
self-regulation skills of students in preschools after a family education is crucial. Children who
cannot gain self-regulation skills experience problems in their relationships with their peers,
have lower academic achievements, and carry negative views towards their school (Aras, 2015).
According to Ergin and Yıldız (2014), children whose self-regulation skills cannot develop may

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have attitude, behavior, and adaptation problems throughout their lives. Preschool education in 969
Turkey covers children who are 36-72 months old. The goals of the curriculum are to support
social-emotional, language, cognitive, self-care, and motor development and preparing children
for primary education (MoNE, 2013). However, a child who does not have self-regulation skills
cannot determine the goals that would carry him/her to success. In turn, it cannot be possible for
him/her to achieve academic success and determine what is right from a behavioral perspective.
Because of these, self-regulation skills must be supported in all levels of education, especially
by preschool institutions. Eker and Arsal (2014) emphasized that those environments that are
designed towards the development of self-regulation skills increase academic achievement in
every level of education. According to Zimmerman (2002), students who have self-regulation
strategies are more successful academically because they can motivate themselves. The
development of self-regulation skills can be achieved with environmental factors and support
from the parents and teachers.
Research Problem
Studies showed us that most developmental characteristics are gained during the
preschool period. It can be called that providing children exercises that help their self-
regulation skills during this time is crucial for their development (Ertürk Kara et al., 2018).
Self-regulation skills are gained and improved firstly with the support of the family and then
in the school; parental and teacher attitudes and specific education programs that will increase
children’s self-regulation are needed in the early period (Aydın & Ulutaş, 2017). In this regard,
arranging the living environment in homes and learning environments in schools for children
and adopting specific attitudes towards their development carries great importance. One of the
factors that give this study a unique value is that it takes place in a district that we consider
represents Istanbul the best and includes different age groups. Though the number of studies
on self-regulation has increased in recent years, studies focusing on the self-regulation skills of
preschool children in Turkey are still not sufficient (Bayındır, 2016; Sezgin & Demiriz, 2016).
The research intended to find the level of self-regulation skills of four to six years old
preschool students and wanted to explain whether their gender, age, mothers’ employment
status, and class size affected these skills.
Research Focus

There are various studies done to know whether the gender of the students affected their
self-regulation skills; the results are contradictory. In the research done by Kırkıç et al., there
was no significant difference in self-regulation levels of primary school students either they were
boys or girls (Kırkıç et al., 2020). Whereas in Bayındır’s study on measuring the self-regulation
skills of children who were between 48-60 months old, it was found that there were meaningful
differences in gender (2016). Female children’s self-regulation skills were significantly higher
than male children had. Atabey (2018) discovered that female students had higher self-regulation
skills than male ones due to scale in the study on the social-emotional competency of preschool
children. However, in another study, no significant difference between children’s gender and
self-regulation skill levels was found (Fındık Tanrıbuyurdu & Güler Yıldız, 2014)
Bayındır found that the level of self-regulation skills of 48-60 months children had
meaningful differences in the age variable (2016). Similarly, Atmaca et al. found that children
who were 61 months old and over had higher self-regulation skills than those between 48
and 60 months old in her study on determining the self-regulation and social skill levels of
preschool children (Atmaca et al., 2020). However, there was no significant difference between
primary school students’ age and their self-regulation skill levels (Kırkıç et al., 2020). It has

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970 been established that a significant difference existed between the self-regulation skill levels and
ages of preschool students. A child who grows in age, has increased self-regulation skills as
well (Fındık Tanrıbuyurdu & Güler Yıldız, 2014).
Families, which are the first education environments, have great importance in developing
their self-regulation skills. Parents can nurture these skills by being a model for the children
and providing feedback on their behavior, transforming the physical environment at home in
terms of the child’s abilities and making new arrangements as the child’s skills can nourish
self-regulation skills. Parent attitudes that encourage self-directed child behaviors can ensure
the children to be more competent (Ponitz et al., 2009). Therefore, the employment status of
mothers is essential. Temiz (2019) has concluded that children with working mothers have
higher self-regulation skills than those with unemployed mothers.
Güler Yıldız et al. (2014) has conducted his study on characteristics of interaction
between the teacher, the child, and its relationship with the children’s self-regulation skills.
He found that there was a significant relationship between the two. According to the study,
the increased attention and control levels of children in the class and their positive attitudes/
behaviors positively correlated with the communication that the teacher established with the
children.
The schools are places where they take most of the children’s time beside their families.
Teachers should evaluate self-regulation skills, and supportive teaching methods should be
utilized for these skills in schools. Children must be given a chance to plan and implement
their learning processes; moreover, teachers should provide feedback to children and provide
opportunities for them to make amends to increase their self-regulation skills. Circle time
activities with children also positively impact children’s self-regulation skills (Aydın & Ulutaş,
2017). Furthermore, actions that have open-ended goals, multiple phases provide problem
posing and solution-seeking opportunities to support self-regulation development as well
(Sezgin, 2016). Also, it is known that providing children opportunities to make criticisms
during activity times and to evaluate their learning processes increase self-regulation skills
(Uygun et al., 2014). Becker et al. (2014), in their study they conducted to determine the
relationship of energetic games with self-regulation and academic achievement, have reached
the conclusion that children playing active games have higher self-regulation skills than
those who do not. Pazarbaşı and Esin Cantez (2019) stated a positive correlation between the
children’s relationship with their peers and their self-regulation skills.
The number of studies aiming to measure the level of children’s self-regulation skills
is rapidly increasing. The fact that self-regulation skills affect academic achievement and
other early childhood skills is one reason for the increase in research. Therefore, the research
aimed to examine the self-regulation skills of 4-6 preschool-age students according to various
demographic variables.
The research questions were presented below:
1. What is the level of self-regulation skills of preschool 4-6 age students in terms of
teacher opinions?
2. Is there a meaningful difference between children’s self-regulation skills and gender?
3. Is there a meaningful difference between children’s self-regulation skills and age?
4. Is there a meaningful difference between children’s self-regulation skills and their
mother’s employment status?
5. Is there a meaningful difference between children’s self-regulation skills and their
class size?

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Research Methodology 971
General Background
The research type was a survey. Survey methods are one of the quantitative methods that
portray a past or current situation as it is. Individuals, events, or objects that are the subject of
the study are attempted to be explained without changing the existing circumstances; they are
not interfered with (Karasar, 2017). The research was conducted in the schools governed by
Küçükçekmece Directorate of National Education in İstanbul, Turkey. The data were collected
in the fall semester of 2019-2020.
Sample
The population of the research consisted of 10336 preschool students in public

independent preschool institutions and preschool classes of public primary, middle and high
schools in the Küçükçekmece district of Istanbul in the 2019-2020 school year. The sample size
was calculated for 10,336 students with a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence interval for
sampling. The sample size was determined as 371 (Karasar, 2017; Raosoft, 2019). However,
participation approval was obtained for 203 students. The fact that the sample was 203 instead
of 371increased the margin of error in the study from 5.0% to 6.8%. For sampling, 203 students
were reached and included in the study. The sample was chosen with a simple random sampling
method (Karasar, 2017).
The frequency and percentage distributions for demographic variables of gender, age,
mother employment status, and number of children in the class have been given in the tables.
Table 1
Frequency and Percentage Values for Children’s Demographic Variables
f %
Girl 103 50.7

Gender Boy 100 49.3
Total 203 100.0
4 Years 39 19.2
5 Years 90 44.3
Age
6 Years 74 36.5
Total 203 100.0
Unemployed 158 77.8
Mother Employment
Employed 45 22.2
Status
Total 203 100.0
Between 17-20 108 53.2
Class Sizes Between 21-24 95 46.8
Total 203 100
As seen in Table 1, 103 (50.7%) of the children are female, and 100 (49.3%) are male
and 39 (19.2%) of the children in the study are 4-year-old, 90 (44.3%) are 5-year-old, and
74 (36.5%) are 6-year-old. Table 1 also shows that 158 (77.8%) of children’s mothers are

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972 unemployed, and 45 (22.2%) are employed, and 108 children(53.2%) are taught in a classroom
which has a size of 17-20 class size and 95 of them are the students of 21-24 class size. For the
students who were selected randomly for the research, consent was obtained from their parents.
If parents agreed to be in the research, then they were included.
The data-gathering tool in the study consisted of two parts. In the first part, the aim
of the research, confidentiality, and scientific-only purpose of the answers were explained.
Furthermore, information about children’s gender, age, employment statuses of their mothers,
and class sizes were asked.
The second part consisted of three subdimensions and 22 items; namely, “Self-
Regulation Skills Scale for 4-6 Years Old Children (Teachers’ Form)” developed by İvrendi
and Erol (2018), “Inhibitory Control” subdimension in items 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8, “Attention” in
items 9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16 and 17, and “Working Memory” in items 18,19,20,21 and 22. A
22-item, 3-factor (attention, working memory, and inhibitory control) structure was obtained,
which explained 63% of the total variance according to AFA results. The structure’s fit indices
determined based on DFA results were sufficient (χ2 /df = 1.28, RMSEA = .046, SRMR = .07).
The survey’s total item correlation ranged between .41 and .77. According to the results of
the t-test conducted on the scale items’ 27% lower/upper group discrimination, t values range
between 7.36 and 17.61 (df=169, p<.01). The internal consistency coefficient was .94 for the
scaling tool and ranged between .91 and .87 for the subdimensions.
The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient is .94 for the inhibitory control subdimension.
Moreover, it is .95 for the attention subdimension, .93 for the working memory subdimension,
and .96 for the total of the scale. It can be said that the self-regulation skills scale for 4-6 years
old children is reliable and appropriate for this study based on these results.
Data Analysis

Scales used for the research were 5-point Likert scales; values between 1-1.79 range are
specified as “never,” 1.80-2.59 range is “rarely,” 2.60-3.39 range is “occasionally,” 3.40-4.19
range is “frequently” and 4.20-5.00 range is “always.” The scales were aligned from 1 to 203.
Skewness and kurtosis values were determined in ±1.5 field according to the normality test,
which was conducted for deciding on the analyses and for determining if the data distribution
was normal. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2013), this value being within the range of
±1.5 is sufficient for normality; thus, the distributions were considered normal distributions.
Children’s self-regulation scale and subdimension scores based on teacher opinions were
subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine whether they differed
according to the student’s age. LSD test was utilized to determine between which groups the
differentiations were when there is one. For independent samples, a t-test was used to find if the
results varied according to the student’s gender, mother’s employment status, and the number
of students in the teacher’s class.
Research Results
Findings on Children’s Self-Regulation Skill Levels
Findings from the question “What are the self-regulation skill levels of 4-6-year-old
preschool students based on teacher opinions”, the first question of the research, are given in
Table 2.

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Table 2 973
Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation and Standard Error Values of the Self-Regulation Skills
Scale for 4-6 Years Old Children and its Subdimensions
Subdimensions N x̅ SD SEM
Inhibitory Control 203 4.07 .75 .05

Attention 203 4.11 .73 .05
Working Memory 203 4.39 .64 .04
Total Scale 203 4.16 .63 .04
In Table 1, it can be seen that the self-regulation skills of pre-school students are developed
well. The mean scores were found as =4.07 for the “inhibitory control” subdimension; =4.11for
the “attention” subdimension; =4.39 for the “working memory subdimension and =4.16 for the
total scale.
Findings on the Gender Variable
Independent samples t-test was conducted to determine whether there was a meaningful
difference in self-regulation skill levels of 4-6 years old children based on the gender variable,
and the results are given in Table 3.
Table 3
t-Test Results for 4-6 Years Old Children’s Self-Regulation Skills Scale and Subdimension
Scores based on the Gender Variable Groups
Subdimensions Groups N x̅ SD t test

t df p
Female 103 4.12 .75
Inhibitory Control 1.075 201 .284
Male 100 4.01 .76
Female 103 4.28 .69
Attention 3.396 201 .001
Male 100 3.94 .73
Female 103 4.44 .62
Working Memory 1.153 201 .250
Male 100 4.34 .65
Female 103 4.26 .61
Total Scale 2.336 201 .020
Male 100 4.06 .63
As seen in Table 3, results of the t-test show that there are meaningful differences in
female students' favor in the attention subdimension [t(201)= 3.396; p<.01] and total scale
scores [t(201)= 2.236; p<.05]. Based on the findings, female children have higher general self-
regulation and attention skills than male children have. However, the inhibitory control [t(201)=
1.075; p>.05] and working memory [t(201)= 1.153; p>.05] subdimensions’ independent sample
t-test results found no meaningful difference between the two groups.
Findings on the Age Variable
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted on the data obtained from the
survey to find if there was a meaningful difference between the self-regulation skills of children
based on the age variable, and the results are given in Table 4.3.

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974 Table 4
One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results of the Self-Regulation Skills Scale for 4-6
Years Old Children and its Subdimension Scores Based on the Age Variable
N Mean SD Values ANOVA Results
Subdimension Group x̅ SD Variance SS df MS F p
4 Years 39 3.73 .81 Intergroup 5.91 2 2.96
Inhibitory Control 5 Years 90 4.19 .68 Intragroup 108.97 200 .55 5.423 .005
6 Years 74 4.10 .76 Total 114.88 202
Attention 5 Years 90 4.25 .58 Intragroup 89.73 200 .449 20.785 .001
6 Years 74 4.28 .79 Total 108.38 202
Working Memory 5 Years 90 4.52 .56 Intragroup 66.02 200 .330 23.468 .001
6 Years 74 4.53 .60 Total 81.51 202
Total Scale 5 Years 90 4.29 .53 Intragroup 67.49 200 .337 18.371 .001
6 Years 74 4.27 .63 Total 79.89 202
In Table 4, the results of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) conducted to find if

there was a meaningful difference in the mean scores of the scale based on the age variable
given. It shows that there were significant differences in all of the inhibitory control [F(2-200) =
5.423; p<.01], attention [F(2-200) = 20.785; p<.01] and working memory [F(2-200) = 23.468; p<.01]
subdimensions and in the total of the scale [F(2-200) = 18.371; p<.01]. LSD multiple comparison
test was used to determine the groups which encompassed the differences, and the results are
given in Table 5
Table 5
LSD Test Results for Self-Regulation Skills Scale for 4-6 Years Old Children and its
Subdimension Scores Based on the Age Variable
Score Groups (i) Groups (j) SEM p

xi − x j
5 Years -.46 .14 .001
Inhibitory Control 4 Years
6 Years -.37 .15 .002
5 Years -.76 .13 .001
Attention 4 Years
6 Years -.78 .13 .001
5 Years -.70 .11 .001

Working Memory 4 Years
6 Years -.70 .11 .001
5 Years -.64 .11 .001
Total Scale 4 Years
6 Years -.62 .11 .001
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Table 5 shows the results of the post hoc LSD test conducted to determine which groups 975
had the difference between the inhibitory control, attention, and working memory subdimensions
and the total scale mean scores based on the age variable arise. The discrepancies between three
subdimensions and the scale appeared in favor of 5 and 6 years of age (p<.01). The difference
means that 4-year-old children had lower results in terms of inhibitory control, attention,
working memory, and general self-regulation skills than 5 and 6- year- old children.
Findings on the Employment Status of the Mother
The mother’s employment status variable, whether it causes a significant difference

in the self-regulation skills of children, an independent sample t-test was conducted, and the
results are shown in Table 6.
Table 6
t-Test results of Self-Regulation Skills Scale for 4-6 Years Old Children and its Subdimension
Scores based on the Mother’s Employment Status Variable
t test
Subdimensions Groups N x̅ SD
t df
Unemployed 158 4.06 .76

Inhibitory Control -.129 201 .898
Employed 45 4.08 .74

Attention 1.235 201 .218
Working Memory 1.023 201 .308
Total Scale .765 201 .445
Table 6 shows no meaningful difference in the self-regulation scale mean scores between
the groups based on the mother’s employment status variable. The self-regulation skills of 4-6
years old children do not meaningfully differ based on their mother’s employment.
Findings on the Class Size Variable
An independent sample t-test was conducted to check whether the class size variable of
children causes a significant difference in the self-regulation skills of children, and the results
are shown in Table 7.

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976 Table 7
t-Test results of Self-Regulation Skills Scale for 4-6- Year-Old Children and its Subdimension
Scores based on the Class Size Variable
t test
Subdimensions Groups N x̅ SD
t df p
Between 17-20 108 3.93 .81
Inhibitory Control -2.736 201 .007
Between 21-24 95 4.22 .65
Between 17-20 108 3.94 .77
Attention -3.781 201 .001
Between 21-24 95 4.31 .63
Between 17-20 108 4.27 .68
Working Memory -2.873 201 .004
Between 21-24 95 4.53 .55
Between 17-20 108 4.01 .67
Total Scale -3.677 201 .001
Between 21-24 95 4.33 .54
The t-test results on Table 7 show that there was a meaningful difference in the mean
scores of inhibitory control [t(201)= -2.736; p<.01], attention [t(201)= -3.781; p<.01] and working
memory subdimensions [t(201)= -2.873; p<.01] and the total scale [t(201)= -3.677; p<.01] in favor
of the class sizes between 21-24. According to the results, the self-regulation skills of children
in classes with 21-24 students in all subdimensions and the total scale were higher than those
in classes with 17-20 students.
Discussion
The mean scores were found as =4.07 for the "inhibitory control" subdimension; =4.11for
the "attention" subdimension; =4.39 for the "working memory subdimension and =4.16 for the
total scale. Based on these findings, teachers have stated that 4-6 years old children frequently
(3.40-4.19 range is "frequently") have inhibitory control and attention subdimensions.
Whereas, 4-6 years old children always (4.20-5.00 range is "always") have working memory
subdimension in terms of their teachers' opinions. However, teachers have stated that 4-6 years
old children frequently (3.40-4.19 range is "frequently") have the general self-regulation skills.
These results showed that the self-regulation skills of preschool students were generally high.
These findings are essential because after the preschool, children attend primary school, and
the research done by Connor et al. (2010) showed that the first-grade students with high SR
skills had achieved higher levels of reading and vocabulary skills. Also, Kuşdemir Kayıran and
Doğanay found that the higher the self-regulation skill level, the higher the students' reading
comprehension level (2017).
Therefore, to determine the level of SR skills of preschool students lets teachers make
their students in the primary school. The fact that students' self-regulation skills affect the
achievement in primary school may provide preschool teachers with the opportunity to correct
and improve their students' SR skills when they know their students' SR skills before they start
primary school, that is, before the preschool education program is complete. The results also
revealed that students that reported high in self-regulation were more likely to report high in
cognitive strategy use. Adesola and Li found that students with high self-regulation skills used
cognitive strategy more (Adesola & Li, 2018).
There was a meaningful difference in children's self-regulation skills based on their
gender. This difference was determined in favor of female children rather than male children.

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This finding is also supported in the study by Karakurt (2019) and (Daggul & Işık Gürşımşek, 977
2019). The reason that the self-regulation level of girls is higher than self-regulation skills of
boys may be the cultural values that they have (Karakurt, 2019). For instance, studies in France
and Germany did not find any meaningful difference in children's self-regulation skills based on
their gender (Gostsdottir et al., 2014; as cited in Şahin, 2019). These studies are basic examples
of the effect of culture on gender. These differences may be because girls mainly take their
mothers as examples, spend most of their time at home with their mothers. At the same time,
boys are raised more independently and exhibit more impulsive behaviors.
Furthermore, the difference in the self-regulation skills of preschool students in terms of
gender is also related to the development of girls. The development of girls before the age of
seven may be faster than boys. In the primary school age, this difference gradually decreases,
and the difference between boys and girls decreases. In the study conducted by Kırkıç et al.,
no significant difference was found between primary school students' self-regulation skills in
terms of gender Kırkıç et al. (2020). Alejandro et al. (2016) revealed that in terms of behavioral
scores and self-regulation ratings done by teachers, girls possessed more self-regulation skills
than boys in a study conducted in California with 4-6 years old children. In another study
done in Iceland and Germany, the self-regulation skills of students according to their gender
were different in both countries (Suchodoletz et al., 2013). It would be beneficial to close
this difference before they start primary school, and if there is a difference against boys when
primary school starts, teachers should make an effort to correct it in primary school.
It is essential for students to have self-regulation skills at an early age and to develop
these skills as they get older and older, for students to have a successful school life. Birgisdóttir
et al. found that students must have self-regulation at an early age for their future success
(2015). Self-regulation skills meaningfully differentiate based on the children's age variable.
4-year-old children have lower self-regulation levels than 5- and 6- years old children. Fındık
Tanrıbuyurdu and Güler Yıldız (2014) stated that since children's experience increased together
with their age, their self-regulation skills also increased in proportion. The research done
supports this result. However, it has the opposite results of the study done by Kırkıç et al.
(2020).
There were no meaningful differences found in the study based on the employment status
of the mothers. Temiz (2019) has concluded that children with working mothers had higher self-
regulation skills than unemployed mothers' children. Different samples may be the reason for
this discrepancy. Although Emre at al. (2019) found a relationship between the communication
levels of parents and the self-regulation skills of their children, it was deficient. Büyüktaşkapu
Soydan and Akalin proposed that new intervention programs should be designed to strengthen
the communication of parent and child interaction because mothers behave more positively if
their children have developed self-regulation skills (2020).
The results are in favor of children in more crowded classes in terms of class size. This
result may be interpreted as more opportunities to establish social communication, and peer
learning occurs more frequently in crowded classes. Pazarbaşı and Esin Cantez (2019) stated a
positive correlation between the children's relationship with their peers and their self-regulation
skills. However, McDonald Connor et al. determined that individual training significantly
improved the self-regulation skills of primary school students instead of teaching in classes
with a large number of students (2016). Moreover, Cadima et al. explored that the better the
teacher-student relationship in the classroom environment, the better the development of
students' self-regulation. However, in this study, the level of self-regulation of students was
found to be higher in crowded classrooms where the teacher-student relationship was likely to
be less effective (2016).
Despite the level of self-regulated skills of preschool students in this research, Şen et
al. (2015) stated that the self-regulation skills of students could be raised by implementing

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978 specific methods and techniques during the instruction. McDonald Connor et al. suggested that
self-regulation during the early school years may be malleable and that additional emphasis on
aspects of the classroom environment that promote self-regulation may help to ensure students'
school success and higher levels of academic achievement overall (2016).
In this study, the level of self-regulation skills of the preschool students and how this
level changed according to gender, age, mother's employment status, and the class size were
examined. Higher self-regulation skills of students compared to previous studies can be
considered as an indicator that students will be more successful in their primary school life.
However, the fact that boys' self-regulation skills are lower than girls requires male students to
be supported in primary school. Being aware of this situation, it is likely that primary school
teachers should consider the levels of male students in both teaching and gaining self-regulation
skills. It is predicted that self-regulation skills will develop as age progresses. In this study,
as the age of the students increased, their self-regulation skill levels also increased. It is an
essential issue that primary school teachers should also monitor whether their self-regulation
skills increase as the age grows in the preschool period, and they should be evaluated in terms
of providing support to the students in need on time. The employment status of the mothers
does not make a difference in the self-regulation skills of the students. Therefore, it can be
investigated how mothers' communication styles with children affect children's self-regulation
skills rather than whether mothers are employed or not. The higher self-regulation skills of the
students studying in crowded classes can be attributed to their higher peer interaction with their
friends. However, in future studies, there is a need for research on how the number of students
in the classroom changes the social interaction between students, how it affects teacher-student
mutual communication, and as a result of these interactions, how students' self-regulation skills
change.
Children have sufficiently high self-regulation scores; however, there are also those with
low ratings. Arrangements at home and in the class can be made to support the self-regulation
skills of these children within the education system. Learning environments can be rearranged
in this direction. Girls’ self-regulation skills are developed more than male students’ self-
regulation skills, and it is necessary to conduct new research to improve male students’ self-
regulation skills. The fact that boys’ self-regulation skills are lower than female students’ self-
regulation skills may be related to their development. For this reason, it can be researched how
to improve self-regulation skills by considering the development periods of male preschool
students.
As the age of the students increases, their self-regulation skill levels also increase. Self-
regulation skills of preschool children aged five and six have been higher than self-regulation
skills of 4-year-old students parallel to age development. However, the absence of any
difference between the five and six age group students can be considered as a research topic for
future studies. It has been determined that the mother being a housewife or working at a job
does not affect the level of self-regulation skills of preschool children. This result shows that
working mothers can contribute to the development of their children like non-working mothers.
However, it may also be a question of why children whose mothers are housewives do not have
more self-regulation skills. Their mothers do not work in a job, and therefore they are supposed
to have more time for their children.
The self-regulation skills of the students whose class size is between 21-24 people are
higher than the self-regulation skills of the students studying in a class size between 17-20.
This result can be explained by the fact that they interact more with their peers. However, it is
recommended to research according to different class sizes where self-regulation skill levels
can develop best.

