Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 75, No.
6, 2017
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Scientia Socialis, Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

The Associated Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, European Society for the History of
Science (ESHS) and ICASE (International Council of Associations for Science Education)
The articles appearing in this journal are indexed, listed, and abstracted in:
SCOPUS trueserials.com
Index Copernicus PubGet
EBSCO: Education Research Complete Excellence in Research for Australia ERA
Education Research Index Database Coverage List (Australian Research Council ARC - Ranking
“Core” coverage Journal list)
Central & Eastern European Academic Source Zeitschriftendatenbank (ZDB)
Database Coverage List (EBSCO-CEEAS) Directory of Research Journal Indexing (DRJI)
Cabell Publishing, Inc., Directories of Academic Academic Keys
Journals Sjournals Index
JournalSeek Open Academic Journals Index (OAJI)
Ulrich`s Periodicals Directory / Global Serials Global Impact Factor (GIF)
Directory Scientific Indexing Services (SIS)
The Asian Education Index GIGA Information Centre (Electronic Journals
SOCOLAR (China Educational Publications Import Library)
& Export Corporation) Polish Scholarly Bibliography /PBN/ (Polska
List of Science Education Journals Bibliografia Naukowa)
John Lamp’s IS Pages: ERA journals in a Field of European Reference Index for the Humanities and
Research the Social Sciences (ERIH PLUS)
PECOB (Portal on Central Eastern and Balkan ImpactFactor.pl
Europe) Turkish Education Index
GESIS SocioGuide (Knowledge Base SSEE) Information Matrix for the Analysis of Journals
Contemporary Science Association/AAP databases (MIAR)
Electronic Serials in Lithuania Scientific World Index (SCIWIN)
List of Journals Recognized by Polish Ministry of Directory of Open Access Scholarly Resources
Science and Higher Education (ROAD)
WebQualis (QUALIS/CAPES ) Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)
Publisher
Scientia Socialis, Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the Associated
Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, the Association of Lithuanian Serials, European Society
for the History of Science (ESHS) and International Council of Associations for Science Education
(ICASE)
Editor-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Šiauliai University & SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr. Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Dr., Harun Yilmaz, Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, National University of Water Management and Nature Resources Use,
Ukraine, Ukraine
Dr., Raffaele Pisano, Lille 3 University, France
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, National Institute for Research and Development in Informatics - ICI
Bucuresti, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Copyright of this issue is the property of Scientia Socialis, Lithuania. By virtue of their appearance in this
open access journal, articles are free to use, with proper attribution, in educational and other non-commercial
settings
Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 87.04 (2015)

Global Impact Factor (GIF): 0.652 (2015).
ICDS (Secondary Composite Index Broadcasting): 6.0 (2016).
Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal,
issued by the Scientia Socialis Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“.
Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd. © Scientia Socialis Ltd., 2017

Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: problemsofeducation@gmail.com
Phone: +370 687 95668
WEB pages: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Contents 501
Editorial
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION: SOME ASPECTS CONNECTED TO ITS CONTENT

Paolo Bussotti ..........................................................................................................503
Articles
ASSESSMENTS FOR LEARNING IN GRADES 1-9 IN A SPECIAL SCHOOL

FOR STUDENT´S WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY IN SWEDEN
Lotta Anderson, Daniel Östlund .....................................................................................508
VIEWS OF A GROUP OF PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS ON THE USE

OF EXPERIMENTAL ACTIVITIES IN SCIENCE TEACHING
Elaine A. Colagrande, Simone Alves de Assis Martorano, Agnaldo Arroio ....................................525
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SKILLS: AN ANTIDOTE

FOR JOB CREATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIAN ECONOMY
James Edomwonyi Edokpolor, Robinson Osarumwense Owenvbiugie .........................................535
PREDICTING A FAST-TRACK MARITIME CAREER: CHARACTERISTICS OF

SUCCESSFUL OFFICERS DURING TEENAGE YEARS
Manuel Joaquín Fernández González, Dmitrijs Semjonovs, Irma Narica,
Diāna Strautmane, Sandra Ozola .....................................................................................550
CAREER IN THE LIGHT OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

