Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 74, 2016

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 74, 2016
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

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Editor-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Šiauliai University & SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr. Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Harun Yilmaz, Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czechia
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, National University of Water Management and Nature Resources Use,
Ukraine, Ukraine
Dr., Raffaele Pisano, Lille 3 University, France
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, National Institute for Research and Development in Informatics - ICI Bucur-
esti, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal, is-
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ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“ & Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2016
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 74, 2016
Contents 3
Editorial
PISA RESULTS OR X-RAY FILMS OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS?

Feyzi Osman Pekel ..................................................................................................... 4
Articles
SAUDI TEACHERS’ PRACTICES OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: A QUALITATIVE STUDY

Saeed Almuntasheri ................................................................................................... 6
DESIGN OF DIDACTIC MATERIAL FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING SITUATIONS:

THE CASE OF SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE, AFRICA
Rita Maria de Souza Couto, Roberta G. R. Portas, Flavia Nizia F. Ribeiro,
Maria A. C. Mamede-Neves ..........................................................................................16
EXAMINING FACTORS AFFECTING IMPLEMENTATION OF INQUIRY-BASED

LEARNING IN FINLAND AND SOUTH KOREA
Jingoo Kang, Tuula Keinonen ........................................................................................ 34
IMPACT EVALUATION OF TWO MASTER COURSES ATTENDED BY TEACHERS:

AN EXPLORATORY RESEARCH IN ANGOLA
Betina Silva Lopes, Nilza Costa, Bernardo Filipe Matias ......................................................... 49
TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVE ABOUT FACTORS THAT PREVENT SUCCESS IN TEACHING

AND LEARNING PROCESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION OF ENGINEERING IN BRAZIL
Gláucia Nolasco de Almeida Mello .................................................................................. 61
MAKING DECISIONS ABOUT BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION: A STUDY IN

PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION
Camila S. Miani, Ana M. A. Caldeira, Fernanda R. Brando ...................................................... 71
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 79
QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY .......................................... 81
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ................................................ 82
2nd INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION (BalticSTE2017) .................................................................................. 83
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4
PISA RESULTS OR X-RAY FILMS OF
EDUCATION SYSTEMS?
Feyzi Osman Pekel
Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey
E-mail: osmanpekel@gmail.com
To be able to develop well-equipped students in accordance with the expectations of

the society is one of the objectives of every education system in every country. In this sense,
monitoring student performance comparatively at international level, assessing students and
schools characteristics is crucially important in order to structuring individuals’ future lives.
Determining student performances in different subject areas is a way for the countries examining
the performance of their education systems (Anagün, 2011). Results of these assessments and
evaluations enable steering the educational policy by diagnosing/revising the failures of the
system.
Accordingly, on 6th December 2016, OECD released the results of its 2015 global
rankings on student performance in mathematics, reading, and science, on the Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA). It is reported that approximately 540,000 students
completed the assessment in mathematics, science, reading literacies, representing about 29
million 15-year-olds in the schools of the 72 participating countries and economies (Pisa, 2016).
The target of PISA assessments is to find out which countries’ education models are
more effective rather than to rank the countries according to their PISA scores. Of course there
are some objections about the validness and confidence or statistical calculations of the PISA
exam too. One of them is “some of the passages for science and math questions are so long and
discursive that they obviously measure reading skills as well” (Bracey, 2009). If such objections
ignored, the results of PISA include prognostic signals that provide valuable information
regarding the nature, structure, composition and functions of curriculum and thereby education
policy of every participated country.
Even if the released data may not apply to our school, as suggested by Steadman
(1995), as educators and citizens we should answer those questions: How well are our students
having our curricular achievements? Can our students demonstrate high levels of general
knowledge as well as sustained real-life problem-solving? Do they have a sense of ethics, civic
activism, and social responsibility?
More importantly, can we argue that we graduated citizens who have enough democracy
culture/education? If our answer is positive, how should we interpret the relationship between
a failed coup (e.g. on the case of failed coup in Turkey on 15th of June 2016) and the quality
of democracy achievements in our schools? Can a coup attempt be acceptable for a country
who argues to have citizens having high level democracy literacy? We are, after all, preparing
students to participate in a developed and democratic society, so reforms should become not
only for a mere quest for higher test scores but also for a more democratic and liberal society.
After reading the news about ongoing massacres (e.g. in Syria), watching dramatic
poverty stories in different countries, hundreds of people drown every day in a rush of
immigrants in White Sea, as educators, can we say our graduated students to have enough
level of humanitarian values? Or how can we guarantee our graduates to acquire desired level
of behaviors such as honesty, mercy, justice, equity for all the people of the world? Which is a
desired achievement for our curriculum; a student who can just describe what the honesty is,
or another student who always behaves honestly to all the people? Moreover, how we should
assess such behavioral achievements level of our students is another problem of today.
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It is known that a good curriculum includes information, aims, values, skills and activities 5
which develop the personality of the students and turn them into aware citizens. Aims and
values which are the crucial components of curriculum, and if they are valued, if they are
desired, they should induce the learner to increase his/her motivation necessary to accomplish
them. A good curriculum is also a combination of such opportunities which enable the students
to bring about positive behavioral changes in their personality. A good curriculum is a regular
and formal program which is formulated for the realization of the objectives of education.
It should not be forgotten that “A good product requires a good process”. If there is
something wrong about the quality of student achievements then the general education policy
and curriculum should be scrutinized carefully. This may be the only way of getting the goals
of education. Because education policy and curriculum are channels transferring students to
their destinies.
PISA reports contain the nations' average score, rank, and proportion of students reaching
various levels of achievement. But virtually all the media and political attention goes to the
average scores and ranks (Bracey 2009). Instead of such a misguiding and unavailing effort,
we must join our desire to compete with other nations with a willingness to learn from them
(Munson, 2011). Based upon this fact, hermeneutical and interpretative emphasis is strongly
needed (Klette, 2007) about the PISA results. At the local level, concerned educators, politicians
and members of the society should determine (Steadman, 1995) and discuss how extensively
schools need to be reformed and in which directions to take them.
References
Anagün, Ş. S. (2011). The impact of teaching-learning process variables to the students’ scientific literacy
levels based on PISA 2006 Results. Education and Science, 36 (162), 84-102.
Bracey, G. (2009). The Big Tests: What ends do they serve? Educational Leadership, 67 (3), 32-37.
Klette, K. (2007). Trends in research on teaching and learning in schools: Didactics meets classroom
studies. European Educational Research Journal, 6 (2), 147-160.
Munson, L. (2011). What students really need to learn? Educational Leadership, 68 (6), 10-14.
PISA 2015 Results in Focus (PDF) (2016). OECD. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-
results-in-focus.pdf retrieved 14 December 2016.
Steadman, L. C. (1995). The new mythology about the status of U.S. schools. Educational Leadership,
52 (5), 80-85
Received: November 25, 2016 Accepted: December 19, 2016
Feyzi Osman Pekel PhD., Assistant Professor, Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Education,
Isparta, Turkey.
E-mail: osmanpekel@gmail.com
Website: http://w3.sdu.edu.tr/personel/05623/yrd-doc-dr-feyzi-osman-pekel
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6
SAUDI TEACHERS’ PRACTICES
OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: A
QUALITATIVE STUDY
Saeed Almuntasheri
Albaha University, Albaha, Saudi Arabia
E-mail: sas_1396@hotmail.com
Abstract
Shifting from teacher-centred to student-centred practices requires teachers to understand strategies to

interact with students in science classes. Formative assessment strategies are very critical component
of classroom interaction where teachers obtain information about student learning wherever possible.
Traditionally, however, teachers ask questions and evaluate student responses but without investigating
student contributions to the classroom interaction. This qualitative study aimed at developing teachers’
knowledge of formative assessment strategies when teaching science-based inquiry in Saudi Arabia.
12 teachers were observed when teaching science and details of one teachers’ practices of formative
assessment is presented in this study. Formative assessment framework that describes assessment
conversations is used and modified to observe teachers’ assessment practices. Assessment conversation
consists of four-step cycles, where the teacher elicits information from students through questioning, the
student responds, the teacher recognizes the student’s response, and then uses the information to develop
further inquiry. Findings indicate that teachers ask questions and receive responses but rarely allow
students to share their own ideas or discuss their own thinking. The study underlines the importance
of integrating formative assessment strategies during scientific inquiry teaching for professional
development as a way to increase student participation and allow opportunities for students’ inquiry in
science classes.
Key words: assessment conversations, formative assessment, science inquiry.
Introduction

Effective implementation of formative assessment plays an integral role in initiating
and continuously modifying scientific inquiry teaching practices. Previous research suggested
by evidence the effectiveness of teachers’ roles on formative assessment in normal classroom
work (Black & Wiliam, 2009; Black, 2003; Wiliam, 2000). It is argued that when teachers are
able to use assessment strategies such as their use of questioning and the ways they respond to
their students’ thinking, they could develop effective assessment practices in science classes
(Gitomer & Duschl, 1997; Black & Wiliam 1998). Black (2013) theorised that assessment
for learning can be informal through quality questioning and is often formative in nature. For
example, teachers can use questioning strategies to explore students’ prior knowledge and make
students’ thinking explicit to the whole class, and other learning tasks that elicit evidence of
student understanding ( Black,2013; Ruiz-primo & Furtak,2006).
Teachers’ insufficient understanding of student-centred teaching strategies in science
classes can, however, impact on their implementation of formative assessment strategies when
teaching science based inquiry. Most researchers (Osborne, Erduran & Simon (2004); Resnick,
Michaels & O’Connor (2010); Scott, 1998; Wolfe & Alexander, 2008) have argued that the
way in which the teachers interact with their students in inquiry-based, instructional settings
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is still a major challenge. In the Saudi Arabian context, for example, the teachers are already 7
challenged by the existing forms of authority and control in their science classes thus leading
to a minimization of opportunities for their students’ engagement and to a reduction in those
dialogic interactions, which are essential for inquiry instruction. This enactment of inquiry-
science is often further constrained by the Saudi students’ expectations that, as Roehig and Luft
(2004) noted, their teachers will provide them with the correct answers.
Furtak (2006) found that in the guided scientific inquiry classrooms, middle school
teachers experienced difficulties to manage their student request for the right answers despite
their teaching experience, discipline background or professional training. Furtak (2006)
suggested that teachers needed to learn strategies that could support them to withhold the right
answers and encourage further students’ inquiry.
Roehrig and Luft (2004) also reported the teachers’ frequent difficulties whilst trying
to attain the form of teacher authority and control that is required by inquiry instruction. They
also indicated how the group of teachers, who most often fell into the traditional practices,
expressed the need for the students to know the right answer. They all viewed science as a body
of knowledge and they did not stop to consider how scientists came to know the supporting
evidence for this body of knowledge in the first place. Implications from this body of research
are that science teachers have been challenged in their efforts to enact dialogic teaching in their
classrooms.
Ruiz-Primo and Furtak (2006) developed a model for teachers with focus on how to
enact formative assessment strategies when teaching science based inquiry instruction. The
ESRU (Elicitation, Student responses, Recognising, Using). model suggested strategies that
may support teachers to go beyond the traditional IRE (Initiation-Response-Evaluation) pattern
of discourse (Mehan, 1979). In this model the elicitation phase (E) suggested that the questions
posed should be critical to the students’ current understanding as previously highlighted by
Black (2003). A common issue that is associated with the elicitation phase in traditional classes,
when initiating a topic, is that many teachers discuss the concept and then ask students to recall
what have been presented to them (van Zee et al., 2001).
The (S) phase in the ESRU model indicates a student response that represents student
thinking so as can facilitate teacher’s subsequent decision making. The recognising phase (R)
represents the teacher’s strategies when responding to the students’ initially presented ideas.
These strategies suggested different ways in which teachers can value student contributions
to the classroom discussion. In the using phase (U), of the teacher’s strategies the teacher
uses information that is being collected about students’ thinking which may support teacher’s
actions to move learners toward their learning goals. Oliveira (2010) also discovered that, by
the teachers learning specific strategies that would elicit a student’s prior knowledge and would
acknowledge their contributions, they can change their ways of conversing in inquiry-based
contexts. In so doing, teachers would become aware of their authority, thus allowing more
opportunities for their students to have better inquiry-experiences.
The results from these studies are encouraging and important and certainly need to be
explored in the Saudi Arabian context in which the traditional approach to teaching science
remains predominant. Thus, this study aimed at exploring the problems associated with Saudi
teachers’ practices of formative assessment strategies by following their ways of eliciting and
responding to their students’ ideas in science classes. By understanding teachers’ practices of
formative assessment and identifying their strategies when interacting with their students, this
study is expected to help teachers to be aware of their practices and support them to think about
strategies that engage the students in dialogic interactions where their ideas and contributions
will be valued.
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8 Methodology of Research
General Background of Research and Sample Selection
This qualitative study explored primary Saudi teacher practices of formative assessment.
Primary science teachers in southern region were invited to participate in a professional
learning course. This course aims at supporting Saudi teachers to enact a formative assessment
strategies when teaching science using the 5Es (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and
Evaluate) guided inquiry approach (Bybee, 2009). They recently introduced to new Saudi
National curriculum requesting them to teach the 5Es guided model. Before their participations
12 six grade science teachers voluntarily agreed to observe their science classes. The parents
of the students drawn from these teachers’ classes were contacted and consent forms were also
obtained prior to their participations. All of these teachers participated in previous professional
development programs but did not include the integration of formative assessment strategies
in scientific inquiry teaching. In this qualitative study, the intent was not to generalize about a
population, but to develop an in-depth exploration of a central phenomenon (Creswell, 2012).
Instrument and Procedures
Both an audio-recorder and field notes were used to capture the teacher-student interactions
and the teachers use of assessment strategies, wherein the teacher elicits, recognizes and uses
student responses, as stipulated by Furtak and Ruiz-Primo, (2006). These strategies were
modified to suit the formative assessment strategies used by Saudi teachers. This was based
on the lengths of the observed conversation-cycles (see Table 1). For example, a teacher might
have asked questions that generated only a response and then moved on to another student,
or continued on lecturing. In this case, the strategy was classified as only belonging to the
elicitation phase (E).
These strategies can also be classified in the recognition phase (R). In this case, the
conversation cycle required the teacher to pose a question and, then, to react after receiving
a response. Opportunities were, thus, presented to classify strategies at the elicitation (E) and
at the recognition (R) phases. In the third phase, when a teacher followed the reaction to a
response by an action that used responses to develop more dialogic teaching, the questioning
strategies were identified and coded as a complete ESRU cycle of the three phases, elicitation
(E), recognizing (R), and using (U).
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Table 1. Classroom observation form. 9
ESRU cycles and Elicita- Student

strategies Recognition Using
tion Response Strategies used
(R) (U)
Conversations (E) (S)
Formative assessment strategies of

Incomplete ES the elicitation phase were observed for
√ √
cycle this ES cycle (for example, asking for
recalling previously discussed ideas).
Strategies of elicitation and recognition

Incomplete ESR phases were observed for this ESR cy-
√ √ √
cycle cle (recognising by clarifications after
receiving an initial response)
Strategies of elicitation, recognition and

Complete ESRU using were observed for this completed
√ √ √ √
cycle ESRU cycle (promoting the following
response by a why question).
Data Analysis
The approach for analysing assessment conversations was adapted from the method
proposed by Ruiz-Primo & Furtak (2006) .This approach called ESRU and was used to code
the teacher-student interaction in which the teacher asks a question to elicit a student response
(E); the student responded (S); the teacher recognized the student’s response (R); and the
teacher used the information collected to support the students’ learning. In this study, the ESRU
model was modified considering the context of the lecture teaching approach established by
the participant teachers. As a result, some strategies were codded different to that suggested
by Ruiz-Primo & Furtak (2006) . For example, a potential difficulty arose when trying to code
the strategy for the elicitation phase. With some questions in the elicitation phase that asked
with an evaluative purpose the elicitation strategy coded as check recall of facts (Oliveira,
2010; Kearsley, 1976). These questions requested students to explain their thought based on
what the teacher already conveyed to them in the lecture asking questions that can display their
knowledge of the right answers. The elicitation phase thus coded as E (evaluative).
Results of Research
Table 2 shows an example of one of the teacher’s strategies and use of formative
assessments when interacting with his students. Khalid’s strategies appeared to be designed
to help his students’ understanding of scientific concepts and relationships after they had been
introduced to a critical mass of facts. The following table 2 provides an overview of a selection
of those transcripts that best explained formative assessment strategies used by Khalid.
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10 Table 2. A selection of teacher-student interactions.
Questioning
Line Speaker Questions Types Strategies used
cycles
Now, how do you explain the Checks recall of
1 T Explanation E (evaluative)
occurrence of day and night? facts.
Because of the earth and the
2 S1 S
sun.
Clarifies and elabo-
3 T What happens to them? Interpretation R
rates.
4 S1 They rotate. S
Clarifies and elabo-
rates. R
5 T How? Interpretation Promotes thinking
with a ‘how’ ques- U
tion.
The sun rotates around the
6 S1 S
earth.
7 T Do you mean the opposite? Confirmation Asks for ‘yes/no’. R
8 S1 Yes. The earth… S
How long does it take the earth
Checks recall of
9 T to complete one rotation around Explanation E (evaluative)
facts.
its axis?
10 S2 Day and night. S
Information Clarifies and elabo-
11 T But, how many hours? R
retrieval rates.
12 S2 12 hours. S
Is this the length of the day and
13 T Confirmation Asks for ‘yes/no’. R
the night?
14 S2 Oh, no, it’s 24 hours. S
What causes the seasonal Checks recall of
15 T Reason E (evaluative)
changes? facts.
Different sunlight at different
16 S3 S
places on the earth.
This is all because the earth’s Answers his own
17 T R
axis is tilted by almost 23.5° question.
What happens to the earth as Checks recall of
19 T Interpretation E(evaluative)
we discussed? facts.
20 S2 It is much closer to some part. S
Do you mean some part of the

21 T Confirmation Asks for ‘yes/no’. R
earth is closer to the sun?
22 S2 Yes. S
Checks recall of
31 T How do lunar eclipses occur? Reason E
facts.
32 S6 The earth’s shadow S
Yes. The earth blocks the sun-
light and causes a shadow on
the moon. It is not dangerous to Answers his own
33 T R
look at a lunar eclipse because question.
there is no light coming from
the moon.
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When the earth’s shadow totally Answers his own 11