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This study evaluates children’s self-regulation skills based on teacher opinions. In the 979
future, similar studies may be conducted in terms of parent opinions. This research was limited
to public preschools. New research may include private and public schools together. In this
research, it was found that self-regulation levels were different in favor of girls.
It was also found that children educated in small-sized classrooms had higher levels
of self-regulation skills; therefore, to make children gain self-regulation skills, the class sizes
should not exceed 20 students.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank to all teachers who filled the data-gathering instruments. This article
is written from the graduate project prepared by the second author under the supervision of the
first author.
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982
Cite as: Kırkıç, K. A., & Demir, B. (2020). Examination of pre-school students’
self-regulation skills. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 78(6), 967-982.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.967
Kamil Arif Kırkıç PhD, Assistant Professor, Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, Halkalı,
(Corresponding author) Küçükçekmece, İstanbul Turkey.
E-mail: kamil.kirkic@izu.edu.tr arifkamildr@gmail.com,
Büşra Demir Principal, Ministry of National Education, Halkalı, Küçükçekmece, İstanbul

Turkey.
E-mail: busradursunn@hotmail.com

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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PRIOR 983
EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR ACTUAL

EXPERIENCES OF TEACHING
MATHEMATICS DURING PEDAGOGICAL
INTERNSHIP IN ZIMBABWE
Chipo Makamure
University of South Africa, Republic of South Africa
E-mail: makamc@unisa.ac.za
Abstract
Pedagogical internship (PI) is an important component of teacher training programmes in Zimbabwe.

It is envisaged to give student teachers experience in the classroom. However, the variation between
the theoretical expectations of pre-service teachers (PST) and their actual experiences in the field has
been a relational lacuna in academic research in Zimbabwe. This research sought to address this by
presenting data on the relation between college PSTs’ expectations about teaching mathematics and
their actual experiences during PI in Zimbabwe. The study shares findings from a mixed methods study
that employed two questionnaires completed by 120 PST before and during PI respectively, and a third
questionnaire administered to school-based mentors. The researcher also conducted in-depth interviews
with a few selected PSTs and teacher educators to elicit their views about the PSTs’ practices. The
results show that there is, indeed, a conflictual relationship between the PSTs’ expectations of teaching
mathematics and their experiences in the classroom. PSTs showed a consistent anticipation that they
would sail through PI without many difficulties, but this expectancy turned out to be idealistic and
impractical. The research also established that PSTs’ expectations about teaching mathematics prior
to PI can influence their field practices, hence, determining their opportunities to learn to teach the
subject. It is recommended that teacher training institutions organize programmes for PSTs before PI to
prepare and acquaint them fully with the skills that are needed to face challenges of teaching that may
otherwise come as a shock during PI.
Keywords: expectations of teaching, field experiences, mathematics knowledge, pedagogical internship
(PI), pre-service teachers (PSTs)
Introduction
Several studies, including that of Chong and Low (2009, p.61) and Delamarter (2015,
p.2), have suggested that PSTs enter education programmes with pre-determined perceptions,
expectations, and conceptions about teaching. According to Frydaki and Mamoura (2011), most
PSTs view teaching from the way they interpret events and then perform according to how
they comprehend it. This is due to the lenses of their beliefs and expectations. The tendency
of viewing teaching knowledge this way implies that the expectations that PSTs bring to the
classroom regarding mathematics teaching may influence their practice of teaching the subject.
For example, PSTs with the belief that knowledge is certain and unchanging are likely to teach
learners mathematics by mere transmission of what they know (Makamure, 2016). Du Toit
Brits and Nel (2016, p. 81) therefore posited that teachers sometimes express expectations and,
on these expectations, they behave in a specific manner. This idea is echoed by Incecay (2011),
and Lo and Anderson (2010) who asserted that beliefs and expectations govern PSTs’ thoughts,
perceptions, actions, and judgements during field placement.

Chipo MAKAMURE. Pre-service teachers’ prior expectations and their actual experiences of teaching mathematics during
pedagogical internship in Zimbabwe
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984 In this research, a belief is considered as something one has surmised as true and
expectations are regarded as predictions of what will happen. Beliefs can therefore influence
expectations. For example, if a teacher believes mathematics is a difficult subject, that may
affect his expectations about how it is taught. Purnomo et al. (2016) ascertained that beliefs
that teachers have about the nature of mathematics determine instructional practices. This
view is reflected in Peressini et al.’s (2004) study which submitted that some PSTs believe
doing mathematics denotes getting correct answers fast and learning mathematics signifies
mastering procedures. This belief of the nature of mathematics may prompt PSTs to encourage
memorisation of concepts, formulae, and procedures in their teaching. The beliefs and
expectations of PSTs can thus shape the PSTs’ teaching behaviour which, in turn, can affect
their opportunities to learn to teach mathematics during PI. There is therefore a connection
between learning to teach and PSTs’ expectations. If people learn by trying to make sense of the
differences between their predictions (expectations) and reality, then the presence or absence of
practice shock could affect opportunities to learn. For example, if PSTs think that the only thing
they need to learn or teach during PI is content, then that also affects what they may be ready to
learn. Hence the idea of expectations and reality impacts on the way of learning to teach.
There is a general consensus between Sag (2014) and Hamaidi et al. (2014) that PSTs’
expectations of teaching are sometimes absolutely divorced from reality during PI. These
discrepancies between PSTs expectations and reality have been documented differently
by various scholars. Delamarter (2015), for example, contended in a case study that PSTs’
expectations are often unrealistic. According to Delamarter, the expectations become unrealistic
because most PSTs often generate an ideal in which they anticipate relational connections with
the learners to trump content delivery. Whilst personal contact with learners is a crucial aspect
of teaching, Delamarter professed that the PSTs tend to focus more on these relationships to the
exclusion of academic considerations. Using observations, Eisenhardt et al. (2012) also argued
that PSTs experience dissonance because their preconceived notions about learners conflict
with their field experiences. The scholars argued that many classrooms today have become
diverse and PSTs are not prepared to address the needs of diverse learners. This view shows
that PSTs may miscalculate the abilities of their students and their own (PSTs) proficiency
to teach some mathematical concepts. These miscalculations could result in reality shock if
the PSTs’ expectations fail to conform to their classroom practices. Delamarter (2015, p.2)
consequently submitted that the sudden confrontation with the realities of PI may lead to
practice shock for PSTs. Practice shock can be viewed as a sudden and surprising experience
during PI when the PSTs’ expectations about teaching conflict with the full realities of the
classroom. According to Stokking et al. (2003), PSTs experience a shock when they struggle
coping with change. However, Stokking et al. (2003) posited that the level of such challenges
depends on the instruction they acquired in college and the support they are given during PI.
These views illustrate that a thorough preparation of PSTs before PI may assuage the negative
effects of PI surprises.
Research Problem
Considering the background stipulated above, the question that remains is: In what
context is this problem of practice shock more pronounced and does the problem exist in the
contexts of developing countries such as Zimbabwe? If so, in what forms and to what extent?
According to Du Toit-Brits and Nel (2016), research into this phenomenon of PSTs expectations
and experiences in developing countries such as South Africa is limited. Extensive research
concerning teachers’ expectations and teaching behaviour was in most cases conducted in the
context of developed countries such as Canada and Israel (Du Toit-Brits & Nel, 2016). In addition,
research on the discrepancies between PSTs’ expectations prior to and realities during PI have

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been well-documented in the developed countries by scholars such as Cole and Knowles (1993) 985
who talked about shattered images of PSTs. In other studies, Pourdavood (2017) explained
PSTs’ expectations towards mathematics while Sheridan (2016) examined changes in PSTs’
beliefs of pedagogy. Furthermore, Purnomo et al. (2016) outlined PSTs’ beliefs and practices in
mathematics classes whereas Weinstein (1988) described unrealistic optimism. More work is
therefore required for developing country contexts because PSTs in these countries, including
Zimbabwe, have disparate cultural environments and varied exposures compared to the rest of
the developed countries. Zimbabwe differs from developed countries because of its status as
an underdeveloped country. This gap therefore prompted the research to explore mathematics
PSTs’ expectations and their practices in Zimbabwe.
The present research presents the extent to which PSTs’ expectations impact on their
field practices in Zimbabwe. Furthermore, the research argues for the rationale to examine
information on the ways in which the gap (if any) between PSTs’ expectations of teaching
mathematics before and their actual experiences during PI can be taken into account. This
would reduce teaching challenges faced by PSTs and create better opportunities for them to
learn to teach mathematics. Two research questions guided the research. The first is: How
are Zimbabwean PSTs’ expectations concerning teaching mathematics before PI and their
actual practices during PI related? The second one is: To what extent do PSTs’ expectations
concerning teaching mathematics during their teacher education programme reflect in their
actual classroom teaching practices?
Research Focus
Naylor et al. (2015) indicated that PSTs join teacher education programmes with a
diversity of educational and life experiences, hence, diverse beliefs, values, and dispositions.
Similarly, Feiman-Nemser (2001) affirmed that PSTs have lifelong experiences before teacher
education. For this reason, the PSTs could have idiosyncratic preconceived ideas about teaching.
These preconceived ideas may construct and give birth to various peculiar expectations among
them as they step into teacher education programmes. Most PSTs may therefore want to relate
their PI classes with their personal experiences. Briley (2012) and Yilmaz and Sahin (2011)
agreed that PSTs’ prior conceptions about teaching are linked directly to their classroom
practices. Similarly, Naylor et al. (2015) affirmed that prior experiences and beliefs influence
the skills and knowledge to be presented in the classroom. For example, if a PST was earlier on
taught with a particular teaching method, their perspective on teaching may evolve around this
method. This suggests that previous experiences may exacerbate the tendency to underestimate
the complexity of teaching, which can give rise to unlimited and unhealthy surprises during PI.
Using a survey, Kahn et al. (2014) also argued that beliefs (which are presumed to give birth to
expectations) cannot be separated from classroom practices. The ideas adduced above suggest
that class practices of PSTs are likely to be determined by prior expectations which emerge as
a result of prior experiences.
Expectations and Practice Shock
Wall’s (2016) study found that PSTs before PI expect and believe that teaching is
simple and that teaching ensures learning, teaching is autonomous and that learners perform
uniformly within grade levels. Such expectations may affect and determine the PSTs’ teaching
methodologies and their perception of the learners they teach. In contrast with their expectations,
PSTs usually find themselves frustrated and bewildered owing to unprecedented factors that
emerge from classroom contexts (Wall, 2016).

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986 Weinstein (1988) raised the issue of “unrealistic optimism” among PSTs, which can
culminate into practice shock. Weistein (1988) asserted that the structure and content of
teacher education programmes can also contribute to unrealistic expectations among PSTs. In
particular, Weinstein’s study alluded to the programmes in teacher education as being deficient
in typical characteristics of professional preparation. For example, Weinstein’s study found that
programmes in universities portray the notion that learning to teach is not problematic as long
as certain procedures are followed religiously, hence averting discussions on what PSTs should
do in the face of a challenge during PI. Wall (2016) concurred that there seems to be a mismatch
between PSTs’ learning on campus (which can give rise to expectations) and their practices in
the field. This mismatch implies that the theoretical knowledge acquired by PSTs in college
may not suffice in the implementation of skills in teaching.
Grouws et al. (1996) developed a theoretical framework with several categories for
mathematical beliefs of teachers. One of the categories entails beliefs about the structure,
composition, and status of mathematics (nature of mathematics). For instance, mathematics
can be perceived by PSTs as a group of distinct, independent facts (Grouws et al., 1996).
When PSTs carry this view into the classroom during PI, they may promote “instrumental
understanding” of mathematical concepts among learners, whereby certain procedures are used
to solve mathematical tasks without comprehension of why and how the procedures function
(Leikin & Levav-Waynberg, 2009). An understanding of what mathematics is and better forms
of teaching it by PSTs prior to PI may redirect their expectations about teaching mathematics
during PI. Pourdavood (2017) asserted that views about what mathematics is and what it is not
influence PSTs’ expectations, experiences, and beliefs towards teaching mathematics.
In one study on PSTs’ expectations regarding teaching mathematics before PI, Lo and
Anderson (2010) revealed that some PSTs regard mathematics as a constant body of knowledge.
This view suggests that PSTs are just there to re-teach mathematics for content retention and
not for understanding and application of mathematical concepts. In the same vein, Peressini et
al. (2004) submitted that PSTs believe that performing mathematics entails obtaining correct
answers at the drop of a hat and that mastering procedures and memorising rules signify
learning mathematics. For this reason, McDiarmid and Ball (1998) affirmed that PSTs assume
that “good” mathematics learners are students who can recall formulas and procedures and, as
a result, the inability to memorise these formulae and procedures implies poor performance.
Such a mind-set is likely to determine the PSTs’ teaching strategies. When these strategies fail
to work and the goals of teaching are not met, it may result in “unrealistic optimism” among
PSTs, which can give rise to reality shock in the classroom. Some PSTs are confident to teach
mathematics when they are on PI, assuming they are familiar with the subject content (Lee et
al., 2013). What could be concealed to them is that the tacit comprehension of mathematics may
not be helpful to the learner if it remains dormant. Whilst PSTs may think they have adequate
pre-requisite ability to teach effectively because they have the content, they may fail to realise
that content alone can lack the multi-dimensionality that makes the classroom a complex
environment. Despite the knowledge of mathematics content, they have, PSTs are normally
biased towards their ability to instruct learners from different cultures and to deal with individual
differences in the classroom (Weinstein, 1988). Naylor et al. (2015) hence indicated that teacher
education programmes have been sold short by the lack of internship, detachment of theory
and practice, and transmissive teaching models taught in universities. These programmes in
the universities are likely to impact on the PSTs’ perceptions and expectations about teaching
mathematics. For example, the programmes portray a situation where teaching mathematics
may be viewed as being theoretical and remote and that it can be done by any educated person
(Naylor et al., 2015). However, PSTs get shocked when the situation in the classroom immerses
them in the “real, practical and immediate” teaching contexts (Naylor et al., 2015, p.120). The
teacher education curriculum should therefore strive to make PSTs understand that teaching
mathematics goes beyond subject content, theory or having a “bag of tricks” (Naylor et al.,
2015, p.120) to teach it.

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Possible Solutions to Buff Practice Shock 987
Given that PSTs enter PI with extensive pre-conceptions about teaching, the role of
teacher education is to challenge their preconceived knowledge of the subject that they will
teach (Naylor et al., 2015). This role helps them to have a positive change regarding teaching and
promotes “learning to teach” (Sheridan, 2016) particularly learning to teach mathematics. It is
therefore vital for teacher educators to be aware of PSTs’ prior expectations to improve the PSTs’
practices, hence, fostering effective teaching and learning of mathematics. Prior expectations
may be preserved if they are consistent with the demands of learning to teach (Peressini et al.,
2004), but can be reshaped or rerouted if they are incompatible and misaligned with teaching
(Barahona, 2014). Sometimes when PSTs notice that their expectations are dysfunctional, they
panic and, ultimately, their dreams and hopes are shattered. These pre-existing expectations
may be altered if teacher educators can present data which is believable, practical, convincing,
and explainable to PSTs (Clark-Goff & Eslami, 2016). White and Chant (2014) suggested
that teacher educators (both in college and in schools) should create opportunities for PSTs
to see the practical application of mathematics theory by challenging their expectations and
perceptions. The implication of this idea is that teacher educators must be privy to the thoughts
and expectations that are brought by PSTs to the classroom and be prepared to challenge and
reinforce them so that change occurs. PI is therefore the domain in which expectations can be
reinforced and/or challenged to create the opportunity to learn to teach mathematics.
General Background
The present research was anchored on the pretext that mathematics is a practical subject
and that it can only be understood through practice. The pragmatist philosophy was employed
to guide the selection of the mixed methods approach to explore the connection between PSTs’
theoretical expectations and their educational performance in the classroom with regard to
mathematics teaching in Zimbabwe. The pragmatist paradigm is an ideology which believes
that education must be practical and must occur through experience (Creswell, 2014). Since
the research intends to establish the extent to which PSTs’ expectations resonate with their field
practices, it fits well into the precepts of pragmatism. The explanatory sequential design was
deemed to be suitable for this research so that quantitative findings can be clarified and interpreted
by qualitative data to ensure that the results are credible and trustworthy (Terrell, 2012). As
this study employed the explanatory design, the researcher was able to distribute questionnaires
to participants first before and during PI. This was followed by focus group interviews (FGI)
during PI. This was done to evaluate the link between PSTs’ previous expectations and beliefs
against their field experiences. According to Ivankova (2014), the explanatory design allows
confirmation by qualitative means (FGI) in the event that questionnaires provide unexpected
data. During their first year, PSTs in Zimbabwe learn pedagogics of teaching mathematics as
well as mathematics content. During their second year (on PI), they are deployed in schools
all over the country (rural and urban areas) and the practising schools are diverse in terms of
teaching and learning resources. In their final year (3rd year), the PSTs continue with pedagogics
and mathematics content up to first year degree level. A conscious decision regarding which
PSTs would provide the desired information was therefore made.