AND CAREER MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Miha Lovšin ........................................................................................................... 568
ADULT EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE: BETWEEN EXPECTATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES

Alzira A. M. Manuel, Domingos Buque, Rosário Quive .........................................................581
EXPLORING OF MULTI MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION CAPABILITY IN

PROBLEM SOLVING ON SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Nizaruddin, Muhtarom, Yanuar Hery Murtianto ..................................................................591
SCHOOL FACTORS AFFECTING ESTONIAN STUDENTS’ SUBJECTIVE

WELL-BEING AT THE BASIC SCHOOL
Marika Ratnik, Eha Rüütel .......................................................................................... 599
IMPLEMENTING THE COMPUTER-BASED NATIONAL EXAMINATION

IN INDONESIAN SCHOOLS: THE CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES
Heri Retnawati, Samsul Hadi, Ariadie C. Nugraha, Janu Arlinwibowo, Eny Sulistyaningsih,
Hasan Djidu, Ezi Apino, Heni D. Iryanti ...........................................................................612
PROFICIENT CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT THROUGH FOCUSED

MATHEMATIC TEACHING
Marcus Samuelsson, Joakim Samuelsson ..........................................................................634

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
502 Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 652

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION: SOME 503
ASPECTS CONNECTED TO ITS CONTENT

Paolo Bussotti
University of Udine, Italy
E-mail: paolo.bussotti@uniud.it
The literature concerning the various methods by means of which the teaching of math-
ematics can be developed is simply huge and is increasing more and more. Several aspects are
dealt with: the use of new technologies, especially as far as new computer programs or web
sources are concerned; new techniques to develop calculations; researches concerning the pos-
sible relations between the everyday life of the pupils/students and the mathematical concepts;
the best way to frame a lesson (frontal lessons, interactive lessons, discussions), and so on. This
literature covers the entire school-life of a young boy/girl: from the elementary school to the
university.
If the methodological literature is abundant, the reflection on the content of mathematical
teaching is inadequate. In Italy, looking at most of the handbooks for middle and high schools,
one sees that the content of such texts is progressively increasing, but the logical line accord-
ing to which this increment takes place is difficult to grasp. Beyond the classical subjects like
algebra, analytic geometry, trigonometry, mathematical analysis, a series of new subjects is
added: statistics, probability calculation, elements of linear algebra connected to some geo-
metrical transformations (isometries, similarities, and so on), actuarial mathematics, elements
of computer programming, etc. In other Western countries, the situation is not sensibly different
as in Italy. Obviously, there are important differences among the different schools because the
kind of mathematics taught in a classical school is not the same as the mathematics taught in a
technical or professional school. However, the picture seems clear: the pupils have to learn as
many subjects as possible with the risk that no subject is tackled in a profound manner, that is,
a smattering of many mathematics’ branches is proposed, and it is often presented in a rather
superficial manner. Actually, it is evident that the role of the teacher is more important than the
one of the handbooks, so that a good teacher will teach in a good manner. Nonetheless, the way
in which the handbooks are conceived is a significant indication of the way in which mathemat-
ics teaching and learning is conceived.
The question to pose is: what does the school-system request from mathematics’ teach-
ing? Several answers are possible. For example:
a) Teaching to develop quickly and mechanically a series of operations (of course, not
restricting to the four elementary operations);
b) teaching to win the international competitions and/or texts for mathematics;
c) teaching to develop practical abilities (for example, to collect statistical data or to
program a computer), potentially useful for a future job;
d) teaching what a formal system is and how it works.
All these options are valid, and it would be a mistake to underestimate their importance.
Nevertheless, in my opinion, there is an aim which mathematics education cannot avoid:
to teach how to reason in a rigorous and at the same time creative manner. It is obvious that the
meaning of what is written in italics should be specified, but, for the purpose of this editorial,
it is sufficient to ascribe this expression the intuitive meaning, without entering linguistic and
philosophical discussions. Moreover, I give for granted that, even considering jointly the issues