hides the moon, we call this a question.
‘total lunar eclipse’, because Concept com-
34 T E (evaluative)
we cannot see the moon. pletion ‘Fills in the blank’
What about if part of the moon answers.
receives sunlight?
35 S6 I think we will see this part. S
Here we call this a “partial lunar Answers his own
36 T R
eclipse”. question.
As shown in Table 2 the common formative assessment strategies can be classified into
some groups.
Elicitation strategies with evaluative functions
In the previous table 1, the questions used to initiate each assessment conversation
can be differentiated on the basis of the information requested, but the strategies clarified the
purpose of the assessment, which was to ‘check on the recall of facts’. In line 1, for example,
Khaild asked an explanatory type of question to elicit the first responses from the students. The
strategy that was used shows that Khaled asked this question to review an answer that had been
given in a prior discussion. This elicitation question was, thus, considered to be evaluative E
(evaluative).
Some of the elicitation questions appeared to be open-ended; these were, however,
only used to encourage the students to guess the answer that the teacher was expecting.
These questions were asked to initiate the discussion, and ranged from simply retrieving the
information as in asking – “How long does it take the earth to complete one rotation around its
axis?’, to asking the students to explain as at line 15 – “How do lunar eclipses occur?” and, also,
to asking them to provide their reasons as at line 31 – “What causes the seasonal changes?”.
Khalid also requested that the students should make a comparison between things as in “What
are the differences between the phases of the moon?”
Recognizing and using strategies that directed the students’ responses to the right answers
After receiving the initial answers in each conversation, Khalid then engaged with some
of the students to interpret their responses. His strategies, which were used to recognize and
to use the students’ responses seemed, however, to only direct the students to the right answers
that had been previously given in the lecture. These strategies are listed below:
1) Asking for ‘yes/no’ answers as in conversation 1 at line 7 –“Do you mean the
opposite?” and in conversation 2 at line 13 – “Is this the length of the day and of the night?”
These strategies and questions required the students to confirm whether or not they were in
agreement with an idea; this is known as a ‘confirmation-check type’ of question as suggested
by Oliveira (2010).
When answering his own questions as at line 17 – “This is all because the earth’s axis
is tilted by almost 23.5°” and, rather than continuing with the questioning process, Khalid then
tended to, instead, provide an answer to the posed question. He provided detailed statements
after asking questions when he obviously felt that he had not fully explained some points in the
lecture (see lines 33, 34 and 36 in table 4.1).
2) Responding with a ‘fill-in the blank’ question: On some occasions, Khalid initiated a
new conversation with an idea or a statement and asked questions that required the students to
only ‘fill in the blank’ form. An example of this type can be seen at line 34 where he started his
statement and then asked “What about if part of the moon receives sunlight?” In this example,
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12 Khalid had already defined the total lunar eclipse and had moved on to thinking about the
partial eclipse, which made him ask the students to complete the description of a concept or to
choose an answer from different, but possible answers. These questions were coded as ‘concept
completion’.
The previous, recognizing strategies, which had been employed after receiving the
students’ initial responses, showed that Khalid had employed strategies that direct the students’
thinking to the right answers. Despite the fact that Khalid had appeared to interpret and to
recognize the students’ responses by asking ‘How’ and ‘Why’ questions, after having presented
the content to the students, his use of ‘reactive questions’ then became less effective in their
support of further inquiry.
3) Focusing on a small number of learners: table 2 reveals that Khalid tended to focus on
eliciting as much information as possible from an individual student before engaging the next
one in the conversation. He usually identified a particular student before posing his question. He
then recognized a prior response that had been made by the student and he then moved through
a series of questions in accordance with a planned agenda; this was done in a manner that had
been previously identified by Chin (2007). When a student had responded with a short or with
an incomplete answer, Khalid had probed further with short questions to encourage the student
to limit his response only to the pre-determined answer.
This strategy can explain the increase in the amount of coding for the element (R) as can
be seen in table 2 in the questioning cycle’s column. During this conversation, Khalid asked
the first student to explain the occurrence of day and night. The student responded – “Because
of the earth and the sun”. Khalid then asked for more clarification and pushed for elaboration
–“What happens to them?” When the student continued to give uncompleted answers as in –
“They rotate”, he probed further – “How?” and then led the student to the correct answer by
asking for ‘yes/no’ answers – “Do you mean the opposite?”
More interpretative strategies were commonly used when using questions to interpret
students’ ideas as can be seen in lines 3, 5, and 19. This strategy might have helped in clarifying
the individual student’s thoughts; it might, however, have taken up too much time with only
certain individuals, thus leading to less engagement with the whole class.
The ESRU cycles
It should be noted that the average number of cycles was low with an average of only 12
cycles per lesson. This appeared to be related to the allocation of more time to the lecturing of
different concepts and assignation of less time for the classroom interactions. It could have also
been related to an increase in the length of a conversation by the use of following questions,
which asked the students to interpret their answers.
The commonly used cycle the incomplete ESR (elicits-student’s response-recognizes).
This pattern showed an increase in the number of interactions due to the students’ responses and
the teaching method used; the associated questioning levels did not, however, appear to place
a high, cognitive demand upon the learners. The previous discussion indicated that, despite
the fact that some of questions were asked for explaining, for interpreting or for reasoning
purposes, these questions mostly required the students to display those ‘right’ answers that had
been previously discussed in the lecture.
The complete ESRU cycle was rarely employed. In such cases, the strategy was to ask
questions and encourage the students’ explanations and used their responses but did so in a way,
however, that directed those responses to the predetermined answer.
The incomplete ES cycle was rarely used as well. This cycle reflects very closed
conversations that require a student to provide only a ‘fill in the blank’ answer and to provide
‘yes/no’ answers such as in, for example, ‘Have you seen the moon in different phases?’
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Discussion 13
The above findings revealed the formative assessment conversations were initiated by
asking questions about information that had been already explained during the lecture without
consideration of students’ prior knowledge and experiences. Questions that initiate a conversation
have been distinguished based on whether or not they have evaluative functions (Kearsley,
1976; Oliveira, 2010; Wu, 1993). Oliveira (2010) described such questions as being teacher-
centred and noted that these have an evaluative nature because they serve only to re-enforce
the answers that have already been given to the students .Thus, the goals of the assessments
are considered to be evaluative if the strategy is to elicit known information and serve to afford
students opportunity to display their previous learned content. This was the case for practices
that asked to elicit student initial responses, but did not elicit genuine information that seeks
students’ conceptual development but rather intended to test their knowledge of the right
answers. This is inconsistent with what is required by the inquiry instruction at the beginning of
an inquiry activity. Ruiz-Primo & Furtak (2006) contend that formative assessment strategies
when initiating an inquiry lesson should explore students’ prior knowledge, encourage students’
participation and allow opportunities for them to talk and to share ideas, which are based on
their own personal experiences.
Despite this fact, Khalid appeared to interpret and recognise student responses by
asking “how” and “why” questions. Nonetheless, having presented the content to the students,
Khalid’s use of these “reactive questions” became less effective to support further inquiry and
guide them to construct their evidence-based explanations. This is in agreement with the results
of van Zee, Iwasyk, Kurose, Simpson, & Wild (2001) in which, the function of the assessment
became to direct learners to the teacher’s expected answers when teachers utilised authoritative
approaches to lead the classroom discussion.
This study found that the use of some strategies such as responding to the students, by
asking ‘yes/no’ or ’fill in the blank’ questions, could sometimes block this talk. In this case
teachers did not value the student’s response but rather used strategies to keep the discussion
focused on what they expected to hear from their students. This is similar with the findings
of a study by Roehrig and Luft (2004), which revealed that teachers with teacher-centred
beliefs considered that they are responsible for the organisation and transmission of scientific
knowledge for the student.
Conclusions
This study has shown the issues with formative assessment practices when teaching
science. Assessment conversation in which teachers elicit, recognise, and use students’ responses
were used to document teacher-student interactions. The strategies used by teachers in this
study did not appear to encourage inquiry-based practices. When beginning a lesson teachers
tended to explain the content for their students rather than explore learners’ prior knowledge
and experiences. The following discussions were then used to review what has been conveyed
to the learners.
Different strategies were used to direct students’ attention to the right answers after
eliciting their initial responses. Instead of using strategies that encourage students to share their
own thinking such as asking students to observe and provide reasons of why or what might
happen, teachers tended to limit students’ thinking to the predetermined answers. As a result,
the students appeared to be waiting for the teacher to provide them with a final explanation and
with a summary covering the important lectured ideas.
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14 Implications
Formative assessment practices of teachers in this study emphasized the importance of

students being able to remember the right answers; the teachers’ role was seen as the person who
was responsible for explaining the meaning of different, scientific concepts. Therefore, teacher
education programmes are needed to support teachers distinguishing formative assessment
strategies, which could be used to acknowledge and to promote student thinking; this included
the capturing of diverse responses from different groups, the provision of neutral feedback and
then, the display of these responses to the whole class.
Such findings underscore the importance for teachers to develop dialogic assessment
skills to enact student-centred strategies in science inquiry context. To do so Lyle (2008) argued
that the key element to support dialogic approaches can be through challenging students to
think for themselves. This requires teachers to use effective assessment strategies that provide
students with regular opportunities to talk and “treat their answers to teacher’s questions, as
stages in an ongoing cognitive quest rather than as terminal points” (Alexander, 2006, as cited in
Lyle, 2008.p. 230). These required the role of teachers as “guide on the side” in an environment
where students’ collaborative talk is valued and used to develop further inquiry (Lyle, 2008).
Limitations
This study has a qualitative form, which considered a small sample of teachers as they
interacted with their students. This meant that the population was not sufficient to represent the
totality of the Saudi-Arabian context.
It might be argued that restricting the study to such a small size affects the generalizability
of the findings. The deep analysis of teacher-student interactions did, however, led to valuable
findings that can now be used to inform the development of the formative assessment practices
for teachers in science-based inquiry-classrooms in Saudi Arabia.
The context, within which this study took place, posits another limitation on the study
results. Since the Saudi-Arabian context has certain characteristics, which are due to its
cultural and historical background and the way in which teaching takes place, this might have
influenced the results. The Saudi context is, however, very similar to a number of countries in
the Middle East, which all have similar educational systems and this is thus a valid context for
this investigation.
References
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles,
Policy & Practice, 5 (1), 7-74.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment,
Evaluation and Accountability, 21 (1), 5-31. doi: 10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5.
Black, P. J. (2003). Assessment for learning: Putting it into practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Bybee, R. W. (2009). The BSCS 5E instructional model and 21st century skills. Washington, DC: NABSE.
National Academies Board on Science Education, Washington, DC: Retrieved March, 4, 2011.
Furtak, E. M. (2006). The problem with answers: An exploration of guided scientific inquiry teaching.
Science Education, 90 (3), 453-467. doi: 10.1002/sce.20130.
Kearsley, G. P. (1976). Questions and question asking in verbal discourse: A cross-disciplinary review.
Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5 (4), 355-375.
Lemke, J. L. (1990). Talking science: Language, learning, and values. City, State: Ablex Publishing
Corporation.
Lyle, S. (2008). Dialogic teaching: Discussing theoretical contexts and reviewing evidence from classroom
practice. Language and Education, 22 (3), 222-240.
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Mehan, H. (1979). Learning lessons: Social organization in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard 15
University Press.
Oliveira, A. W. (2010). Improving teacher questioning in sience inquiry discussions through professional
development. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47 (4), 422-453.
Ruiz-Primo, M. A., Furtak, E. M. (2006). Informal formative assessment and scientific inquiry: Exploring
teachers' practices and student learning. Educational Assessment, 11 (3-4), 205-235.
van Zee, E. H., Iwasyk, M., Kurose, A., Simpson, D., & Wild, J. (2001). Student and teacher questioning
during conversations about science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38 (2), 159-190.
Wiliam, D. (2000). Formative assessment in mathematics part 3: The Learner’s Role. Equals: Mathematics
and Special Educational Needs, 6 (1), 19-22.
Wu, K. Y. (1993). Classroom interaction and teacher questions revisited. RELC Journal, 24 (2), 49-68.
Yip, D. Y. (2004). Questioning skills for conceptual change in science instruction. Journal of Biological
Education, 38 (2), 76-83.
Saeed Almuntasheri PhD, Assistant Professor, Albaha University, Prince Mohammad Bin Saud, Al
Bahah 65527, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: sas_1396@hotmail.com
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DESIGN OF DIDACTIC MATERIAL FOR
TEACHING AND LEARNING SITUATIONS:
THE CASE OF SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE,
AFRICA
Rita Maria de Souza Couto, Roberta G. R. Portas,
Flavia Nizia F. Ribeiro, Maria A. C. Mamede-Neves
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
E-mail: ricouto@puc-rio.br, robertaportas@me.com,
flavianizia@gmail.com, apmamede@gmail.com
Abstract
Much of the didactic material of São Tomé and Príncipe for teaching and learning situations for early
childhood education is not guided by interdisciplinary dialogue between design and education suitable
to the country’s context. A proposal is presented for a system of objects that support the early childhood
education curriculum, designed to be used as a guide and supporting material for preschool teachers of São
Tomé and Principe and illustrates the various ways in which design can contribute to teaching-learning
processes, strengthening knowledge building through the development of artefacts, environments, and
education systems. This material is one of the outcomes of the project developed by the Interdisciplinary
Education Design Lab(LIDE), from PUC-Rio, Brazil, using the Design in Partnership methodology for
the development of curriculum content for early childhood education. The project is being developed by
researchers at LIDE/PUC-Rio, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science of the Republic of São
Tomé and Príncipe, Africa, and UNICEF, and has other spheres of action, including the development
of early childhood education curriculum content, ongoing teacher and assistant training courses, the
recycling course offering for educators and assistants, the teaching materials project, and the redesign
of physical spaces in kindergartens. This material contributes to the application of the curriculum under
development.
Key words: education design, design in partnership, early childhood education, teaching materials.
Introduction
Within the ambit of the Interdisciplinary Education Design Lab (Laboratório

Interdisciplinar Design Educação, LIDE), whose basic goal is to carry out research to enhance
the knowledge acquisition process through artifacts, environments, and analog and digital
systems, a research project is being developed in partnership with the Ministry of Education,
Culture and Science of the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, Africa, and UNICEF. The
project includes designing curriculum content for early childhood education, ongoing teacher
and assistant training courses, the didactic materials project, and the redesign of physical spaces
in kindergartens.
The development of the project, through interdisciplinary dialogue between design and
education, illustrates the various ways in which design can participate in the teaching-learning
processes, strengthening the construction of knowledge through the configuration of artefacts,
environments, and educational systems.
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To design the project, the Design in Partnership methodology was adopted, which 17
involved seeking validation by future users for all the elements from the curriculum, ensuring
the final product greater effectiveness in achieving its goals. This methodology proved effective
in the educational ambit in that it engaged the different stakeholders involved in the construction
of knowledge – students, teachers, specialized professionals, consultants, and sponsors – around
a common goal. When the final object incorporates the ideas of all those involved, the situation
in which it is used can be enriched and matured (Couto & Ribeiro, 2001).
This article presents a proposed system of supporting objects for the curriculum, which
are designed to be used as a guide and supporting material for early childhood educators from
São Tomé and Príncipe. This material is one of the products of the LIDE project based on the
Design in Partnership methodology to develop early education curriculum content.
Education for the Integrated Development of Children
The purpose of education is to provide conditions for children to develop fully,

considering their learning potential at different age groups. This work is led by actions that
enable the development of physical, emotional, cognitive, ethical, aesthetic, and interpersonal
skills and social inclusion, considering the specificities of the sociocultural context.
The idea of setting objectives in terms of capacities – not behaviors – is designed to
increase the chance of attaining the educational goals, since skills are expressed through various
behaviors. In this sense, the learning activities involved can be of different kinds, so when
goals are set in these terms, teachers have a better chance of taking account of the diversity of
interests presented by the children, considering their different abilities and ways of learning.
Respect for the diversity of students is part of this project. If it is to be accepted by
children, the adults with whom they spend time in the institution must demonstrate in their
actions and attitudes that they accept their differences and particularities, from differences of
temperament, skills, and knowledge to differences in gender, ethnicity, and religious belief.
It is extremely important to promote respect for this plurality, which should permeate daily
relationships.
In this sense, the primary task of schools must be to work with material that is living
and concrete, inseparable from social reality, not material that is abstract. It is about adopting
a pedagogic proposal based on “dialogue – action – comprehension – participation”, always
drawing on the experience of the students.
According to Kramer (1999), children and their teachers all have the right to cultural
education, since children and adults are all historical and social subjects, citizens produced in
culture and creators of culture. As citizens, they have social rights, which includes the right to
education.
Children have the right to respect and protection from society and the state, with a view
to their full development, according to the São Tomé and Príncipe Constitution, which, in
Article No. 55, states that education is a recognized right for every citizen, including their active
participation in the community.
Therefore, there must be an understanding of the development needs of professional
teachers in order for them to rethink their practices with a view to ensuring that all children
have a childhood with access to knowledge and interaction with culture, through formal and
informal spaces.
The presence of properly trained teaching professionals is important for the design of
development strategies for education in São Tomé and Príncipe and it is a decisive factor for the
attainment of goals for preschool education in that country.
Considering these principles of child development and the Design in Partnership
methodology on which the entire project is based, it is worth also mentioning the challenges
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18 of designing for a different culture and gaining familiarity with it. This methodology made this
work possible, based as it is on the principle that design is not socially neutral, but an activity
that influences and is influenced by the balance of interests among the different social groups
participating in the process. In other words, design is intrinsically an interactive and social
process (Couto & Ribeiro, 2001).
Conceptual Bases that Guide the São Tomé and Príncipe Preschool Curriculum
When designing the proposed preschool curriculum, it was considered that people are
social beings and are also interdisciplinary beings who develop in their successive exchanges
with the external environment. This conception is opportune for the methodology adopted in this
project, since the learning is structured and confirmed by the cultural code of the environment
of which it is a part. The cultural environment is defined as the surroundings that build the
structure of the subject and determine their actions, branding them with the features of their
own time and place. People’s relationship with their cultural environment is a relationship of
reciprocity and, likewise, the relationship between peers is and will always be of exchanges
(Mamede-Neves, 2013).
On that basis, pedagogical work makes sense only if it takes into account how the different
dimensions of this being are constituted and integrated, as well as the physical structure, the
rational dimension, the motivational dimension, and the social dimension, the last of which
shapes the contextual and interpersonal dimension.
Figure 1: Subject of knowledge and place of learning.
According to Mamede-Neves (2013), learning is a concept that can be understood as a