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988 Sample
Convenience sampling was used to select 120 first year PSTs from two colleges using
codes A and B. The figure was thought to be a realistic representation of the population of 160
as it represented 75% of the total number of first-year mathematics PSTs in the two colleges A
and B. A population of 160 calculated at 95% confidence level and margin error of 4.5% would
require a sample size of 120. The researcher also purposively selected 42 school-based mentors
from the 3 provinces where most students were deployed for PI. The mentors were selected
from teachers who supervised the PSTs during PI. Seven college-based teacher educators also
participated in the research.
First year mathematics PSTs from two teachers’ colleges A and B were selected to
answer a group-administered questionnaire (separately) prior to PI. This sought to determine
their pre-conceptions and expectations of mathematics content, mathematics teaching and
mathematics learners before field experiences. A follow-up questionnaire developed by the
researcher was also administered to 105 PSTs in the middle of their PI. The PSTs were from
the same group that responded to the initial questionnaire. This questionnaire was meant to
solicit information on the PSTs’ experiences during PI. The responses enabled the researcher to
compare PSTs’ expectations before PI with their actual experiences during PI. FGIs were also
conducted with 22 PSTs from the same group that answered questionnaires to allow for in-depth
exploration of the findings. The secondary teachers’ colleges A and B were thus considered as
they had first year PSTs in session and were soon expected to go on internship. The 42 mentors
answered a questionnaire to elicit information illustrating any discrepancies in the perceptions
of mentors about PSTs’ practices during PI. Follow-up FGIs with 14 mentors who participated
in answering questionnaires were also conducted to ascertain their views about the strengths
and shortcomings of PSTs during PI. The questionnaire focused on their mathematics content
knowledge and their teaching knowledge in the field. Selected college-based lecturers also
answered individualised semi-structured interviews to establish their views concerning the
nature of mathematics knowledge acquired by PSTs during their time in college.
Data Analysis
The first questionnaire developed by the researcher requested for PSTs’ demographic
data and teaching expectations, whilst the second one sought their teaching experiences. The
third questionnaire sought mentors’ views about PST’s classroom performance. The SPSS
programme was used to analyse responses to the three questionnaires and to test their reliability.
The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was computed to give the coefficients 0.614, 0.850 and 0.758
for the three questionnaires, respectively. Although coefficients of over 0.7 are recommended
for a strong approximation of reliability, coefficients under 0.7 may realistically be accepted,
especially when working with psychological constructs such as personal traits, abilities and
attitudes (Kline, 1999). This justifies the relatively low scale of 0.614. The three questionnaires’
internal consistency were therefore relatively high. The quantitative data collected from
questionnaires were cleaned, entered, and analysed using the SPSS programme. The results
of the questionnaires were analysed on a 5-point Likert scale using descriptive statistics and
paired samples t-test. The 5-point Likert scale was given a weighting of 1 to 5, and had the
highest score of 5 representing ‘Strongly Agree’ (S.A), with ‘Strongly Disagree’ (S.D) taking
the lowest score of 1. Using the Likert scale enabled the calculation of means and standard
deviations necessary in this mixed methods design study. The descriptive analysis reported

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on the frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations of the PSTs’ expectations and 989
experiences during PI. A paired samples t-test analysis was carried out at 5% significance level
to determine the significance of the difference between the two means of ‘expectations’ of
teaching prior to PI and ‘teaching experiences’ in the field.
The result of the interviews with the lecturers, mentors, and PSTs were presented and
analysed to confirm quantitative data. To ensure that the trustworthiness and credibility criteria
is met, interview data were compared with the quantitative data, and audio recordings were
transcribed into textual data.
Research Results
Expectations and Experiences of Teaching
Table 1 juxtaposes the means of expectations of teaching prior to PI and the experiences
during PI on the question items that examined the same skills, so as to establish the discrepancies
between the two constructs. Expectations were drawn from questionnaire 1 administered prior
to PI, whilst the experiences were from questionnaire 2 answered by PSTs during PI.
Table 1
Expectations and Experiences of Pedagogical Internship Compared
Expectations of learning to teach before PI Classroom experiences during PI (Extract from

(Extract from Questionnaire 1) questionnaire 2)
Item Expectations M SD Item Experiences M SD
I know how to manage my My classroom management
3.91 .773 4.10 .714
8 classroom during lessons 9 skills are quite appropriate
I know how to deal with students' I have an understanding of how
3.65 .820 3.97 .771
9 misconceptions and understanding 10 students learn mathematics
I can adjust my teaching based on I can adjust my teaching styles
4.24 .745 4.31 .731
10 students’ understanding 22 to suit various learners
I will be able to adjust my styles of I can adjust my teaching styles
4.37 .750 4.31 .731
11 teaching to suit various learners 22 to suit various learners
I can choose good teaching styles I can apply different teaching
to direct students’ learning 4.20 .763 11 approaches during lessons at 4.21 .762
12 appropriate times
I can select appropriate teaching I can select appropriate teaching
resources to improve my teaching 3.99 .855 15 resources that enhance my 4.28 .630
13 strategies teaching
Knowing different approaches I know about different
means the ability to use them 3.59 1.061 13 approaches which means I can 3.78 1.180
14 use them for teaching
A variety of approaches to teach a Using a variety of approaches
2.66 1.297 2.64 1.381
15 concept confuses students 12 may confuse students
I will be able to use skills gained in It is quite easy to utilise skills
4.28 .856 3.62 1.021
16 college during PI 18 gained in college during PI
I am able to relate well with the There is a sound relationship
4.11 .768 4.30 .786
17 students during PI 20 between me and my students
The teacher should accept students’ I respect and accept students’
4.20 .826 4.41 .661
18 ideas and propositions 24 thoughts and suggestions

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990 Expectations of learning to teach before PI Classroom experiences during PI (Extract from
(Extract from Questionnaire 1) questionnaire 2)
Item Expectations M SD Item Experiences M SD
I can motivate students lacking the I can motivate students who lack
desire to learn maths 4.33 .650 19 the desire to do mathematics 4.24 .779
19
I can assess students' learning in I can assess and evaluate my
various ways 3.90 .827 26 students' performance in the 4.34 .782
20 classroom
Teaching is what I expected in life Teaching is what I expected
3.18 1.275 3.48 1.356
21 29 in life
Expectations (Total average) 3.90 .876 Experiences 3.99 .889
*Note: Each pair of items from Q1 and Q2 is testing the same skill. M – Mean, SD – Standard Deviation
From Table 1, the PSTs evaluated themselves quite high in terms of teaching before and
during PI as indicated by the total means of 3.9 and 3.99, respectively. The result indicates
that an overwhelming majority of the PSTs were confident of being able to teach well and
present lessons with minimal problems as shown by the means of the responses from the first
questionnaire ranging from 3.91 to 4.37. This demonstrates a strong agreement. This result is
supported by the t-test analysis that was done to determine the significance of the difference
between expectations of teaching prior to PI and classroom experiences during PI. This is
illustrated in the results below:
Table 2
Testing the Difference between Expectations and Experiences
µ Paired Differences t df p
µ SD
Expectations of learning to
teach before pedagogical
Pair 1 internship - classroom -.09857 .26878 -1.372 13 .193
experiences during
pedagogical internship
H0 :μD=0 ; H1: μD≠0
In Table 2, μD is the difference between means of expectations before PI and classroom

experiences in the field. Since , we do not reject H0 and conclude that, there is inadequate
evidence to claim that at 5% level of significance, expectations of teaching before PI are
different from experiences during PI. The result therefore explains that PSTs’ expectations of
teaching were associated to their experiences during PI.
The expectations and experiences in Table 1 above are however grouped into instructional
and relational practices. In this research, relational expectations refer to expectations of academic
relationship or association between the teacher and their students. This includes provision of
social-emotional learning needs to the student by the teacher. Instructional expectations and
experiences are considered in the research as practices regarding the actual teaching processes
that include the teaching of mathematics content and the styles of teaching it for understanding.
The instructional practices in table 1, which are the main focus of the research, show that there
are negative differences between expectations and experiences during PI. This implies that
teaching expectation levels were higher than the experience levels, hence, expectations were
not met. The instructional practices have been extracted from table 1 to be reflected in Table 3
below:

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Table 3 991
Instructional Expectations and Experiences of PI Compared
Q1 Q2 Comparison of Expectations and Experiences

Difference Between
Expectations and
Item Expectations Experiences Experiences
Item N0. N0. ITEMS M (E1) M (E2) (E2 – E1)
I will be able to adjust my styles of -0.06
4.37 4.31
11 22 teaching to suit various learners
A variety of approaches to teach a
2.66 2.64
15 12 concept confuses students -0.02
It is quite easy to utilise skills gained -0.66
4.28 3.62
16 18 in college during PI
I can motivate students lacking the -0.09
4.33 4.24
19 19 desire to learn maths
*Notes: Q1 means Questionnaire 1 before PI; Q2 means Questionnaire 2 during PI; A pair of items in Q1
and Q2 tests the same skill
Generally, Table 3 shows that PSTs were over expectant in instructional practices of
teaching mathematics rather than in relations with learners. However, PSTs’ responses to item
16 before PI (M= 4.28) and item 18 during PI (M= 3.62), were disparate. Items 16 and 18 read:
“It is quite easy to utilise skills gained in college during PI”. The PSTs’ responses concerning
their ability to use college acquired skills in the classroom were therefore obtrusively different
and the rating decreased from 89.8% to 61.1%, as depicted in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1
It is Easy to Utilise the Skills Gained in College during PI
The PSTs’ reflections show that they expected application of skills to be easy and lessons
conducted according to the way the PSTs were prepared in college as evidenced by the high score
of 89.8%. These expectations suggest that PSTs enter the teaching profession with somewhat
many expectations regarding teaching and learning. The difference between 89.8% and 61.1%
may also indicate that the PSTs may have underestimated learners’ learning needs and over
anticipated their own (PSTs) capability to implement the skills learned in the classroom setting
prior to PI. For example, the teaching approaches that the PSTs used during PI could have been
unsuitable for the quantity of work they planned, the topics they taught and learners’ aptitudes.

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992 The following selected reflections from participant A6 during interviews (which were echoed
by other participants) indicate PSTs’ lived experiences on this matter.
My view was that pupils’ understanding would be better. However, the reality in the classroom
revealed to me that, for each topic, although I thought it was easy, when they wrote the individual
work, they would give different answers on the same question. I expected them to perform the
same… so, yeah, it’s not that easy. You don’t know how to teach them in order to understand.
Although the above pre-service teacher expected teaching to be easy, probably because
she knew the content, the following interview response from A5 shows that media selection,
contrary to the PSTs’ expectations, was very demanding.
…Or else you go with a chart, you think they will quickly understand what is on the chart, then
you realise sometimes you need concrete things like when you choose media. Say, I am doing area,
I say, side by side. Sometimes you need to go with something like a tile, then you show them that,
this is the dimension, and this is another dimension, instead of just doing charts.
From these responses, A6 was concerned about the most effective methods for use to
teach students with varied abilities. A5 also realised immediately the significance of using
concrete objects to improve understanding of concepts, showing that education can come
through experience. Many PSTs seemed to have a myriad of teaching strategies but still required
to catch up with the details of how and when to implement them during classroom teaching.
The PSTs’ expectations regarding what would be required seemed to conflict with reality. The
findings show that PSTs regard PI as easy to achieve, but they become discouraged when their
theoretical expectations are confronted by practical reality.
Over 70% of participants expected teaching mathematics to be simple and straightforward,
which turned out to be unrealistic. This finding confirms the quantitative results from
questionnaire two (Table 4) which indicate that 70.6% of the PSTs were disagreeable to or
unsure about the match between their expectations and experiences of teaching.
Data from item 30 of questionnaire 2 (Table 4) describe PSTs as less positive concerning
the relationship between their expectations and classroom experiences. This is demonstrated
by the low mean of 2.54 and a low measure of 29.4% agreement. The standard deviation is
0.857<1.0, which implies that responses are homogeneous as shown in Table 4 below.
Table 4
Pre-service Teachers’ Expectations vs Experiences
N Disagree Neutral Agree

Experiences during pedagogical internship M SD
30. My classroom expectations of teaching 104 58% 12.6% 29.4% 2.54 0.857
mathematics before pedagogical internship
match my experiences during pedagogical
internship
*Note: The mean column stands for the mean on the Likert scale (1 – 5)
The results of Table 4, Figure 1 and the PSTs’ interviews show that, during PI, the PSTs
in this research, in contrast with their expectations, faced multiple challenges. These included
problems that were associated with growing their teaching techniques during lessons and lesson
preparations.
Mentors’ views on PSTs’ Practices during PI (extract from questionnaire 3)

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Table 5 below shows the views of school-based mentors about PSTs classroom 993
practices.
Table 5
Mentors’ Views about PSTs’ Classroom Practices (Questionnaire 3)
ITEM
n Disagree Neutral Agree M SD
n= 42
The college has done enough to prepare pre-

16 service teachers for pedagogical internship 40 55% 12.5% 32.5% 2.88 0.791
17 My mentee knows the content s/he teaches 40 7.5% 17.5% 75% 3.88 0.911
My mentee’s classroom management is very
18 39 10.3% 17.9% 71.8% 3.67 0.838
satisfactory
Field experience courses offered in teachers’
19 colleges for mathematics pre-service teachers 40 2.5% 17.5% 80% 3.95 0.677
need to be enhanced
*Note: The mean column stands for the mean on the Likert scale
The responses for items 16, 17 and 19 of questionnaire 3 suggest that, although PSTs
have the subject content (item 17), they may still be struggling with pedagogy (items 16, 19).
The mentors hence suggested that internship courses offered in teachers’ colleges need to be
improved (item 19, mean =3.95) so as to enhance the PSTs’ performance.
In their explanation of the problems they faced with PSTs on PI (Questionnaire 3), the
main issues raised by the school-based mentors included PSTs resisting advice (25%), and poor
teaching styles (11.1%), among others. These assertions were substantiated by the outcomes
of the interviews carried out with some school-based mentors who had this to say about their
mentees:
M13: …. there are some students who want to show you that they know so much that, when you want
to assist them, they will tell you they know, …………. Some are even difficult to mentor. You don’t
know the mark to give. Some do not attend lessons……
The reflections above are evidence of an “I know it all” attitude from the PSTs, which
could have emanated from their predictions about teaching. These views are likely to deprive
the PSTs of the opportunities to learn “how to teach”. The mentors also indicated that some
PSTs lacked confidence in teaching senior classes. PSTs’ reluctance to teach senior classes could
be confirmation of a lack of both content and the pedagogical knowledge. In the interviews
with college educators, they refuted the idea that colleges encouraged schools to allocate PSTs
junior classes only. The school-based mentors also attributed the PSTs’ shallow pedagogical
knowledge to the training acquired in college (Table 5). They suggested that what the PSTs are
learning in colleges is possibly not related to what they are supposed to teach in schools. This
gap could give PSTs false expectations (unrealistic optimism) and little confidence to teach
examinations classes. This is because PSTs lacked subject content. Mentor (M6) exhibited his
sentiments about this matter as follows:
M6: ……. these student teachers have no confidence. What they are taught at college has no link with
what they teach here. Because they are doing “integration” there, they come here they want to

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994 teach “transformations”. ……. What I am saying is, lecturers should check: Is he able to artic-
ulate, to transfer what is in his mind to the students? Does he understand how students learn
themselves?
According to the school curriculum in Zimbabwe, the topic “integration” is taught at

“Advanced” level and “transformations” is taught at “Ordinary” level. When these students
go on PI, they are expected to teach up to “O” level. The one point that mentors seem to be
foregrounding in the above statement is the need for mathematics taught in colleges to link
directly with the content that PSTs are expected to teach in schools. The connection means that
the college syllabus should include ‘O’ level ‘topics such as “transformations”. Going through
the ‘O’ level topics in college could regenerate their confidence in the classroom. In responding
to the question item that needed college lecturers to validate whether college mathematics
courses were sufficient to prepare PSTs for PI, the discussions with some educators were as
follows:
Lecturer 4: I think, so far we have been trying but we realised we are making a mistake of leaving
the core mathematics, which is mathematics up to “O” level. Normally our students have got ar-
eas of difficulty which they normally face when they go for pedagogical internship. They need to
know this to enhance their confidence.
Lecturer 4 and the rest of other lecturers in this research concurred that there was a need
to improve to include ‘Ordinary’ level content in the college mathematics curriculum in order to
enhance PSTs’ skills of teaching and boost their confidence to present a lesson to learners. The
lecturers’ views reflected that their college mathematics syllabus did not adequately address
what the mathematics PSTs were expected to teach in schools.
Discussion
This research was carried out on the premise that there is a link between learning to
teach and PSTs’ expectations. There is a general consensus that PSTs’ expectations of teaching
are sometimes absolutely divorced from reality during PI (Sag, 2014; Hamaidi et al., 2014).
These discrepancies between PSTs expectations and reality have been documented differently
by various scholars. This research therefore augmented previous studies by presenting data
on the relationship between college PSTs’ expectations about teaching mathematics and their
actual experiences during PI in Zimbabwe. This adds the usual missing context of a developing
country in the academic research milieu.
To answer the 2 research questions, the findings, as reflected in Tables 1 and 2, show
that the PSTs’ expectations before PI were closely related to their experiences in the classroom.
According to Peressini et al. (2004), pre-existing expectations may be preserved if they are
consistent with the demands of teaching. In contrast with the findings, the studies of researchers
such as Delamarter (2015), Pourdavood (2017) and Wall (2016), however have shown the
dissonance that exists between PSTs’ expectations and classroom experiences in the field. The
issue of PSTs’ expectations of teaching mathematics being parallel with their experiences in
the classroom may raise a possible ramification on the result. This is because, if PSTs have a
set of expectations about teaching and learning and, if these are not perturbed, then they are
going to miss opportunities to learn how to teach. To be specific, if a student teacher thinks she/
he is good (expectations) but is unable to identify where she/he is not doing so well, it will be
difficult for one to improve. It is therefore essential that teacher education bears the burden to
challenge PSTs’ preconceptions about teaching (Naylor et al., 2015). This role assists PSTs to
have a positive change regarding teaching (Sheridan, 2016) otherwise learning to teach is stifled

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if their expectations align with the class experiences. The perceptions of the lived experiences 995
(Table 1) of PSTs creates an inference that the PSTs may not be the best judges of their
performance. For this reason, the self-evaluation that PSTs gave themselves in questionnaires 1
and 2 could have influenced some of them to resist assistance during mentorship. This implies
that the PSTs’ views and/or expectations about their performance can determine what they learn
or do not learn during learning to teach (Naylor et al., 2015).
The similarity between the PSTs expectations and experiences could also be due to
the fact that this part of the survey was based on the PSTs’ perceptions of their experiences
(no lessons were observed), and might not necessarily mean it was happening on the ground.
However, Tables 1and 2 are based on a mixture of relational and instructional practices. The
subsequent Table 3 demonstrates the results of the relationship between expectations and
experiences of instructional practices only, which are the focus of this research. The results of
Table 3 and Figure 1 show that there is a mismatch between PSTs’ instructional expectations
and experiences. The findings confirm Tarman’s (2012) observations that PSTs sometimes
ascertain that what they anticipate about teaching is dissimilar to their empirical experiences in
the field. The apparent contradiction between the PSTs’ perceptions of their practices and the
views of their mentors and college educators could also be evidence of the discord that existed
between PSTs’ expectations before and experiences during PI (Table 5). This result confirms
Pourdavood’s (2017) assertion of the discrepancies between PSTs’ expectations and reality in
the classroom.
By and large, when the PSTs were asked to explain their views prior to PI and the manner
in which their perceptions had changed during PI, their responses revealed that the PSTs’ prior
expectations of easily teaching mathematics were high. This was confirmed by the mentors’
comments which provided indications on the need for effective PSTs’ content delivery methods
in the classroom. Failure to effectively teach a lesson could defeat their expectations in the
field. PSTs’ supposedly distorted frame of mind about teaching and learning mathematics could
have a bearing on the rift between expectations and reality of teaching mathematics. Some
of the mythical expectations, according to Eisenhardt et al. (2012), impose an obligation on
teacher educators to interrogate the teaching methodologies of PSTs and assist them to develop
appropriate practices with regards to mathematics teaching. The significance of PCK during
internship was emphasised by Shulman (1986) in his treatise of the need to integrate content
and pedagogy in the classroom.
This research also found that failure to include high school mathematics in the
mathematics teacher education syllabus may defeat the PSTs’ expectations to deliver content
during PI. In the same vein, Hine (2015) contended that excellent mathematics teachers should
have a sound and lucid knowledge of mathematics that is suitable to the level of students they
will teach. Without sound mathematics content, pedagogical processes are of little benefit,
Hine (2015) wrote. This implies that educators must apply and teach mathematics addressed
in schools. It is understandable that there could be concepts which PSTs may have failed to
internalise at “Ordinary” level. Such concepts ought to be attended to and spruced up for PSTs,
prior to teaching and standing in front of their classes. This could be the reason why Stokking
et al. (2003) posited that the level of PI difficulties is dependent on the training PSTs acquired
in college or university. The discrepancy between what the PSTs learn in college and what they
teach in the classroom may hence contribute to reality shock. This discord between expectations
and experiences points out to the fact that effective preparation for PI in colleges is one critical
factor in the overall success of PSTs.

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996 Conclusions and Recommendations
This research applied a mixed methods design by using a sample of PSTs, school-based
mentors and teacher education lecturers to explore the relationship between mathematics PSTs
expectations prior to PI and their actual practices in the field. The following were the vital
findings of the research: 1) There is indeed a conflict between the PSTs’ expectations about
teaching mathematics and their actual experiences in the field in Zimbabwe. Some PSTs were
found to have unrealistic expectations regarding teaching mathematics before field placement.
For example, some PSTs, in contrast to their expectations, had difficulties inculcating the skills
that they learnt in college into their teaching (Figure 1). 2) It was also established that some
of the PSTs’ classroom practices are a reflection of their expectations, hence determining their
opportunities to learn to teach the subject. Interviews with the PSTs illustrated that their initial
practices in the first days on PI were influenced by prior beliefs about teaching. However, this
presented some challenges in their classroom work.
This research therefore recommends that teacher training institutions, as an initial
step to PSTs’ professional preparation, ought to investigate PSTs’ beliefs and expectations
on teaching mathematics prior to pedagogical internship so as to refocus their perceptions.
Teacher training institutions may, for example, sharpen their focus on organising programmes
with field practices before PSTs transition to PI so that they are equipped with teaching skills
and ready to face classroom challenges that may otherwise take place as a shock during PI. It is
also recommended that both teachers’ college and school mathematics curricula proffer similar
topics in order to reduce the gap between what PSTs learn in college and what they teach in the
field.
Limitations
There is one possible limitation in this study that can be addressed in future research. The
results of this study were based on the participants’ perceptions only through questionnaires
and interviews. It is likely that participants, pre-service teachers in particular, may not be
the best judges of their own performance. Though their views were supported or refuted by
their educators, the findings could be improved by embracing lesson observations of PSTs
during internship in addition to the questionnaires and interviews, so as to establish their actual
experiences of teaching. Such an empirical approach would give results that are based on what
is happening on the ground rather than entirely depending on participants’ understanding of
events only.
Acknowledgement
This paper is part of a PhD thesis: Makamure, C. (2016). Learning to teach secondary
school mathematics from practice: An exploration of the Zimbabwean pre-service teachers’
year-long field experiences. University of the Free State, South Africa. http://scholar.ufs.
ac.za:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11660/5402/MakamureC.pdf?...1...
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Received: May 08, 2020 Accepted: November 12, 2020
Cite as: Makamure, C. (2020). Pre-service teachers’ prior expectations and their actual
experiences of teaching mathematics during pedagogical internship in Zimbabwe. Problems
of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 983-999. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.983
Chipo Makamure PhD, Post-Doctoral Research Fellow, University of South Africa (UNISA),
Preller St, Muckleneuk Ridge, Pretoria, 0002, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: makamc@unisa.ac.za

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UNDERGRADUATE ECONOMICS
CURRICULUM AND EMPLOYABILITY
SKILLS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Beatrice Ngulube
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
E-mail: ngulubeb@tut.ac.za
Abstract
Graduates with employability skills are considered as assets by employers because they are dynamic
and adapt easily to today’s work environment. Thus, higher education globally is under pressure to
produce graduates who are employable and able to continue learning and remain employed. This study
examined the extent to which the undergraduate economics curriculum in South Africa equips economics
graduates with employability skills. This was achieved through a qualitative approach using a content
analysis design. Data analysed from advertisements extracted from the Sunday Times for four consecutive
years and data from six undergraduate economics study guides indicated that there was a disjuncture
between undergraduate economics skills and those required by the industry. The analysed study guides
only cover about 29.4 % of the needed skills in the labour market. It is imperative for higher education
institutions to produce employable graduates because evidence demonstrates that employers today do not
hire employees solely based on academic qualifications. Recommendations are that there should be an
alignment between employability skills required in the labour market and those offered by the academic
institutions. Curricula and pedagogy should also be adjusted to enhance graduate skills outcomes.
Keywords: employability skills, undergraduate curriculum, content analysis
Introduction
The debate on employability skills or job readiness skills originated in the twentieth
century when questions were raised on the economic value of education (Bacevic, 2014;
Gallagher, 2020; Majid et al., 2020; McGunagle, & Zizka, 2020; Nicholas & Handley 2019;
Williams 2020). The central debate revolved around the relationship between education and
the market. Although research had been done on employability, defining this term is extremely
complex and difficult. This might be partly because employability skills encompass so many
stakeholders, including parents, students, employers, institutions and the government, each
with different definitions based on their perception of these skills. Nicholas and Handley (2019)
concurred, adding that employability remains a contested concept in terms of its use in both
theory and policy, and throughout the past century has been used as both a predominantly labour
supply and labour demand concept. However, Williams (2018) contended that employability
is a multi-faceted characteristic of the individuals who must work towards obtaining the skills
and attributes which allow them to perform competently in the labour market. To validate this
point, Nghia (2019) who also researched around this phenomenon, added that employability can
mean a set of achievements, skills understanding and personal attributes that make graduates
more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits
themselves, the workplace, the community and the nation as a whole. For Majid et al. (2020) and
Nghia (2019) employability is more than getting employment as it also relates to development
of one’s attributes and experiences for life-long learning and knowing one’s capabilities. An
attribute can be viewed as a quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or inherent part
of a graduate. Employers today do not hire solely based on academic qualifications but also