Paolo BUSSOTTI. Mathematics education: Some aspects connected to its content
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
504 a)-d), the desired aim cannot be reached. This might be argued by following a series of rather
easy argumentative steps.
The further question is: does a mathematical discipline exist, which might be suitable
to reach the explained purpose? The answer is affirmative: such a discipline is the Euclidean
geometry presented by means of the synthetic, not the analytical (in modern terms), method.
Let us briefly show its richness.
Euclidean geometry is founded on five axioms or postulates:
1. A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two points.
2. Any straight line segment can be extended indefinitely.
3. Given any straight line segment, a circle can be traced having the segment as radius
and one endpoint as centre.
4. All right angles are equal.
5. If two lines are traced, which intersect a third, so that the sum of the inner angles on
one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines intersect each other on that side.
In a didactical presentation, it is recommended to replace this postulate with the logically
equivalent, but more intuitive one:
5’. Given a straight line and a point external to such a line, it is possible to trace one and
only one parallel to the given line through the given point.
These postulates are intuitive enough to be introduced when the boys/girls are 13-14.
The commentary on the postulates reveals particularly interesting aspects, which should
be presented to the class.
A) The postulate 4 implies two properties: i) the measure of a right angle does not de-
pend on the measure of its sides; ii) a right angle is not modified if it is translated
or rotated. That is: the Euclidean space is homogeneous and isotropic (the teacher
should explain these two concepts).
B) Then postulate 5 implies an infinitary process (this is, in part, true for the postulate
2, as well). Under this respect, it is different from the others. Such a difference
should be discussed and explained.
C) The postulates are connected to a series of operations, which they permit. To be
more precise: they allow only to trace line and circles. This means that they rep-
resent all and only the operations, which are possible using a not-graduated ruler
and a compass.
D) The axioms construct a world: the Euclidean world. Therefore, no proposition, no
matter how simple and intuitive it might appear, can be accepted unless it derives
from the axioms or from propositions derived by means of the axioms.
E) The previous issues drive to another question: Euclid’s axioms are intuitive, but
is it so necessary that a system of axioms is intuitive to be mathematically accept-
able?
The five items A)-E) are only some of the possible conceptual and formative questions
connected to the axioms, with which a teacher might deal.
After the axioms, the propositions of the first book begin. These are the basic statements
of Euclidean geometry, in which, from the beginning, the necessity of rigour and creativity
clearly transpires. For, there is not any a priori method, which allows the learner to solve the
problem. Every problem needs a new idea. There are some guidelines, so that if one has solved
many problems or proved many theorems, is accustomed with a series of procedures utilizable
in Euclidean geometry. However, there is no guarantee a priori that a procedure useful to solve
a problem is useful for an apparently similar problem. At the same time, each proof or construc-
tion has to be rigorous. It is not permitted to introduce surreptitiously unproved elements. I offer
only one example, concerning the proposition 2 of the first book:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Proposition 1.2.: “To place a straight-line equal to a given straight-line at a given point 505
(as an extremity)”.
Proof: Let A be the given point, and BC the given straight-line. So, it is required to place
a straight-line at point A equal to the given straight-line BC. For let the straight-line AB have
been joined from point A to point B [Post. 1], and let the equilateral triangle DAB have been
constructed upon it [Prop. 1.1]. And let the straight-lines AE and BF have been produced in a
straight-line with DA and DB (respectively) [Post. 2]. And let the circle CGH with centre B and
radius BC have been drawn [Post. 3], and again let the circle GKL with centre D and radius DG
have been drawn [Post. 3]. Therefore, since the point B is the centre of (the circle) CGH, BC is
equal to BG [Def. 1.15]. Again, since the point D is the centre of the circle GKL, DL is equal
to DG [Def. 1.15]. And within these, DA is equal to DB. Thus, the remainder AL is equal to the
remainder BG [C.N. 3]. But BC was also shown (to be) equal to BG. Thus, AL and BC are each
equal to BG. But things equal to the same thing are also equal to one another [C.N. 1]. Thus,
AL is also equal to BC. Thus, the straight-line AL, equal to the given straight-line BC, has been
placed at the given point A. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do (Euclid 2007-2008,
pp. 8-9).
Figure 1: The figure added by Euclid to prove Proposition 1.2. Retrieved from
Euclid’s Elements of Geometry, 2007-2008, p. 9.
The proof of this easy proposition makes it clear what I mean: rigour, no unproved or
unjustified element is introduced. In order: Postulate 1; Proposition 1.1; Postulate 2; Postulate
3, twice; Definition 1.15 (this is a part of the text immediately preceding the axioms); Common
Notion 3, twice (this is a part of the text immediately following the postulates); Common No-
tion 1 is used to support the foundations of the proof.
At the same time, the notion of construct of the two circles is not pre-ordered, it is nec-
essary to develop creativity, to have a little brilliant idea.
In the course of the scholastic years an itinerary along Euclid’s masterpiece might be
developed. As to the first book, it could be possible to carry out the problem of triangles’ criteria
of congruence, of the use, starting from Proposition 1.29, of the fifth postulate. In this important
conceptual and historical case, some lessons might be conceived on the nature of this postulate.
A first, initial introduction to the not-Euclidean geometries might be outlined. The first book is
closed by the so-called Pythagorean Theorem and its inverse proposition (1.47 and 1.48 respec-
tively). In this case, too, a series of lessons could be dedicated to this important proposition and
its applications. The second book is brief and easy. It concerns the so told geometrical algebra.
The third and the fourth books, which are relative to the properties of the circle are as important
and formative as the first one.
With the fifth Element’s book, the Euclidean geometry, makes a breakthrough: the theory
of proportions is introduced with all the nuances and operations connoting this only apparently
easy concept. In the sixth book, the theory of proportion is applied to geometry and the theory