process and as a product. As a process, it refers to the organization of mental structures to levels
that are built up in increasing complexity and operate in different dimensions. It is essential,
therefore, that teachers understand this process in order to properly organize their teaching and
how they teach and how far to go when teaching.
As a product, learning is not a single process, but is translated by changes in observable
behavior, which occur in many types, according to Lewin (1965):
 Change in the knowledge network with progressive differentiation in its complexity.
 Change of interest (positive or negative motivations) that is built by the relationship
between the subject and the areas that attract them or make them step back, not desire.
 Change of values, as a result of the identification of the child with their parents, family
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members, teachers or guardians, so at first only with those who are around them and 19
teach them the beliefs, ways of behaving, myths, and rules of their context. Later, this
circle begins to open to new experiences and contact with other contexts, still within
the country, or through international exchanges as they take place.
Accordingly, learning within this conceptual base is not designed only as rational,
cognitive learning that needs to evolve into abstractions; it is much more.
The main point of learning as a complex concept is perception, not only of concrete
objects, but going beyond these concrete objects. People perceive ideal objects, resulting from
their imaginary constructs, and learning is above all the perception of relationships between
people, facts, phenomena, etc. That given, human behavior is the result of how people perceive
the world and how they are perceived in the world.
This substantive proposal for early childhood education was built on the conceptual
foundations described above, after which came the actions required for the development of the
content, teaching methodologies, design of teaching materials, and training of teachers.
Figure 2: Overview of the political pedagogical project.
The proposed curriculum, anchored in the conceptual basis described above, draws
relationships between the content and the meanings it may have for the students, the
methodological developments needed for each area of knowledge in the curriculum, and living
and concrete contents – i.e. ones that are inseparable from the social reality.
It is about a pedagogical proposal that is consistent with the following dynamic: ACTION
<> DIALOGUE <> PARTICIPATION. It is based on the experiences of the students as well as
the competence of the teacher.
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Figure 3: Example of interrelationship between action, dialogue and participation.
Design in Partnership draws an analogy with these interrelationships (Figure 3), in that it
is a design attitude that enables the development of projects related to social realities in specific
contexts, contributing to the discovery of cultural values. It requires the effective participation
of individuals or social groups in the development of the projects at every stage. It favors the
generation of effective solutions that are aligned with the needs and desires of all those involved
and leads to the construction of objects that can be easily recognized, accepted, absorbed and
signified by the group that participates in the design process.
The methodology used to design the curriculum structure is predominantly “learning
through problem-solving” as proposed by Polya, a teaching strategy adopted by Mamede-
Neves (2012) to be developed individually or in small groups, where there is a great emphasis
on the comprehension of how children think and learn when faced with a problem, whether it
is simple or complex.
It revolves around the observation of children’s actions, their formulations, how they
express themselves to explain how they reached certain results, why they acted this way or
that, etc. This didactic way of leading teaching in preschool is essential because it leads the
students to take interest in what is being proposed, to go beyond what is taught, and develop
collaborative autonomy and learning, making them better prepared to use the knowledge
structures as required.
Teaching materials are considered here as instrumental resources for teaching
interventions. Therefore, they and the proposed dynamics are linked up with the preschool
curriculum, using the work developed and established at the Interdisciplinary Education Design
Lab as their methodological foundation.
Structure of the Proposed Curriculum
In line with these educational tenets, the proposed curriculum presents living and
concrete contents, which are therefore inseparable from social reality, giving special emphasis
to the relationships between the contents and the meanings they may have for the students. It
also assimilates the methodological developments necessary for each area of knowledge, albeit
always within the development levels presented by children of four or five years old.
In terms of duration, the curriculum covers eight school months with eight content units:
one for each month of the academic year. Each content unit covers four five-day weeks and each
day has seven modules of activity.
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Each of the eight units of the curriculum presents the core elements of the unit, a table 21
showing the distribution of the units across the areas of knowledge – Language, Mathematics,
Physical and Social Environment, Expressions – Art, and Expression – Movement. There is
also a board setting forth the content for each knowledge area for the age group, according to
the targeted competencies and skill sets. Lastly, there is a board of educational goals, expressed
in terms of the competencies and skill sets for the age group.
Figure 4: Structure of the content's distribution board of each unit.
For each unit, there were suggested daily activities based on the contents of the knowledge
areas, taking into account the competencies and skill sets. Each day of the week consisted of
seven activity modules, namely: reception activity; daily activities; snack; activity to integrate
the knowledge areas (1); free activity; activity to integrate the knowledge areas (2); and external
guided activity.
Figure 5: Nature of daily activities.
System of Objects that Support the Curriculum
One of the challenges of the proposed system was to develop educational support
material for the educators that had dual functions: to present the pedagogical foundations of the
curriculum and the curriculum structure with its contents.
In the analysis of the references found in the research of educational materials, it was
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22 noticed that most educational support materials consist of a teacher’s book that contains a
version of the student book with suggestions and solutions for the proposed activities.
In the initial stages, the content was organized in a printed publication with multiple
pages, like most teacher’s books, but when the mock-ups were prepared and the limitations
of its use were observed, it became clear that having all the content bound in a single volume
would not translate the spirit of the curriculum.
Accordingly, a new graphic format was designed for the supporting didactic material
using an open structure that reflected the units the curriculum was divided into. As well as
allowing more than one teacher to use the material at the same time, this division means that
individual units can be reviewed and reprinted without affecting the others. Considering the
possible shortage of printing resources, the division of the material into booklets was the
solution encountered for enabling the content to be reviewed and updated on an ongoing basis.
The following guidelines were then set for the development of the publication: the
graphic material should reflect the interdisciplinary approach of the curriculum; the content
should be presented in a way that invites its use; the formal organization of the content should
contribute to the precision of the message; and the use should contribute to autonomy of the
educator.
From the studies, mock-ups, and proofs, it was decided that the material should be
contained in a folder, which would hold all the printed materials for each classroom. The folder
contains nine booklets and 320 cards, and a booklet with the presentation of the theoretical bases
of the curriculum and the information system that articulates the themes present in each unit,
and eight booklets, one for each of the eight school months. Each card represents a Knowledge
Area Integration activity. Considering that there are two daily activities of this nature, this
means ten cards a week, 40 cards per unit/month, and a total of 320 cards in all.
The idea of using a card format for the Knowledge Area Integration activities was so
that a board of weekly activities could be set up and displayed in the classroom, allowing all
the teachers and assistants involved in the classes to keep up with the week’s activities. For the
cards to be viewed, we created an activity board in PVC vinyl with crystal PVC pockets for the
cards.
Below are some pictures that illustrate and help understand the objects in this system.
Figure 6: Curriculum folder.
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Figure 7: Set of graphic elements that make up the curriculum.
Figure 8: Core of the booklet presenting the theoretical bases and diagrams of
knowledge areas.
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Figure 9: Page with weekly activities for unit 1 of the curriculum for 4-year-olds.
Figure 10: Set of curriculum letters for 4-year-olds.
Figure 11: Activities board – card holder.
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To validate this proposed structure and information system, a white model was made 25
with all the elements that make up the folder, and a fully typesetted booklet and respective cards
were printed. This material was submitted to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
and to UNICEF at the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe and tested with the preschool (age 4
and 5) teachers and assistants.
Diagram Illustrating the Integration of the Knowledge Areas
The proposed curriculum includes two daily activities designed to integrate the
knowledge areas. Each activity combines at least three different areas.
As we worked on the organization of the material, a search was made for alternatives that
could foreground the interdisciplinary nature of the content and the problem-solving approach.
Accordingly, an information system was constructed that shows the possible articulations of the
knowledge areas and gives an understanding of the essence of the proposed activity through a
diagram.
The curriculum is based on the articulation of five knowledge areas, which are present in
all the activities, although in different subjects. A pentagram was used to reinforce the idea that
all the five areas have a meeting point at the centre of the pentagram. It demonstrates that the
five areas are interconnected and always present.
Figure 12: Pentagram divided by knowledge areas contained in the curriculum.
To reinforce the knowledge areas, a colour palette was designed of four equidistant areas
of the visible spectrum filled with a single bright, saturated colour. For the fifth color, one
quadrant was subdivided and the brightness was changed. The group of colours allows the three
areas to be highlighted, creating visual limits.
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Figure 13: Color palette adopted for the pentagram: four equidistant quadrants
and one subdivision between one quadrant.
From this geometric structure, each slice of the pentagram (knowledge areas) was
subdivided into three levels of intensity, from the centre outwards. This enabled three areas
(minimum for each activity) to be working with simultaneously, but allowing a different
intensity level for each one.
Figure 14: Pentagram divided into five knowledge areas and subdivided into
three intensity levels for each area.
When the assembly of the pentagrams to illustrate the Knowledge Area Integration
activities was completed, it became clear that when the areas were not visually highlighted,
noise was created in the information. Even when there is no emphasis on a certain knowledge
area, it is still present, so not to reinforce its geometry imparts the message that that area is
not covered in the activity. This is not consistent with the educational proposal on which the
curriculum is based.
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To address this issue, a decision was made to leave the pentagram visible and to fill 27
in the areas that were not being focused on with a neutral grey. This choice of color is based
on the Munsell color system and meets the criterion of keeping the knowledge area present,
but changing its strength to zero and its brightness to 50. To reinforce the existence of the
knowledge areas, subtitles were added to the pentagram showing the name of each area.
Figure 15: Pentagram without visual reinforcement of the five knowledge areas
and with visual reinforcement in neutral grey.
In the curriculum, there are three models of diagrams that illustrate the ways the
knowledge areas can be integrated, namely:
1. A complete model, in which three knowledge areas – one major and two
complementary– are presented; the activity to be conducted; the methodology that
will guide the activity; and suggestions for teaching materials. In this model the
activity is complete.
2. A partial model, in which just one knowledge area is presented, while the educator
chooses two other complementary areas and objectives are suggested, in harmony
with the interrelated capacities and skills from the unit. By using this model, the
educator begins from a suggestion, but needs to choose two other areas to dialogue
and develop a new activity.
3. A free model, in which the educator can plan their own class, choosing the areas,
activities and methodology. To create the pentagram of the activity, the educator fills
in the colors of the knowledge areas present in the activity that is created.
In the curriculum proposal, it is suggested that the educator freely creates the initial
activity from their teaching experiences and the characteristics of their students. It is suggested
that the educator documents the activities devised and the methodologies employed with texts
and drawings. With this step, the experience in the classroom is recorded and can be reused
by the same teacher or by their colleagues. The object discussed in this paper encourages the
educators, since it provides space for creating and recording activities.
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28
Figure 16: Types of pentagrams used in the curriculum.
This system, illustrated in each diagram, guides the activities to be performed each day
and visually represents the inclusion and the weight of each knowledge area in each activity
from the curriculum.
These diagrams are very valuable graphic tools, because they allow the content integration
idea that should guide the preschool pedagogic work to be represented clearly and simply. In
addition to this, they visually translate the possibility of engaging in effective interdisciplinary
work, calling for the construction of methodologies and dynamics for the effective integration
of knowledge areas.
Conclusions
The basic precondition for schools to serve social interests is that it should guarantee
good teaching for everybody; in other words, the ownership of basic curriculum content that
resonates in the lives of students. Understood in this sense, education is one of the ways by
which the students – through the intervention of teachers and their own active participation
– progress from an initially confusing and fragmented experience to an organized and unified
view.
Schools should be effective in preparing students for the adult world and its contradictions,
providing them with the necessary instruments for the acquisition of contents, for socializing,
and for their organized and active participation in the democratization of society.
If the school’s aim is to prioritize the acquisition of knowledge, especially knowledge
connected to social reality, the methods must encourage the contents to be in harmony with
the students’ interests, allowing them to recognize how they support their efforts to understand
reality.
The development of this project, through interdisciplinary dialogue between design and
education, aims to present how design can participate in the training of teachers, teaching-
learning processes, and the development of teaching materials, enhancing the process of
knowledge acquisition through the design of educational artefacts, environments and systems.
Therefore, each design solution represents the search for a balance between the interests and
needs of teachers and students, as well as educational establishments.
Based on the extensive experience of the Interdisciplinary Education Design Lab in the
design of projects for teaching and learning situations and from the perspective of Design in
Partnership, projects can be created according to each school’s curriculum or thematic projects
that arouse the interest of students, to reinforce academic content while learning new skills.
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The support materials to be used by early childhood educators from the Democratic 29
Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe are the result of interdisciplinary work between design
and education, benefitting not only from the formal results, the physical layout, but also the
possibility of the information system becoming an important element in the development of
these teachers. The ongoing use of this system will lead to autonomy in the planning of daily
activities and provide integration between all the schools in the country.
This also emphasizes how design can be involved in education, drawing on
interdisciplinary nature, and in this case the specific methodology of Design in Partnership.
In contemporary times, the epistemology of design is tending towards social issues and is not
restricted only to aesthetic concerns. It is consistent with a paradigm shift in teaching and
learning, where thoughts and acts trigger needs that schools, teachers, and students must adapt
to, since the emphasis of education in the current paradigm is on learning and not education,
and on knowledge building and not training.
The Design in Partnership methodology enabled a curriculum model to be developed
that was completely appropriate for the context of the country. This was achieved not only by
the researchers involved, but also by the educators, who will become the curriculum mediators,
and the countries' government, which will legitimize its implementation. The progress of
children can be seen in loco and through the statements of some parents, who have called
for the new curriculum to be implemented in their children’s schools as soon as possible. In
addition to providing quality education for the children of this country, the project enhanced
their general culture and allowed – in equal opportunities conditions – the development of their
skills and their individuality, their sense of social and moral responsibility, as established by the
Declaration of the Rights of the Child approved by the United Nations.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank all the educators from São Tomé and Príncipe for their partnership,
affection, and generosity. This work was only possible because they believe in and fight for
what they do.
References
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Grande do Sul.
Coll, C. (Org). (1994). O construtivismo na sala de aula [Constructivism in the Classroom]. São Paulo:
Ática.
Couto, R., & Ribeiro, F. N. (2001). Design em Parceria no ensino de projeto [Design in partnership in
project learning] (unpublished).
Kramer, S., & Leite, M. I., Guimarães, D., & Nunes, M. F. (1999). Infância e educação infantil [Childhood
and infant education]. Campinas: Papirus.
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Lewin, K. (1965). Teoria de campo em ciência social [Field theory in social science]. São Paulo: Pioneira.
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Mamede-Neves, M. A. (2012). Values or technological efficiency: what is essential in a pedagogical
project? In: Boufoy-Bastick, B. (Ed.), The international handbook of cultures of teacher
education: Comparative international issues in curriculum and pedagogy. Strasbourg: Analytrics.
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30 Nóvoa, A. (1992). Os professores e sua formação [Teachers and their training]. Lisbon, Dom Quixote.
Perrenoud, P. H. (1999). Construir as Competências desde a Escola [Building competences since
school]. Porto Alegre: Artmed.
Piaget, J. (1978). A representação do mundo pela criança [The representation of the world by children].
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_______. (1975). A Formação do Símbolo na Criança [The formation of symbols in children]. São Paulo:
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_______. (1957). How to solve it. New Jersey: Princeton.
Saltini, C., & Cavenaghi, D. (Org). (2015). Jean Piaget: Relações entre a afetividade e a inteligência
no desenvolvimento da criança [Relationships between affections and intelligence in child
development]. São Paulo: WAK.
Schön, D. (2000). Educando o profissional reflexivo: um novo design para o ensino e a aprendizagem
[Educating the reflexive professional: A new design for teaching and learning]. Porto Alegre,
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Vergnaud, G. (2000). Teoria dos Campos Conceituais [Theory of conceptual fields]. I Seminário
Internacional de Educação Matemática. (v. 1) São Paulo: SBEM.
Received: October 16, 2016 Accepted: December 20, 2016
Rita Maria de Souza Couto PhD, Professor, Department of Arts & Design, Pontifical Catholic Univer-
sity of Rio de Janeiro, Marquês de São Vicente, 225 – Gávea Street, Rio
de Janeiro, RJ, 22453-900, Brazil.
E-mail: ricouto@puc-rio.br
Roberta G. R. Portas PhD, Professor, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Marquês
de São Vicente, 225 – Gávea Street, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22453-900,
Brazil.
E-mail: robertaportas@me.com
Flavia Nizia F. Ribeiro PhD, Professor, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Marquês
Brazil.
E-mail: flavianizia@gmail.com
Maria A. C. Mamede-Neves PhD, Professor, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Marquês
Brazil.
E-mail: apmamede@gmail.com
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EXAMINING FACTORS AFFECTING 31
IMPLEMENTATION OF INQUIRY-BASED
LEARNING IN FINLAND AND SOUTH
KOREA
Jingoo Kang, Tuula Keinonen
University of Eastern Finland, Finland
E-mail: jingoo.kang@uef.fi, tuula.keinonen@uef.fi
Abstract
Using inquiry has become a universal factor in science education, but teachers often face challenges
in implementing inquiry-based learning (IBL) because of, for instance, teachers’ low confidence in
conducting inquiry or insufficient school resources. Much research has been conducted to identify the
barriers that impede inquiry practice. However, most studies have employed small-scale qualitative
methods from a single-country sample, and, thus, the effects of each factor on conducting inquiry in
different educational systems have yet to be measured in one statistical model. Accordingly, this research
was aimed to explore the extent to which various teacher- and school-factors have respectively affected
teachers’ implementation of inquiry-based learning at lower secondary schools. To examine this
issue, samples of 496 Finnish teachers in 135 lower secondary schools and 184 Korean teachers in
147 lower secondary schools were selected from the TIMSS 2011 science data set. The findings reveal
that teachers’ confidence in teaching science and their collaboration to improve science teaching were
strongly associated with facilitating inquiry in both countries, and these two factors’ positive effects on
the implementation were partially derived from inquiry-related professional development in the Finnish
sample. In addition, class size and school resources were also significantly related to inquiry practice
in Finland, and the teachers’ education levels were negatively correlated with the frequency of inquiry
practice in Korea. However, in both countries, the teachers’ emphasis on exams was indicated as a non-
significant factor in predicting inquiry frequency. The results have implications in respect of the roles of
professional development and school environment in increasing IBL practice in school science.
Key words: inquiry-based learning, teacher collaboration, teacher confidence.
Introduction
Over the past few decades, while an increasing recognition of the importance of scientific
knowledge has been indicated, students have presented a decline in the interest in learning
science. Since students’ interest has been known as a predictor of their academic achievement
and further engagement in science, much research has been conducted to identify approaches
that increase students’ interest. Accordingly, inspiring young learners to engage with inquiry-
based learning, which indicates positive effects on improving students’ contents knowledge
and attitudes towards science and learning science, becomes a long-standing goal of science
education (Koksal & Berberoglu, 2012; Sadeh & Zion, 2012; National Research Council [NRC],
2000). Subsequently, much research has shed light on multifaceted pictures of IBL to encourage
teachers to implement IBL in school science (Bunterm, Lee, Kong, Srikoon, & Vangpoomyai,
2014; Jocz, Zhai, & Tan, 2014; European Commission [EC], 2007; Lee & Songer, 2003; Yip,
2001). In contrast to the efforts of researchers to disseminate the inquiry practice, however,
science teachers continuously hesitate to use scientific inquiry in their classrooms (Trautmann,
MaKinster, & Avery, 2004). Through much exploratory research, several factors pertaining to
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32 the reluctance of teachers to practice inquiry in schools have been revealed; low confidence
and competence in using inquiry instructions; lack of time and resources; tight curricula;
inadequate professional development; large class sizes, etc. (Ramnarain, 2016; Kikis-Papadakis
& Chaimala, 2014; Yoon, Joung, & Kim, 2011; Yeomans, 2011; Harwood, Hansen, & Lotter,
2006; Trautmann et al., 2004; Davis, 2003). Ramnarain (2016), for instance, examined the
factors influencing IBL in South Africa and highlighted that a lack of professional science
knowledge increased teachers’ uncertainty in IBL. Yoon et al (2011) reported that during
science inquiry teaching, pre-service teachers had difficulties in developing students’ ideas and
in designing experiments for students’ hypotheses, and they also presented low confidence in
science content knowledge. Studies by Kikis-Papadakis and Chaimala (2014) and Davis (2003)
argued that insufficient school resources can affect teachers’ decisions on conducting IBL.
However, even though these previous studies were dedicated to exploring the barriers of inquiry
implementation and ascertained a number of factors, each study was conducted with a small
number of participants from a single country. In addition, the extent to which those barriers affect
teachers’ implementation has not been investigated in one statistical model. Hence, in order to
construct a more comprehensive understanding of teachers’ inquiry practice, this study aimed
to investigate how the factors differently affect teachers’ implementation of IBL in different
countries by using large-scale international assessment data, TIMSS 2011. For two primary
reasons, we decided to investigate the samples from Finland and South Korea. Firstly, although
they have proven to be top-tier countries in terms of high science achievement, students in both
countries present low interest in science and science-related careers (OECD, 2007). Secondly,
despite cultural differences in education, teachers in both countries prefer to practice teacher-
centered traditional instruction in teaching science (Lavonen & Laaksonen, 2009; Park, Lee,
Oliver, & Cramond, 2006). Thus, implementing inquiry in science education is an important
matter for the countries, since it is a recognized facilitator in drawing the attention of students
towards science, as well as constituting a student-centered approach. Comparing two countries
in terms of inquiry implementation would provide some insight for science teachers and teacher
educators, policy makers, and school administrators who have faced similar problems in science
education and have attempted to increase inquiry practice in schools.
Science Education and Inquiry-based Learning in Finland
Finnish science education has drawn attention from many other countries after its
achievements in international assessments, such as PISA (Programme for International Student
Assessment) or TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study). The result
is often attributed to: ‘highly qualified teachers who have autonomy and trust; relatively little
standardized testing; collaboration between teachers and schools rather than competition;
inclusion and equality rather than elitism; a general belief that education benefits society and
the individual’ (Curcher & Teras, 2013, p. 61). The Finnish education system offers teachers
much freedom in managing classes, curricula, and assessments. In particular, Niemi (2015)
emphasizes that, compared with high performing Asian countries, Finnish teachers are free
from the pressure of standardized national evaluation. Therefore, teachers are more likely
to choose various teaching methods based on students’ needs and to use different kinds of
assessment tools than other countries with national evaluation systems. For instance, Juuti et
al. (2010) reported that there are variety of teaching methods in the education of pre-service
science teachers and practiced by in-service science teachers, such as ‘teacher-led, large-group
lecture or dialog, small-group work, laboratory or practical work, creative problem-solving,
reading and writing to learn, and out-of-school informal learning’ in Finnish science classes.
At the same time, however, teachers are given responsibility in terms of students’ learning
outcomes and their well-being. Thus, teachers are encouraged to pay attention to students with
special needs and to make plans for each student’s growth.
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In respect of inquiry-based learning, although the Finnish core curriculum does not 33
demand that teachers employ any specific form of instruction, the Finnish educational policy has
continuously emphasized inquiry-based science education in the national curriculum of Basic
Education (The Finnish National Board of Education, 2014 & 2004). However, many researchers
have frequently reported that the culture of inquiry-based science education is underdeveloped
as a consequence of the use of more traditional teaching methods, while students want more
inquiry-based science education in Finland (Juuti et al., 2010; Lavonen & Laaksonen, 2009;
Norris, Asplund, MacDonald, Schostack, & Zamorski, 1996). Beerenwinkel and Börlin (2014)
reported that, in comparison studies of physics teaching in Finland, Germany, and Switzerland,
they found more teacher-centered interaction than student-centered interaction in Finland, and
a higher percentage of teacher-centered interaction was implemented in Finnish classes than in
other comparison countries. Juuti et al. (2010) analyzed the responses of 3,626 grade 9 students
regarding frequency of teaching methods used in science classes, and concluded that traditional
approaches, for instance, solving basic problems, reading textbooks, or conducting practical
work, are often used in Finland. Given that traditional teacher-centered science teaching
methods have decreased students’ interest in science (Avraamidou & Osborne, 2009; EC, 2007)
and Finnish students present low interest and negative attitudes toward science and learning
science (Martin, Mullis, Foy, & Stanco, 2012; OECD, 2007), inquiry-based science education,
which significantly improves students’ interest (e.g. Koksal & Berberoglu, 2012; NRC, 2012)
has to be given higher priority in teaching science in Finland. However, in accordance with
Finnish teachers’ evidence-based or research-based teaching practice (Niemi, 2015), more
scientific evidence exploring how inquiry-based science education affects students’ learning,
and identifying the factors that have an effect on conducting inquiry learning in Finland are
required in order to increase inquiry-based teaching practice.
Science Education and Inquiry-based Learning in Korea
The Korean educational system including science education is known as highly centralized
and controlled by the government in terms of curriculum, teacher training and recruitment, and
instructional pace (Im, Yoon, & Cha, 2016; Park, Byun, & Kim, 2011). For instance, according
to Im et al. (2016), the government regularly assesses teachers’ college programs, based on
the education law, to differentiate financial support for each school; prospective teachers have
to take regulated, government-run courses to obtain teacher certification; thus, most teacher
education institutions offer similar curricula in order to satisfy regulations. Similar to teacher
education, curricula for students are also highly regulated by the government. According to
Kim and Lavonen (2009), Korean students commence science subjects in the 3rd grade and
have to continue studying all four sectors (physics, chemistry, biology and earth science) until
lower secondary school. In addition, all science textbooks are reviewed and authorized by the
government so that the government can control the science content taught in schools. Moreover,
to control the quality of education, the government administers a standard assessment to
measure student scholastic achievement from 9th to 11th grade, and the results are reported to
schools and parents. In sum, unlike the Finnish education system, Korean science education is
highly standardized and centralized.
According to the Ministry of Education [MOE] (2015), the goal of Korean science
education is science for all, by fostering scientific literacy, acquiring inquiry skills, and
considering students’ aptitudes for future careers. The core competencies in order to reach this
goal are introduced as scientific thought, scientific inquiry skill, scientific problem-solving
skill, scientific communication ability, scientific engagement, and lifelong learning. Thus,
inquiry-based science education can play a key role in developing these core competencies
in science education. However, international assessments have demonstrated that Korean
students get less inquiry practice than other participating countries (Martin et al., 2012;
OECD, 2007). Thus, in order to increase inquiry practice in science, the MOE revised the
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34 curriculum by adding mandatory open inquiry practice for at least six hours per year from 3rd to
10th grade (MOE, 2007). According to the curriculum, the recommendation is for the students
themselves to conduct inquiry, from the planning of experiments to the reporting of results, and
to collaborate with other pupils at school. The revision has been implemented in primary and
secondary schools since 2010, and, subsequently, Park and Lee (2011) explored how it has been
implemented at lower secondary schools with 61 science teachers and 1,114 7th graders. They
found that, contrary to the government’s expectation, teachers determined students’ research
topics during the first stage, and students often conducted inquiry alone as an out-of-school
assignment. The results were likely due to insufficient time, tight curricula, large class sizes,
low confidence in teaching and practicing inquiry (Kim, Yoon, Lee, & Cho, 2010; Jhun & Jeon,
2009; Park, 2005). Despite the difficulties, however, students and teachers indicated positive
attitudes towards open inquiry (Park & Lee, 2011), and students who experienced open inquiry
showed improvement in science process skills (Lee & Lee, 2010).
Nature of Inquiry
In order to understand the obstructions to IBL implementation in school science, it is