Beatrice NGULUBE. Undergraduate economics curriculum and employability skills in South Africa
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possession of the right soft skills and generic competencies (Heang, et al., 2019). It is important 1001
for a graduate to possess flexible skills in order to be hired. In terms of the needs of the employer
Majid et al. (2020) pointed out that “employers are looking for well-rounded employees who
have employability skills and willing to learn” (p. 37). Hence, flexibility and mobility are
the key attributes of an employable graduate. Given this background, the researcher found it
worthwhile to investigate employability skills needed by employers of economics graduates. A
comparative analysis was undertaken to assess if skills offered in an economics undergraduate
curriculum correspond with those advertised by employers.
There has been a paradigm shift from placing much emphasis on high academic
achievements to the possession of employability skills. Accordingly, employers today are
concerned about finding good employees who not only have basic academic skills but also
the abilities of challenging the status quo and the zeal to keep learning (Heang et al., 2019).
Therefore, workers must demonstrate that they have the right workplace competencies to enter
and compete in today’s labour market (Barman & Das, 2020). These flexible competencies
have a lot to do with adaptability and the ability to deal with change and uncertainty in the
workplace. This is because the fast-changing business environment and emergence of disruptive
technology have created tremendous pressure on organisations to look for a worker who is
competitive, for a company to achieve the competitive advantage (Barman & Das, 2020).
This above sentiment is echoed by Heang et al. (2019) who posited that graduates need to
be technically prepared and sharpen their employability skills to secure and stay on the job. It is
argued that graduates with employability skills do not find it intimidating to embrace and adapt
to change. Adaptability can be explained as the quality of being able to adjust to new conditions
especially adapting to the current job market demands. Bhagra and Sharma (2018) and Tan
et al. (2018) added that employability skills are becoming an essential aspect of graduates’
employability in confronting global market demands. Therefore, education and training should
enable graduates to be flexible so that they will be relevant to the workplace (Williams, 2018). To
further clarify the concept of employability, Sin and Neave (2014) explained that employability
may be viewed as an ongoing process which an individual should keep refining.
Therefore, an employable person should have skills that are transferable or that are
flexible, and the person must be willing to learn fast and adapt easily. In this regard, it was
imperative to find out if employability skills which are stressed in undergraduate economics
curriculum at a South African University of Technology are aligned with the current workplace
demands. At this university of technology, work- integrated learning (WIL) is part of its
curriculum hence programmes are sandwiched with WIL through internships. It is from this
background that this research was conducted to find out if employability skills are embedded
in the undergraduate economics curriculum. The research was motivated by the dynamics of
the work environment, the emergence of the knowledge economy and the fourth industrial
revolution with its high demand on soft skills. The fourth industrial revolution ushered many
crucial changes in the developing economies, especially in the context of the job market (Majid
et al., 2020).
Literature Review
Universities are mandated to produce graduates who are highly skilled, employable and
remain employed (Heang et al., 2019; Majid et al., 2020; Rowe & Zegwaard, 2017; Shivoro et
al., 2018). Therefore, there is a need for a partnership between industries and Higher Education
(HE) institutions. However, research conducted by Akinwale (2020) revealed that clear policies
should be formulated to encourage this partnership. Even in the absence of such policies,
higher education is expected to address the matter of employability and all academic courses
are supposed to include employability skills (Heang et al., 2019). The focus of higher education

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1002 should be on producing graduates with flexible skills since many employability skills are
universally desirable. In this article, the desirable employability skills in the job advertisements
are compared to the course outcomes as stated in the economics undergraduate curriculum
offered by the University of Technology (UoT) in South Africa, (see Table 4).
Bacevic (2014) ascertained that in Europe, employability skills are a concern across the
entire continent, and they feature in education policies. The discourse has increasingly shifted
from the focus on hard skills to an emphasis on flexibility, adaptation, and the capacity to learn
throughout the individual’s entire working lifetime, (lifelong learning). Barman and Das (2020)
concurred, adding that continuous learning is key to the successful navigation of individuals in
the labour markets. Today’s labour market is very dynamic due to technological advancement,
hence lifelong learning should be promoted at all costs.
The dynamics of society and the work environment necessitate the development of
flexible skills therefore educational providers across all levels are expected to respond to this
new employability imperative (Hartmannn & Komljenovic, 2020). For instance, because of the
need for skilled workers, the industrial revolution education programmes included technical
skills; now the focus is different because the twenty-first century is a knowledge-based
economy characterised by the information age which advocates for generic skills. Students
should therefore be taught how to learn, not the position of qualifications only, since the work
environment is always subject to a variety of uncertainties (Majid et al., 2020).
According to Barman and Das (2020) and Okoye and Nkanu (2020) employability skills
are important because employers are more interested in soft skills than hard skills. The labour
market is now recruiting employees with flexible skills and people who take the initiative and
adapt easily to different environments. Recent research findings suggest that getting a degree
and putting a few letters after a graduate’s name is just not enough to land a graduate with
employment and remain employed (Majid et al., 2020). What graduates need currently are
employability skills because employers currently prefer to hire graduates who can work both
independently and as team players. Employers are after an employee who shows a capacity
for leadership and demonstrates a willingness to learn and experience new situations and
cultures. Today’s economy and society increasingly demand people who can easily adapt to
the dynamics of the work environment. The possession of soft skills opens various doors in the
work environment. Furthermore, the success of individuals in the fourth industrial revolution
economy depends upon soft skills, creativity and imagination. This has resulted in an increasing
pressure for all academic courses to include employability development (Tymon, 2013). In this
regard, the major role of universities should be to produce graduates with employability skills
(Noe & Kodwani, 2018).
The major concern revealed by literature is that graduates lack soft skills though most of
them have good qualifications (Majid et al., 2020; Shivoro et al., 2018). The soft skills that are
most lacking are: communication skills, teamwork and integrity, (personal transferable skills)
which the employers need in this customer-based world (Tyron, 2013). Chalkiadaki (2018)
referred to them as core skills and they can be grouped into four categories namely, basic
skills, thinking skills, people skills and personal qualities. Universities across the globe are
increasingly required to produce highly educated graduates who possess flexible skills (Shivoro
et al., 2018). This is the reason why employability skills are increasingly becoming more and
more essential in the labour market.
Most companies acknowledge that their success depends on a highly qualified workforce;
this in turn requires developing new ways of entering into partnership with external and internal
training providers (Slotte` & Tynjala, 2010). For instance, UK universities are getting quality
students because of their ability to produce employable graduates (Boden & Nedeva, 2010). In
addition, Misnia et al. (2019) argued that many industries in many nations are now focusing
on graduate employability. It is imperative that institutions should be concerned with both the

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effectiveness and the efficiency of what they produce. The main focus should be on empowering 1003
graduates with flexible skills. In other words, graduates should possess both hard and soft skills
as both skills are crucial in the work environment and for personal growth as well. However, it
is also of paramount importance to note that industries should also participate in empowering
graduates with employability skills.
Graduates with a set of employability skills easily get employment but these skills
are lacking in school-leavers, graduates and those already in employment. Industries and
universities should therefore work together to prepare graduates for the workplace and provide
clear information on career choices and more importantly, equip them with employability skills.
This will reduce worker-turnover because employees tend to be loyal to employers who invest
in their employability. Additionally, employees also become committed to the organisation,
making them less prone to thinking of changing their jobs or moving to another organisation.
In this regard, Williams (2018) argued that students with employability skills have the ability
to defend opinions, change themselves, be flexible, self-assess, recognise quality work and are
confident.
It is of great importance that curriculum designers, take cognisance of this need when
designing learning programmes. Curriculum should skill-up graduates to participate in the
economic system which is being promulgated by the fourth industrial revolution (Misnia et
al., 2019). Graduates therefore, need to be thoroughly prepared because the competition for
employment is stiff due to the high increase of students registering for higher education and the
dynamicity of the work environment. Thus, continuous learning and the development of generic
skills increase one’s employability prospects. Students should be armed with life-long learning
skills so that they can easily adapt to any given working environment. In this regard, Misnia
et at. (2019) proposed that higher education needs to transform the undergraduate curriculum
to accommodate the development of employability skills. This means that employability skills
must become a priority of higher education and play a centre stage. However, it must be pointed
out that HE cannot address all the needs of the industry, but it can at least try to consider what
will make the graduate relevant.
Jackson (2009) observed with concern that industries are no longer eager to train the
new graduates, particularly in transferable skills, because most of the graduates are generation
Y, who are notoriously ambivalent to commitment and less loyal than their predecessors. Thus,
a strong policy is needed to stipulate how employability skills can be developed. This can
be achieved if a strong relationship between universities and industries is developed. Higher
education institutions need to consult with industries when designing curricula and learning
programmes in order to enhance employability skills but not compromising their core duties.
To ensure that graduates are adequately prepared for the workplace, there should be
continuous interaction between the industry and the university. This interconnection will keep
the two institutions well-informed about what is needed by the dynamic world. As Bacevic
(2014) pointed out, the advancement of nations demands that the higher education programmes
be shifted towards education for work and through work. The nature of a university of
technology also encourages this partnership through its WIL programmes. Industries, however,
should specify the proper attributes of the twenty first century worker they are looking for and
universities should aim at empowering the graduates with relevant skills. For better results,
there should be a component of employability skills in the learning programmes. The sections
which follow present the statement of the problem and the research method which the article
employed.

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1004 Research Problem

Higher education institutions are supposed to produce employable graduates in order to
contribute to economic development. However, in South Africa, little is known about the extent
to which these institutions produce employable graduates. Researchers who have conducted
studies on workplace competencies and employability skills include Barman and Das (2020);
Bhagra and Sharma (2018); Heang et al. (2019); Majid et al. (2020); Sin and Neave (2014) and
Tan et al. (2018) but no specific study has focused on economics undergraduate course materials
and job advertisements. The comparative analysis between employability skills offered in the
economics undergraduate programmes and the ones in the job advert makes this research unique.
The aim was to inform curriculum designers and instructors to integrate employability skills
in the curriculum and pedagogy because institutions are encouraged to produce graduates who
are fit for purpose. A shift from production to a service-driven economy has made soft skills
increasingly important for people seeking their first employment. Thus, research surrounding
employability skills is worthwhile because currently soft skills are in demand across the globe.
Given this background the following research aim and research questions inform this research.
The aim of this research was to find out if the undergraduate economics curriculum
empowered graduates with employability skills. The research responded to the following
questions:
1. What type of skills are in job advertisements?
2. What type of skills are in undergraduate economics study guides?
3. How do skills in the job advertisements compare with those in the undergraduate
economics study guides?
Research Design

The research employed systematic literature review to answer the research questions.
The approach fits the research focus because the researcher is able to engage with the data which
is available and answer the research questions. In this particular research, the arching problem
was the need to find out if the undergraduate economics curriculum equipped graduates with
work readiness skills. A qualitative approach was employed to find out employability skills in
six undergraduate economics study guides. A content comparative analysis of newspaper job
advertisements between 2015 and 2018 was done. The reason for choosing these four years is
that they tend to represent the most recent curriculum content. The study therefore adopted a
qualitative content analysis to investigate employability skills in the study materials and job
advertisements. Lin et al. (2018) and Goel and Khan (2018) described content analysis as the
primary message centred methodology which has been the fast-growing technique in the past
years. A list of employability skills valued by employers was used as a coding frame. A Google
search of The Sunday Times was conducted to identify the skills that are required by employers
of economics graduates. The Sunday Times was chosen because it is widely read. Its popularity
is evidenced by the fact that the paper is distributed all over South Africa and in neighbouring
countries such as Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland.
Job advertisement skills were matched against the outcomes stated in six study guides for
a three-year undergraduate programme. Purposive sampling was used to select six study guides
namely, two first year study guides, two second year study guides and two third year study

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guides. The reason for choosing two from each level was the need to focus on study guides 1005
that dealt with macroeconomics and microeconomics topics only because these are the main
components of economics. Purposive sampling is useful in these instances because it provides
researchers with the justification to make generalisations from the sample that is being studied,
whether such generalisations are theoretical, analytic or logical in nature (Gaganpreet, 2017).
In this particular research paper, the purposive sampling technique was significant because the
researcher wanted to make a reliable generalisation focusing on study guides which dealt with
macroeconomics and microeconomics only.
A similar strategy was used by Ocholla and Shongwe (2013) who conducted an analytical
literature review and the content analysis of recent longitudinal (2009-2012) newspaper
scanning of LIS job advertisements to investigate the employability of information studies
graduates. This method is also being utilised by other researchers in different disciplines. For
instance, Heang et al. (2019) employed the same strategy when they investigated skills required
for business graduates in Malaysia.
Data Collection
This section illustrated employability skills which were extracted from job advertisements
between 2015 and 2018 as well skills extracted from the economics course material in six study
guides. Skills extracted from job advertisements are reflected in table 1.
Table 1
Skills Reflected in Job Advertisements from 2015 to 2018
Skills reflected in all job

2015 2016 2017 2018
advertisements
Complex problem Good leadership

Team oriented Self-control Effective communicator
solver skills
One who A decision maker
collaborates well A good team player and a problem A fast learner Good written and verbal skills
with others solver
People Communication Communication Online
Team oriented
management skills (written) skills marketing
Problem-solving Plan, organize and
Critical thinking Critical thinking Problem solving
skills prioritize work
Communication Obtain and process
Negotiation Focus Initiative and self-motivation
skills (verbal) information
Quality control Strong work ethic Data analysis Patience Multitask
Service
Initiative Leadership Social Skills Hard worker
orientation
Judgement and Analytical/
Fast Learning Data analysis Quantitative analysis
decision making quantitative skills
Flexibility/
Active listening Focus Leadership Ability to learn and adapt
adaptability
Creativity Technical skills Coaching Communication Good time management
Service
Negotiation Social skills Marketing Good decision maker
orientation
Focus Focus Service orientation Technical skills Creative skills
Persistence Creativity Technical skills Productivity Positive attitude
Leadership Negotiation Productivity Coaching Good work ethic
Patience Service orientation Negotiation Initiation Good leadership skills
Strong work Emotional
Productivity Social skills Dependable
Ethic intelligence

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1006 The skills reflected in the job advertisements and a summary of the skills which
appeared in the 4-year period are presented in Table 1. Skills in the economics undergraduate
study guides are presented in table 2.
Table 2
Skills in the Economics Undergraduate Study Guides
Skills which appeared in all

1st year skills 2nd year skills 3rd year skills
the study guides
Technical skills Calculation skills Presentation skills Effective communicator
Presentation skills Critical thinking Teamwork Ability to calculate
Calculation skills Communication skills Critical thinking Critical thinking
Critical thinking Presentation skills Communication skills Presentation skills
Effective communicator Teamwork Technical skills Teamwork

Teamwork Data analysis Plan effectively
According to Tables 1 and 2 above tasks which are given to the students in the analysed
study guides course material focus mainly on the following verbs: explain, distinguish,
calculate, define, describe and differentiate. Students are not empowered with emotional skills
which will cultivate a positive attitude towards their work and colleagues. Soft skills are over-
looked in favour of hard skills. This clearly indicates that instructors are not empowering
graduates with employability skills. Thinking skills and interpersonal skills need to be
promoted. Researchers such as Jones (2010), Noe and Kodwani (2018); Shivoro, Shalyefu
and Kadhila (2018) have also urged institutions to produce graduates who possess generic
skills so that they will be relevant in the labour market. The overall skills analysis from job
advertisements and study guides is presented in Table 3 below.
Table 3
Top Ranked Skills in the Job Advertisements and Study Guides
Job advertisements Study guides

Skills which appeared in all the 4 years (17 skills) Skills which appeared in all the study guides (5 skills)
Communicate effectively/ written and verbal Communicate effectively/ written and verbal
Ability to calculate/ qualitative analysis Ability to calculate/ qualitative analysis
Critical thinking Critical thinking
Presentation skills Presentation skills
Teamwork
Interpersonal skills
Ability to learn and adapt
Positive attitude
Dependability
Decision making
Creativity Teamwork
Time management
Multitasking
Work ethic
Initiative
Leadership
Self-motivation

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Data analysis revealed that not all employability skills are emphasised in undergraduate 1007
economics curriculum at this selected university. This is consistent with a survey conducted
in 2009 by the South African Qualification Authority (SAQA) in partnership with Higher
Education South Africa (HESA), which revealed that higher education is not producing
graduates with relevant skills as indicated earlier. There is a disjuncture. A number of soft
skills are not developed, and teaching and learning is focussed on the subject content. It can be
argued that content and assessment components are still very loyal to the type of assessment
aligned to Bloom’s taxonomy. Majid et al. (2020) and Rowe and Zegwaard (2017) suggest that
academic qualifications are important but students must be able to reflect and evaluate these
experiences which will lead to the development of self-awareness and make them relevant in
the labour market hence the need for the development of soft skills and employability skills.
This is supported by Rowe and Zegwaard (2017) who argued that a large number of university
graduates are jobless due to lack of experience and lack of employability skills. Furthermore,
Heang et al. (2019) also argued that many graduate job seekers found that their skill sets did not
match those expected by potential employers.
The South African Qualification Authority (SAQA) study recommended that industries
and higher education should work together to produce graduates that are employable and
relevant to the economy. Nothing has been done so far to actualise the intended skills match.
Conversely, it should be noted that the university curriculum should not be narrowed down to
meet the demands of the labour market because the amount of information available increases
every year to the point where what you learn today will be out of date within the next two years.
Life- long learning should be the central focus, meaning students should be able to learn fast
and continue learning because this is a required skill at this point. The same line of thought was
echoed by Heang et al. (2019) and Rowe and Zegwaard (2017) who pointed out that employers
are more interested in interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills and flexible skills than academic
qualifications or the institution attended. However, the reality is that Bloom’s cognitive domain
is currently the primary focus of the most traditional education and is frequently used to structure
the curriculum, learning objectives, assessments and activities. Hard skills are still at the centre
of the curriculum and instruction, and not soft skills. It is therefore suggested that HE should
give employability skills pride of place in the restructuring of the learning programmes. To
motivate this Olabanji and Abayomi (2019) suggest that universities in the twenty-first century
must develop graduate employability strategies to improve the stock and quality of graduates
who are entering the labour market. Therefore, graduates should be developed holistically,
paying special attention to employability skills such as personal attributes, workplace skills,
applied and core knowledge skills influencing personal, academic and professional performance
in work setting (Bhagra & Sharma, 2018). It must however be highlighted that employability
skills can only be fully achieved when pedagogical approaches seek to develop soft skills.
These approaches are however, beyond the scope of this research.
Additionally, partnerships between universities and industries where the majority of
the graduates are employed must be established. In agreement, Guimón (2013) argued that
collaboration between universities and industries is critical for skills development (education
and training), the generation, acquisition, and adoption of knowledge (innovation and
technology transfer), and the promotion of entrepreneurship (start-ups and spin-offs). Suffice
to say this can be done with caution because universities cannot structure learning programs to
solemnly solve the problems of the industries. Therefore, for optimal results, universities must
aim at empowering graduates with generic skills; they should not only teach students subject
content but also how to adapt to different work environments. This is supported by Heang et al.
(2019) who contended that tacit skills, knowledge, and attitudes are expected to be an integral
part of higher education programmes and curricula, to provide soft skills. For better results,
industries must assist in defining the term employability, offer employability training and also

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1008 write detailed description or informative reports for students when they are on internship. This
will assist university instructors when developing a new learning taxonomy for the knowledge-
based economy.
The work which was initiated by the International Society for Technology in Education
[ISTE] (2007) to combine Bloom’s higher order thinking skills and the constructivist philosophy
to describe the types of digital age skills twenty-first century learners need to be considered
for skills development as well. The International Society for Technology in Education (2007)
identifies six core technology standards developed by the ISTE for the twenty first century
students as follows:
• Creativity and innovation,
• Communication and collaboration
• Research and innovation fluency
• Critical thinking, problem solving and decision making
• Digital citizenship
• Technology operations and concepts
These will assist in developing cognitive skills as well as soft skills which most of the
graduates are lacking. Williams (2018) suggested four ways of enhancing student employability,
work experience, entrepreneurship modules, careers advice and portfolios, profiles and records
of achievement. Work experience through internships will assist students with work experience.
Universities of technology should, however, have an advantage when it comes to the
development of employability skills because of their attachment programmes. At the moment,
subject content is the component of teaching and learning which is pushed and gets a centre
stage for the development of hard skills and soft skills are overlooked. This is demonstrated in
Table 4 of this article.
Data Analysis
Skills reflected in all job advertisements were analysed and compared with skills in the
analysed economics undergraduate study guides. Top ranked skills in the job advertisements
and economics undergraduate study guides are illustrated in tables 3 and 4.
Research Results
Employability Skills in the Job Advertisements
Skills which appeared in all the four years are as follows: 1) communication and
interpersonal skills (written and verbal), 2) team oriented, 3) problem solving, 4) self-motivation,
5) organised/ multitask, 6) hard worker, 7) Quantitative analysis, 8) ability to learn and adapt,
9) time management, 10) decision-making, 11) creativity, 12) positive attitude, 13) work ethic,
14) leadership skills 15) dependable, 16) initiative, 17) interpersonal skills. In the table below,
these are matched with those offered by the UoT as stipulated in the undergraduate economics
study guides.
Employability Skills in the Undergraduate Economics Study Guides
The skills emphasised in undergraduate economics study guides are as follows: 1)

communicate effectively, 2) ability to calculate, 3) critical thinking, 4) presentation skills and 5)
teamwork. There is therefore a disjuncture between what the institution offers and the job market
requirements. Results of the data analysis revealed that UoT offers five out of the seventeen
skills and attributes that are needed in the industry, meaning that graduates are not effectively