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
506 of similarity is presented. This subject is ideal to be presented in the third and fourth year of the
high school. The most difficult and fascinating Euclidean problems, which in most cases are not
present in the Elements, but have been conceived, argued and proved in the course of history
of mathematics, rely upon the concept of similarity and on the criteria established in the sixth
book. It is not by chance that Felix Klein has proved, within group theory, that the Euclidean
geometry is the group of the similarities (Klein, 1872, 1893). As to the content, the books VII-
X might be bypassed. Albeit some elements of the theory of irrationalities are necessary, it is
not needed, in this case, to follow Euclid’s approach. The last year of the high school should be
devoted to the books XI-XIII: solid geometry.
Along the didactical iter based on Euclidean geometry, important logical and conceptual
questions might be dealt with: the nature of the ad absurdum demonstration; the concept of
existence in mathematics; the difference between a synthetic and an analytical (a là Greek) ap-
proach, the use of the figures within a mathematical demonstration, only to mention the most
stimulating subjects.
I do not necessarily mean that Euclid’s text should be followed line by line. Some very
good handbooks exist. As far as I know, one of the best is Enriques-Amaldi 1903, with several
reprints, translations (Spanish, Polish), and updating (this book also presents a huge series of
exercises). However, good handbooks exist in any country. What is important is that the Eu-
clidean geometry comes back to be one of the main (obviously, not the only one) mathematical
disciplines taught in our schools (Bussotti, 2012a, Bussotti 2012b, Bussotti, 2013, Russo, Pirro,
Salciccia, 2017). The reasons are those expounded.
Some aspects of Euclidean geometry are taught nowadays, but they are so marginal, are
not inserted within an organic program and are taught without the necessary rigour that their in-
fluence on the school-background of a young is almost insignificant. After the school, when the
young attend the university, if they frequent scientific faculties, a completely different approach
than Euclid’s is developed: an instrumental and, so to say, practical one, if they attend Engi-
neering and, in part, Physics, a very abstract one, if they attend Mathematics. For the students,
who do not frequent such faculties, the mathematics examinations are few in numbers, and, cer-
tainly, they are not dedicated to the synthetic geometry. In a sense, the faculties of Architecture,
with the teaching of Descriptive Geometry are those where, at least a limited number of proofs
has some aspects comparable with those of the Euclidean geometry.
It is my conviction that Euclidean Geometry should be the basis of mathematics educa-
tion and that the students who desire to become teachers of mathematics should sustain two
examinations on Euclidean geometry.
References
Bussotti, P. (2012a). History and didactics of mathematics: a problematic relation. Some considerations
based on Federigo Enriques’s ideas. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 48, 5-9.
Bussotti, P. (2012b). Federigo Enriques e la didattica della matematica [Federigo Enriques and mathe-
matics education]. Euclide. Giornale di matematica per i giovani, Electronic journal. First part
February 2012, second part April 2012. web site: http://www.euclide-scuola.org/.
Bussotti, P. (2013). A possible role fo history of mathematics and science in mathematics and science
education. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 12 (6), 712-715.
Enriques, F., Amaldi, U. (1903). Elementi di geometria ad uso delle scuole secondarie superiori [Elemen-
ts of geometry for high schools]. Bologna: Zanichelli.
Euclid (2007-2008). Elements of Geometry, The Greek text of J.L. Heiberg (1883-1885)from Euclidis
Elementa, edidit et Latine interpretatus est I. L. Heiberg, in aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1883-1885.
Edited and provided with a modern English translation by Richard Fitzpatrick. Retrieved from
http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/Books/Euclid/Elements.pdf.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Klein, F. (1872, 1893). A comparative review of recent researches in geometry (Programme on entering 507
the philosophical faculty and the senate of the university of Erlangen in 1872). Bulletin of the New
York Mathematical Society, 2, 215-249.
Russo, L., Pirro, G., Salciccia, E. (2017). Euclide: il I libro degli Elementi [Euclid: the first book of Ele-
ments]. Roma: Carocci Editore.
Received: December 05, 2017 Accepted: December 10, 2017
Paolo Bussotti PhD, Researcher and Lecturer of History of Science and History of Mathematics, via
Petracco and via delle scienze, University of Udine, Italy.
E-mail: paolo.bussotti@uniud.it
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paolo_Bussotti