beneficial to understand the nature of inquiry. IBL refers to the scientist’s activities in studying
the natural world and to reason based on evidence (NRC, 1996), thus it includes following
activities such as ‘making observations; posing questions; examining books and other sources
of information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing what is already
known in light of experimental evidence; using tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data;
proposing answers, explanations, and predictions; and communicating the results’ (NRC,
1996, p. 23). Through these activities, students can understand both what scientific knowledge
is and how it has been produced to date (NRC, 2000). Inasmuch as inquiry is grounded on
constructivism, it is less teacher-directed step-by-step instruction, but, rather, a more student-
centered way of learning which encourages learners to use their own experiences to construct
knowledge (Anderson, 2002). Consequently, compared to the traditional science class, it
requires more time to explore and more resources to support individual needs.
In school science, depending on the level of autonomy given to students in designing
and conducting the investigation, IBL is divided into three forms: structured, guided, and open
inquiry (Koksal & Berberoglu, 2012; Sadeh & Zion, 2011; Zion, Cohen, & Amir, 2007; NRC,
2000). The complexity and uncertainty of teaching and learning increases from structured to open
inquiry, but, at the same time, the latter form better reflects the type of authentic, experimental
work carried out by scientists (Zion & Mendelovici, 2012). Giving more autonomy to students
in conducting experiments does not mean that their learning is independent from teacher
intervention, but rather is more dependent on the teacher’s ability ‘to facilitate the students
to raise the appropriate, challenging questions that will guide students during their inquiry
process, and trigger student-generated investigation and learning’ (p. 384). Hence, in order to
conduct inquiry in school, several roles are required of science teachers, such as ‘motivator,
diagnostician, guide, innovator, experimenter, researcher, modeler, mentor, collaborator, and
learner’ (Crawford, 2000), and, subsequently, requires teachers to divide their time and efforts
between preparing the experiment and its equipment, and answering unpredictable questions
from students at different levels.
Emphasis on Assessment
In spite of the abundant roles and responsibilities given to teachers to conduct IBL,
they are generally given less autonomy to manage the curriculum, and, consequently, there
is insufficient time for teachers to prepare and implement IBL (Yeomans, 2011). Given the
fixed curriculum established by the government, teachers consider their principal roles to
be maintaining the rigor of the curriculum and transmitting factual knowledge (Trautmann
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et al., 2004), and, thus, teachers may deem IBL to be extra work. This tendency is, in fact, 35
strongly related to high-stakes national and international examinations, which put a high level
of pressure on teachers to help students prepare to succeed in exams (Veronesi & Voorst, 2000).
For these reasons, teachers tend to avoid time-consuming IBL in spite of students’ positive
experiences in authentic scientific investigation and its positive impact on students’ attitudes
and achievements, and to focus more on preparing students for assessments. Hence, it may
be assumed that when teachers put more emphasis or value on examinations, as is the case in
Korea, they will practice IBL less frequently at school, and that when there is no examination
pressure, as is the case in Finland, they will practice IBL regardless of examinations.
Teachers’ Professional Development and Confidence
Another impediment to implementing IBL is the insufficient and inadequate professional

development (PD) of inquiry pedagogies for pre- and in-service teachers. It is well known that
teachers tend to teach their students in ways similar to those they themselves were exposed to
as learners (NRC, 1996). However, pre-service teachers are often exposed to teacher-centered,
content-based, and ‘chalk and talk’ instruction during secondary education, and they bring
with them their traditional views on learning and teaching science when they enter teacher
training college (Seung, Park, & Narayan, 2011; Park, 2005). That is to say, the vast majority
of prospective science teachers have rarely experienced authentic scientific inquiry when
they start university education and, thus, have misconceptions about inquiry-based teaching
(Capps & Crawford, 2013; Yoon et al., 2011; Windschitl, 2000). Consequently, pre-service
teachers had significant difficulties in creating research questions, guiding children in designing
experiments, and operationalizing variables (Yoon et al., 2011; Roth, 1999). Subsequently,
this causes another common hurdle in IBL implementation, where the teacher who lacks
scientific inquiry-based research experiences has difficulty in adopting the inquiry pedagogy
and in preparing for guiding students in defining research questions, planning experiments,
and analyzing data (Yoon et al., 2011; Windschitl, 2003; Singer, Marx, & Krajcik, 2000); that
is, a deficiency of inquiry experiences causes low self-confidence in conducting inquiry, and,
in turn, misleads pre- and in-service teachers into traditional demonstration-style laboratory
exercises with which they are familiar (Loucks-Horsley, Stiles, Mundry, Love, & Hewson,
2009; Trautmann et al., 2004; Davis, 2003).
In order to break this vicious circle, many researchers have focused on revision of
professional development for pre- and in-service teachers. Lunsford et al. (2007) reported
that, by providing pre-service teachers with basic to complex levels of inquiry, teachers
could progressively develop scientific and critical thinking as well as the production skills of
complex inscriptions. Riegle-Crumb et al. (2015) revealed that, after participating in Hands on
Science (HoS) courses, prospective teachers’ attitudes became positive towards inquiry, while
the comparison group indicated a decline in favorable attitudes to science. In addition, recent
research and projects related with continuous professional development have aimed to develop
teachers’ cooperation and collaboration by establishing links within and between school
networks as well as other local and regional stakeholders (Bolte, Holbrook, Mamlok-Naaman,
& Rauch, 2014: Smith, 2014; Snow-Gerono, 2004) so that teachers could be given the chance
to work together, share ideas and resources, and reflect on innovative teaching practice in the
classes (Loucks-Horsley et al., 2009).
School Resources and Environments
In addition to these teacher-level challenges, school-level impediments to implementing

IBL also exist. Kikis-Papadakis and Chaimala (2014) outlined a comparative overview of
the challenges to promoting inquiry-based teaching approaches in 13 European educational
contexts and indicated that a lack of appropriate teaching resources, such as laboratory or
digital resources, were found in some countries, as well as a lack of assessment tools for
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36 IBL. Dixon (2011), as a chemistry teacher, reported the school-level barriers which prevent
the more frequent use of inquiry by teachers in school science. He argued that it is hard for
some schools to resource practical investigative science lessons because of a lack of dedicated
funding for purchasing certain equipment which can be expensive, a lack of technical support
like laboratory technicians, and a lack of specialized laboratory teaching space. Moreover, with
respect to manageable class size, classes frequently exceeding 32 students can be a constraint
in conducting practical experiments since IBL requires more support for individual needs than
traditional laboratory work (Dixon, 2011).
In sum, as described, many factors have affected IBL implementation, not only at teacher-
level, e.g. teachers’ emphasis on assessment and inappropriate professional development for
pre- and in-service teachers, but also at school-level, e.g. scarcity of resources for conducting
IBL. However, most of the studies were conducted with small-scale, qualitative data analyses,
and did not reveal the extent to which those factors affect teachers’ IBL implementation. Thus,
this research was aimed to investigate large-scale secondary data, TIMSS 2011, which collected
multi-faceted teachers’ perspectives in science education as well as their implementation of
inquiry in schools, in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of IBL implementation
in lower secondary school science by comparing two countries with different educational
backgrounds.
Methodology of Research
General Characteristics of Research
In order to conduct the national comparative study between Finland and Korea, samples
from TIMSS 2011, one of international large scale assessments, were chosen. With the samples,
various factors related to inquiry implementation were examined with a hierarchical multiple
regression model. Hierarchical regression is one of the most powerful sets of methods which
‘involves theoretically based decisions for how predictors are entered into the analysis’
(Petrocelli, 2003).
Data Sample
TIMSS is an international assessment of mathematics and science at the fourth and

eighth grades that has been conducted on a four-year cycle since 1995 by the IEA (International
Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement). This involved sixty-three countries
and fourteen benchmarking entities in TIMSS 2011; among them, forty-five countries and
fourteen benchmarking entities participated in the eighth grade assessment. The data covers not
only students’ achievements in mathematics and science, but also students’ home environmental
background, school resources and climate for teaching, and teacher preparation and instruction
(Martin et al., 2012). The samples in this research comprised 624 Finnish science teachers
from 152 lower secondary schools and 202 Korean science teachers from 150 lower secondary
schools.
Variables
In TIMSS 2011, most of the latent science context questionnaire items were combined
into scales constructed by IRT (Item Response Theory) scaling methods using the Rasch partial
credit model so that the mean scale score across all TIMSS 2011 participating countries was 10
and the standard deviation was 2 (Martin et al. 2012). Detailed information on each scale used
in this study is provided in Appendix 1.
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Dependent Variable 37
Inquiry-based Teaching Practice: The Teachers Emphasize Science Investigation (ESI)

scale was chosen as a dependent variable which represented the frequency of using inquiry in
school science measured by teachers’ responses to the seven questions such as ‘In teaching
science to this class, how often do you usually ask students to design or plan experiments or
investigations?’ or ‘In teaching science to this class, how often do you usually ask students to
conduct experiments or investigations?’. They were measured using the four-point Likert scale,
‘every or almost every lesson’, ‘about half the lessons’, ‘some lessons’, and ‘never’ (α=.72).
Teacher-related Factors
Assessment, Professional Development, and Class size: Based on teachers’ responses

to question 25, ‘How much emphasis do you place on national or regional achievement tests
to monitor students' progress in science?’ the teachers’ tendency to prepare students for the
assessment was measured. They answered either ‘major emphasis’, ‘some emphasis’, or ‘little
or no emphasis’. Professional development related to IBL was measured with question 28 ‘In
the past two years, have you participated in professional development in improving students'
critical thinking or inquiry skills?’, and the teacher responded ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Question 12
measured the class size (How many students are in this class?), and teachers wrote down the
number of students in their science classes.
Confidence and Collaboration in Teaching Science: Based on teachers’ responses to five
questions such as ‘In teaching science to this class, how confident do you feel explaining science
concepts or principles by doing science experiments?’ or ‘In teaching science to this class, how
confident do you feel providing challenging tasks for capable students?’, the Confidence in
Teaching Science (CTS) scale was measured (α=.73).
The Collaborate to Improve Teaching (CIT) scale was estimated according to teachers’
answers to the five statements such as ‘Collaborate in planning and preparing instructional
materials’ or ‘Work together to try out new ideas’ (α=.81).
School-related Factor
In TIMSS 2011, school principals responded to the school questionnaire on school

background. Among them, thirteen questions related to the shortage of general school resources
and resources for science instruction were selected and aggregated into the Instruction Affected
by Science Resource Shortages (SRS) scale. The scale included statements such as ‘How
much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of
teachers with a specialization in science?’ or ‘How much is your school’s capacity to provide
instruction affected by a shortage or inadequacy of computer software for science instruction?’,
and principals responded by checking the appropriate box on a four-point Likert scale: ‘not at
all’, ‘a little’, ‘some’, and ‘a lot’ (α=.88).
In addition to these variables, teacher demographics such as gender, educational level,
teaching experience, and their major in education and science were included in the model as
control variables. As shown in Table 1, we recoded some variables so that the positive scores
could indicate a positive relationship with the dependent variable.
Statistical Models and Analysis
Initially, a two-level multilevel model (MLM) was supposed to be employed to examine

the effect of teacher and school factors on teachers’ IBL implementation in school science since
teachers are nested within the schools in large-scale education research as students are nested.
However, an Intra-class Correlation Coefficient (ICC) – which is ‘the proportion of the total
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38 variance in the dependent variable (which is the sum of the between-group variance and the
within-group variance) that exists between groups’ – smaller than 5% and showing the analysis
of clustered data is needless (Bliese, 2000). Hence, instead of MLM, hierarchical multiple
regression was employed in this study.
The analysis was conducted using a four-step approach. For the first model (Model 1),
teachers’ demographics were included to control their background for the coming models.
In Model 2 and 3, teacher-level models were built without school-level variables, so that the
models can examine the effects of teacher factors on inquiry implementation. Factors such as
teachers’ emphasis on exam, professional development for inquiry teaching, science class size,
and teachers’ confidence and collaboration in teaching science were added in the Models. And
finally, a full model (Model 4) was constructed by adding a school factor: resources for teaching
science. SPSS 22 was used for the hierarchical multiple regression as well as descriptive
analysis.
Table 1. Variable coding detail.
Variable Names TIMSS Coding Recoding

Teachers Emphasize Science Investigation TIMSS Scale (ESI)
Emphasis on Exam 1= Major Emphasis 1= Some or Major Emphasis
2= Some Emphasis 0= Little or No
3= Little or No
Professional Development 1= Yes, 2=No 1= Yes, 0= No
Class size Numeric
Confidence in Teaching Science TIMSS Scale (CTS)
Collaborate to Improve Teaching TIMSS Scale (CIT)

Instruction Affected by Science Resource
TIMSS Scale (SRS)
Shortages
Gender 1= Female, 2= Male 0= Female, 1= Male
1= Not Complete ISCED 3

Educational Level 2= ISCED Level 3
3= ISCED Level 4
4= ISCED Level 5B
5= ISCED Level 5A 1st
6= ISCED Level 5A 2nd
Teaching Experience Numeric
Major in Education and Science 1= Science Education & Science 1= No formal

2= Science Education 2= Other
3= Science 3= Science
4= Other 4= Science Education
5= No formal 5= Science Education & Science
Results of Research
Descriptive Results
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics on all factors for both Finnish and Korean teachers
including Cohen’s d which measures the effect size for the two different groups. Final participant
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numbers in this study were 496 teachers in 135 schools in Finland, and 184 teachers in 147 39
schools in Korea after conducting list-wise deletion. In terms of IBL implementation, Korean
teachers emphasize science investigation more than Finnish teachers even though the effect
size was statistically not significant. Teachers in both countries have been teaching for about 15
years and there were more female teachers than male teachers in lower secondary schools. The
educational level of Finnish teachers was significantly higher than Korean teachers (specifically,
87.5% Master and 10.3% Bachelor’s degree in Finland, and 34.2% Master and 65.8%
Bachelor’s degree in Korea). Even though the relatedness of Korean teachers’ major in teaching
science was higher than Finnish teachers, both of them majored mostly in science alone, not
in science education (specifically, 65.8 % of Korean and 61.7% of Finnish teachers majored in
science alone). Significant differences were found in class size, exam emphasis, and PD for IBL
between the two countries. Class sizes were twice as large in the Korean science classes as the
Finnish ones, and Korean teachers focused more on exams than Finnish teachers. While Korean
teachers participated much more in PD for IBL than the Finnish teachers, their confidence in
teaching science was lower than for the Finnish teachers. Collaboration in teaching science
and school resources were higher in Korean schools than Finnish schools. Considering the
score of 10 in the TIMSS-scaled items as a mean score derived from all participating countries,
both countries showed a higher level in school resources, but lower levels in emphasis on
investigation, confidence and collaboration in teaching science than other countries.
Table 2. Descriptive results for Finnish and Korean teachers
Finland Korea
Variables N Mean (S.D.) N Mean (S.D.) db

Emphasis on Science Investigation a 496 9.41 (1.80) 184 9.62 (1.53) .13
Teaching Experience 496 15.91 (10.07) 184 14.75 (10.28) -.11
Gender 496 .39 (.49) 184 0.32 (.47) -.15
Educational Level 496 5.83 (.58) 184 5.34 (.48) -.92
Major in Education and Science 496 2.92 (.81) 184 3.52 (.88) .71
Class size 496 15.5 (5.60) 184 34.05 (6.40) 3.08
Emphasis on Exam 496 .28 (.45) 184 .74 (.44) 1.03
Professional development for IBL 496 .08 (.27) 184 .46 (.50) .95
Confidence in Teaching Science a 496 9.10 (2.06) 184 8.49 (2.16) -.29
Collaboration to Improve Teaching a
496 9.37 (1.90) 184 9.67 (1.83) .16
School Resources for Science Education 135
a
10.65 (1.23) 147 11.64 (2.06) .58
a=TIMSS Scale
b= Cohen’s d: No effect (d < .2). Small effect (.2 < d < .5), Moderate effect (.5 < d < .8), Large effect (d > .8)
Hierarchical Multiple Regression
Results from all Finnish models in Table 3 show that teachers’ backgrounds, such as
their teaching experience, gender, educational level, and major in science have non-significant
association with IBL implementation, thus these factors did not affect the frequency of inquiry
practice in Finnish secondary schools. On the other hand, as shown in Table 4, the Korean
teachers’ education level is significantly negatively related to IBL implementation. This means
that teachers who have a Master’s degree implemented IBL less often than teachers who have
a Bachelor’s degree in Korea.
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40 As for the effect of class size, this negatively contributed to teachers’ inquiry
implementation as shown in Finnish Model 2 to 4; thus where there were more students in
the class, there were fewer incidences of inquiry practices in Finland. Moreover, its effect was
statistically not significant in terms of teachers’ IBL frequency in all Korean models.
In Finnish Models 2 and 3, the effect of PD on IBL was reduced and became non-
significant when factors for teachers’ confidence and collaboration in teaching science were
taken into account. This means that a substantial part of the effect of PD on IBL was mediated by
teachers’ confidence and collaboration. Hence, it may be assumed that the Finnish PD program
was so successfully conducted in terms of promoting teachers’ confidence and collaboration in
teaching science that they have implemented more IBL in school science. Likewise, the effect
of PD was also reduced after considering teachers’ confidence and collaboration factors in the
Korean models, but was statistically so non-significant that it is not possible to conclude that the
PD program successfully influenced teachers’ confidence or collaboration in teaching science
as well as their implementation inquiry in Korea.
Table 3. Effects of factors on teachers’ IBL implementation in Finland.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

β t β t β t β t
Intercept 9.97
***
11.64 10.25
***
11.97 6.24
***
6.68 4.09
***
3.68
Teaching Experience -.021 -.46 -.021 -.48 -.04 -.86 -.03 -.76
Gender .00 .05 .01 .12 -.03 -.74 -.03 -.80
Educational Level .00 -.10 .01 .20 .00 .05 .00 .10
Major in Education and
-.07 -1.38 -.06 -1.20 -.07 -1.63 -.06 -1.39
Science
Class size -.15
**
-3.17 -.12
**
-2.80 -.14
**
-3.28
Emphasis on Exam .07 1.44 .06 1.49 .07 1.65
Professional Develop-
.11
*
2.37 .06 1.35 .06 1.35
ment
Confidence in Teaching ***
.28 6.60 ***
.26 6.25
Science
Collaboration to Improve ***
.23 5.41 ***
.23 5.40
Teaching
School Resources for

.14
**
3.47
Science Education
R2 .005 .042 .181 .201
∆R2 .037 .139 .020
df 491 488 486 485
F .616 ***
3.087 ***
11.949 ***
12.2
*
p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001
In both countries, confidence in teaching science was the most positive indicator for
implementing IBL in school science, and the effect persists after controlling for all teacher
factors and school factors in the final model. In addition, collaboration for improving science
teaching also indicated a strong positive effect on IBL implementation in Models 3 and 4 in
both countries. While the collaboration frequency was higher in Korea (see Table 2), the effect
of collaboration on IBL was higher in Finland.
Regarding school resources for science education, this was significantly related to
IBL practice in Finland, whereas this was not the case in Korea. This means that when there
were more resources, there was more incidence of inquiry practice in Finland, but the Korean
teachers’ implementation of IBL was not related to school resources.
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The models were gradually improved after adding more variables, and the final model 41
explained 20% overall variability for the Finnish sample and 18% for the Korean sample. We
could not find any issues with correlations and collinearities between variables in all models
both in Finland and Korea.
Table 4. Effects of factors on teachers’ IBL implementation in Korea.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
β t β t β t β t
Intercept 13.19
***
9.88 12.78
***
8.25 9.11
***
5.54 8.68
***
4.90
Teaching Experience .05 .66 .05 .62 .01 .20 .02 .24
Gender -.04 -.54 -.05 -.66 -.04 -.56 -.04 -.52
Educational Level *
-.21 -2.88 *
-.21 -2.76 *
-.18 -2.49 *
-.17 -2.46
Major in Education and Science .01 .07 .01 .12 .01 .17 .01 .19
Class size .01 .10 .02 .27 .02 .28
Emphasis on Exam .01 .19 .02 .29 .02 .31
Professional development .12 1.60 .08 1.16 .08 1.16
Confidence in Teaching Science ***

.27 3.91 ***
.27 3.89
Collaboration to Improve Teach-
*
.18 2.56 *
.19 2.59
ing
School Resources for Science
.05 .66
Education
R2 .047 .062 .180 .182
∆R2 .014 .118 .002
df 179 176 174 173
F 2.232 1.655 ***
4.235 ***
3.843
*
p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001
Discussion
The aim of this research was to examine factors that affect IBL implementation in
lower secondary school and to measure the extent to which those factors affect IBL practice
in two different countries, Finland and Korea, based on the TIMSS 2011 science data set. The
results of multiple regression found several factors related to inquiry implementation in science
education.
This research found that IBL implementation in lower secondary schools can be strongly
predicted by teachers’ confidence in teaching science. Since many teachers have few learning
experiences of inquiry in their school years (Capps & Crawford, 2013; Park, 2005; Windschitl,
2000), determination on the part of teachers to explore a new way of teaching, as well as
confidence in their capabilities is required in order to successfully conduct inquiry. Therefore,
our results may indicate that when teachers had more confidence in their abilities in teaching
science, including inquiry skills, there was a higher frequency of inquiry in school science. This
result is in line with previous studies demonstrating that teachers’ school practices depend mostly
on their beliefs and confidence levels (Davis, 2003; Loucks-Horsley et al., 2003). However,
our results also show that both Finnish and Korean teachers presented lower confidence in
teaching science than average OECD countries, and, thus, this is likely to cause low frequency
of inquiry practice in both countries. Moreover, as Table 5 indicates, among five confidence-
related scales, their lower confidence was for different reasons. Consequently, with respect to
increasing teachers’ confidence, we argue that each educational system needs different support
mechanisms.
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42 Table 5. Average of teachers’ confidence scale in teaching science.
Confidence scale Finland Korea