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prepared for the labour market. According to the analysis, the institution is empowering the 1009
graduates with approximately 29.4 % of the skills needed for the work environment.
Table 4
Top Ranked Skills in Job Advertisements Matched with those of the Study Guides
Top ranked skills identified from job adverts Match with the study guides
Communicate effectively/ written and verbal Yes
Ability to calculate/ qualitative analysis Yes
Critical thinking Yes
Presentation skills Yes
Teamwork Yes
Interpersonal skills No
Ability to learn and adapt No
Positive attitude No
Dependable No
Decision making No
Creativity No
Time management No
Multitasking No
Work ethic No
Leadership skills No
Initiative No
Self-motivation No
There is a mismatch between what is offered and what is required in the labour market
because universities focus on enabling students to complete their baccalaureate degrees and
ensure that students master the subject matter of economics as indicated by the requirements
they fulfil, courses they complete, content of these courses, and course grades.
It can also be suggested that universities should redesign degree programmes paying
attention to employability skills. However, catering for all the skills can be a daunting task
for higher education institutions because the work environment is dynamic. What is needed is
continuous communication between academic institutions and industries.
Discussion
Data analysed from advertisements extracted from the Sunday Times for four
consecutive years and data from six undergraduate economics study guides indicate that there
is a disjuncture. This is in line with Shivoro et al. (2018) who asserted that there is a mismatch
between the skills which the employers require and what is offered by educational institutions.
That makes students to be less competent for the jobs resulting in the talent crisis in the global
labour market. That implies that “graduates need capabilities beyond subject knowledge –
interchangeably designated as ‘cross-disciplinary qualifications’ or ‘skills’ or ‘competences’
presented as elements essential for the preparation of employable students” (Sin & Neave 2014,
p. 1448). With the amount of competition for students, universities should not bank on in-house
training provided by the employers because most industries are now looking for a finished

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1010 product to cut on costs (Jackson, 2009). Thus, institutions must adopt employability as a key
goal, create connections with the labour market, and provide high quality and relevant programs
(Sin & Neave, 2014, p. 1451).
The comparative analysis that was undertaken indicates that graduates do not possess
the skills which the labour market requires. The percentage of the skills offered by one of the
UoT institutions in South Africa as indicated in Table 3 is very low compared to the demands of
the industry. Graduates only possess about 29.4 % of the skills needed in the job market. This
implies that there is no alignment between what is offered by academic institutions and what
is required by the industry. Consequently, a number of employers are not employing the newly
qualified graduates because of the skills gap resulting in many graduates remain unemployed
(Ayonmike & Okeke 2016).
Therefore, there is a great need for higher education institutions and industries to
collaborate in order to produce graduates with employability skills. Partnership with industries
is necessary for the institutions to produce graduates with needed skills in the workplace in order
to bridge the skills gap (Ayonmike & Okeke, 2016). Collaboration will ensure that the needs
of industries are known to the academic institutions. Organisation can only have the best and
brightest workforce if academic institutions are able to produce graduates with talent (Barman
& Das 2020). The main focus of academic institutions should be on competency studies in order
to produce graduates who are able to lead and confront workplace challenges. This implies that
academic institutions and industries must not work in silos in order to ensure that the former
produces graduates with requisite cognitive skills while meeting the employability expectations
of the latter.
Data analysis established that higher education is inadequate in equipping graduates with
skills required in the industry. From the analysis table 1 displays 17 skills which employers are
looking for while table 2 shows only 5 skills offered by the institutions. The top ranked skills
in the job advertisements are soft skills, giving a clear indication that employers are looking
for employees with flexible skills. It is therefore strongly suggested that there must be that
connectivity between the industry and the institutions of higher learning but this partnership
should not water down the main focus of universities, which is primarily to equip graduates
with high quality content knowledge. While it is important for universities to pay attention to
the specific needs articulated by potential employers, content coverage should remain the main
paramount focus of the institutions. However, a new paradigm shift in terms of curriculum
content which incorporates employability skills is needed. It should also be noted that
universities gain recognition and good reputation when they produce graduates who possess
employability skills. It is vital therefore to include employability skills in the curriculum
and pedagogy strategies tailored towards the development of soft skills in order to enhance
graduate skill outcomes. Employers find soft skills more preferable to hard skills. According
to the literature reviewed for this article as well as job advertisements, employers look for
graduates with employability skills, but the labour market is witnessing a serious shortage in
this regard hence a lot of graduates remain unemployed. This actually defeats the purpose of
being educated because it is a general belief that acquiring a degree is a passport to a good well-
paying job.

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1013
Cite as: Ngulube, B. (2020). Undergraduate economics curriculum and employability

skills in South Africa. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 1000-1013.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.1013
Beatrice Ngulube PhD, Department of Maths, Science and Business Education, Faculty of
Humanities, Tshwane University of Technology, Soshanguve North Campus,
Building 4G16, Pretoria, South Africa.
E-mail: ngulubeb@tut.ac.za

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1014
MONITORING OF FACULTIES AND
DEPARTMENTS RESEARCH ACTIVITY
AS A COMPONENT OF UNIVERSITY
MANAGEMENT
Stanislav Podolyanchuk
Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky State Pedagogical University, Ukraine
E-mail: stas177vn@ukr.net
Abstract
Research is an essential part of university activity. The evaluation of research activities is not only of
scientific, but also of practical interest. Currently, however, the research evaluation is used primarily
either for the analysis of the activities of a university as a whole or for tackling specific tasks, usually
related to the financing of research projects. The use of monitoring systems for research activities as
part of the internal university management has not been sufficiently studied. Therefore, the purpose of
the research, which was conducted at Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University
(Ukraine) over the course of 5 years, was to identify and critically evaluate the main practical applications
of such monitoring in management activities. The monitoring system was created through the use of expert
evaluation method. Information was collected with mandatory input control. The results of monitoring
can be used for creating an information database, performing comparative analysis, making evaluation
of research activities of a university as a whole and implementing the control function. Analysis of the
research evaluation proved its positive impact on the advancement of science at the university. Based
on the obtained results it is possible to solve organizational, financial and professional issues, make
important management decisions. At the same time, it is necessary to consider the risks that may arise
during the practical implementation. Emphasized is the universal character of proposed directions that
can be used in the management of various universities.
Keywords: expert evaluation, monitoring system, research activity, research evaluation, university
management
Introduction
Education has always played a crucial role in the advancement of humanity. Generating
and spreading new knowledge are among key functions of university education. Having
become research centres, universities are playing an increasingly important role in the global
economy by accommodating economic growth and facilitating increased productivity (Kosor
et al., 2019). Constructing a knowledge-based economy as well as a knowledge-based society
at both national and international level calls for the application of new approaches meant to
enhance the efficiency of university activities.
It is generally accepted that leading universities demonstrate excellence primarily in
research activities. Besides, they can boast of highly qualified academic staff (Meek & Davies,
2009). The latter features seem to be interrelated: those having high research and publication
outputs are considered to be more effective educators (Grunig, 1997). Since universities that
strongly engage in research are regarded to be superior in important ways to those with lower
research outputs, the increase in research efficiency is the matter of improving university image,

Stanislav PODOLYANCHUK. Monitoring of faculties and departments research activity as a component of university management
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which means better opportunities to attract and retain highly qualified academic staff, facilitate 1015
admission and increase the value of the institution’s services (Grunig, 1997).
Naturally enough, undertaking actions to promote research and teaching quality is an
important part of university management (Delgado-Márquez et al., 2012), which raises the
issue of elaboration and implementation of efficient managerial strategies. No wonder, more and
more scientists and practitioners of the educational industry are trying to understand the essence
and peculiarities of management in the realm of higher education. Some evident findings of
such research are the following: people holding executive positions in higher education pursue
diverse goals (Lazzeretti & Tavoletti, 2006); efficient management of a group of people or an
institution largely determines their performance efficiency; the higher education system has
many significant features that largely reduce the efficiency of using traditional methods and
forms of management for state institutions and various industries.
The first most prominent theoretical model that tried to lay a solid foundation for the
higher education management is believed to be Clark’s triangle of coordination – “Academe-
State-Market”. According to this model, it is the interaction of the above three components that
ensures coordination between constituent parts within the higher education system. At the same
time, each country can specify the basic model, shifting the focus to one of the vertices of the
triangle (Clark, 1983). In attempt to simplify Clark’s model, Van Vught (1989) reduced it to the
models of: state control and state supervision.
Alternatively, Lazzeretti and Tavoletti (2006) single out four basic models of governance
regarding the systems of higher education: the “collegium”, the “bureaucratic-oligarchic”,
the “market”, and the “new managerialism” models. The early 2000s saw a switch to various
inclusive styles of leadership, such as distributed leadership (Joslyn, 2018), which is essentially
different from positional authority (Bush, 2013). Rather widespread in research work governance
is the organizational governance, which can be viewed as the organizational process and the
mechanism of engagement of the concerned parties in the group action (Luo et al., 2019).
In general, one of the main features of a large part of the above theories is that most
of them take into account the results of ranking, including the results of research activity
monitoring. One of the components of monitoring as part of managerial activities is the
evaluation process, which consists in regular collection of data on the resources, processes and
outcomes of research activities with their further assessment and analysis. In this respect, the
“new managerialism” governance model described by Lazzeretti and Tavoletti (2006) provided
mechanisms due to which the national government controls independent universities.
One of the most common forms of the implementation of the above mechanisms and
the presentation of relevant data are the rankings, which are seen as a means of improving the
openness of higher education. Among other things, world rankings provide all interested parties
with the information on how well they are doing in the competitive global knowledge stakes
(Meek & Davies, 2009). Moreover, global rankings significantly enhance the competition
among universities and entire countries (Marginson & van der Wende, 2009; Rauhvargers,
2011). According to Sadlak (2008), a special place of the university system should not be used
as a “shield of exclusivity”. The administrative importance of rankings is constantly increasing,
too. These days they are subject to constant scrutiny of educational authorities. The respective
data are used for the development of both national and international higher education policies.
Higher education ranking systems use various criteria for classifying university
performance (Delgado-Márquez et al., 2012). The existing global university rankings include
a number of indicators that directly or indirectly evaluate the research activities of universities.
The proportion of such indicators often exceeds 50%. (Podolyanchuk, 2012). In fact, this is
evidence of the dominant role of university science in determining the ranking position of
universities. According to Keplinger and Koczanowicz-Dehnel (2008), the evaluation of
research may: activate, modify, collectivize, improve, explain, aid, summarize, direct, legitimize

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1016 etc. In order to translate the above possibilities into action one should apply relevant types of
evaluation.
It should be noted that qualitative evaluation of higher education is gradually but
surely disappearing. Currently, quantitative methods in the governance of higher education
and research are becoming increasingly important. Research evaluation systems are quickly
transforming research around the world (Marques et al., 2017). Initially, the research evaluation
systems were the organized sets of procedures for assessing the merits of research, which were
regularly used by various government agencies in public institutions (Whitley, 2007). However,
their functions and applications have expanded significantly.
The process of developing monitoring systems for research activities is quite active
today the world over. For example, the evaluation of university research activities in Great
Britain has been recently extended to the institutional and national levels (Geuna & Martin,
2003). Previously the academic impact and research quality were measured by means of peer
review (Grant et al., 2010). In the Netherlands, the smallest unit of assessment is represented
by research programmes of subdepartments (Geuna & Martin, 2003). French researchers write
activity reports every 2 years with a list of publications (Grant et al., 2010).
In Germany, there is no federal evaluation yet (Geuna & Martin, 2003). In Spain introduced
is a mixed system of self-assessment and external assessment by means of interviewing (Grant
et al., 2010). In the Czech Republic they developed the Evaluation Methodology, which takes
into account diverse scientific results. The application of the above methodology aims at
determining the extent of financing of research institutions (Good et al., 2015). In the Slovak
Republic, university departments are evaluated by indicators common to institutions and by
additional indicators (Geuna & Martin, 2003). In Poland research funding used to be determined
taking into consideration quantitative and qualitative factors. However, in 1998 a new formula
was introduced (Geuna & Martin, 2003).
One can hardly deny that the use of rankings in governance brings certain risks. Taking
simplistic solutions (Hazelkorn, 2009) and emulating the achievement of several elite “world
class” universities as a panacea for success (Hazelkorn, 2013) are among such risks. Moreover,
the results of ranking depend heavily upon the choice of indicators and weights assigned to the
indicators (Rauhvargers, 2011). As a result, the position of an institution can vary significantly
depending on the weight of the specific criteria in various rankings (Hazelkorn, 2013). Despite
the risks involved, rankings remain an important source of information about university
performance efficiency. Moreover, their importance in university governance, in particular, and
the higher education system as a whole is likely to increase in the near future. Thus, issues
related to the use of the monitoring of research results are relevant, and the prospects for their
application are seen as quite inviting.
Research Problem

Research activity in the university has many features, one of which is a fairly large
number of research areas, a variety of forms of publication of scientific results, involvement
of a large number of employees and even students in the research process. It is natural that
evaluation of this process and obtained results is quite a difficult task both at the global and
national levels, as well as at the industry and university levels.
In the modern interpretation research evaluation means the systematic determination of
the merit, worth, and significance of a research activity (Huutoniemi & Rafols, 2016). As of
today, it is a component of almost all global and national university rankings. New approaches
related to the use of social media metrics (Wouters et al., 2019), webometrics, altmetrics
(Fang & Costas, 2020; González‐Valiente et al., 2016) and other indicators are being actively
developed. However, according to Fang and Costas (2020), the results of Altmetric evaluation

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in the real-time mode may depend on the choice of a source of data. Therefore, Wouters et al. 1017
(2019) acknowledged that current methods of research evaluation are focused on the scholarly
dimensions.
Many systems for monitoring of research activities have been developed and are
implemented at the national level. However, such systems are mainly related to the university
as a whole, or are designed to solve specific tasks – selection of research projects, determining
the amount of funding, etc. (Geuna & Martin, 2003; Good et al., 2015; Grant et al., 2010; Luo
et al., 2019). There have been released research papers on the evaluation of the activities of
certain university subdivisions, in particular, graduate courses (De Oliveira et al., 2019). At the
same time, creation of monitoring systems for research activities of faculties and departments
remains open. Therefore, the inadequate attention to research activities and research outcomes
at the institutional level raises concerns (Porter & Toutkoushian, 2006). At this point, problems
related to research evaluation of structural units attract scientists' interest sporadically and are
not properly reflected in the scientific literature. In addition, questions of practical use of the
obtained results remain insufficiently studied.
The application of evaluation results is usually limited to recognizing the feasibility of its
use in management. Under such circumstances, a possible option is to offer specific areas and
ways of practical application of monitoring results that would contribute to the improvement
of the efficiency of research activities. In this case, the main restriction is the identification of
and adjustment for risks in order to avoid making wrong management decisions. Therefore, it
seems important and relevant to research all the problems associated with this process today.
Research Focus
The research was focused on creation, analysis and practical use of the research activities
monitoring results of the university's structural units.
Research Aim
The purpose of the research was to offer and critically comprehend the main directions
of using the results of the experience of implementing the research activity monitoring system
in the management activities of the university.
General Background
The research was based on a comprehensive approach to structure departments’ research

activities monitoring at pedagogical universities. It was consisted in simultaneous diagnostic,
analysis and research work grading according to its major directions (quality of scientific and
pedagogical staff, research and innovation activities, publishing activities, research work of
students and young scientists, international research activities, research and organizational
activities) as well as the categories of potential, result, and effectiveness (Podolyanchuk, 2015).
The scientific potential was characterized by the scientific personnel and resources available at
the university. Research performance was analysable and represented in comprehensive ways
(Marginson, 2006). Efficiency analysis was valuable in informing policy makers (Kosor et al.,
2019).
The main method used during the research was evaluation. According to Keplinger and
Koczanowicz-Dehnel (2008), the essence of evaluation consists in the collection of information
and assigning meaning in order to distinguish between beneficial and malign. According to Luo

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1018 et al. (2019), in the course of evaluating research activity it is necessary: to justify evaluation
purposes; to systemize individual evaluation activities; to institutionalize evaluation procedures;
to enhance the role of stakeholders in conducting evaluation procedures.
The research employed expert evaluation to develop the monitoring model. The
evaluation itself was carried out using the ranking and scoring techniques. When ranking, an
expert has to rank items in descending order and assign a number to each item within the
ordered series (rank). As one of the varieties of scoring, the research employed the prioritization
method of direct placement of weighting factors (the method point allocation). The essence
of the method was to divide 100 points among the group of objects to reflect their relative
importance (Bottomley et al., 2000; Doyle et al., 1997).
Since the monitoring system is based on a quantitative methodology, the rating method,
mathematical and graphical methods became essential in the direct implementation of the
model. At the final stage, methods of descriptive statistics, analysis, systematization, and
generalization were used for further practical application of the obtained results.
Participants
At the initial stage of the research, an expert group consisting of 21 experts was created.
The number of experts was determined through the use of the sample survey theory based on
the total number of the University's academic staff (Hrabovetskyi, 2010). The composition
of the panel of experts was determined using the established criteria. The main requirements
for experts included, but not limited to, the presence of significant scientific publications and
experience in structures associated with the evaluation of research work (dedicated scientific
councils, expert groups, editorial boards of scientific journals), etc. (Podolyanchuk, 2014).
Among the experts: 12 men, 9 women; 14 holders of a D.Sc. degree, 7 holders of a Ph.D.
degree in specific fields; 6 persons under the age of 50, 12 – from 50 to 60, 3 – from 60 to 65. In
the process of practical implementation, the necessary information was provided by the heads
of all educational and scientific units – departments and faculties. The faculties also included
the educational and research institute. It should be noted that in Ukraine, the educational and
research institute is a structural unit similar to the faculty by the nature of its activity, having
a strengthened research component. The working group set up a database and made statistical
calculations.
Creation of the monitoring system began with identification of the main areas of
research activity and the main categories. In order to determine weighting factors, we applied
expert evaluation method in 2 stages. First experts determined weighting factors of research
directions. With the view to reach better consistency of expert opinion, the survey was carried
out in 4 steps (rounds). After the closing round, the concordance coefficient was 0.82. It
should be noted that experts had a possibility to get to know general results of the previous
evaluation. At the same time, the acquaintance with the previous results did not allow for any
personification and panel discussions. At the second stage (that consisted of 3 rounds) experts
determined weighting factors of indices of each research direction. After the closing round,
the concordance coefficients were in the interval 0.50 to 0.73. Information was collected using
specially designed forms with simultaneous input control of the completeness, accuracy and
reliability of the prepared data. After the relevant calculations, rating scores of each structural
unit were determined and ratings were formed in terms of scientific directions and categories.
The research was conducted in Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University
(Ukraine) for five years (2013–2017).

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Data Analysis 1019
The database was generated and analysed in Excel on 18 independent sheets. The total
number of departments (depending on the year) was 27-29, faculties – 8. The annual total
number of input data reached approximately 2000 values, output data – 2500 values. Output
data was displayed and analysed in the context of structural units (departments and faculties)
for each scientific direction, each category, followed by formation of a general rating. The
results were presented in both tabular and graphical form in two formats – score and percentage.
Based on the monitoring results, analytical materials were prepared annually, and information
publications were printed.
Research Results
The monitoring results were a fairly large document with a large amount of statistical
information. Since the data processing used normalization, it should be noted that the absolute
value of rating scores is not very informative. More important is the comparative analysis and
research of trends in final characteristics.
To analyse the results of monitoring of the research activities, first, the departments were
grouped into quartiles Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 (approximately 7 in each) based on the rating position,
and then determine the average rating scores in each group. Analysing Figure 1, one can see
a significant and stable gap between the departments results included in the first quartile (Q1)
and the results of other departments. All this allows to assert the existence of a certain scientific
"core", i.e. departments that consistently have high scientific achievements. Analysing the
frequency of occurrence of specific departments in the first quartile (Table 1), one can see that
their total number is small (12). At the same time, three departments were in the leading group
over all five years of the model implementation, one department – 4 years, two departments – 3
years. This is evidence of a fairly high stability of the scientific "core" and non-randomness of
the results obtained.
Figure 1
Average Rating Scores of Departments of Faculties Grouped in Quartiles (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4).
Year of model implementation

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1020 Table 1
Frequency of Occurrences of Departments in the First Quartile (Q1).
Parameter Value
Number of years 5 4 3 2 1
Number of departments 3 1 2 4 2
Slightly different observations can be made in relation to the faculties. If they are divided
into 2 groups according to the ranking results (4 faculties per group) and the proportion of each
group is determined, it can be stated that over the last years of the model implementation there
has been a clear trend towards convergence of results (Figure 2).
Figure 2
Share of Indicators of Research Activity of Faculties Groups (G1, G2).
The dynamics of changes in the share of indicators of different categories in the overall
rating of faculties is also indicative. As Figure 3 shows, there is a clear trend towards an
increase in the share of result and effectiveness indicators, as opposed to a decrease in the share
of potential indicators, which largely characterize previous achievements. Since the absolute
indicators of research activity of the university as a whole have been constantly growing, this
situation can be explained by an increase in the level of research activity of all structural units
with an emphasis on its result and effectiveness.
Figure 3
Share of Indicators that Characterize Categories (1– result and effectiveness, 2 – potential).