1) Answer students’ questions about science 1.33 1.44
2) Explain science concepts or principles by doing science experiments 1.36 1.41
3) Provide challenging tasks for capable students 1.58 1.78
4) Adapt my teaching to engage students’ interest 1.62 1.63
5) Help students appreciate the value of learning science 1.54 1.64
* Teachers chose from: 1. very confident 2. somewhat confident 3. not confident
In addition to teachers’ confidence, their collaboration on improving science teaching

also presented as a strong predictor for promoting IBL implementation in both Finland and
Korea. The result is consistent with previous research (Bolte et al., 2014: Snow-Gerono, 2004)
indicating that when teachers had more opportunities to collaborate with each other they tried
more inquiry-based teaching in the classroom. When teachers try to use new ways of teaching
they usually face a lack of teaching resources, such as lesson plans or instructional materials, to
initiate and implement (Dixon, 2011). Accordingly, teachers’ co-work or networks can provide
them with chances to plan and prepare instructions together so as to produce more adequate
materials than with individual preparation and encourage each other to try out new ideas.
Moreover, they could learn from each other by reflecting and sharing what they learn from
their experiences. Kim (2009) also reported that Korean science teachers have recognized the
importance of collaboration with other teachers, so they build teacher communities or teacher
interest groups outside of school and seek governmental support to enhance these inter-school
collaborations to develop science teaching. Hence, the results demand that teacher educators
focus more on how to improve pre- and in-service teachers’ confidence and collaboration in
conducting inquiry in schools through teaching programs in order to make widespread inquiry
teaching possible (Riegle-Crumb et al., 2015; Smith, 2013).
Interestingly, the results showed that the positive effect of confidence and collaboration
towards IBL implementation was partially derived from the professional development of IBL in
the Finnish sample. Therefore, the results may be interpreted as indicating that inquiry-related
PD programs in Finland were likely to increase teachers’ confidence and collaboration, and, thus,
teachers who participated in the programs implemented more frequent inquiry than teachers who
did not participate in the programs. Smith (2013) similarly found that in successful collaborative
professional development programs, teachers’ confidence and competence in teaching science as
well as pupils’ attitudes towards learning science were substantially increased. However, in the
Korean sample, even though the mediated effect was similarly indicated, it was statistically not
significant so we were unable to conclude that inquiry-related PD was successfully conducted
in Korea. Regarding the fact that Korean teachers participated in inquiry-related PD much
more than Finnish teachers, but its effect on implementing IBL was non-significant, programs
must be re-evaluated and modified in order to offer teachers better support (Guskey & Yoon,
2009; Guskey. 2003). In fact, problems related to professional development programs in Korea,
including the disconnectedness of programs with school practice, institution-centered training,
teachers’ low motivation and satisfaction, and unsystematic management, have often been
reported (Kim, 2009; Kim, 2007). Further, our results bring the effects of this into question,
since, as Murphy, Beggs, and Russell (2005) have argued; only high-quality PD is the key to
improving teachers’ confidence in science teaching.
Moreover, class size and school resources were indicated as barriers to implementing
IBL in Finland, but no relationship was found in the Korean sample. As Dixon (2011) argues,
class size over 32 can be a constraint for practical experiments. However, in Korea, the average
class size was 34 in the study, which is higher than in Dixon’s assertion, thus the number of
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students in the class probably became statistically not significant in the models. On the other 43
hand, the Finnish sample showed that the average class size was 15.5 and the implementation
of IBL was negatively affected by the number of students. In addition to class size, school
resources for science instruction were positively related to teachers’ inquiry implementation
in the Finnish sample. Therefore, Finnish policy makers and educators have to consider how
to manage class sizes and school resources if they want to increase emphasis on scientific
inquiry at school. Without ensuring the correct number of students per class and level of school
resources in one school, inquiry will be practiced less frequently in Finland.
Unlike in the Finnish sample, when the Korean teachers had a higher education level,
they conducted less inquiry-based teaching, and, surprisingly, the effect size of their negative
relationship (-2.46) was similar to the positive effect of the impact of teachers’ collaboration
on inquiry practice (2.59) (See Table 4). In terms of the Master programs for teacher education
in Korea, which are designed to enhance teachers’ pedagogical skills and disseminate new
teaching approaches, this seems incomprehensible. However, as shown in Table 6, among the
Korean teachers with Master’s degrees, teachers who majored in only science comprised a large
proportion of the sample (45) and indicated the lowest level of inquiry implementation (8.99).
Thus, in turn, they brought down the overall average of IBL implementation among teachers
with Master’s degrees. One possible interpretation of this result is that since teachers only
majoring in science, but not in science education, are likely to study only content knowledge,
but not pedagogical content knowledge, they will have lower confidence in teaching science
and less collaboration with other teachers than teachers majoring both in science and science
education, and, finally, will tend to try inquiry-based teaching less frequently (see Table 6).
Therefore, in order to extend IBL in Korean secondary schools, inquiry-related pedagogical
training is required for teachers who hold Master’s degrees, but have never studied science
pedagogy. In addition, as is also shown in Table 6, although the number of teachers was small,
teachers holding only science education degrees, but not science, indicated the lowest confidence
in teaching science. We assume, conversely, that this resulted from their lack of science content
knowledge. Therefore, this population also needs to be taken into account in terms of teacher
training in developing science content knowledge.
Finally, despite significant differences of teacher emphasis on exams between Finland
and Korea, this did not influence IBL implementation in either country. Specifically, Korean
teachers’ emphasis on assessment was almost three times higher than that of the Finnish
teachers, but the frequency of conducting investigation was similar in both countries. On the
one hand, the result is in line with Ripley’s (2014) assertion that the Korean educational system
is based more on competition than the Finnish system. On the other hand, the result conflicts
with previous research arguing that the assessment pressure is likely to prevent time-consuming
experimental work in school science so that teachers are more likely to transfer knowledge
for preparing the assessments (Trautmann et al., 2004: Yeomans, 2011; Veronesi & Voorst,
2000). In spite of the non-relationship between the pressure of evaluation and the frequency
of teachers’ IBL practice, however, since we did not examine the effects of this pressure on
the quality of teachers’ IBL practice, further research is needed to investigate the influence
of teachers’ perceptions of preparing for exams on the quality of IBL practice in Finland and
Korea.
Table 6. Inquiry frequency, confidence, and collaboration of Korean teachers

with Master’s degrees.
Teachers with majors in N IBL frequency Confidence Collaboration

Science but Not Science Education 45 8.99 8.18 9.26
Science Education but Not Science 3 9.68 6.86 9.54
Science Education and Science 16 9.76 8.72 10.32
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44 Conclusion and Limitations
In order to explore the factors related to inquiry practice in different cultures, we

compared Finland and Korea, and found common and different factors affecting inquiry-based
learning in each country. Among several factors, teachers’ confidence in teaching science and
their collaboration to improve science teaching were revealed as common and strong predictors
for implementing inquiry in both countries. In general, teachers’ confidence in teaching science
has been emphasized because of its positive effect on student achievement and motivation.
In addition to this effect, we add further evidence to justify teacher educators giving higher
priority to teachers’ confidence in their teacher training programs that aim to increase inquiry
practice. However, since Finland and Korea are quite different countries, each population has
different practices and cultural backgrounds, and, thus, might indicate different needs in terms
of teacher training. Therefore, we encourage comparative analysis of each sample from TIMSS
with other cultural backgrounds respectively in advance of developing PD programs. In addition
to teacher confidence, teachers’ communities for collaboration on developing teaching practice
can play an import role in increasing inquiry-based science education, due to the associated
demands of creating teaching materials and curricula, and reflecting personal practice. Thus, in
order to encourage teachers to engage in consistent inquiry practice, a sustainable environment
for teachers within which they can cooperate and collaborate in and out of school is required.
These findings are not without limitations. Since TIMSS 2011 was based on and more
concerned with participating students as opposed to teachers, while the TIMSS 2011 student
samples are representative of the populations of their countries of origin, the samples of teachers
are not representative of the population of their countries of origin. In addition, because only a
small number of teachers from each school were involved, usually two or three teachers from
each school, the cluster effect was not apparent in the study. Therefore, in terms of further
research, we suggest designing a survey, for instance, by using stratified and cluster sampling
for teachers, as TIMSS has done for students, so that teacher samples can be representative of
populations and show a cluster effect.
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46 Ministry of Education [MOE] (2007). Science Education Curriculum. [KOR]

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Veronesi, P., & Voorst, C. (2000). Science teacher beliefs: Toward an understanding of state science 47
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Appendix 1. Scaled Items in TIMSS 2011 Teacher and School Questionnaires
Teacher Questionnaire
The Collaborate to Improve Teaching (CIT) Scale
Q10. How often do you have the following types of interactions with other teachers?
(Daily or almost daily, 1-3 times per week, 2 or 3 times per month, Never or almost
never)
1) Discuss how to teach a particular topic
2) Collaborate in planning and preparing instructional materials
3) Share what I have learned about my teaching experiences
4) Visit another classroom to learn more about teaching
5) Work together to try out new ideas
The Confidence in Teaching Science (CTS) Scale

Q18. In teaching science to this class, how confident do you feel to do the following?
(Very Confident, Somewhat Confident, Not Confident)
1) Answer students’ questions about science
2) Explain science concepts or principles by doing science experiments
3) Provide challenging tasks for capable students
4) Adapt my teaching to engage students’ interest
5) Help students appreciate the value of learning science
The Teachers Emphasize Science Investigation (ESI) Scale

Q19. In teaching science to the students in this class, how often do you usually ask them
to do the following?
(Every or almost every lesson, About half the lessons, Some lessons, Never)
1) Observe natural phenomena and describe what they see
2) Watch me demonstrate an experiment or investigation
3) Design or plan experiments or investigations
4) Conduct experiments or investigations
5) Use scientific formulas and laws to solve routine problems
6) Give explanations about something they are studying
7) Relate what they are learning in science to their daily lives
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48 School Questionnaire
The Instruction Affected by Science Resource Shortages (SRS) Scale
Q9. How much is your school’s capacity to provide instruction affected by a shortage or
inadequacy of the following?
(Not at all, A little, Some, A lot)
A. General School Resources
1) Instructional materials (e.g., textbooks)
2) Supplies (e.g., papers, pencils)
3) School buildings and grounds
4) Heating/cooling and lighting systems
5) Instructional space (e.g., classrooms)
6) Technologically competent staff
B. Resources for Science Instruction

1) Teachers with a specialization in science
2) Computers for science instruction
3) Computer software for science instruction
4) Library materials relevant to science instruction
5) Audio-visual resources for science instruction
6) Calculators for science instruction
7) Science equipment and materials
Jingoo Kang PhD Candidate, Researcher, University of Eastern Finland, School of Applied Educa-
tional Science and Teacher Education, PO Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland.
E-mail: jingoo.kang@uef.fi
Tuula Keinonen PhD, Professor, Head of the School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Educa-
tion, University of Eastern Finland, School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher
Education, PO Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland.
E-mail: tuula.keinonen@uef.fi
Website: https://wiivi.uef.fi/crisyp/disp/_/fi/cr_redir_all/fet/fet/sea?direction=3&id=2701165
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IMPACT EVALUATION OF TWO MASTER 49
COURSES ATTENDED BY TEACHERS: AN

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH IN ANGOLA
Betina Silva Lopes

University Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
University of Coimbra, Portugal
E-mail: blopes@ua.pt
Nilza Costa
University of Coimbra, Portugal
E-mail: nilzacosta@ua.pt
Bernardo Filipe Matias

Institute of Educational Sciences (ISCED), Lubango, Angola
E-mail: bernardofilipe@yahoo.com
Abstract
The present research aims to evaluate the impact of two master courses offered by one public higher
education institution in Angola on the professional development of Angolan teachers and also on
the broader educational community. The two courses were attended by 393 teachers. The data of 45
answered questionnaires and six verbatim transcripts of individual semi-structured interviews were
analysed. According to the teachers perspective the courses contributed to teachers’ personal growth
and changes of practices, as well as improved students’ learning (micro context of impact). Although to
a lesser extent, impact on broader contexts was also identified, indicating that changes occurred also
within other teachers and elements of the surrounding school community (meso context of impact) as
well as the community of educational research (macro context of impact). The results in discussion are of
relevance for further investment on post graduation courses (master level) for teachers offered by higher
education institutions. Outlined recommendations could potentially contribute to impact enhancement
(and understanding) of academic post-graduation courses’ attended by in-service teachers, particularly
those integrated in recent higher education systems of post conflict countries, such as the Republic of
Angola.
Key words: teachers’ professional development, teacher education, post-graduation, master courses,
impact evaluation, Angola.
Introduction
The importance of investing in teacher education programs towards more and better
Education has been recently reinforced by the United Nations within the adoption of the fourth
Goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030), namely “Ensure inclusive and
equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO,
2016, p. iii). This global aim sets the baseline for the roadmap of efforts stated in the document
Education 2030 Framework for Action, which entails ten specific targets and more than fifty
indicative strategies, being of particular relevance for the present research the second indicative
strategy of target 4.c: “Review, analyse and improve the quality of teacher training (pre-service
and in-service) and provide all teachers with quality pre-service education and continuous
professional development and support” (UNESCO, 201, p. 24).
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Betina Silva LOPES, Nilza COSTA, Bernardo Filipe MATIAS. Impact evaluation of two master courses attended by teachers: An
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50
In order to accomplish the Education 2030 Agenda it is crucial that the increasing access
to education is accompanied by more investments in teacher education programs, particularly
in disadvantaged regions with an uneven distribution of professionally trained teachers: “The
absence and/or inadequacy of continuous professional development and support for teachers
(…) are key contributing factors to the low quality of learning outcomes. Successful education
systems that ensure quality and equity have focused on a professional development continuum
that supports teachers’ own learning and improvement trough careers.” (UNESCO, 2016, p.
24)
In alignment with the Education 2030 Agenda, The African Union Commission (AUC)
defined the Continental Education Strategy for Africa – CESA 2016-2025, assuming as a central
goal the development of strong and efficient educational systems in each African country
(African Union Comisson [AUC], 2016).
Research Background: Teacher Education in the Republic of Angola
Since the instauration of peace in April 2002, Angola was able to expand its educational
systems (Bourguignon Silva, 2013), achieving a growing schooling rate above 50% in the last
decade (Ministry of Education of Angola [MEA], 2014). As a consequence of this “Big Push
in Universal Education” the current public teacher education system (Table 1) has been under
a rising pressure to increase the number of qualified professionals in order to cover the needs
and overcome problems related to the quality of the teaching strategies, such as low learning
outputs. As a response to this problem the Angolan Ministry of Education conceptualized,
in 2007, with technical support of international cooperation agencies, the Plano Mestre de
Formação de Professores [Master Plan of Teacher Education] (MEA, 2008), which entails
several measures considering initial (pre-service) teacher education, in-service (modular)
teacher education programs, as well as long distance programs. Despite these efforts, the need
of qualified teachers continues to be uncovered. According to the Report “Educação Pública
de Qualidade para Todos” [Public Education with Quality for Everyone] (MEA, 2014) a
total of 245.979 teachers were employed in 2012. In the same year 12.854 new teachers were
graduated, which represents only 5.2% of the total number of teachers. Therefore, it is of crucial
importance to continue the investment on the expansion of qualified education programs for
teachers that are already in the system.
Table 1. Public teacher education in Angola.

(cf. Government of the Republic of Angola, 2001; Women’s Commission for refugee women and
children, 2003; Cangoi and Castanho, 2016).
Designation When? Where? For what?
... to teach at Pre-school

level and/or at Primary
10 – 13th grade
th
Institutos Médios Normais
Education level (1st to 6th
Medium level (2nd cycle of secondary educa- Centros Básicos de Formação
grade) in regular educa-
tion) Institutos do Magistério Primário
tion, adult education or
special education
... to teach at second-
Institutos Superiores de Ciências ary education (7th to 13th
bachelor degree (3 years)
Higher level da Educação” (ISCED) grade) in regular educa-
graduation degree (4 -6 years)
Escolas Superiores Pedagógicas tion, adult education or
special education
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Research Focus: Investigating the Impact of Teacher Education in Angola 51
In alignment with the current international, and in particular African, political

commitment in investing in teacher education, it is important to look closer at the existing
teacher education programs of Angola in order to evaluate to what extent those programs are
making a difference and to draw recommendations which may help the involved institution in
enhancing the quality and the impact of the teacher education courses. While specific measures
are being taken at pre-service and in-service (modular) teacher education under the scope of
the “Plano Mestre de Formação de Professores” (MEA, 2008), there is no particular strategy
considering academic post-graduation courses attended by teachers. However, considering that
the network of public higher education institutions has been growing considerably in Angola
during the last 13 years (Carvalho, 2012), these education programs of higher level need also
to be reviewed and analysed since it is expected a growing contribution of these institutions to
the qualification of Angolan teachers.
In this sense, the present research is focused on investigating the impact of two master
courses (2nd edition) attended by 393 Angolan teachers and which were offered by a particular
Instituto Superior de Ciências da Educação (ISCED) of Angola. The goal is to delineate
recommendations considering the development of academic in-service teacher education
programs.
Impact Evaluation of In-service Teacher Education Programs - Theoretical

Framework
Globally in-service teacher education programs aim to provide opportunities to extend

teachers’ professional learning, leading to professional development. According to King (2013)
teachers’ professional development can be defined as “the growth of teacher expertise leading
to a change in practice which results in improved pupil learning” (p. 3). While this definition
entails three nuclear concepts associated to the global aim of in-service teacher education,
namely teacher growth, change of teacher practice and learning improvement of students, the
research around the impact of teacher education programs implies a broader and more holistic
approach, due to the complex nature of professional development, and also to the fact that
teacher development, may affect many others, besides the teacher and his/her students. In
order to promote a deeper and extended understanding of the phenomena several theoretical
frameworks have been developed, being some of them focused on impact of non-academic
in-service teacher education programs (for example Guskey, 2002; Kirkpatrick, 1959; Stake,
1967) and others on the impact of academic post-graduation courses for teachers (Cruz, 2005;
Cruz, Pombo, & Costa, 2008; Thornhill, 1985).
In this particular research the three-level-impact model developed by Cruz and co-
workers (Cruz, 2005; Cruz, Pombo & Costa, 2008) – Table 2 – was adopted in order to analyze
the effects of two master courses attended by Angolan teachers. The model was adopted
because of two reasons. First, it was conceptualized within a longitudinal (ten year) study of
post-graduation courses for teachers (Cruz, Pombo & Costa, 2008), which enhances confidence
on the framework. Second, it considers several educational stakeholders and therefore adopts
a pluralist perspective. The authors of this research stand along with Aguninis, Shapiro,
Antonacopoulou, & Cumming (2014) who state that “impact comes in different forms” (p.
626).
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52 Table 2. Impact contexts of teacher post-graduation courses.

(cf. Cruz, 2005; Cruz et al., 2008).
Context of
Definition Stakeholders Extension
Impact
Practices and processes associated
Teacher
Micro to teaching and learning of a particular Classroom
Students
discipline and/or level
School Practices related with the work Teacher colleagues School(s)
that the teacher develops with peers Parents Institutions of Teacher
Mezo inside his/her school (for example, de- School staff Education and Educa-
partment colleagues) and his/her close Persons from the local tional Research
community (for example, parents) community Local communities
Educational practices associated to the Policy-makers

(Inter) National Educa-
Macro broader community, including at the Educational research-
tion community
research and/or political level. ers
Data Gathering Procedures and Instruments
Data was gathered through the application of a questionnaire and the realization of semi-
structured interviews. Two major data gathering calls (DGC) were organized. The first lasted
four days (July 2016). The coordination of the HEI invited the master students (a total of 447,
being 393 of them teachers) to come to the installations in order to participate on a research
project related with the master courses. During those four days, three schools from the same
city of the two courses were visited, in order to apply the questionnaire. The second DGC
corresponded to one specific day (also in July 2016) and happened at one school of a neighbour
province from where came several master students. The research team travelled to that school
(nearly 200 km away) to apply personally the questionnaire and to realize some interviews with
the graduates that appeared at that particular school. Within the two DGC it was possible to
gather from the teachers a total of 45 questionnaires and realize six individual interviews.
The applied questionnaire was adapted from a previous exemplar used to evaluate the
impact of a Portuguese master course for teachers (Pombo & Costa, 2009). The adapted version
was discussed with two educational researchers specialized in impact evaluation, being one of
them familiar with the Angolan context. The obtained questionnaire was then applied as a ‘pilot
version’ to three Angolan master students (sent by e-mail). According to the obtained feedback
from the three respondents some improvements were made. The final version of the instrument
is organized in three parts and has a total of 35 questions (including close questions, multiple
choice questions, questions with Likert scales, and also open questions).
The interviews were of semi-structured nature. In order to support the interview process
an interview script was elaborated in alignment with the focus and specific goals of the research
and supported on the consultation of institutional documents related to the two master courses
(such as internal regulation of the courses, internal annual reports, and data bases of the
graduates’ classification at the curricular units and at the public defence of their dissertation).
The interviewed teachers were selected on a voluntary basis among those that attended the
DGC and therefore integrate the 45 teacher sample. The mean duration of the interviews was
23 minutes. All interviews were audio-taped and fully transcribed.
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Participants and Sample of the Research 53
As referred above the present study is focused on the teachers that attended one of two
master courses ministered by one public HEI in Angola between 2011 and 2016. One course
was in the area of curricular development (CD) and was attended by 237 graduates. The other
course was in the area of science teaching (ST), namely Biology, Physics, Mathematics and
Chemistry and was attended by 210 graduates. From the 447 graduates, 393 were teachers. Table
3 describes the profile of the six teachers that participated as interviewees. Table 4 describes the
sample of 45 teachers, based on the valid responses obtained through the questionnaires.
Table 3. Participants (P) description.
Master
Professional Profile DGC
Course
1 Graduated Math teacher with five years of experience at secondary (2nd cycle) level. ST (11-16) 1st
Graduated Biology teacher with 27 years of experience. Currently teaching at sec-
2 ondary (2nd cycle) level. Within the master degree started to coordinate her school ST (11-15) 1st
department.
20 years of teaching experience. Graduated in Pedagogy. Worked several years as

a Primary teacher. Continued in further education and started to work as teacher of
3 CD (11-15) 1st
Portuguese language (secondary level). Currently she has a full time job as a super-
visor of ten pre-service teachers at a “Magistério Primário”.
Graduated in teaching of History. He has been a teacher for 14 years combining this
profession also with military work. Recently he applied to a vacancy as professor at
4 CD (11-15) 2nd
a private university. His vocation is to be a teacher and he wants to change on a full
time basis to this profession.
20 years of teaching experience. First as a primary teacher, then graduated in Psy-
5 chology and worked as a secondary teacher (1st and 2nd cycle). Currently Psychology CD (11-15) 2nd
teacher at one private HEI.
19 years of teaching experience. Started to teach Maths and Physics. Graduated in
6 Teaching of Physics. Taught at secondary level during several years. Currently work- ST (11-14) 2nd
ing at a Higher Education teaching Physics for future engineers.
Table 4. Sample characterization.
Age (N=45): 35 to 44 (57.4%); 45 to 54 (38.3%); 4.3% older than 55 years old.
Gender (N=45): 51.1% female; 48.9% male
Graduation Main Domain (n=16): Pedagogy (37.5%), Sciences of Education (25.0%) and Biology (37.50%)
Profile Year (n=44): 1999 (9.5%); 2004-2007 (34.1%), 2008-2010 (50.0%); 2011 (6.4%).
Main Domain (N=45): Teaching of Sciences (46.7%); Curricular Development (53.3%)

Master Profile
Year of conclusion (n=32): 2013 (6.2%); 2014 (34.6%); 2015 (53.0%); 2016 (6.2%)
Years of Teaching experience: Mean = 16; Mode: 14; min. 3; max.: 30
Teacher Profile Current Levels of Teaching: Primary teaching (3.8%); secondary teaching first cycle (18.9%),
secondary teaching second cycle (41.5%), higher education (35.8%)
Current teaching situation: Full time (93.3%); Part time (6.9%)
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54 Data Analysis
Descriptive statistical analysis (using SPSS® version 21) as well as content analysis was
used to analyse the data. No inferential statistic was done, since (i) the obtained sample size is
below general recommendation (Ampudia de Haro, et al., 2016) and (ii) it was not possible to
use a probabilistic sampling technique (random sampling). Therefore, representativeness of the
sample could not be assured. The research assumes an exploratory nature and is conceptually
oriented by principles and theoretical frameworks associated to investigation of descriptive and
interpretative nature (Gray, 2014; Laureano, 2011).
The analysis was oriented by five specific research goals: (RG1) Identify impact evidences
of the master courses at micro level, according to the teachers’ perspective; (RG2) Identify
impact evidences of the master courses at meso level, according to the teachers’ perspective;
(RG3) Identify impact evidences of the master courses at macro level, according to the teachers’
perspective; (RG4) Establish a global master course balance crossing initial teacher’s motivation
with achieved learning/development according to the teachers’ perspective.
The Researcher's Role and Ethical Considerations
The research was conceptualized and developed by three persons, although having
different rules, due to the fact that two of them had been contacting with the teachers along
the master courses. One element, external to the ISCED, was involved as a supervisor of eight
teachers, while the other was involved in the management of the courses. Therefore, only one of
the three researchers, namely the one with no professional relation to the HEI and no previous
contact with the teachers, interacted directly with the informants during the data gathering
process, by delivering the questionnaires and realizing the interviews. The research project, as
well as its specific goals was explained to the informants. Before delivering the questionnaires
and conduct the interviews the researcher explained that gathered information would only
be used for investigative purposes and that anonymity was guaranteed. It was also explained
that the respondents could refuse at any time to give particular information or to abandon the
process if they wish to do so. Some teachers that were interviewed indicated that they would
like to have a copy of the audio-file of their interview, which was given, after being signed a
document (informant consent) by both persons involved in the interview, namely the teacher
and the researcher. Finally all teachers were informed that the findings of the research would
also be presented during an open seminar at the HEI and that all were invited to participate
(August, 2016).
Research Results
In the present section impact evidences of both master courses according to the teachers’
perspective are presented (micro, meso and macro level), followed by the global balance of
the master course. These results emerged from the analysis of the interview transcripts and the
responses to 15 questions, out of the 35, of the questionnaire that was applied.
The Master Courses Impact within the Teachers’ Classroom (Micro Context)
All six teachers that were interviewed recognized that the master course changed them
as professionals, how they ‘think’ and ‘act’ as teachers within their classroom. Three teachers
focused on conceptual growth, assuming “enhanced ability of reflection and perception of
concepts and phenomena” (T1), “more knowledge of didactical principles of teaching history”
(T4), and “broader perspective of the discipline taking into account students motivation”
(T6). Two colleagues focused their reflection on the practices they changed. T2 stated that
she implemented more experimental sessions, such as DNA extraction and experiences related
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to fermentation as well as observations at the microscope. T5 described how he started to 55

implement specific strategies, such as seminars and debates, in order to align teaching strategies
and learning outputs. Finally, T3 gave an enthusiastic statement involving both dimensions
(theoretical and conceptual) of her professional growth:
“The way I observe classes, correct teaching plans and give seminars about … methodology,
lesson planning and on the matrix of the proofs .. Everything is better [...].Very Much [better] indeed! It
was just combine [the learning of] the graduation and the Master course, make a … braising … and now
we are eating from it! (Laughs) […] Yes, Yes … Yes. It was very good. It was very good ...”
These changes, related to practices and processes of teaching and learning, were also
evident on the broader sample of 45 teachers. Indeed 93.6% of the respondents indicated that
they changed as a consequence of the master course. A total of 57 examples of ‘changes’ were
given, of those examples, 57.9% were focused on changes of the teacher at conceptual and
emotional level, 35.1% corresponded to changes at teaching practices and 7.0% corresponded to
improved learning outputs of students. Table 5 shows one illustrative answer for each ‘category’
and subcategory.
Table 5. Types and subtypes of the master courses’ impact at micro level.
4.1. Teachers’ change on conceptual and/or emotional aspects (n=33)

Acquisition of scientific knowledge which sustains changes in practice (n=11): e.g. “The way I teach the discipline
of curricular development, I learnt a lot about this scientific area”; Changes in self-perceptions and esteem (n=12):
eg. “I am more secure and concrete in my interventions”; “Changes in planning classes (n=6): e.g. “I began to prepare
plans for my classes”; Higher sensitivity towards students’ needs/individuality (n=4): e.g. “I now understand better
the students’ difficulty considering the aspects that I investigated”.
4.2. Teachers’ change on teaching practice (n=20)
Changes on interaction with students (n=5): e.g. “Increased ability to interact with students reminding me that they
all bring already some knowledge”; Changes on teaching strategies (n=15): e.g. “I Introduced several field classes”;
“lecture strategies orientated study and academic times”.
4.3. Changes on students’ learning (n=4)
eg. “I was able to improve the reasoning ability in my students”.
The Master Courses Impact within the Surrounding

Educational Community (Mezo Context)
46.8% of the 45 teachers stated in the questionnaire that they did not realize any change
or intervention with colleagues or on the surrounding community. Less than half of the
respondents, namely 42.6% stated that they implemented some type of action as a consequence
of attending the master course. A total of seven examples were given, being five of them
related to working with peers of the same department or the same school (e.g.: “implementation
of laboratory practices in our classes with my colleagues at school, before this no lab classes
were being implemented at school.”) and two examples corresponded to the organization of
scientific meetings at school.
On what concerns to the interviews, all six teachers emphasized the difficulty in
implementing changes that go beyond classroom level. Four teachers stated that they offered
to the school where they implemented the study a print-copy of the scientific report from
their research projects, which included some concrete recommendation for school directors.
Although, none of these teachers was able to clarify if any of those recommendations was
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56 implemented, explaining that they lost contact after finishing their research. Despite these
difficulties, some relevant examples considering impact at meso level were given. For example,
T6 described during his interview how he approached five colleagues from his institution and
how they started to share exercises and ideas considering the teaching of several disciplines at
civil engineering. The description of T5 goes also in the same direction. He described how he,
as a head of department, started to stimulate peer sharing and group discussion of the curricular
plan and how teaching strategies were (re)oriented as a group effort. T3 recognized that she
did not make any initiative with her colleagues. However, she emphasized that her students
where future teachers, future colleagues, and maybe even future school directors, Therefore,
she believed that what she learnt during the master course, and then implemented with her
students’ would perpetuate along time, and beyond her classes. Finally T4, assumed that his
research project didn’t have any direct impact on the teaching practices of colleagues, but it
led to ‘cleaning operations’ of one school and the surrounding community involving teachers,
students and school staff. And in his perspective this was an important impact considering the
environment and the education towards sustainability.
The Master Courses Impact within the (Inter) National Education Community
(Macro Context)
On what concerns to impact at macro level, all six interviewees explicitly stated that the
outputs of their master research were of high relevance for the policy makers at educational
level, deserving higher investments on the dissemination of the results, namely to the research
community. All teachers stated that they at least intended to disseminate their research outputs,
but only two of them were able to realize this intention by participating at conferences. Four
teachers explicitly manifested their desire to keep up with the contact with the Higher Education
Institution and to develop their identity as an educational researcher:
[Another] example that we learn from it [the supervisor], a specific example, was the improvement
of the pre-project research and doing the research. I've thought to continue to do research but I have not
putted into practice yet ... it is still a dream ... I am dreaming about it” (T3).
On what concerns to the 45 teacher sample, 63.8% of the respondents answered that
they did not have the chance to disseminate orally or in written form their research. Moreover,
considering the question “Do you keep contact with your HEI?” 61.7% answered no. But all
the teachers considered that maintaining a connection to the HEI would be of benefit, in order
to continue to learn (40.0%), to disseminate their research results (25.0%), to continue to realize
research in education (25.0%) or to continue to improve their teaching practice (10.0%).
A global balance of the master course: crossing initial motivations with perceived achievements
All six teachers that were interviewed remembered that they were highly motivated in
attending the courses. Expectations were quite high since it was the first public post-graduation
course for teachers:
“First the very course itself was an asset ... it allowed to potentiate a large number of people ...
we may say that it was the first course taught at ‘massive scale’, although there was already one previous
for ISCED teachers ... our was the second edition […]. We are from the second edition, but I consider
as if it was the first, because it was more inclusive to all ... it was very good. So, considering that it was
the first course launched for everyone it was very important... of course there were difficulties ….” (T6).
From the interviews it seems that one of the main reasons beneath the enrolment in the
master courses were associated with the desire in improving their professional practice, being
those expectations globally fulfilled. The issue was more of ‘getting the glass only half-full’.
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All six teachers stated that they learnt a lot, but they wanted and needed even more. Four of 57
the six teachers explicitly manifested the desire of more development and more learning (T1,
T4, T5, T6). For example, T2 stated that her initial motivation was to learn “practical and
laboratorial activities” and that she learnt some activities, but she would have appreciated if
there was an opportunity to learn an even broader range of experiments. T4 assumed several
initial motivations, namely at theoretical level and also at teaching practices. However what he
learned about curricular development and leadership was mainly through his project and not
during curricular units, where he expected more expertise.
On what concerns the sample of 45 teachers and the initial motivation in attending the
master courses, the most important motivation corresponds to “improve professional practice”
with a mean value of 3.82, within a four level Likert scale (3 = reasonably important and 4 =
with high importance). Considering the master learning goals, stated at the official regulations
of both courses, it seems that “Promote innovation at professional practice” was the most
developed one, with a mean value of 3.73 on a four level Likert scale (4= highest development).
Table 6. Top-down serialization of the teachers’ motivation in attending the

master course.
Motivation Mean Standard deviation

Improve professional practice 3.82 0.66
To progress within the career 3.80 0.41
Develop professionally 3.59 0.79
Bridge educational gaps of the initial (graduation) program at
3.55 0.93
scientific/theoretical level.
Bridge educational gaps of the initial (graduation) program at
3.51 0.89
pedagogical-didactical level.
Obtain an academic degree (master) 3.38 0.89
Change profession 1.38 1.29
Table 7. Top-down serialization of main the learning outputs of the master

course.
Standard devia-
Learning Goals of the two master courses Mean
tion
Promote innovation at professional practices 3.73 0.49
Promote the advance of scientific knowledge in Education 3.59 0.58
Learn to use research methods and techniques 3.58 0.63
Promote the advance of learning in Curricular Development (CD)/Science Teaching
3.42 0.85
(ST)
Contribute to changing educational policies of my country 3.43 0.87
Contribute to the promotion of innovation practices of my colleagues 3.39 0.87
Develop the ability to plan, design and evaluate research projects in the educational
3.30 0.90
field
Develop teacher training skills 3.21 0.83
Apprehend and develop concepts in specific areas of knowledge 3.12 0.88
Discussion
Figure 8 sums up the results obtained considering the master courses impact on the
educational contexts according to the three level impact model of Cruz (2005) and co-workers
(Cruz, Pombo & Costa, 2008). While at classroom context, micro-level, all six interviewed
teachers assumed changes on themselves or on their students, when focusing outside classroom
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58 contexts, namely on colleagues or for example parents or other individuals from local
community, only two teachers were able to give specific examples. A third teacher argued
that considering her professional contexts, namely that she was teaching pre-service teachers,
changes on her classroom practices would ‘simultaneously’ be reflected at ‘meso’ level. Finally,
considering influence on policy makers and/or educational researchers, only two teachers
indicated that they felt they ‘left a mark’ by disseminating their research results in scientific
congresses. Similar pattern, namely the ‘drop’ of impact from micro – to meso and macro level
was present at the broader teacher sample (N=45). While 93.6% of the 45 teachers stated that
they changed within their classes, the extension of impact drops more than 50.0% when focused
on impact beyond their individual growth or those of their students. Only 42.6% stated that
they intervened at meso level as a consequence of the master course. Finally 36.2% stated that
they had the chance to discuss their research results with a wider community of educational
researchers/policy makers.
Despite the global positive balance of the courses, which seem to have contributed
to “improved professional practice”, the desire in obtaining more pedagogical support for
disseminating their research outputs and ‘nurture’ the identity of a more qualified professional,
as well as educational researchers, was strongly manifested by the Angolan master teachers,
signalling that much work has to be done not only in future editions of the master courses, but
particularly with the already post graduated master teachers.
Figure 8: Illustrative scheme of the two master courses impact on the Angolan
educational context according to the teachers’ perspective.
An extensive literature review did not reveal any research considering the impact of post-
graduation courses (master or doctorate level), ministered by Angolan public higher education
institutions, on the professional development of Angolan teachers and on the surrounding
community. This scenario may be a consequence of the historical background of the country,
since public teacher education of higher level is in its emergent state. Therefore it is of crucial
importance to continue with the research of ongoing and future academic post-graduation
courses attended by Angolan teachers. The application of the same framework to these future
researches would allow comparative analysis and could contribute to further understanding of
the processes associated to teacher personal growth and change as a result of academic post-
graduation courses in Angola.
Only one perspective, namely those of the teachers that attended the course, was
discussed. A broader impact evaluation implies integrating the perspective of other stakeholders
such as employers, students, as well as the teaching staff of the master course itself. Like
previously stated, impact comes in different forms. Therefore, in order to have a more accurate
view considering the extension of impact it would be important to observe these capacitated
professionals in their daily practices analysing their interventions as well as the resources they
produce on a longer time span. Good examples of similar studies considering non-academic
courses were already developed in Angola and other African contexts (Bansilal & Rosenberg,
2016; Mauaie, Ito, & Arroio, 2014, Cangoi & Castanho, 2016) and can be adapted to investigate
the impact of the post academic courses for Angolan teachers.
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Conclusions 59
The impact of two master courses on the Angolan education system was evaluated at three
different, but interrelated educational contexts (micro, meso and macro level). Although its
exploratory nature, findings allowed to tackle some important aspects and to perceive that these
master courses attended several needs considering the professional development of the teachers.
According to the teachers’ voice, there was impact, but more is wanted, and more is needed.
The obtained findings, as well as the research process itself, allowed to draw the following
recommendations, particularly relevant for Angolan HEI responsible for teacher education:
(R1) develop strategies particularly focused at supporting peer work and collaborative work
with communities, since ‘impact’ seems to drop particularly from micro to meso contexts, (R2)
develop ad-hoc programs to academic post-graduation courses supporting the maintenance and
expansion of the innovative practices implemented by recently post-graduated teachers, such
as workshops for writing papers and organize scientific meetings; (R3) conceptualize consistent
impact evaluation strategies considering data gathering related to the teachers right from the
beginning of the post-graduation courses and that integrate observation of practices within and
after the course.
While modular, non-academic teacher education programs, may contribute to continuous
professional development, academic post-graduation courses for teachers may go further, since
they contribute to the generation of educational researchers, and therefore create the opportunity
in extending the scientific knowledge about education. In this sense, it is of crucial importance to
continue the investment in researching the quality and the impact of academic-post graduation
programs, particularly in post conflict countries, like Angola, in order to meet the targets defined
at international Education 2030 Agenda as well as the CESA 2016-2025 plan. The three level
impact model used in the present research may constitute a helpful resource in this effort.
Acknowledgments
This research is financially supported by Portuguese National Funds through

FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., under the project (FCT/MEC/SFRH/
BPD/100330/2014) and by the Research Centre Didactics and Technology in Education of
Trainers (CIDTFF). The authors also acknowledge the logistical support of DEP, UA (Portugal)
and ISCED-Huíla (Angola). Finally, to all persons that participated in the research, a special
word of gratitude.
References
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60 Cruz, E. (2005). Avaliação do impacte de cursos de mestrado nos professores mestres: o desenvolvimento
do pedagogical content knowledge de professores de ciências Físico-Químicas [Impact evaluation
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Nilza Costa PhD, Full Professor and Senior Researcher, University of Coimbra, Portugal.
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Bernardo Filipe Matias Master, Head of Department of Research and Post-graduation at ISCED, Full
Professor at ISCED, Lubango, Angola.
E-mail: bernardofilipe@yahoo.com
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TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVE ABOUT 61
FACTORS THAT PREVENT SUCCESS IN

TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS IN
HIGHER EDUCATION OF ENGINEERING IN
BRAZIL
Gláucia Nolasco de Almeida Mello
Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
E-mail: gnamello@pucminas.br
Abstract
The last fifteen years, in Brazil, the number of engineering freshmen had a huge increased and, although
the number of graduated also had increased over the same period, the percentage of engineering
freshmen are by far higher than engineers graduated. In this context, there is a clear evidence of the high
dropout rate in higher education courses of engineering in Brazil. Once most of developed researches
about engineering courses dropout in Brazil are focused in the students and institutions point of view
about factors that affect dropout rate, in this research it was investigated the professors perspective to
answer the three questions: (1) What are the main factors which prevent success in teaching and learning
process identified by professors of engineering during the classes? (2) How can professors to improve
the teaching and learning process in higher education courses of engineering in Brazil? (3) How can
Higher Education Institutions (HEI) support the professors? The research data were collected through
team activities developed with 134 professors of higher education courses of engineering. This research
reveals that the most important factors that affect negatively the teaching and learning process are
related to inadequate high school preparation and behaviour of students. Main suggestions of professors
for improving the teaching and learning process and also students' motivation are related to pedagogical
aspects such as: use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) as support of classes and
implementation of professor and student support programs with significant participation of HEI.
Key words: qualitative research, problems in engineering education, professor's perspective, higher
education of engineering in Brazil.
Introduction
Besides the problems related to basic education, there are still socioeconomic problems,
personal, family and incompatibility with the chosen course that actively contribute to the
increased lack of motivation and frustration feeling of students in the first stage of engineering
higher education. Both, lack of motivation and frustration feeling, can promote the increase
percentage in dropout rate of engineering higher education. Many researchers have investigated
dropout and completion rates in higher education of engineering and their causes all over the
world (Bennedsen, 2011; Pal, 2012; Pocock, 2012; Meyer & Marx, 2014; Paura & Arhipova,
2016). Although they adopted different methods and models, the main reasons showed by
these studies for high dropout rates on engineering education are: inadequate high school
preparation, disappointment with institution, disappointment with engineering, poor academic
and career advising, stress of having to work and study at the same time, lack of socialization
with classmates (Pocock, 2012; Meyer & Marx, 2014; Paura & Arhipova, 2016). According to
Zimmermann, Bastos, Buttchevitz, Ribas, Pintos, Geraldi & Pedro (2011), high dropout rate in
Civil Engineering courses at Federal University of Santa Catarina is mainly related to students'
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62 failing grades in math, chemistry and physics because of inadequate high school preparation.
Capelas (2014) conducted a study on the social behavior of Production Engineering students
aimed at understanding the reasons for high dropout rate. The author used a Social Network
Analysis Tool (SNAT) and concluded that students who had a superficial or no relation to their
peers are more likely to leaving their courses. Reis, Cunha & Spritzer (2012) and Pocock (2012)
affirm that dropout is a problem that originates impacts of social and financial nature. Related
to financial nature, dropout represents a significant loss to the institutions in either government
subsidies or private fees. Despite being aware about the problem, most of Higher Education
Institutions (HEI) in Brazil have not developed action plans to raise the student retention rate
in higher education.
Engineering Education in Brazil
Nowadays, the Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais Anísio Teixeira

- INEP [National Institute of Educational Studies and Researchs] (INEP, 2016) recognize more
than fifty engineering programs in Brazil. In addition, the last fifteen years, the number of
Higher Education Institutions (HEI) that offer engineering courses and the number of new
engineering places at Brazilian institutions has increased considerably. For example, in 2001
the number HEI that offered face-to-face Civil Engineering course at public HEI was 53 and 73
at private HEI (INEP, 2016). In 2015 the numbers increased to 148 and 602 face-to-face Civil
Engineering course at public and private HEI, respectively. Figure 1 shows enrolled, freshmen
and graduated rates for face-to-face Civil Engineering course at public and private HEI from
2001 to 2015. In Brazil, civil engineering freshmen increased 1061.8% and graduated increased
514.3% over the same period, as shown in Figure 1. Overall, the ratio of civil engineering's
freshmen is by far higher than civil engineering's graduated for each year (from 2001 to 2015).