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It is also interesting to compare the relative results by areas. As shown in Figure 4, there 1021
is a tendency to the increase in the proportion of international research activity indicators,
which is especially important due to the great urgency of the issue of integration of Ukrainian
universities into the European and global educational and research environment and publishing
industry. At the same time, the increase in the proportion of publishing activity indicators
was mainly due to an increase in the number of monographs and articles in leading academic
journals. Thus, the final results confirmed the positive effect of the monitoring of research
activities upon the development of research activities in the University.
Figure 4
Share of Indicators that Characterize Directions of Research Activities (1 – publishing
activities, 2 – international research activities).
The final results and a careful analysis of the research activities of structural units
allowed to outline several ways to use the results of implementation of the monitoring system
in the management of the university. First of all, this system can be used as a powerful
database containing information about achievements of faculties and departments. Usually,
quantification of information significantly facilitates statistical processing of data and finding
indicators necessary for reporting to the relevant ministry and (or) other executive authorities.
An important direction of using the monitoring system is the ability to perform a comparative
analysis of the results of research activities of individual structural units. Such data are usually
the basis for determining or adjusting the development strategy of the university, highlighting
the most promising areas of research, critical rethinking of relevance of the subject of research.
The research activity monitoring system can be used to implement one of the most
important management functions – the control function. Its role, among other things, is to
ensure the provision of feedback. In case of research activity monitoring, such feedback is
mostly arranged in a non-contact way, which does not provide for the preparation of individual
documents. This, in turn, saves time of structural unit managers and creates quite comfortable
psychological conditions for management activities.
With certain reservations, research activity monitoring results can be taken into account
for solving organizational issues. If individual faculties or departments have been showing
poor results for a long time, there may be a question of their reorganization, reformatting or
even liquidation. At the same time, decisions on administrative responsibility of the heads of
such structural units are also possible. Certainly, monitoring results cannot be the sole basis
for making personnel decisions, as they: firstly, have no legal basis; secondly, do not take
into account the impact of external factors, which are often objective; thirdly, do not take into

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1022 account the original conditions under which the relevant managers started their management
activity; and fourthly, do not evaluate the performance of similar structural units of other
universities. The data obtained from monitoring can be useful not only at the university level.
Heads of faculties and departments can use them with high efficiency. In such cases, it is logical
to encourage, also financially, the best employees.
Publication of monitoring results provides evidence of transparency and openness in
the activities of a universities and its readiness for informal reporting to all concerned parties.
This openness usually strengthens the competitive environment at the university, which in most
cases is considered as a positive aspect. At the same time, the technological implementation of
this direction in modern conditions does not practically encounter any serious problems. An
exception may be the publication of information about scientific projects that constitute a state,
commercial or corporate secret or premature publication of the results of incomplete research
works.
Typical for national evaluation systems determination of the amount of funding for
research projects or programs depending on the results obtained at the university level is usually
quite rare. However, the financial aspect may be present after summing up the results of research
activities. It can be implemented in financing the research works from own sources, allocation
of funds for the purchase of scientific equipment, determining the priority of financing scientific
trips and internships, support for the structural unit in its participation in international projects
or programs.
Extremely important from the point of view of using the results of research activity
monitoring in the university management is the reliability and accuracy of input information
sources. In this sense, the main trend should be the use of data that are objective (formal) in
nature and have documentary evidence. In this case, an additional advantage is the availability
of such data in the public domain. At the same time, information prepared directly by structural
units should be minimized. The main reason for this approach is the probability of different
interpretations of the content of individual research activity indicators, which can lead to
incorrect presentation of data and distortion of the final results.
In general, the proposed areas of the monitoring of research activities results application
cover a wide range of management methods. Therefore, they can be used for management
activities in universities of various types, forms of ownership, level of research and educational
activities, size, etc.
Discussion
These days, evaluation plays a significant role in the operations of universities.

According to Shadish (1998), evaluation must meet the needs of practical activities. Alkin and
Christie (2004), outlining the three major components of evaluation (methods, valuing and
use), highlight the importance of developing evaluation processes that are intended to assist in
management decision-making. Huutoniemi and Rafols (2016) note that evaluations are used,
among other things, to improve the performance of researchers and organizations.
The research evaluation is a component of many other systems that are currently used
in universities, including knowledge management (Du & Yang, 2020), performance evaluation
system (Cadez et al., 2017), etc. Knowledge management plays an important role in the innovative
research and activities of universities (Du & Yang, 2020). The performance evaluation system
increases the efficiency of research activities (Cadez et al., 2017). However, scientometric
methods cannot fundamentally meet the requirements of evaluation in practice (De Oliveira et
al., 2019. Therefore, a variety of internal monitoring systems have to be developed.
From this point of view, the most promising approach is to use the results of monitoring
of research activities in the university management. For this purpose, it is advisable to use

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a wide range of management methods, which, based on how they work, can be divided into 1023
economic, organizational, administrative, and social psychological methods (Shehda, 2004).
Taking this into account, the research identified the main areas of application of the monitoring
of research activities results in university management. They relate to dealing with data analysis,
organizational, personnel and economic issues. However, the implementation of managerial
solutions which are based on, or at least take into account the monitoring of research activities
results, may be associated with certain challenges.
Problems may arise in the psychological aspect, as a significant number of scientists and
lecturers consider it impossible to make a quantitative comparison of scientific results different
in nature and form of publication. Although it should be noted that such problems are usually
temporary, which is partially confirmed by historical experience. For example, in Germany in the
early 80s, most leaders in higher education actively resisted the ideas of competition, although
the society recognized long ago the inequality of German universities quality (Federkeil, 2002).
Research activities at universities are often a team effort, so that it is sometimes
difficult to separate the contribution made by a particular employee or even a structural unit
(Podolyanchuk, 2015). Another problem is a certain difficulty in identifying the actual scientific
component in the activities of scientists and lecturers. In actual practice they often have to
complete the tasks, which are only indirectly related to the creation of new knowledge as one
of the functions of science. Such activities (participation in the editorial board of professional
journals, the organization of scientific conferences, etc.) markedly affect the evaluation results,
although it significantly impedes the isolation of the actual scientific component.
The risk zone may also be the desire of individual heads of structural units to focus
primarily on the indicators of research activity, which are included in the monitoring system,
while neglecting other, perhaps no less important areas of research. In addition, the criteria for
research activity evaluation may vary, at least if not the list, then the importance thereof in a
given period of time. This means that the system must be dynamic and respond quickly to the
needs of today.
It should be kept in mind that science as a whole is a synergistic system capable of
self-organization, so it is necessary to clearly define the limits beyond which administrative
factors begin to harm, rather than help the development of research (Kozlovskyi, 2012). That
is why monitoring results should be used in management activities in a balanced and step-by-
step manner. The main obstacle here is that generally accepted approaches to the essence and
technology of creating systems for evaluating research activity have not yet been developed. The
varieties of forms of research work in universities provide for the use of different approaches
to its evaluation and significantly slow down the practical implementation. This problem is
most significant in classical (multidisciplinary) universities, where specialists are trained in
many, often very different, industries. This makes it very difficult to develop a universal model
that would proportionally take into account the results of research activities that are typical for
various research areas. This problem can be somewhat mitigated by the use of collective forms
of creating a scientific product.
In general, the research outlines the practical applications of the results of the monitoring
of research activities in university management. However, there might be other applications of
such systems. Eventually, they are meant to upgrade the quality of higher education (Marques
et al., 2017). As part of a comprehensive monitoring system for research activities, they can
also be used at an individual level. As is known, the professional activities of a university
teacher involve two components, lecturing and research. At the same time, it is mainly research
outcomes that determine one’s career advancement (Cadez et al., 2017). This, however, is
obviously a topic for a separate research.

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1024 Conclusions
Research activity is an important component of university functioning. Its evaluation is

an integral part of various university rankings, and the evaluation results are taken into account
by many managers and concerned parties for decision making. Systems for research activity
monitoring of university departments are being actively developed, which are also designed
to play an active role in the management of universities. At the same time, the directions of
application of the obtained results in management activities can be very diverse. At the initial
stage, the data obtained during monitoring may constitute a powerful information database, be
used for comparative analysis of the research work of faculties and departments and evaluation
of the university research activity as a whole. This information is a reliable basis for making
important management decisions, including strategic decisions.
The results of monitoring can be used to implement the control function, and most
importantly, without the need to prepare additional documents. With certain reservations,
they can be taken into account for solving organizational, financial and professional issues.
Publication of research results promotes transparency and openness of universities, which
among other factors strengthens the internal competitive environment. In this case, sources
of input information, which should provide the monitoring system with objective and reliable
data, become important. The directions proposed in the research are universal in nature and can
be used in the management activities of various universities.
Of course, the use of monitoring results in management activities has certain risks –
imperfect technology, psychological rejection of individual approaches, difficulty in identifying
the actual scientific component, possibility of ambiguous conclusions, etc. All this requires
careful and gradual implementation of such systems. At the same time, despite certain
reservations, the use of the research activity monitoring results of faculties and departments as
part of university management has great prospects.
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Received: May 30, 2020 Accepted: November 03, 2020
Cite as: Podolyanchuk, S. (2020). Monitoring of faculties and departments research activity
as a component of university management. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6),
1014-1026. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.1014
Stanislav Podolyanchuk PhD in Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor, Dean of
the Faculty of Mathematics, Physics, Computer Science and Technologies,
Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky State Pedagogical University, 21007,
Vinnytsia, Ukraine.
E-mail: stas177vn@ukr.net

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INFLUENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL 1027
FACTORS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPEAN
TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS
Robert Podstawski
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland
E-mail: podstawskirobert@gmail.com
Krzysztof Borysławski
Wrocław University of Life and Environmental Sciences, Poland
E-mail: krzysztof.boryslawski@upwr.edu.pl
Marta Zurawik
Independent Researcher, United Kingdom
E-mail: martazurawik@hotmail.com
Alena Bukova
Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Slovak Republic
E-mail: alena.bukova@upjs.sk
Bojan Masanovic
University of Montenegro, Montenegro
E-mail: bojan.masanovic@ucg.ac.me
Ferenc Ihasz
Eötvös Lóránd University, Hungary
E-mail: ihasz.ferenc@ppk.elte.hu
Miloš Marković
University of Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: miloscj@gmail.com
Aneta Omelan
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland
E-mail: aneta.omelan@uwm.edu.pl
Abstract
The purpose of higher education is to produce active and intellectually well-rounded individuals yet, the
transition to higher education seems to have deleterious effects on university and college students’ (UCS)
fitness levels and physical activity (PA).
The aim of this quantitative research was to analyse the influences of organisational factors on the
implementation of physical education (PE) among UCS in European tertiary institutions. A purposive
sampling method was employed. Seven academic peers gathered information on characteristics of

Robert PODSTAWSKI, Krzysztof BORYSŁAWSKI, Marta ZURAWIK, Alena BUKOVA, Bojan MASANOVIC, Ferenc IHASZ, Miloš
MARKOVIĆ, Aneta OMELAN. Influence of organisational factors on the implementation of physical education in European tertiary
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1028 tertiary institutions, sport and leisure facilities, types and characteristics of PA programs available for
UCS in 66 European tertiary institutions.
The results suggested that the curricula requirements for PE in public tertiary institutions were similar to
private establishments, with minor administrative variations. Public tertiary institutions had significantly
higher number of PE hours and PE sessions per semester, PE minutes per academic hour, duration of PE
session, number PE teachers and number of students per one PE teacher. Universities had significantly
higher number of PE semesters, PE minutes per academic hour, and hired more PE teachers. The
organizational differences between public and private institutions might be explained by a lack of clear
guidelines regarding PE curricula in higher education across European countries, and greater autonomy
of the private tertiary institutions. Moreover, PA programs in higher education adhere to minimum
requirements of the syllabi, which restrict total amounts of PE among UCS. Thus, it is recommended PE
classes should become obligatory, with extended hours, appropriately qualified teachers and improved
financing.
Keywords: higher education, university college students (UCS), physical education, European tertiary
institutions, PE curriculum, organisational factors
Introduction

In recent decades, the changes in lifestyle from active to sedentary have replaced the
traditional daily physical activities with the activities that reduce energy expenditure. The
decrease in daily levels of physical activity (PA) of the contemporary lifestyles have significantly
reduced daily demand for PA in general populations and is responsible for civilisation diseases
related to inactive behaviours (Keating et al., 2005; Saelens et al., 2003). Furthermore, the
prevalence of inactivity in leisure time varies with cultural and economic developmental
factors, averaging 23% in North-Western Europe and the United States, 30% in Central and
Eastern Europe, 39% in Mediterranean, 42% in Pacific Asian, and 44% in developing countries.
Correspondingly, the likelihood of leisure-time PA is positively associated with the strength of
beliefs in the health benefits of activity and with national economic development (per capita
GDP) (Haase et al., 2004).
The sedentary behaviours are also prevalent among university and college students
(UCS) around the world, and for the majority of them, the amount of PA required while
performing daily activities is no longer sufficient for maintaining sound fitness (Lipošek et al.,
2018). Regular participation in PA is an important contributor to a healthy lifestyle and it can
provide immediate and future health benefits (Hilland et al., 2009). Therefore, comprehensive
PA guidelines have been developed to encourage participation. The main recommendation is
that young adults engage in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous PA every day (Garber
et al., 2011). The minimum recommended amount of PA for individuals aged 18 to 65 is ≥ 30
min/day of moderate-intensity endurance training performed 5 days per week (≥150 min/week)
or ≥25 min of high-intensity endurance training performed 3 days per week (≥ 75 min/week).
Moderate- and high-intensity training can also be combined in the effort range of ≥500 – 1000
MET. Resistance, balance, agility and coordination training targeting each muscle group is
recommended 2-3 days per week, and stretching exercises (60s) are recommended 2 days per
week (Haskell et al., 2007).
The scientific evidence from around the world suggests that UCS do not engage enough
in PA and show low levels of fitness. For instance, American College Health Association
(2007) reported that 44.2% of American students exercised vigorously for at least 20 minutes
or moderately for at least 30 minutes, at least 3 out of the past 7 days, and 47.7% of students
reported that they exercised to strengthen or tone muscles at least 2 out of the past 7 days.
Similar research study was conducted in Europe by Steptoe et al. (1997) who reported that
among UCS from 21 European countries age-adjusted prevalence of physical exercise in the
past 2 weeks averaged 73.2% among men and 68.3% among women, but varied significantly

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from more than 80% to less than 60% across country samples. Furthermore, several research 1029
studies conducted in Europe reported low PA levels among Romanian (Fagaras et al., 2015),
Polish (Podstawski et al., 2014) and Spanish (Martinez-Lemos et al., 2012) students.
Supplementary evidence suggests that many UCS do not meet the above recommendations
in the process of transitioning from adolescence to adulthood (Kim & Cardinal, 2017;
Sigmundova et al., 2013). University students who begin to live independently experience
changes in lifestyle habits, attitudes and social roles. The research showed that only one-
third of UCS who was active in high school became insufficiently active upon transitioning to
university life (Bray & Born, 2004; Li et al., 2009). The transition to higher education seems to
have deleterious effects on students’ PA behaviour and motivation, which lead to a significantly
decline in their fitness levels (Fagaras et al., 2015; Kwan et al., 2012; Podstawski et al., 2013).
Furthermore, it is also worth noting that PA behaviours of UCS tend to have a long-term impact
on adult PA habits (Keating et al., 2005) since PA patterns established in college/university are
likely to be maintained for a long time (Corbin, 2002; Sparling & Snow, 2002).
In terms of gender differences in PA levels, the literature proposes that women are
particularly less active and more sedentary than men (Corales et al., 2009; Lipošek et al., 2018;
Majeric, 2016; Ng et al., 2009; Steptoe et al., 2002; Varela-Mato et al., 2012). Many academics
suggest that women’s health behaviours are more influenced by structural and psychosocial
factors, such as stress, lower levels of self-esteem and sense of coherence, while men's health
is more affected by health behaviours, such as smoking, drinking and PA (Denton et al., 2004;
Valera-Mato et al., 2012).
Low levels of daily PA and excessive food consumption are associated with growing
number of overweight and obesity among UCS (Kaj et al., 2015; Madureira et al., 2009; Varela-
Mato et al., 2012). For instance, Peltzer et al. (2014) assessed levels of overweight and obesity
among UCS from 22 universities in low, middle income and emerging economy countries, and
stated that among men 18.9% were overweight and 5.8% were obese, while 14.1% women were
overweight and 5.2% were obese. Similarly, high prevalence of overweight and obesity have
been observed among UCS in Europe as well as in developing countries such as: Nigeria: 10%
(Nwachukwu et al., 2010), Egypt: 25.3% (Abolfotouh et al., 2007), Mexico: 31.6% (Trujillo-
Hernández et al., 2010), and Turkey: 10%–47.4% (Rasim & Erdem, 2013).
Research Problem and Aim
Reforms in higher education were expected to reinvent tertiary institutions, revise their
objectives and tasks, and effectively improve the PA levels of academic youths (Muszkieta et al.,
2019), since the purpose of higher education is to produce active and intellectually well-rounded
individuals who possess the knowledge and skills for continued personal growth, including
in the area of physical activity and health promotion. Nevertheless, literature indicates that
universities are experiencing a physical inactivity crisis, and the recent generation of graduates
is characterized by very low PA levels (e.g. Cardinal et al., 2012; Lipošek et al., 2018).
Consequently, the predominance of physical inactivity among UCS calls for immediate
action (Corbin, 2002). However, academics suggest that individual will not change their PA
behaviours simply at the request of others (Braithwaite et al., 2003; Keating et al., 2005) and
therefore developing strategies for increasing PA behaviours among UCS population is even
more crucial. The physical education and school sports (PESS) plays a key role in developing
life-long lasting habits for active lifestyle (Haywood, 1991), which is particularly important
among the first year students (Podstawski et al., 2014; Podstawski et al., 2013), and contributes
to young people’s development in four broad domains: physical, social, affective and cognitive
(Bailey et al., 2009).

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1030 Therefore, the purpose of this research was to analyse the influence of organisational
factors on the implementation of PE in European higher education. Furthermore, this research
also aimed to challenge the status of PE in tertiary institutions and recommend directions for a
sustainable future of PE curricula in higher education.
General Background
The research was designed to explore these issues by employing the quantitative
methodology. A quantitative approach, using questionnaire, provides a numeric description of
some fraction of a research population through asking questions, which enables a researcher
to generalize the findings from a sample of responses to a population (Creswell, 1994: 117).
Questionnaires are a suitable method for collecting data from research participants in an
unobtrusive manner, whilst reducing researcher bias (Creswell 2009).
The strength of the quantitative approach lies in collecting structured quantifiable data
from collection of institutions that are known to be representative. It allows researchers to feel
confident about the representativeness of a sample for broader inferences by using a statistical
sampling procedure. In addition, the quantitative method allows information to be measured
and compared.
Research was carried out upon the prior consent of the Ethical Committee of the
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland (No. 39/2011).
A purposive sampling method to recruit participants was employed, which involved
selecting people to produce the most valuable data for the research purpose. Therefore, an
invitation for a research collaboration was issued to all academics attending the 16thAnnual
Scientific Conference of Montenegrin Sports Academy entitled: “Sport, Physical Activity and
Health: Contemporary Perspectives” in Dubrovnik, Croatia. Furthermore, academic peers who
worked in various European research and teaching centres were contacted via Researchgate.
net platform. Forty-seven academics who agreed to participate in the study were required to
answer all questions concerning PA programs from at least 10 European tertiary institutions by
the end of February 2020. All respondents were informed that participation was voluntary, and
withdrawal was allowed at any time.
In this research, anonymous and confidential questionnaires with 16 closed-ended
questions and two open-ended questions were used. The questionnaire had the same set of
written questions in a predetermined order concerning characteristics of tertiary institutions
(size, profile, type, number of students, number of teachers/instructors), sport facilities (number,
type, size), types of PA programs available for students (obligatory and facultative classes,
extracurricular activities, paid activities), and characteristics of PA sessions (duration, number
of students, teachers/instructors).
In total, out of forty-seven initial participants, only seven academic peers completed and
returned the questionnaires. The participating academics collected information on 66 tertiary
institutions hosting 798,181 students, located in Poland (30), Slovakia (12), Serbia (6), Hungary
(6), Czech Republic (5), Slovenia, Turkey, Spain, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia & Hercegovina,
and Kosovo (1 in each country).
Data Analysis


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Overall, information was gathered from 66 European tertiary institutions. Data were 1031
analysed with emphasis on types of tertiary institutions (public vs private and universities vs
other institutions). Data in the text are given as means ± standard deviations. The differences
between the means were analysed using the t-Student test for independent variables. The
relationships between interval features were assessed by calculating the r-Pearson correlation
coefficient. Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica 13.0 pl. Significance level was
accepted at p<.05
Research Results
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relation

between the populations of cities and number of students in tertiary institutions. In general
number of public and private tertiary institutions, including universities in cities, was not
significantly correlated with the number of students. However, there was a significant correlation
(r=.664, p=.011) between a number of other tertiary institutions, such as polytechnics, colleges,
pedagogical high schools, higher vocational schools and art schools, and number of students.
There was a significant difference in the number of students (p=.003) in public tertiary
institutions (14,294.3±13,913.6) in comparison to private ones (1,091.3±1,323.9). Furthermore,
public tertiary institutions had significantly higher number of PE hours per semester (p=.023),
PE sessions per semester (.019), number of minutes per academic hour (p=.009), duration of
PE session (p=.011), number PE teachers (p=.023) and number of students per one PE teacher
(p=.049) (Table 1).
Table 1
Characteristics of Public versus Private Tertiary Institutions
Public (N=55) Private (N=11) Difference

Characteristics
M±SD M±SD t p
City population [thousand] 511.9±541.0 421.5±438.8 0.520 ns
No. of students 14,294.3±13,913.6 1,091.3±1,323.9 3.125 .003
No. of PE semesters 2.78±2.15 2.46±3.39 0.415 ns
No. of PE hours per semester 26.22±8.40 18.73±14.89 2.337 .023
No. of PE hours during the studies 60.49±40.08 55.46±72.99 0.326 ns
No. of PE sessions per semester 13.87±5.28 9.36±7.45 2.406 .019
No. of minutes per academic hour 42.45±13.94 28.64±22.70 2.676 .009
Duration of PE session [minutes] 82.45±25.16 57.27±45.41 2.605 .011
No. of PE teachers 13.53±10.57 5.91±4.93 2.329 .023
No. of students per PE teacher 1,708.2±2,405.3 326.5±403.8 1.98 .049
Note: ns – no significant differences
There was a significant difference in the number of students (p=.015) at universities

(1,4751.4±1,4753.1) than other institutions (5,981.2±7,955.7). Moreover, universities had
significantly higher number of PE semesters (p=.047), minutes per academic hour (p=.048),
and hired more PE teachers (p=.049) in comparison to other tertiary institutions (Table 2).

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1032 Table 2
Characteristics of Universities versus Other Tertiary Institutions
University (N=46) Other (N=20) Difference

Characteristics
M±SD M±SD t p
City population [thousand] 475.3±500.5 546.6±583.1 0.505 ns
No. of students 14,751.4±14,753.1 5,981.2±7,955.7 2.498 .015
No. of PE semesters 3.11±2.37 1.85±2.18 2.030 .047
No. of PE hours per semester 26.22±7.80 22.10±13.70 1.549 ns
No. of PE hours during the studies 65.24±47.48 46.80±42.33 1.496 ns
No. of PE sessions per semester 13.41±3.68 12.45±9.25 0.609 ns
No. of minutes per academic hour 42.61±13.61 34.50±18.71 1.986 .048
Duration of PE session [minutes] 82.28±23.84 69.00±41.41 1.645 ns
No. of PE teachers 13.85±10.77 8.60±7.95 1.975 .049
No. of students per PE teacher 1,799.1±2,608.9 739.3±710.5 1.781 ns
Notes: ns – not significant differences
Number of PA programs (p=.046) and sport facilities (p=.011) were significantly higher
in public tertiary institutions (Table 3).
Table 3
Characteristics of Sport Facilities in Tertiary Institutions
Characteristics Public (N=55) Private (N=11) t p
No. of PA programs 11.85±5.66 8.27±3.04 2.033 .046

No. of sports facilities 14.40±11.19 5.45±3.17 2.614 .011
University (N=46) Other (N=20)
No. of PA programs 11.93±5.34 9.70±5.55 1.544 ns
No. of sports facilities 15.30±11.55 7.40±6.20 2.877 .005
≤ 500 thousand (N=45) > 500 thousand (N=21)
No. of PA programs 11.22±5.52 11.33±5.47 0.076 ns

No. of sports facilities 13.47±12.01 11.71±7.80 0.610 ns
Notes: ns – not significant differences
Universities had a significantly higher number of sport facilities (p=.005) than other
institutions however, there were no significant differences between the number of PA programs
available to university students and those in other types of higher education institutions. The
city populations where tertiary institutions were based were significantly associated with the
number of sport facilities or PA programs available to students.
Discussion
The results of this research indicated that the number of students in public tertiary
institutions was significantly higher. These findings are supported by Education, Audio-

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visual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA, 2012) suggesting that in Central and Easter 1033
European countries, which more recently joined European Union (EU), more students attend
public tertiary institutions, and therefore, in those countries the higher education is publicly
provisioned and put a strain on public funding (EACEA, 2012).
The research showed that the numbers of students and PE teachers in surveyed public
tertiary institutions were higher. Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that the majority of PE
teachers in European higher education are not full-time permanent academic staff but tend to
have a temporary employment contact (Podstawski, 2018). In addition, the criteria for hiring
PE teachers in tertiary institutions are inadequate. Podstawski (2018) indicated that many PE
teachers are in fact instructors, without sufficient professional knowledge or competences, who
conduct PA programs in order to supplement their salaries. Correspondingly, Korpak (2005)
noticed the similar trends in Western Europe (i.e. Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy
and Sweden) than the Eastern bloc countries. This might mean that the countries that joined the
European Union later started adopting similar economically oriented approach to PE.
Despite the staffing differences between public and private institutions, the numbers of PE
semesters and PE hours during the studies were similar. Furthermore, no significant differences
in number of PE semesters and hours were observed in other types of tertiary institutions, such
as polytechnics, colleges, pedagogical high schools, higher vocational schools, art schools.
In terms of PA programs, the public establishments had significantly higher number of
PE hours, sessions and minutes per 1 academic hour. These differences between public and
private institutions might be explained by a lack of clear guidelines regarding PE curricula in
higher education, and greater autonomy of the private tertiary institutions. Furthermore, the lack
of compulsory PE in higher education is common in the United States and European countries,
where elective PA programs tend to be of a recreational kind (Cardinal et al., 2012; Hardman,
2008; Lipošek et al., 2018). This situation was caused by educational reforms implemented by
many European countries, which contributed to diminishing status of the PE in higher education
(Valero & Van Reenen, 2019). Furthermore, the status of PE in European countries is influenced
by different factors, including local sports traditions and the popularity of different sports and
types of PA. Nevertheless, the strong presence of general PE classes in higher education still
seems surprising.
PA programs in higher education adhere to minimum requirements of the syllabi,
regardless of the type of the institution which results in restricting total amounts of PE among
the students’ populations. Podstawski (2017) suggested that majority of tertiary establishments
perceive PE as an inferior subject and often adhere to inconsistent guidelines regarding the type
and total amount of PE in their curricula, and often do not support the assessment of specific
PE goals (Derri et al., 2012).
The supporters of school-based PE curricula have argued that obligatory PE could,
at least to some degree, prevent overweight and obesity among university students, enhance
fitness and motor skills, as well as improve students’ concentration and cognitive functioning
(Obama, 2012; Tomporowski, 2003).
Conclusions and Limitations
Academics recognize the need to increase levels of PA among UCS in order to improve
their health and encourage healthy lifestyle in the long turn. However, this research suggests
that PE has been marginalized in tertiary education and requires substantial reorganization.
PA offers significant health benefits and PE curricula at all education levels could reduce
levels of obesity and health risk associated with sedentary lifestyle. In order to improve the PA
levels of students, PE curricula in higher education should be restructured and implemented to
facilitate learning, as well as provide as ability to maintain active and healthy lives of students.

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1034 Furthermore, in order to increase levels of PA among students, PE classes become obligatory,
and other PA programs should be free and accessible during the entire study program.
It is important that PE curricula are thoughtfully planned and executed by considering
extended hours, appropriately qualified teachers and improved financing.
The present research study has several limitations that need to be acknowledged. Majority
of the surveyed institutions were from the former Eastern Bloc countries, where obligatory PE
classes had been strongly promoted during the Communist regime. Therefore, the presented
findings could differ if all EU Member States were equally represented. Another limitation was
rather small number of other tertiary institutions, such as polytechnics, colleges, pedagogical
high schools, higher vocational schools, art schools in the study sample, and differences in the
number of tertiary institutions in each surveyed country. However, it must be noted that this
research study surveyed 66 European tertiary institutions with a combined student population
of 798,181, which broadly covers the European academic community and presents valuable
data.
Conflict of interests
The authors declare no conflict of interests
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Varela-Mato, V., Cancela, J. M., Ayan, C., Martín, V., & Molina, A. (2012). Lifestyle and 1037
health among Spanish university students: Differences by gender and academic
discipline. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(8),
2728-2741. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10083590
Cite as: Podstawski, R., Boryslawski, K., Zurawik, M., Bukova, A., Masanovic, B., Ihasz, F.,
Markovič, M., & Omelan, A. (2020). Influence of organisational factors on the implementation
of physical education in European tertiary institutions. Problems of Education in the 21st
Century, 78(6), 1027-1037. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.1027
PhD, Lecturer, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department

Robert Podstawski of Tourism, Recreation and Ecology, Oczapowskiego 5, 10-719 Olsztyn,
(Corresponding author) Poland.
E-mail: podstawskirobert@gmail.com
PhD, Professor, Wrocław University of Life and Environmental Sciences,
Krzysztof Borysławski Department of Anthropology, ul. C. K. Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław,
Poland.
E-mail: krzysztof.boryslawski@upwr.edu.pl
PhD, Independent Researcher, 2 Wilson Avenue, WN6 7HD Wigan,
Marta Zurawik United Kingdom.
E-mail: martazurawik@hotmail.com
PhD, Special Assistant, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice,
Alena Bukova Institute of Physical Education and Sport, Ondavská 21, 040 11 Košice,
Slovak Republic
E-mail: alena.bukova@upjs.sk
PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Montenegro, Faculty for
Bojan Masanovic Sport and Physical Education, Narodne omladine bb, 81400 Niksic,
Montenegro.
E-mail: bojan.masanovic@ucg.ac.me
Professor, Eötvös Lóránd University, Faculty of Psychology and
Ferenc Ihasz Pedagogy, Institute of Sports Sciences, Szombathely, Hungary.
E-mail: ihasz.ferenc@ppk.elte.hu
PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and
Miloš Marković Physical Education, Blagoja Parovića 156, Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: miloscj@gmail.com
PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn,
Aneta Omelan Department of Tourism, Recreation and Ecology, Oczapowskiego 5, 10-
719 Olsztyn, Poland.
E-mail: aneta.omelan@uwm.edu.pl

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1038
CONCEPTUAL SUBITIZING AND
PRESCHOOL CLASS CHILDREN’S
LEARNING OF THE PART-PART-WHOLE
RELATIONS OF NUMBER
Catarina Anna Wästerlid
Malmö University, Sweden
E-mail: catarina.wasterlid@hkr.se
Abstract
Few research studies within the field of mathematics education have focused on the ability to recognize
quantities quickly and accurately without counting (i.e. subitizing). The aim of this research was to
empirically explore the role of conceptual subitizing activities for enhancing preschool class children’s
learning of the part-part- whole relations of number. 24 children (aged 6-7) and two teachers participated
in the intervention. Due to ethical issues, data were only collected from 18 of the children. The design was
a collaborative and iterative intervention, employing a mixed-method approach. Data consisted of pre-
and post-test, teacher observation notes and teacher responses to questions about the children’s learning.
Both the quantitative and qualitative analysis showed that conceptual subitizing activities supported
children’s knowledge development regarding part-part-whole relations of number. At the group level, the
children´s results between pre-and post-test showed an increase of 18.1 percent units and more than half
of the children showed conceptual subitizing abilities in a qualitatively more developed way after having
participated in the intervention. The result indicated that conceptual subitizing activities might enhance
preschool class children’s understanding of the part-part-whole relations of number. The results however
also elucidated that not all children improved their understanding of the part-part -whole relations of
number. Future research should therefore consider individual differences when developing and carrying
out interventions.
Keywords: collaborative intervention, conceptual subitizing, part-part-whole relations of numbers,
preschool class children
Introduction
This research empirically explored the role of conceptual subitizing activities for
supporting preschool class children’s learning of the part-part- whole relations of number. In
the Swedish educational context, preschool class is mandatory for all Swedish children from the
age of six. A guarantee, regulated in the Swedish Education Act (SFS 2010:800), aims to assure
that all students in need of support in their reading- writing and mathematical development will
receive it early on (age 6-10 years). The purpose of the guarantee is to assure that all students
will be able to meet the knowledge requirements in grade 1 and 3 in the subjects Swedish,
Swedish as a second language and mathematics. This regulation of early support is in line with
studies that have shown that early years mathematical skills are strongly connected to later
performance (e.g. Aunola et al., 2004; Duncan et al., 2007; Morgan et al., 2009). Morgan et
al., (2009) for example reported that children who experienced difficulties in mathematics in
Kindergarten showed low mathematics skill growth throughout primary school. The importance
of early attention regarding learning math and related skills in preschool (Aunola et al., 2004)
and high-quality interventions for children at risk of academic failure (Baroody et al., 2006)
have been highlighted in previous research.

Catarina Anna WÄSTERLID. Conceptual subitizing and preschool class children’s learning of the part-part-whole relations of
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However, no guidelines are provided regarding how to teach the mathematical content 1039
appropriately to support children’s early mathematical learning and knowledge development.
Comprehensive research reviews on mathematical learning, have indicated that an understanding
of quantities and numbers as well as an ability to operate with numbers are important aspects of
early mathematical development (e.g. Dowker, 2019; Kilpatrick et al., 2001). One fundamental
idea of understanding quantities and numbers includes an understanding of part-whole relations
i.e. that a “quantity or a whole can consist of parts and be broken apart (decomposed) into
parts, and that the parts can be combined (composed) to form the whole” (Baroody et al.,
2006, p. 207). One important aspect that has been extensively reported on, regarding early
mathematical development, is the ability to quickly and accurately recognize small quantities
without counting, also called subitizing (e.g. Clements, 1999; Hannula-Sormunen et al., 2015;
Kaufman et al., 1949). Studies have for example shown a positive significant relation between
the subitizing range and mathematics performance in children (Kroesbergen et al., 2009; Yun
et al., 2011). Another important aspect that has been reported on is children’s counting skills
(Zhang et al., 2020). Zhang et al. (2020) have for example reported that accuracy in counting
sequences discriminated between average achieving children and children with mathematical
difficulties. Research in the field of psychology and cognition has proven that subitizing and
counting are two different systems for exact number magnitude processing (Kaufman et al.,
1949; Mandler & Shebo 1982; Schleifer & Landerl, 2011). Counting is defined as a pairing
of objects with the number sequence (Mandler & Shebo, 1982) whereas the term subitizing
is used for defining a rapid, accurate and confident process for determining the number of
objects in a set (Kaufman et al., 1949). Research studies have found a discontinuity regarding
response times between enumeration of smaller (1-3) and larger (4-8) sets, suggesting that
subitizing is a faster process for enumeration of small quantities than counting (Mandler &
Shebo, 1982; Schleifer & Landerl, 2019). In a study, Benoit et al. (2004) investigated the
role of counting abilities and subitizing abilities for young children to acquire the cardinal
meaning of small-number words. The results indicated that subitizing promoted the cardinal
value of the first number words, since it allowed the child to grasp the whole and the individual
elements at the same time. Despite research showing that the ability to quickly and accurately
recognize quantities without counting (i.e. subitizing) is an important aspect in children´s early
mathematical development (Clements, 1999; Hannula-Sormunen et al., 2015; Kaufman et al.,
1949), few empirical studies within the field of mathematics education have focused on this
aspect (Clements et al., 2019).
Perceptual and Conceptual Subitizing
Most of the studies regarding subitizing have predominately been conducted in the
field of psychology, investigating perceptual processes (e.g. Kaufman et al., 1949; Mandler
& Shebo, 1982; Schleifer & Landerl, 2011; Starkey & McCandliss, 2014; Starkey,1990).
Kaufman et al. (1949) coined the term subitizing for defining an innate, rapid, and accurate
process for determining the number of objects in a set less than 6. Furthermore, Starkey et.
al (1990) reported, based on evidence from an experiment in which 6-8-month-old babies
could match drumbeats with the correct dot-card (by looking at the card), that subitizing is an
innate mechanism. Research within mathematical education distinguishes between two types
of subitizing processes: perceptual and conceptual subitizing. Perceptual subitizing is, similarly
to Kaufman et al.’s definition (1949), referred to as an immediate, innate number recognition,
i.e. recognizing the numerosity of a briefly presented collections of a small number of items
without consciously using other mathematical or mental processes (Clements, 1999; Clements
& Sarama, 2014; Clements et al., 2019). Conceptual subitizing is instead referred to as a more
advanced ability to recognize the number of items in a larger set of items by using some kind of

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1040 partitioning strategies, by mentally structuring and organizing the items in smaller identifiable
parts, showing an awareness of the parts and the whole (Clements et al., 2019). Even though
research in the field of educational science distinguishes between the two processes, researchers
argue that this innate perceptual subitizing ability can be developed into conceptual subitizing
abilities (Clements, 1999; Conderman et al., 2014). Clements and Sarama (2014) described the
relations between the two processes as preschoolers recognize the number of objects in a set of
three (or four) or fewer instantly (perceptual subitizing) and as they become more familiar with
sets of numbers, they are able to determine the quantity in larger sets by quickly recognizing the
smaller sets that make up the quantity (i.e. conceptual subitizing). Also, Conderman et al. (2014)
have postulated the relationships between the two processes by the formulation that conceptual
subitizing is about “identifying a whole quantity as the result of recognizing smaller quantities
(recognized through perceptual subitizing) that make up the whole” (p. 20). The ability to
instantly recognize quantities target the ability to spatially structure quantities which is essential
for the development of insight into numerical relations (e.g. Mulligan & Mitchelmore, 2009;
Van Nes & de Lange, 2007). Mulligan and Mitchelmore (2009) have for example found that the
general awareness of mathematical patterns and structures of grade 1 children were related to
their mathematical achievement on tasks assessing mathematical processes such as subitizing,
unitizing, partitioning, multiplicative, and proportional relationships. Likewise, Van Nes and
de Lange (2007) have suggested, based on an overview of research literature from mathematics
education and neuroscience, that spatial structuring are beneficial when children are to develop
an understanding of quantities and numbers. Similar results have been reported by van Nes and
Doorman (2011) who found that the use of structuring strategies, instead of unitary counting
strategies, were beneficial when children (aged 4-6) were engaged in numerical procedures
such as determining, comparing and operating with quantities.
Conceptual Subitizing and the Part-Part-Whole Relations of Numbers
According to Piaget´s (1997/1952) theory of the development of number, an understanding

of number requires a prior understanding of number conservations (the number of items are
the same regardless of how they are arranged), class inclusion (to simultaneously consider
the parts and the whole) and seriation (numbers in order). Furthermore, Piaget concluded that
the additive composition of number (e.g. 8=4+4 or 3+5) is an important aspect regarding the
understanding of relations between number. Additionally, Baroody (2006) has argued, in a
theoretical paper, that the understanding of the big ideas of composition and decomposition,
i.e. that a whole can be composed in different ways and with different parts and decomposed
into its constitute parts, make a foundation for mastering quantities and the basic numbers
1-10, in flexible ways. Baroody et al. (2006) have furthermore stated, in a hypothetical learning
trajectory model, saying that “composing and decomposing small, easily subitized collections
may be the basis for constructing an informal concept of addition (and subtraction)” (p.193).
Also, Clements (1999) has argued that conceptual subitizing activities provide a basis for
understanding addition since the addends and the sums are shown simultaneously, offering
the children different views of how numbers can be arranged. Furthermore, the ability to
conceptually subitize has been positively linked to children’s general number development such
as knowledge of cardinality (Butterworth, 2005), number conservation (MacDonald, 2015;
MacDonald et. al., 2015), number relationships (Jung et al., 2013; Sayers et al., 2016; Young-
Loveridge, 2002) and basic arithmetic skills (Baroody, 2006; Baroody et al., 2006; Özdem
& Olkun, 2019). Özdem and Olkun (2019) for example reported that the intervention group
(grade 2 and 3), that were engaged in conceptual subitizing activities improved their results on
a math test significantly more than the control group. In addition, the intervention group used
more sophisticated calculation strategies on a follow-up test compared to the control group.

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Similar positive relations between conceptual subitizing activities and children’s mathematical 1041
development have been reported by Sayers et al. (2016), MacDonald (2015) and MacDonald
et al. (2015). Sayers et al. (2016) found that conceptual subitizing activities supported the
children’s (N=2, grade 1) development of foundational number sense, whereas MacDonald
(2015) and MacDonald et al. (2015) found that subitizing activities (perceptual and conceptual)
supported 4-5 year-old children’s number conservation.
Research Problem and Research Focus
Despite research showing that subitizing is an important component in children´s early

mathematics development (Clements et al., 2019; Kroesbergen et al., 2009; Yun et al., 2011),
few empirical studies within the field of mathematics education have focused on this aspect.
Clements et al. (2019) claimed, based on synergized research on studies across education
and psychology, that subitizing is a “neglected quantifier in educational practice” (p.13).
Furthermore, few intervention studies have been conducted within the age group of 6-year-
old children, both in a Swedish and in a global educational context (Mononen et al., 2014;
Sterner et al., 2019). The aim of this research was therefore to empirically explore the role of
conceptual subitizing activities for enhancing preschool class children’s learning of the part-
part- whole relations of number.
The specific research questions were:
RQ 1: What knowledge regarding the part-part-whole relations of numbers did the children
develop?
RQ 2: What connections can be found between the children’s knowledge development and the
design of the conceptual subitizing activities?
This research is based on two assumptions. The first assumption is that subitizing and
counting make use of two different magnitude processing systems (Kaufman et al., 1949;
Mandler & Shebo, 1982) and that subitizing is a faster process for determining quantities than
counting (e.g. Schleifer & Landerl, 2011). The second assumption is that conceptual subitizing
abilities are closely linked to knowledge of the part-part-whole relations of number (Baroody et
al., 2006; Clements et al.,2019; Conderman et al.,2014; Piaget, 1997/1952).
General Background
A case study methodology (Yin, 2011) with a mixed-methods approach (J.W. Creswell
& J.D. Creswell, 2018) was used. Since the case of interest was on preschool class children’s
learning the study could be classified as a single case study, meaning that the case is a typical or
representative case (Yin, 2011). A mixed-methods approach was chosen due to that it involves
data collection and analysis that integrates both quantitative and qualitative data and it may
therefore provide a more complete understanding of the problem than either quantitative or
qualitative data alone can provide (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Figure 1 gives an overview of
the research design in which data collection and analysis are included. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie
(2004) emphasized that the benefit of bringing quantitative and qualitative data together is to
incorporate the strengths of both methodologies. In this way the study followed the suggestion
in Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) to incorporate the strengths of both methodologies. This
was especially important in this study since it focused both on children’s learning as well as on
the teaching. It was therefore relevant to gain knowledge of both the impact of the intervention
and on children’s knowledge of the part-part-whole relations of number on the group level as
well as on how the individual children responded to the intervention.

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1042 Figure 1
Overview of the Research Design
Sample
This study was conducted in January 2019 in one Swedish preschool class, which
consisted of 24 children and their two teachers. Data were only collected from 18 of the
children due to ethical considerations (see section Ethical Considerations). Both teachers were
legitimated for teaching in preschool class and their teaching experiences were 16 and 4 years,
respectively. The selection of the school can be described as a convenience sampling since
the principal and the teachers were interested in participating in the intervention (Cohen et al.,
2007). The school is situated in the south of Sweden in a small society with about 150 students
of which 48% of the children had a foreign background (the students were born abroad or born
in Sweden with both parents born abroad) (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2020).
Furthermore, only 54.2 % of the “third graders” at the school (N=26) reached the knowledge
requirement on a National test on numbers and their properties and the positioning system of
numbers in 2018/2019, compared to the national level of 86.3%.
Procedures
The intervention was conducted in collaboration with the two teachers, and it was
inspired by a lesson study model which is an iterative, collaborative process, where a lesson is
planned, analyzed, and revised by researchers and teachers (Holmqvist, 2017). In table 1, an
overview of the different phases of the study is presented. All 24 children participated in the
intervention-lessons during the 3-week study period since the mathematical content that was
taught in the intervention corresponded with the core content in the syllabus of mathematics in
preschool class (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2019). The children were engaged
in the activities in each lesson block (lesson block 1 and 2) for 2-3 days, in all 60-80 minutes
for each block. The teachers and researcher met about 2 hours per week, altogether 8 hours.
Before implementing the intervention, the children’s existing knowledge of the part-part-whole
relations of numbers (i.e. 5) were screened (Test 1). The test results, as well as the teachers’

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written notes from the observations of what strategies each individual child used during the test, 1043
were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Table 1
The Different Phases of the Study
Activities and data collection Participants Date

Defining the learning goal and planning of the Lesson Teachers and researcher 6/2/19
study
Test 1 (version 1) and observations Teachers 8/2/19
Collaborative analysis and planning lesson block 1 Teachers and researcher 8//2/19
Lesson block 1 Teachers 11-12/2
Collaborative analyzing and planning of lesson block 2 Teachers and researcher 13/2/19
Lesson block 2 Teachers 14-15/2, 25/2
Collaborative analysis Teachers and researcher 26/2/19
Teacher responses to questions Teachers 4/3/19
Based on children’s prior knowledge of the part-part-whole relations of number five,

the goal of lesson block 1 was determined. The goals and the activities used for supporting the
learning goal are described in table 2. An analysis of the children’s knowledge development as
well as what learning opportunities were offered in lesson block 1 was then conducted. Based
on the outcome, the learning goal and the activities in lesson block 2 were planned (Table 2).
In many of the activities, the different numerosity was briefly presented (2 seconds) and the
children were encouraged to directly determine the cardinal value without counting in ones.
The different strategies used for determining the numbers of quantities in a set were discussed
in the whole class setting. In order to let the children experience that smaller quantities (2-4),
regardless of representation and configurations, can be instantly recognized without counting in
ones, quantities of 2, 3 and 4 were used in the activities whereas the representations as well as
the configurations varied in the activities. Since the focus in lesson block 2 was on identifying
smaller subgroups, within the whole, only dots were used whereas the configurations varied. In
lesson block 2 quantities in the range between 4 to 7 were used, since the teachers thought that
most of the children would feel comfortable to handle quantities within this range.