Figure 1: Enrolled, freshmen and graduated rates for Civil Engineering courses
in Brazil from 2001 to 2015.
Source: Adapted from INEP (2016).
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Freitas, Costa & Costa (2016) found in their research that 44.9% of Civil Engineering 63
freshmen at the State University of Paraiba leave the course. Dallabona & Alberti (2016)
presented annual dropout rates average for some engineering courses in Brazil: Electrical
Engineering (7.94%), Mechanical Engineering (6.86%) and Civil Engineering (7.86%). The
first semester dropout rate for engineering courses in Brazil is highest, 18.5% (Dallabona &
Alberti, 2016). In that context, the problem of student retention and completion continues being
discussed inside HEI in Brazil (Carvalho, Kanayama & Dantas, 2016; Freitas, Costa & Costa,
2016; Dallabona & Alberti, 2016; Miranda & Masson, 2016). At Faculty of Technology in São
Paulo it was created the week of integrating and strengthening the freshmen since 2014. That
program consists of mathematics reinforcement, motivational speeches, presentation of labor
market and academy, providing integration with the university. According the authors, dropout
rates was reduced by 35% after program implementation (Carvalho, Kanayama & Dantas,
2016). Offered by the School of Engineering at Mackenzie University, Support Project for the
Academic Performance Improvement – SPAPI was developed to minimize the causes of dropout
rates, especially in the early stages of the courses. The project includes students of the first steps
of Civil, Electrical, Materials, Mechanics and Production Engineering Courses. A diagnosis
about student knowledge of the essential contents of the first subject development is made.
After that, it has offered classes covering the most complex content. Since the implementation
of the proposed model, there has been an increase from 10% to 15% in approval ratings in the
participating disciplines of the program (Miranda & Masson, 2016).
Most of developed researches in Brazil are focused on the students' perceptions and,
sometimes, in the institutions point of view. And there are just few proposed effective actions to
increase retention rates and minimize dropout in engineering education. However, to reflect on
the main causes of dropout in engineering courses, it is also important to know the challenges
and problems faced by professors in the classroom. In this way, it is possible to support them
proposing effective actions to increase students motivation and performance, consequently,
increase retention rates. Therefore, a qualitative study with fifteen groups of professors from
two HEIs in Belo Horizonte city in Brazil was held. It was proposed a workshop where was
presented to professor's teams a question for reflection: What are the main factors which
prevent success in teaching and learning process identified by professors of engineering during
the classes? In this scenario of intense discussions on the factors identified by professors of
higher education engineering, will be discussed in this article the responses exhibited by the
teams. Professors' testimony suggesting actions to improve the classes with the main objective
to motivate students and promote the engagement of them will be presented here as well.
In this way, the following questions were addressed to know the professors point of view
about factors faced by them during the classes that could negatively affect the teaching and
learning process. In addition, explore the possibilities for improvement of methodologies and
techniques used by professors.
1. What are the main factors which prevent success in teaching and learning process
identified by professors of engineering during the classes?
2. How can professors to improve the teaching and learning process in higher education
courses of engineering in Brazil?
3. How can HEI support the professors?
General Background of Research

In 2014, four workshops were conducted in two higher education institutions in Belo
Horizonte, Brazil. The workshops happened during the period reserved for lectures and
meetings. Both HEIs were responsible for the dissemination of the event for the professors of
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64 engineering courses. A total of 134 professors participated in the workshops that lasted 4 hours.
They were separated into 15 teams. This is a qualitative research whose the goal is to identify
the main factors that can contribute to unsuccessful teaching and learning process in higher
education of engineering in Brazil under the professors point of view.
After a brief presentation on how the work would be conducted, it was asked participants
to form teams according to the area of operation, i.e., specific professors' teams by area, such
as mathematics, physics, chemistry, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, electrical
engineering, production engineering. Table 1 shows the two stages description of activity
developed during the workshops. At first, each professor wrote on sticky papers the main
factors that can affect negatively the teaching and learning process faced by them during their
classes in the last semesters. After that, the teams grouped all factors reported into categories.
An example of the displayed jobs is shown in Figure 2. The poster shown in Figure 2 presents
four categories, namely: basic foundations, dispersion, self-indulgence and disconnection. All
other groups also created, freely, some categories where they could group the related factors.
The posters were fixed in the walls of the room and each team presented their work to the others.
Table 1. Description of workshop's activities.
Stage 1: Factors Identification

Question: 1. What are the main factors which prevent success the teaching and learning process identified by
you during the classes?
Activity Description
Each professor of the team individually wrote on sticky papers factors faced by them in the class-
1
room that could negatively impact on teaching and learning process.
Each professor presented their reports to the team for discussion. The reports with similar character-
2
istics were grouped into the same category.
3 The teams built posters for presentation, see Figure 2.
Stage 2: Proposed solutions to the main factors identified.
Activity Description
After categorizing the factors, the teams analyzed and discussed the categories created and chose
1
one of them to work in this second stage of the activity.
The groups should presented proposals and suggestions for actions that could improve teaching
2 practice, assisting them in the process of teaching and learning, decrease or solving the problems
caused by factors identified by professors and highlighted in the selected category.
3 Each team elected two participants to present the final work to the other teams.
Data Analysis

A qualitative data analysis was conducted in this research where it was analyzed 370
written reports and 43 comments of professors who composed the 15 working teams. Data were
collected through teams' presentations, as shown in Figure 2, and professors' comments during
discussions. After analyzing all written reports in stickers papers, the factors were organized
by researcher into four categories: vocation, behavior, knowledge and others. In the others
category were grouped factors reported about the infrastructure of classrooms and laboratories,
professor self-assessment and content of disciplines. Table 2 shows the number of occurrences
of all reported factors framed in one of the categories identified by researcher.
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Results of Research 65
Table 2 shows the number of occurrences of each reported factor and framed in one of
the categories mentioned before. Factors related to behavior category represent 41.89% of total
reports, knowledge and skills 34.33%, others 21.08% and vocation 2.70%. Ten most reported
factors were: lack of commitment, interest (14.32%), difficulty in written and oral expression
(8.92%), lack of previous knowledge (8.65%), knowledge deficiency in mathematics content
(7.84%), lack of integration between disciplines (6.76%), dispersion and lack of attention
(5.95%), inappropriate behavior (5.68%), abstraction disability and logical reasoning (4.86%),
lack of connection between theory and practice (3.78%), and inability to work in a team
(3.24%).
Figure 2: Poster present the workshop professor team at workshop.
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66 Table 2. Reported factors categorization.

Occurrence
Category Reported Factors
Number
Vocation Incompatible professional profile 3
Aimlessness 4
Lack of knowledge of reality 3
Total 10
Behavior Attendance and punctuality 4
Students' tiredness 6
Inappropriate behaviour (lack of maturity) 21
Dispersion and lack of attention 22
Lack of autonomy 9
Lack of commitment, interest 53
Lack of focus and concentration 3
Lack of emotional intelligence 1
Lack of planning and organization 7
Immediacy 3
Inability to work in a team 12
Laziness 7
Lack of communication 7
Total 155
Knowledge Difficulty in written and oral expression 33
Lack of previous knowledge 32
Knowledge deficiency in mathematics content 29
Lack of general knowledge 8
Difficulty of appropriation of knowledge 7
Abstraction disability and logical reasoning 18
Total 127
Others Deficiency in professors' ability of teaching 3
Lack of connection between theory and practice 14
Lack of integration between disciplines 25
Knowledge fragmentation 10
The stress of having to work and study at the same time 9
Heterogeneity of classes 3
University infrastructure 10
Lack of professor motivation 4
Total 78
In the second stage of activities (see Table 1), the groups had 30 minutes to discuss on a
proposal for improving the classroom based on a created category by the team. It was suggested
that viable proposals were discussed, i.e., those did not demand considerable financial resources,
did not depend on authorization of the institution and also not need drastic changes in teaching
practice. The main objective of the proposals should be to help the teacher to overcome the
main obstacles reported. Later each team had time to present their suggestions to the other
groups. Main suggestions presented by teams are:
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1. Use of technology and digital resources: (a) web environment implementation 67

(blog, wiki, website) to become available content and extra materials (texts, videos,
simulators) ensuring student access to the right information, from reliable sources
and valid references; (b) web environment implementation (blog, wiki, website) by
the students for posting work and research developed during the semester for the
dissemination of the work and research results; (c) development of team practices
involving research, cooperation and collaboration via web, at this moment, the
students could perform activities using mobile technology available (tablets and
smart phones).
2. Workshops, extra-class activities, video classes, software, simulators: (a) use of
software and simulators to demonstrate the effects and behaviour of materials, math,
chemistry and physics. For example, it was mentioned the University of Colorado
website (Coloradoedu, 2016) that provides numerous simulations for science and
mathematics; (b) video classes freely available on the web such as those provided by
Khan Academy (Khanacademyorg, 2016) and Telecurso (Globocom, 2016) to revise
the content considered as essential for the course; (c) uninterrupted tutoring program
for students who did not had adequate preparation for math in high school.
3. Continuing education program for professors: (a) workshops and lectures to support
professors who did not have pedagogical orientation or need help to improve classes
with technological resources.
Discussion
Research question 1: What are the main factors which prevent success in teaching and
learning process identified by professors of engineering during the classes?
Most of students drop out engineering courses during the first or second year motivated
by sense of failure (Reis, Cunha & Spritzer, 2012; Pocock, 2012; Carvalho, Kanayama &
Dantas, 2016; Miranda & Masson, 2016; Meyer & Marx, 2014). Inadequate preparation during
high school, especially in Mathematics and Portuguese subjects, including communication
and expression, leads to poor performance in engineering courses in the first two years. Some
professors team suggested intensive monitoring and tutoring programs for student follow-up
in math. Use of computational resources as tools to support teaching practice was also well
cited by the teams. They also suggested to create reading and text interpretation workshops to
improve write communication abilities.
There was a huge discussion about how the students' behavior influences the teaching
and learning process. Some professors agree that behavior depends more on external factors
of academia such as familiar education, cultural knowledge. However, they reported that
the challenges in the behaviour category are closely connected to student motivation and
engagement. Professors believe that once students being motivated, they will participate more
actively in their learning process, engaging more and dispersing less.
In addition, the professors concluded that the huge majority of students are unaware of
the engineer's tasks and the skills and competencies that are essential to this profession. They
highlighted the need for integration between higher education courses and high schools. This
connection can be developed through lectures and workshops offered in the high schools or
universities to provide important information about engineering courses to high school students.
Research question 2: How can professors to improve the teaching and learning process in
higher education courses of engineering in Brazil?
Among the several suggestions to overcome factors reported by professors' teams,

many of them are related to the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
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68 as an auxiliary resource in the teaching and learning process. In addition to the lectures, group
activities, guided tours and practical classes in laboratories, other innovative methodologies
based on computational resources such as chats, videos, animations, simulators, virtual labs
and collaborative environments can be added to teaching practice. The use of the digital
resources mentioned previously provide new possibilities for communication and transmission
of knowledge and may favor interaction and collaboration (Mello, 2016).
Research question 3: How can HEI support the professors?
Introducing ICTs on teaching tasks are complex and require planning and discipline
for both teacher and student. To the professors are reserved the task of carefully planning the
activities that will be developed virtually or the contents that will be made available for online
access considering: (a) organizational aspects that is the basis of the planning or pedagogical
proposal; (b) methodological aspects that refer to activities, interaction and evaluation, and; (c)
technological aspects, that is, the definition of the environment or tool that will be used (Behar,
2009). To the students are reserved the responsibility and control of their learning. Students also
need support to improve their knowledge in mathematics and oral and write communication;
vocational advices and support to learn how to learn. Providing regular programs and activities
for them it is essential to involve students and increase their motivation to remain in engineering
courses.
HEI can provide support to both, professors and students. One of the institutions
investigated created the professors' support centre whose main missions are: regularly offering
lectures and workshops about teaching methodologies; to be available to answer professors and
support students. Seven professors from different areas (pedagogy, psychology, philosophy and
engineering) make part of the center located in a specific room at university.
Conclusion
The main factors that can contribute negatively to the teaching and learning process in
higher education of engineering in Brazil reported by professors in this research are closely
related to students' motivation. However, professors are the important support for the success in
teaching and learning process so, they should be also motivated. They know exactly how could
collaborate to improve the teaching and learning process in higher education of engineering, i.e.,
improve their own classes employing innovative methodologies and technologies to increase
student motivation. So, the traditional teaching model which is focused on content widely used
in HEIs in Brazil, although it has fulfilled its role and was responsible for the formation of our
ancestors, must be rethought and renewed. In this context, it is really important the participation
of HEI on continued learning of their professors providing lectures, workshops, round table,
seminars and other activities to discuss challenges faced by them and present effective actions
to improve professors skills to teach.
In addition, the insertion of ICTs associated with appropriate methodologies can
contribute a lot to teaching practice and student learning, promoting motivation and engagement
and, consequently, improving student performance. These technologies present an opportunity
for the innovation of courses or classes but the real change occurs when one understands the
pedagogical issues and the educational project associated with the best use of the digital tools.
For this to happen, it is imperative that all classes be carefully rethought and planned so that the
correct choice of the most appropriate resources can be made.
Once there are many technological resources and tools freely available online, for the
future works, it is suggested to investigate how to apply them in accordance with pedagogical
recommendations to improve classes in higher education of engineering courses in Brazil.
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References 69
Behar, P. A. (2008). Modelos pedagógicos para a educação a distância [Pedagogical models for distance
education]. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 316 p.
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thesis) [Students dropout analysis in production engineering courses]. Sao Paulo: Paulista
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Carvalho, A. C. B. D. de; Kanayama, P. H., & Dantas, L. J. (2016). Semana de Acolhimento ao Calouro:
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Instrument dropout reduction]. Proceedings of XLIV Congresso Brasileiro de Educação em
Engenharia - COBENGE, Natal, RN Brazil, 2016. [CD-ROM].
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category/new.
Dallabona, C. A., & Alberti, M. E. (2016). Evasão e Retenção em Cursos de Engenharia: Busca de
Respostas a Partir de Indicadores Acadêmicos [Dropout and retention in engineering courses:
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de Educação em Engenharia - COBENGE, Natal, RN Brazil, 2016. [CD-ROM].
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Institute of Educational Studies and Researchs]. (2016). Retrieved 10 October, 2016, from http://
portal.inep.gov.br/basica-censo-escolar-sinopse-sinopse.
Freitas, B. A. de; Costa, É. C. A. C. da, & Costa, C. P. da. (2016). Fatores da Evasão Discente no Curso
de Engenharia Civil da Universidade Estadual da Paraíba [Factors of students dropout in civil
engineering course of Paraíba state university]. In Proceedings of XLIV Congresso Brasileiro de
Educação em Engenharia - COBENGE, Natal, RN Brazil, 2016. [CD-ROM].
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org/.
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telecurso/.
Mello, G. N. (2016). Recommendations for using Wiki in online group projects in engineering education.
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Meyer, M., & Marx, S. (2014). Engineering dropouts: A qualitative examination of why undergraduates
leave engineering. Journal of Engineering Education, 103 (4), 525-548. doi:10.1002/JEE.20054.
Miranda, L. F., & Masson, T. J. (2016). Projeto de Apoio para Melhoria do Desempenho Acadêmico
– PAMDA [Support project for improving academic performance]. In Proceedings of XLIV
Congresso Brasileiro de Educação em Engenharia - COBENGE, Natal, RN Brazil, 2016. [CD-
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Pal, S. (2012). Mining educational data to reduce dropout rates of engineering students. International
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Jelgava, Latvia, 2016. Retrieved 10 September, 2016, from http://tf.llu.lv/conference/
proceedings2016/Papers/N118.pdf.
Pocock, J. (2012). Leaving rates and reasons for leaving in an Engineering faculty in South Africa: A case
study. South African Journal of Science, 108 (3), doi:10.4102/sajs.v108i3/4.634.
Reis, V. W., Cunha, P. J. M., & Spritzer, I. M. P. A. (2012). Evasão no Ensino Superior de Engenharia no
Brasil: um Estudo de Caso no CEFET/RJ [Engineering higher education dropout in Brazil: Case
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COBENGE, Belém, PA Brazil.
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70 Zimmermann, C. C., Bastos, L. C., Buttchevitz, A. W., Ribas, C. Y., Pintos, F. de M., Geraldi, M. S., &
Pedro, R. L. (2011). Análise Estatística dos Fenômenos de Reprovação e Evasão no Curso de
Graduação em Engenharia Civil da Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina [Statistical analysis
of dropout and failure in Civil Engineering School of Federal University of Santa Catarina].
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Blumenau, SC Brazil, 2011. Retrieved 20 August, 2016, from http://abenge.org.br/cobenges-
anteriores/2011/artigos-2011/artigos-publicados.
Gláucia Nolasco de Almeida Dr., Adjunct Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Pontifical Catholic Uni-
Mello versity of Minas Gerais, Av. Dom José Gaspar, 500 Prédio 3-sl 102, Coração
Eucarístico, Belo Horizonte MG, CEP 30535-901, Brazil.
E-mail: gnamello@pucminas.br, gnamello@yahoo.com.br
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MAKING DECISIONS ABOUT 71
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION: A STUDY

IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION
Camila S. Miani, Ana M. A. Caldeira
São Paulo State University, Bauru, Brazil
E-mail: camilamiani@fc.unesp.br, anacaldeira@fc.unesp.br
Fernanda R. Brando
University of São Paulo, Brazil
E-mail: ferbrando@ffclrp.usp.br
Abstract
Biodiversity conservation is a current environmental concern that reveals the competing priorities of
economic development and environmental preservation. These issues are currently being debated at
various levels of society, and decisions are made based not only on scientific knowledge but also on
opinions and values. Among the reasons commonly used to justify current environmental demands for
biodiversity conservation, Sarkar (2005) has identified three “flawed arguments” to be avoided. Because
the discussion of biodiversity conservation is a current demand, it should also be addressed in the field of
education. Biology teachers should be prepared to engage their students in discussion about all aspects
of biodiversity conservation. In light of the need to train professionals who are capable of addressing
complex issues such as this, the following may be asked: What do biology students consider when making
decisions about the use and conservation of biodiversity? Do the flawed arguments identified by Sarkar
(2005) factor into their reasoning? This research analyzes reports produced following a teaching activity
known as “decision making.” The results reveal not only students’ concern for environmental issues,
particularly regarding water resources, but also the presence of two of Sarkar’s flawed arguments. The
limits of students’ knowledge of the subject also become evident.
Key words: biodiversity conservation, pre-service training, decision making.
Introduction
The environment is constantly changing and Earth has undergone several periods of
transformation throughout its history. However, it must be considered that despite the constant
and natural changes, every natural ecosystem on the planet has been transformed through human
activity and such modifications have reached great proportions. This intense degradation of
natural environments as a result of human activities has become a major concern of society.
The natural world is a far different place now than it was many years ago; for example,
many species have gone prematurely extinct (Groom; Meffe; Carroll, 2006). According to
Primack (2010), biological communities are being devastated by human actions and the popular
interest in protecting the world’s biological diversity has been intensified during the last few
decades. Reducing the loss of biodiversity and ecological systems has come to be identified as
one of the main challenges for humans for the coming years (Groombndge & Jenkins, 2002).
Although the term biodiversity has by now been incorporated into not only everyday
vocabulary but also the concerns of a large segment of society, it is nevertheless difficult to
arrive at a precise definition of biodiversity because, as several scholars have noted (Sarkar,
1999; Dreyfus, Wals, Weelie, 1999), the term is viewed differently depending on the objectives
established. Considering the difficulty of defining the term, biodiversity may be viewed as
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Camila S. MIANI, Ana M. A. CALDEIRA, Fernanda R. BRANDO. Making decisions about biodiversity conservation: A study in pre-
service teacher education
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72 referring to diversity at all levels of biological organization, from alleles to populations, species,
communities, and ecosystems (Sarkar, 1999). In light of environmental changes and established
interactions, it may be argued that the term refers to the variety of life forms produced by
long evolutionary processes, including the diversity of organisms that inhabit a space, genetic
diversity, and the ecological complexity of a physical environment, in addition to the variety of
biotic interactions and other biological processes (Based on Redford & Richter, 2001).
Concerns over the disappearance of species and the consequences of the destruction of
numerous environments rich in biological resources came to prominence during the 1970s. For
many years, demographic growth and the over-exploitation of resources were blamed for the
destruction of a natural patrimony that had been millions of years in the making. Discussions
on the increasingly rapid rates of species extinction and the destruction of nature due to human
activities in the early 1980s led to debate over the impact of biodiversity loss on ecosystem
functioning.
According to Sarkar (2005), our concern for the environment is related to two myths that
profoundly influence our ideologies: the “myth of lost futures” and the “myth of a golden age.”
In the myth of lost futures, concern for the environment stems from a fear that if environments
are destroyed, then the future will be reduced to only a few options. Humans would face a future
of limited environmental resources, with consequences for both the economy and scientific
development. In the myth of a golden age, in turn, economic development and technology
are viewed as sources of evil that are responsible for degrading humans from their primitive
state and leading to environmental destruction because the former balance between nature and
humans was lost.
Understanding the myths that directly influence the nature of concern for biodiversity
makes it possible to distinguish among different perspectives regarding the need for biodiversity
conservation adopted by different groups. These views include: biodiversity as an economic
resource whose value must be determined so that it can be conserved in accordance with the
value established; biodiversity as a scientific resource that should be conserved to be studied
and exploited to produce benefits; and biodiversity as a symbol of the natural environment that
should remain isolated from humans and conserved to reestablish the balance between humans
and nature. These and other perspectives can be identified in the environmental debates that
currently permeate society.
In search of answers to the concerns and challenges related to biodiversity conservation,
the debate has extended beyond academic circles and spread to other realms of society,
including numerous projects and campaigns undertaken by the general public with the intention
of protecting and conserving the environment. In both research and teaching, different fields
of knowledge have incorporated aspects of ecology and the environment. One example of this
broad debate is the emergence of the fields of environmental law and ecological economics. The
environmental movement can be cited as one of the activities in the social domain. According
to Castells (2001), the term refers to collective behaviors and practices that aim to change
perceptions and attitudes regarding humanity’s relationship with the natural environment.
Environmentalism has a significant impact on society’s values and institutions but often bases
activities on a discourse that is limited to “environmental crisis” and considers only the idea
of humanity as a destroyer of nature. In the realm of politics, environmental agreements and
incentives that favor the formulation of conservation laws have been established in a number
of countries.
Sarkar (2005) believes that many plausible arguments, including concern for human and
planetary quality of life, can justify an interest in biodiversity conservation. However, fiery
rhetoric about an “environmental crisis” may lead to a loss of credibility for those who defend
biodiversity conservation and increase decision-makers’ skepticism toward their claims. The
author warns that this situation and the use of inconsistent arguments can do great harm and
should be avoided. According to Sarkar (2005), the three “flawed” most often invoked to justify
current environmental demands for biodiversity conservation that should be avoided are i) all
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species are crucial to the continuity of life on Earth; ii) biodiversity conservation is a version of 73
the “tragedy of the commons” in which free access and unrestricted demand for a finite resource
end up dooming the resource to over-exploitation; and iii) a population explosion will lead to
the loss of biodiversity.
These arguments hinder an understanding of the real-life dimensions of the problem,
in which environmental questions weigh humans’ need for survival against the priorities of
conserving all forms of life, from where a problem emerges: how to sustain a whole diversity
of life in a world of use? According to Redford & Richter (2001), all use has consequences;
different kinds and intensities of human use affect various aspects or components of biodiversity
at different levels. Besides, an individual or societal decision on the degree of impact on
biodiversity that is "acceptable" depends on scientific knowledge as well as on society’s values.
Because the discussion on biodiversity conservation is a pressing current issue, it should
also be relevant to the classroom. Biology teachers should be prepared to engage their students
in discussions about all aspects of biodiversity conservation (social, ecological, and economic),
contributing to the development of a just society that takes ethical stands. In light of the need
to train professionals who are capable of addressing complex issues such as this, the following
may be asked: What do biology students consider when making decisions about the use and
conservation of biodiversity? Do the flawed arguments identified by Sarkar (2005) factor into
their reasoning?
General Background of Research
The planning of actions in biodiversity conservation usually involves groups or

institutions with different objectives, responsibilities, and interests. It also includes several
alternatives to minimize environmental problems, mainly regarding cost and benefits, making
the selection of alternatives a complex task, which requires options for dealing with conflicts.
This research aims to present an approach based on a model for group decision-making. This
approach was applied to a group of students by means of an illustrative activity. The students
were requested to think as "decision-makers".
Sample of Research
The simulation was performed with university students studying the Biological Sciences
at two Brazilian public universities. The activity was applied in two classes of each university.
The students were attending the Environmental Education course and the activity was applied
during such course. The four classes were divided into small groups that produced 21 reports,
which were the object of analysis of this research.
The data were collected via an educational activity called “decision making”, which
consisted of a map of a region divided into four areas, showing the main characteristics of each
area and descriptions of the local species and the corresponding value attributed to each (Figure
1). A simulation was performed in which an environmental consulting firm was requested to
issue a technical report about the region and the students had to choose which of the four areas
should be selected for the installation of a new waste landfill, for urban expansion, and for
environmental conservation.
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Table 1. Environmental problems related by students. 75
Number of reports in
List of problems
which it is cited
Availability of water resources 14
Lack of officially recognized boundaries for an indigenous reservation 12
Pollution of water resources 8
Loss of keystone species 8
Loss of flagship species 8
Loss of endangered species 3
Loss of endemic species 3
Edge effects 3
Dam for the construction of a hydroelectric plant 1
Competition among relocated species 1
There was considerable concern over the lack of officially recognized boundaries for
the territories of indigenous communities and populations as well as the availability of water
resources. Regarding water resources, concerns focused on both their availability for human
use and the potential misuse of an area rich in water resources, which could lead to water
pollution. Table 1 shows excerpts from students’ reports in which this last concern is evident.
Table 2. Environmental problem: water resources.
Report Excerpt from the report

“We know that Area 1 contains the greatest diversity of water resources, which are crucial for the
University A - 4 maintenance of the other areas under consideration; therefore, any change in this area may harm
not only the area itself but also the other areas noted.”
University A - 6 “Area 1 should not be degraded under any circumstances because of the water resources.”
“Because we have a priceless water resources in Area 1, water pollution may harm the entire
University B - 2
ecosystem.”
“The installation of a waste landfill in an area with water resources would result in water pollution,
University B - 7
including of springs and other spaces, harming the species that help maintain these resources.”
Some reports revealed more specific concerns, as shown in Table 1. These types of
concerns show that few students understand the complexity of environmental processes and
the respective difficulty of maintaining the human way of life, which consumes many natural
resources.
In most cases, the criteria used by the students to determine the areas that should be a
priority for conservation consisted of listing the relevant factors for each area and then choosing
the area with the longest list of factors to be conserved. In some reports, the students attributed
weights to each factor; for example, the maintenance of water resources in Area 1 weighed
more heavily than any other factor on the conservation decision. The presence of the indigenous
population in Area 4 also weighed heavily in students’ decisions: of the 21 reports analyzed,
15 chose Area 4 for conservation. The level topography of Area 3 was also used as a criterion,
favoring the installation of the sanitary landfill in most reports and urban expansion in others.
Regarding the actions proposed by the students, 14 reports recommended solutions that
involved relocating species from one area to another without any consideration of the difficulty
of this practice. The creation of parks or reserves also appeared among the recommendations
in several reports, but the students did not go into any detail about these, perhaps because they
lacked knowledge about the different types of parks and reserves that exist.
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76 The environmental problems, criteria, and actions listed by the students were analyzed
for the presence of Sarkar’s flawed arguments (Sarkar, 2005) in the decisions about which areas
to conserve. The results are shown in Tables 3 and 4.
The first flawed argument appeared in 11 reports. The students prioritized the conservation
of areas with the largest number of species as well as areas with endemic and flagship species
in particular, arguing that the loss of these species would harm the environment. In some cases,
it was claimed that this could harm humans. According to Sarkar (2005), species become
extinct, and other beings live on. Additionally, it is not known which species’ loss may mark
the end of the biological world. This argument would hold that only species crucial to the local
community–keystone species–should be conserved. Several reports prioritized the conservation
of keystone species’ habitats, but two reports suggested that these keystone species be relocated
to other areas, demonstrating a lack of scientific knowledge about the role that these species
play in the environment.
Table 3. Presence of first flawed argument: ‘‘All species are essential”.
Criterion Reports – University A Reports – University B
Conserve an area due to the

presence of endangered species,
A, B, E, D, J A, D, F, G, H, I
flagship species, and species that
are useful to humans
The second flawed argument appeared in 13 reports. In determining their conservation

priorities, these students opted for isolating certain areas from human presence, for example,
through the creation of reserves. The report from University B-11(K) reasons that Area 1 should
be conserved for the following reason: “The human population would not respect the water
resources.” The students considered that the State or private enterprise would have to administer
the natural resources because free access to the area would lead to its destruction. Sarkar (2005)
believes that environmental administration by the government or private enterprise has had
mixed results over the years. Thus, control may represent an area’s destruction rather than its
conservation.
Table 4. Presence of second flawed argument: “Tragedy of the commons".
Criterion Reports – University A Reports – University B

Conserve an area because free
access to its resources could
result in their destruction; a park, A, D, C, F, G, H B, D, E, F, G, J, K
reserve, or preserve should be
established.
The third flawed argument was not found in any of the reports. The reports identified
problems related to the quantity or use made of available resources and environments but
not to global population growth. A population’s way of life directly influences biodiversity
conservation in that it determines the amount of environmental resources that are needed to
maintain it. Proposed solutions include conscientious use, the local control of resources, and
alternatives such as sustainable communities.
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Discussion 77
In the reports, it is possible to identify the students’ difficulty in balancing the economic,
social and environmental interests to establish the priority areas for conservation and also the
lack of knowledge of most of the students regarding current concepts related to biodiversity
conservation. For example, the keystone species was the most consulted concept by the
students. The concept of keystone species is of major importance for the study of the ecology of
ecosystems since they play a fundamental role in them. The withdrawal of a keystone species
from its environment has many negative consequences. However, in some reports, the students
decided to remove a keystone species from their place of origin and justified that the damages
would not be great.
The general nature of the reports showed that the students prioritize economic, and
especially ecological and biological, aspects in their decision making. The social aspects
discussed were always related to maintaining indigenous populations in their homelands, a
situation which was not addressed in six reports. According to Schaller (2007), conservation
problems are only social and economic, not scientific. The research is the easiest part, and
conservation is definitely much more complicated since environmental issues often involve
moral ambiguity.
A possible cause for the predominance of ecological and biological aspects may be
related to the structure of the university’s program: fragmentation of knowledge, the absence
of courses in which this type of discussion occurs, limiting the understanding of the complex
relationships that biodiversity conservation entails.
The presence of flawed arguments and the focus on the interests of human beings confirm
the tendency found by Almeida (2007). In their research, biology teachers were asked about the
criteria that should be used to save endangered species, and most of them chose species that are
useful for humans.
According to Clement (2004), such positioning is related to the interaction between
the disciplinary formation and the geographical origin of the value system. In a research on
nature and environment carried out with future Biology teachers, 67% of German biologists
prioritize the interests of human beings, while 72% of French biologists prioritize the interests
of the environment itself. In accordance with the author, one of the possible hypotheses for
interpreting this relationship would be that training biologists do not explicitly have specific
values and are more permeable to the values of the sociocultural context of their country, which
would differ among countries.

Conclusions
This analysis reveals the limited view of biodiversity conservation held by the students.
Their reports and discussions remained fixed on very general aspects, frequently shaped
by conceptions spread by the media. The discussion did not delve into social, political, or
philosophical questions related to the topic, and even the discussion of biological issues
remained superficial.
Specifically, the presence of two of Sarkar’s three flawed arguments in students’
reasoning about biodiversity conservation may indicate that the education of biologists should
extend beyond scientific content to include the ability to address the values and practices of
contemporary society that are relevant to decision making and public policy planning.
During the presentation of their reports, the students emphasized that they rarely have
an opportunity to think about a problem and propose solutions to it. Therefore, it is necessary
to invest in an education that favors the development of knowledge about relevant aspects of
biodiversity conservation, coordinating studies performed by scientific communities with field
work in a manner that teaches students to reflect on how to solve environmental problems
considering the values and practices of each natural environment.
ISSN 1822-7864
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78 References
Almeida, A. C. (2007). What are the reasons for preserving biodiversity? Results of an investigation. In:
I Congreso Internacional de Educación Ambiental dos países Lusófonos e Galicia. Santiago de
Compostela.
Bardin, L. (2009). Content analysis. Lisboa: Edições 70.
Castells, M. (2002). The power of identity. Wiley-Blackwell.
Clément, P. (2004). Science et idéologie: exemples en didactique et épistémologie de la biologie [Science
and ideology: examples in didactics and epistemology of biology]. Sciences, Médias et Société,
15-17 juin 2004, Lyon. Retrieved from http://sciences-medias.ens-lyon.fr/IMG/pdf/Clement.pdf.
Dreyfus, A., Wals, A. E. J., Weelie, D. V. (1999). Biodiversity as a postmodern theme for environmental
education. Canadian Journal of Environmental Education, 4, 155-75.
Groombndge B., Jenkins M. D. (2002). World atlas of biodiversity (Prepared by the UNEP World
Conservation Monitoring Centre). University of California Press, Berkeley, USA.
Groom, M. J., Meffe, G. K., Carroll, C. R. (2006). Principles of conservation biology. Massachusetts:
Sinauer Associates.
Primack, R. B. (2010). Essentials of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates.
Redford, K. H., & Richter, B. (2001). Conservation of biodiversity in a world of use. The Endangered
Species UPDATE, 18 (1), 02-05.
Sarkar, S. (1999). Wilderness preservation and biodiversity conservation - keeping divergent goals
distinct. BioScience, 49 (5), 405-412.
Sarkar, S. (2005). Biodiversity and environmental philosophy: An introduction to the issues. Cambridge:
University Press.
Schaller, G. B. (2007). A naturalist and other beasts. Tales from a life in the field. San Francisco: Sierra
Club Books.
Camila S. Miani Doctoral Student, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Postgraduate
Department of the Faculty of Sciences, 14-01 Engº Luiz Edmundo Carrijo
Coube Avenue, Bauru, SP, Brazil.
E-mail: camilamiani@fc.unesp.br
Ana Maria A. Caldeira PhD, Professor, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Department of Edu-
cation, 14-01 Engº Luiz Edmundo Carrijo Coube Avenue, Bauru, SP, Brazil.
E-mail: anacaldeira@fc.unesp.br
Fernanda R. Brando PhD, Professor, University of São Paulo (USP), Department of Biology.
3900 Bandeirantes Avenue, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
E-mail: ferbrando@ffclrp.usp.br
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QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st 81
CENTURY
ISSN 2029-9575
Quality Issues and Insights in the 21st

Century is an international, periodical,
peer reviewed scientific journal, issued
by the Scientia Socialis in cooperation
with SMC “Scientia Educologica”.
Editor-in-Chief
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas,
Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia
Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Quality Issues and Insights in the 21st

Century (ISSN 2029-9575) is abstract-
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Editorial Board
MSc., Renata Bilbokaitė, University of Siauliai, Republic of Lithuania (Editorial Assistant)

Dr., Andrea Bernhard, Universities Austria, Austria
Dr., Prof. John Gowland Mwangi, Egerton University, Kenya
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Re-
public of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., Prof. Liviu Moldovan, „Petru Maior” University of Tirgu Mures, Romania
Dr., Prof. Kęstutis Pukelis, Vytautas Magnus University, Republic of Lithuania
Prof. Ramayah Thurasamy, University of Science Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr., Assoc. Prof. Dalius Serafinas, Vilnius University, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Assoc. Prof. Adriana Tafrova-Grigorova, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Bulgaria
Websites: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/QIIC/Quality_Issues_Insights.htm
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/qiic/
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CENTURY
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Problems of Psychology in the 21st Cen-
tury is an international, periodical, peer
reviewed scientific journal, issued by
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Problems of Psychology in the 21st Cen-

tury (ISSN 2029-8587) is abstracted and/
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Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
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Dr., prof. Irakli Imedadze, Dimitri Uznadze Georgian Psychological National Society, Georgia
Dr. Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
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Dr., prof. Maria Ledzińska, University of Warsaw, Poland
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2ND INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE 83

AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION (BALTICSTE2017)
„SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION:

ENGAGING THE NEW GENERATION“ 
12-15 June 2017, Siauliai, Lithuania
Dear Colleagues,
On behalf of the organizing committee, we are delighted to welcome you to Šiauliai,
Lithuania, for the II International Baltic Symposium on Science and Technology Education,
BalticSTE 2017.
The Symposium will be held in Šiauliai (Lithuania) in June 2017 during days 12-15.
We cordially encourage you to attend and contribute to one of the major events of
2017 on the field of science and technology education. We are confident that you will ap-
preciate the scientific program and the city of Šiauliai. We look forward to seeing you in
2017 in Lithuania.
Organizer of the Symposium
Siauliai University, Faculty of Education, Natural Science Education Research Cen-
tre, Lithuania, http://www.gutc.su.lt/
Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania
http://www.gu.puslapiai.lt/indeks_en.htm
Ways of Participation Paper Submission:
• Paper Presentation Original unpublished short scientific papers (2 - 3
• Oral Presentation pages) written in English should be submitted in
• Interactive Poster Presentation electronic form as WORD files and send to the sym-
• Workshop posium secretariat via e-mail: balticste@gmail.com
• Listener Information on paper submission, format and the
review processes is available on symposium web-
Topics and Areas site.
The BalticSTE 2017 will cover all Symposium proceedings will be published before
aspects of science and technology the symposium.
education. Authors of selected outstanding papers will be in-
vited to submit extended versions of their papers for
consideration of publication in the reputed Journals
(JBSE, PEC, GU/NSE, SPVK/EPMQ).
Important Dates
Abstract/Paper/Poster Submission 20 April 2017

Abstract/Paper/Poster Submission 30 April 2017
Registration and payment 20 May 2017
Camera-ready paper submission 20 May 2017
Announcement of the Final Symposium
01 June 2017
Program
12 – 15 June 2017
Symposium Dates
(11/12 - arrival; 16/17 - departure)
Symposium Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/balticste

E-mail: balticste@gmail.com
Phone: +370 41 595736; Fax: +370 41 595710
© NSERC, Siauliai University, 2015
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VOLUME 74, 2016
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 74, 2016

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Index Copernicus List of Journals Recognized by Polish Ministry of

Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 87.04 (2015)

PISA RESULTS OR X-RAY FILMS OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS?

SAUDI TEACHERS’ PRACTICES OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: A QUALITATIVE STUDY

DESIGN OF DIDACTIC MATERIAL FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING SITUATIONS:

EXAMINING FACTORS AFFECTING IMPLEMENTATION OF INQUIRY-BASED

IMPACT EVALUATION OF TWO MASTER COURSES ATTENDED BY TEACHERS:

TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVE ABOUT FACTORS THAT PREVENT SUCCESS IN TEACHING

MAKING DECISIONS ABOUT BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION: A STUDY IN

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 79

QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY .......................................... 81

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ................................................ 82

2nd INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

To be able to develop well-equipped students in accordance with the expectations of

Received: November 25, 2016 Accepted: December 19, 2016

Shifting from teacher-centred to student-centred practices requires teachers to understand strategies to

General Background of Research and Sample Selection

Instrument and Procedures

Table 1. Classroom observation form. 9

ESRU cycles and Elicita- Student

Formative assessment strategies of

Strategies of elicitation and recognition

Strategies of elicitation, recognition and

10 Table 2. A selection of teacher-student interactions.

Do you mean some part of the

When the earth’s shadow totally Answers his own 11

Elicitation strategies with evaluative functions

The ESRU cycles

Formative assessment practices of teachers in this study emphasized the importance of

Received: November 25, 2016 Accepted: December 19, 2016

Within the ambit of the Interdisciplinary Education Design Lab (Laboratório

Education for the Integrated Development of Children

The purpose of education is to provide conditions for children to develop fully,

Figure 1: Subject of knowledge and place of learning.

According to Mamede-Neves (2013), learning is a concept that can be understood as a

Figure 2: Overview of the political pedagogical project.

Figure 3: Example of interrelationship between action, dialogue and participation.

Structure of the Proposed Curriculum

Figure 4: Structure of the content's distribution board of each unit.

Figure 5: Nature of daily activities.

System of Objects that Support the Curriculum

Figure 6: Curriculum folder.

Figure 7: Set of graphic elements that make up the curriculum.

Figure 10: Set of curriculum letters for 4-year-olds.

Figure 11: Activities board – card holder.

Diagram Illustrating the Integration of the Knowledge Areas

Figure 12: Pentagram divided by knowledge areas contained in the curriculum.

Figure 16: Types of pentagrams used in the curriculum.

Received: October 16, 2016 Accepted: December 20, 2016

EXAMINING FACTORS AFFECTING 31

Science Education and Inquiry-based Learning in Finland

Science Education and Inquiry-based Learning in Korea

In order to understand the obstructions to IBL implementation in school science, it is

Teachers’ Professional Development and Confidence

Another impediment to implementing IBL is the insufficient and inadequate professional

School Resources and Environments

In addition to these teacher-level challenges, school-level impediments to implementing

General Characteristics of Research

TIMSS is an international assessment of mathematics and science at the fourth and

Inquiry-based Teaching Practice: The Teachers Emphasize Science Investigation (ESI)

Assessment, Professional Development, and Class size: Based on teachers’ responses

QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY .......................................... 81

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ................................................ 82