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1044 Table 2
Activities in Lesson Block 1 and 2
Lesson block Activities

and goal
1 Discuss similarities and differences among dice patterns
Goal:
understand Play dice games where the children were asked to directly state the number of dots (without
that smaller counting); encourage the children to describe how they “knew” the number
quantities can
be recognized Application: subitizing dice
directly, without
counting Spread out cards with different numbers of dots and different dot patterns; ay a number (e.g., 2, 3 or
4) and let the children find all cards with the same number of dots
Application: subitizing flashcards with a maximum of 4 items
Show different objects (2 seconds) of 2, 3 or 4 in different patterns; encourage the children to directly
state the number of smaller quantities
Show different objects (2 seconds) with more than 2, 3 or 4 or less than 3 or 4; ask the children to
determine if they were greater or less than 2, 3 or 4; ask the children how they knew
2 Use 2 or 3 different colors to “build” quantities of 4–7, such as 2 red dots and 4 blue dots when
Goal: building 6; discuss different solutions for how to build 6
recognize
smaller Use the same color for the quantities of 4–7 dots; ask the children to describe which clusters they
subgroup perceive within the composite group
within a
composite Compose two different subgroups (with 2 different colors) and place them on 2 trays or plates; show
group, them briefly; ask which plate had the most or least dots; ask how the children know; repeat using the
showing an same colors on the dots
understanding
that quantities Application: subitizing flash cards
can be (de) Application: King of Math junior
composed in
different ways Organize 5 dots in 2 different ways; show them briefly; ask if they are the same number of dots
in different configurations; ask how the children know; ask which grouping was easy or hard to
perceive; use other quantities
Instruments
The test used for collecting data about children’s knowledge development was Number
Sets Test (NST) (Geary et al., 2009) which is a test that was developed by Geary and his
colleagues to identify children at-risk for developing mathematical learning difficulties (MLD).
In this study however, the test was not used for identifying children at risk for MLD but only
for assessing children’s abilities to directly recognize different non symbolic combinations that
added up to 5. The original test consists of four subtests; non-symbolic object sets or Arabic
numerals that add up to 5 or 9. During the test the child is supposed to decide if pairs or trios
(symbolic or non-symbolic) add up to 5 or 9 respectively, within 1 minute. Due to the time
limit the child must do so as fast and accurately as possible without making mistakes. The
test is constructed so the children are unlikely to be able to complete all tasks within a minute.
The non-symbolic stimuli (consisting of sets of dots, triangles or stars) are joined in domino-

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like rectangles, with varying numbers of objects and configurations. Both canonical and non- 1045
canonical patterns are used, to represent quantities between 2 and 9. In the present study only
the subtest to determine if pairs and trios of non-symbolic object sets add up to 5 was used. The
five first rows in the non-symbolic 5-test are pairs of objects (N = 30); the last two rows are trios
(N = 6) and 18 of the combinations add up to 5. 5 was chosen since the teachers believed that the
children had conceptual understanding of 5 and the quantities used in the activities were seven
and fewer. The quantitative summarized scores consisted of correct answers minus incorrect
answers. The children were instructed to circle all the groups that together added up to 5; they
were to work as fast as possible without making mistakes. The children worked individually
with the test and the time limit of 1 minute was controlled for with a digital clock. Before the
test was administrated, the children practiced by circling sets that added up to 3 and 4 (Figure
2).
Figure 2
Examples of Practice Items in the NST-test
Note. From “Early Conceptual Understanding of Cardinality Predicts Superior School-Entry Number System
Knowledge”, by Geary, D. et al., 2018, Psychological Science, 29(2), p.195. Reprinted with permission, 2019-
12-17.
Data were also collected by direct observations. The preschool class teachers observed
the children in the test situation and took field notes of what strategies the children used when
they did the test (i.e. determined which sets added up to 5). The approach used was according
to Robson and McCartan (2018) formal observations since the observer only attended to pre-
specified aspects. Some of the test situations were also video recorded by the teachers so that
the researcher and teachers could view them together in the analysis and planning phases.
After the intervention, the teachers got questions via e-mail; three open-ended questions
regarding the children’s learning and one attitude question about to what degree the children
wanted to participate in the activities. There were also some introductory questions regarding
age, gender, education, and professional experiences. The impersonal nature of the e-mail
questions (interviews) may help the respondent to say things they would not have done in
a face-to-face situation (Robson & McCartan, 2018) which is an important aspect when the
research is done in collaboration between the researcher and the respondents.

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1046 Data Collection
Data consisted of test results (Test 1, 2 and 3), teacher observation notes (direct
observations from test 1 and 3) and teacher responses on questions about the children’s learning.
One problem that arose regarding data collection was the difficulty in obtaining complete
datasets with results for all test and observation-situations: some children stayed home due to
illness or had to participate in other activities, such as mother-tongue teaching. Furthermore,
some of the written observations were unclear and ambiguous and thereby not reliable to include
in the analysis (see table 3). Due to missing data, the quantitative data consists of results from
12 of the children who participated in all three test situations whereas the qualitative analysis
was based on written teacher observations of 9 of these 12 children (A, D, E, F, G, H, I, K and
N). Table 3 provides an overview of the collected data from participants (coded with the letters
A-R). The items in the test were identical in all the tests (1-3), but differently ordered; version
1 and 2 (table 1).
Table 3
An Overview of the Data Collected; a Cross (x) Indicates Complete Data
whereas a Slash (/) Indicates Missing Data
Pre-test Post-test Observation Pre- Observation Observation

Kod Test 2
(Test 1) (Test 3) test (Test 1) Test 2 Post-test (Test 3)
A x x x x x x
B x x / x x /
C / x / / x /
D x x x x x x
E x x x x x x
F x x x x x x
G x x x x x x
H x x x x x x
I x x x x x x
J x x x x / /
K x x x x x x
L / x / / x /
M x x x x / /
N x x x x x x
O x x x x / /
P x / / x / /
Q x / x x / x
R x / / x / /
Analysis
The scores on the test, before and after the intervention, were calculated at the group
level. The knowledge development is described in percent units in table 5. The mean was also
calculated to identify the average score in the test. Since the mean can be quite heavily influenced
by extreme scores (Field, 2018) standard deviations were calculated as well. A qualitative

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analysis with a thematic coding approach, following the phases; familiarization, initial codes, 1047
identifying themes, constructing thematic networks and integration and interpretation (Robson
& McCartan, 2018) was used to analyze the teacher’s observation notes. The notes were
summarized in a table. The table provided an overview of the strategies used and thus facilitated
the analysis process. The notes were read repeatedly, and key words were highlighted. A
deductive approach, based on the assumption that subitizing and counting make use of two
different magnitude processing systems (Kaufman et al., 1949; Mandler & Shebo, 1982) were
initially used in the coding process. In the next step an inductive coding analysis, where the
codes and themes emerged from the data, were conducted. The codes were then sorted into
five different categories, showing different strategies used by the children when determining
what pairs or trios add up to 5. The categories are described in hierarchical order, reflecting
qualitatively different conceptual subitizing abilities and by that knowledge of the part-part-
whole relations of number, based on the assumption that conceptual subitizing abilities are
closely linked to knowledge of the part-part-whole relations of numbers (Baroody et al., 2006;
Clements et al.,2019; Conderman et al., 2014; Piaget, (1997/1952).
Ethical Considerations
The study was guided by ethical principles described by the Swedish Research Council
(Swedish Research Council, 2017). The author obtained written informed agreement on
collecting data from 18 of the children’s parents meaning that no data was collected from the six
children for whom an agreement was not provided. Furthermore, the participants' names were
replaced with codes to avoid identification. Some of the test- situations were video recorded (see
reason in section observations) however, in line with the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) (SFS 2018:218), the video recordings were not stored by the researcher and to avoid
unnecessary exposure of the children, only their hands were recorded.
Research Results
Children’s Knowledge Development
Descriptive statistics regarding children’s knowledge development on a group level are

shown in tables 4 and 5. Thereafter the individual child’s knowledge development is shown in
figure 3 and in tables 6 and 7. An increase was evident in the mean values (M) (Table 4) among
the three tests (Test 1, Test 2 and Test 3). The standard deviation (SD) value also increased
between tests 1 and 3), indicating that the children’s understanding of the part-part-whole
relations of numbers differed more after the intervention than beforehand (Table 4).
Table 4
Measures of Central Tendency with NST Scores with Tests 1, 2, and 3
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
M 6.9 9.8 10.2
SD 3.5 4.3 4.4

Note. The results are rounded to one decimal place.

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1048 The children’s knowledge development between test 1 and test 3 increased with 18.1
percent units (Table 5).
Table 5
Children’s Knowledge Development (%)
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Increase percentage

(max 216) (max 216) (max 216) points
T1–T2 83 points (38.4%) 117 points (54.2%) 15.8

T2–T3 117 points 122 points 2.3
(54.2%) (56.5%)
T1–T3 18.1
Figure 3 presents the children’s individual scores on test 1, 2 and 3. Most of the children
(9 out of 12) had increased scores in test 2 compared with test 1. The scores between test 2 and
3 varied. Five of the children had increased scores between tests 2 and 3, whereas three children
had the same scores.
Figure 3
Test Scores
The increased scores between T1 and T2 may indicate that the children used the faster
subitizing magnitude process when they determined which pairs or trios added up to five. The
more modest increase of scores between T2 and T3 indicated that their conceptual subitizing
competencies only to some extent were further supported in lesson block 2. However, the
increased scores between the pre-and post-test suggest that the children used conceptual
subitizing to a greater extent for determining quantities after the intervention than they did
before. The qualitatively analysis of the children’s pre-knowledge resulted in five qualitatively
different categories of knowledge regarding the part-part-whole relations of five (Table 6).

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Table 6 1049
Qualitatively Different Ways of Determining what Subgroups Add up to Five
Categories Strategies
V. Shows knowledge that 5 can be composed of different

Directly circle all combinations that add up to 5 (5+0, 4+1,
pairs and trios.
3+2, 2+2+1)
Directly circle all pairs that add up to 5 (5+0, 4+1, 3+2,

VI. Shows knowledge that 5 can be composed of pairs.
2+2+1)
Directly circle one or two of the combinations that add up

III. Shows initial knowledge that 5 can be composed of
to 5 (e.g., 4+1 and 5+0)
subgroups.
II. Recognizes that the quantities are many more than

Count all the individual dots in a set, except quantities of
5, however do not show knowledge that five can be
7, 8, or 9 dots
composed of smaller subgroups.
I. Do not show knowledge that 5 can be composed of Count all the individual dots, without paying attention to
smaller subgroups. Discern quantities as lots of ones. the whole.
The individual child’s knowledge development during the intervention regarding the
part-part-whole relations of five, based on qualitative analysis of observational field notes from
test 1 and test 3 is shown in table 7.
Table 7
The Child’s Knowledge Development Regarding the Part-Part-Whole Relations of 5
Child → A D E F G H I K N
Category
T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3 T1 T3
↓
V. x x x x
IV. x x x x x
III. x x x
II. x x x x x
I. x
Note. Description of the categories (V to I) appears in table 6.
The qualitative analysis showed that four of the children (F, G, I and N) did not develop
their knowledge of part-part-whole relations of numbers during the intervention. It should
however be noted that child I showed knowledge at the highest level even before the intervention
(T1). The qualitative analysis further revealed neither F, nor G understood that quantities can
be structured and grouped as a unit. However, they both changed their strategies. In test 1, F
counted all the dots except dominos that were many more than 5. In test 2, F instead represented
the dots with his/her fingers and then counted the fingers whereas F neither pointed nor used

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1050 the fingers when determining 5 in test 3. However, the decrease in score between tests 1 and
3 may suggest that F still counted the dots separately, but instead of pointing at the individual
dots, counted by nodding the head or by counting the individual dots with the eyes. G changed
the strategy in a similar way: owing to the decrease in the score, this was interpreted similarly
to that observed for child F. Children A, D, E, H, and K all developed their understanding.
Both A and H for example circled all pairs that added up to 5 in test 1 (IV); however, in test 3,
they also circled trios (V) In test 1, D recognized only the 5+0 (dice 5+0) combinations (III),
whereas D distinguished all pairs that added up to 5 in test 3 (IV). E counted every dot in test 1
(I), whereas he/she circled all the 5+0 and 3+2 combinations in test 3 (III). In test 1, K did not
count quantities that were many more than 5 (II). But in test 3, K circled 4+1 and 3+2 (though
no 5+0 combinations) and one of the trios (III).
Connections between Teaching and Learning
The increased scores between T1and T2 suggest that the activities in lesson block 1
stimulated the children to discern that smaller quantities (2-4) can be directly recognized
without using counting strategies. This strategy was beneficial when the children were to
determine, as fast as possible, what pairs or trios add up to five. In lesson block 1 different
sets of quantities (2, 3 and 4) were contrasted which probably made it possible for them to
separate these quantities from each other. Furthermore, the use of different objects may have
facilitated the children to discern that quantities of 2, 3 and 4 are the same regardless of objects
or configurations. However, the low increase of scores between test 2 and 3 indicate that the
activities only to a limited extent supported the children’s knowledge development regarding
the part-part-whole relations of number five. This may be due to that the number of objects
(dots) in the activities varied a lot (between 4 to 7), which may have made it difficult for
them specifically discern how five can be composed and decomposed. The teachers’ answers
showed that the teachers regarded the intervention beneficial for the children’s knowledge
development regarding part-part-whole relations of numbers—especially among children that
performed on a “middle” level in mathematics. Both teachers considered activities where the
children described and discussed different ways of structuring and grouping quantities the most
beneficial. Both teachers answered that the children liked the activities in the lessons.
Discussion
Despite that perceptual subitizing is an innate ability (e.g. Starkey et. al., 1990), many of
the children did not spontaneously subitize smaller quantities. However, due to the assumption
that conceptual subitizing abilities build upon perceptual subitizing abilities (Baroody et al.,2006;
Clements et al., 2019) it is an important ability to build upon when teaching mathematics in
the early years. However, the increased scores between pre-and posttest, indicate that the
children used the faster subitizing magnitude process (Mandler & Shebo, 1982; Schleifer &
Landerl, 2019), suggesting that the conceptual subitizing activities made it possible for them to
discern that quantities (2-4) can be directly recognized. It was evident that many of the children
stopped counting in ones and instead subitized quantities of 1-3 objects. One interpretation
of why they changed strategy when determining quantities could be that some of the children
believed that they had to count all the dots, one at a time. Therefore, it seems to be important
to engage the children in activities that stimulate them to directly determine smaller sets of 2-4
objects. Furthermore, the results shed light on the importance of paying attention to children’s
understanding of number and quantity already in preschool (Aunola et al., 2004; Baroody et
al., 2006). The results of this research with preschool class children is consistent with previous
research with “first graders” (Sayers et al., 2016), 4-5 year-old children ((MacDonald, 2015;

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MacDonald et al., 2015) and “second-and third graders” (Özdem & Olkun, 2019), showing that 1051
conceptual subitizing activities support children’s learning of the part-part-whole relations of
number (Baroody et al., 2006; Clements, 1999; Conderman et al., 2014). Conceptual subitizing
activities provide the children with a ground for understanding that quantities can be (de)
composed in different ways which in turn serve as a foundation for “constructing an informal
concept of addition (and subtraction)” (Baroody et al., 2006, p.193). The benefits of synthesizing
quantitative and qualitative analyses discussed previously (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Johnson
& Onwuegbuzie, 2004) were evident in the present study. The children’s quantitative scores on
a test increased at the group level—even though not all the children increased their scores.
The analysis of the qualitative data revealed that more than half the children (five out of nine)
developed their knowledge of the part-part-whole relations of number (i.e. 5). However, two of
the children showed no knowledge that five can be composed of smaller subgroups. If the data
only had been analyzed quantitative, at the group level, individual children who experienced
difficulties would have been missed, which according to Morgan et al., (2009) is alarming
since children who experienced difficulties in mathematics in Kindergarten often showed low
mathematics skill growth throughout elementary school.
The aim of this study was to explore the role of conceptual subitizing activities for
enhancing preschool class children’s learning of the part-part- whole relations of numbers.
The research questions to be answered were: what knowledge regarding the part-part-whole
relations of numbers did the children develop, and connections found between the children’s
knowledge development and the design of the conceptual subitizing activities. The results
showed that conceptual subitizing activities supported children’s knowledge development
regarding part-part-whole relations of number. The quantitative analysis showed that the
children increased their scores between pre-and post-test and more than half of the children
showed conceptual subitizing abilities in a qualitatively more developed way after having
participated in the intervention. According to the teachers, activities, whereby the children were
stimulated to organize and structure quantities in smaller identifiable subgroups supported the
children’s knowledge development regarding part-part-whole relations of numbers. There are
still some questions to be answered, and by that suggestions for further research. Since the
results elucidated that not all children improved their understanding of the part-part -whole
relations of number, future research should consider individual differences when developing
and carrying out interventions to support the individual child’s development, based on his/her
needs.
Limitations
The findings of this study provide knowledge of how to support 6-year-old children’s
number knowledge development. However, the results may not be generalized owing to the
small sample and due to the lack of comparison or control groups. Further, it was not clear how
representative the present sample was; hence, the risk of selection bias and sampling errors
was high (Bryman, 2011). In respect of the Hawthorne effect (McCambridge et al., 2014) the
children may have changed their behavior in the test due to the received attention rather than
because of the teaching activities. The validity of the results is though strengthened by the
qualitative and quantitative results having consistently indicated a developed knowledge of
the part-part-whole relations of number (five) for most of the children. That point was also
confirmed by the teachers’ experiences. Owing to the small number of participants it was
however possible to explore the individual child’s knowledge development regarding part-

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1052 part-whole relations of five during the intervention thoroughly. The qualitative analysis was
mainly based on direct observations. More frequent, systematic use of video recordings would
have allowed more detailed analyses—even beyond the intervention period. To obtain in-depth
knowledge of how children perceive quantities, interviews in which the children describe their
strategies in conjunction with eye-tracking data on eye-movement patterns would be beneficial.
Acknowledgements
The research is part of the Swedish national Research School of Special Education for
Teacher Educators (SET), funded by the Swedish Research Council (grant no. 2017-06039).
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Received: June 26, 2020 Accepted: November 20, 2020
Cite as: Wӓsterlid, C. A. (2020). Conceptual subitizing and preschool class children’s learning
of the part-part-whole relations of number. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6),
1038-1054. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.1038
Catarina Anna Wästerlid PhD Student at Malmö University, Sweden.

Lecturer, Kristianstad University, Algvägen 4, 281 46 Tormestorp, Sweden.
E-mail: catarina.wasterlid@hkr.se

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Focus the discussion to the two important questions: What is already known about your topic?
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This part is not a summary. Bring out the significance of your research. Show how you’ve brought
closure to the research problem, and point out remaining gaps in knowledge by suggesting issues
for further research. The main research outcome should be clearly seen.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 78, No. 6, 2020
References 1057
The title „References“ must be used. APA style for writing references in the text and in the reference
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and years in the text and those on the list. All the references should be listed in alphabeti¬cal order
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For the sake of accuracy, references should always be as updated as possible, also in the interest of
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Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APAstyle will be returned without review.
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if the manuscript is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF LANGUAGE (all
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Note 5: All papers are checked by CrossCheck system.
Editorial Board
Updated: July 2018
Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/

Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
Vol. 78, No. 6, 2020
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
English language proofreader Ilona Ratkevičienė
10 December 2020. Publishing in Quires 11.375. Edition 80.
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 78, No.

Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd.

Phone: +370 687 95668

THE ROLE OF COMPLEXITY IN TEACHING

DISTANCE EDUCATION DURING COVID-19: THE PERSPECTIVE

ABILITY TO FOSTER SCHOOLCHILDREN’S ECOLOGICAL LITERACY AS A RESULT

PERCEPTIONS OF TODAY’S YOUNG GENERATION ABOUT

ANALYSIS OF PRE-SERVICE FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS’ INCORRECT

DEVELOPING CHARACTER EDUCATION THROUGH ACADEMIC CULTURE

EXAMINATION OF PRE-SCHOOL STUDENTS’ SELF-REGULATION SKILLS

PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PRIOR EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR ACTUAL

UNDERGRADUATE ECONOMICS CURRICULUM AND EMPLOYABILITY

MONITORING OF FACULTIES AND DEPARTMENTS RESEARCH ACTIVITY

INFLUENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

880 CONCEPTUAL SUBITIZING AND PRESCHOOL CLASS CHILDREN’S LEARNING

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 1055

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

THE ROLE OF COMPLEXITY IN TEACHING 881

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.881

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.881 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Received: November 22, 2020 Accepted: December 02, 2020

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As coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19) has begun to spread around the

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Research Problem 885

The research focused on experience, perception and management of distance education.

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Research Aim and Research Questions

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Instrument and Procedures

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

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890 Data Analysis

To examine potential differences between primary school and upper-secondary school

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

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Phone Smartphone PC Tablet Internet

P U-S P U-S P U-S P U-S P U-S

Changes in Teaching Management

Primary school Upper-secondary school

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Teaching During the Pandemic Period, Teaching Experience, 893

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Negative emotions related to

N of com_channels -.019 .070 -.082 .031 -.029 -.003 -.029

Hours of DT .046 .125* -.086 .169** .035 .066 .085

Hours of preparation .102 .073 -.032 .111 .100 .080 .146*

Subjective satisfaction .054 -.105 .006 .039 -.015 -.057 -.058

Expectations .131* -.155** .089 -.111 -.197** -.147* -.094

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Negative emotions related to

N of com_channels-during .161 -.130 -.037 -.103 .126 .101 .177

Hours of DT .270* -.048 -.030 .147 .112 -.009 .179

Hours of preparation .016 .170 .001 .191 .162 -.140 .169

Subjective satisfaction -.066 -.143 .109 -.252* -.012 -.014 .024

Expectations -.150 .021 .080 -.036 .121 -.009 .033

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884

In the group of upper-secondary school teachers (Table 5b), extraversion, agreeableness,

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

N of com_channels-during .215 .109 -.223 -.106 .075

Hours of DT .343** .384** .174 -.233* .283*

Expectations .131* -.155 .089 -.111 -.197 -.147* -.094

Hours of DT .343 .384 .174 -.233* .283*