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
508
ASSESSMENTS FOR LEARNING IN
GRADES 1-9 IN A SPECIAL SCHOOL
FOR STUDENTS WITH INTELLECTUAL
DISABILITY IN SWEDEN
Lotta Anderson
Malmö University, Sweden
E-mail: lotta.anderson@mah.se
Daniel Östlund
Kristianstad University, Sweden
E-mail: daniel.ostlund@hkr.se
Abstract
The aim of this research is to analyze teachers’ and paraprofessionals’ work and reflections on assessments
for learning in a Swedish compulsory special school. Research has shown that assessment for learning
is a powerful tool to improve student achievement. The theoretical perspectives discuss concepts such
as situated learning and collaboration. The research adopted a participatory design; the researchers
followed four teams, totally 20 teachers and paraprofessionals’ work through video observation,
discussions, feedback and lectures on assessment. The teams documented classroom teaching and
assessment of students' abilities in different subject. The data in this study are based on teams’ written
texts. The texts are analyzed using a qualitative content analysis and contribute to research on formative
assessment by including teachers as well as paraprofessionals. Results show, that professions have
developed their educational philosophy and their ability to give children feedback, which will help their
learning. The results also highlight the discussion between learning and caring, regarding the duties of
teachers and paraprofessionals. A challenge for the teams is to unite the children’s care needs with the
curriculum knowledge requirements and ensure them to learn within a holistic perspective. Teaching
and assessing students with extensive learning difficulties and in need of alternative communication is
another challenge for the teams as well as awareness that change processes take time.
Keywords: assessment for learning, intellectual disability, teacher, paraprofessional, special school.
Learning and Assessment for Learning
Research on formative assessment in special schools for students with intellectual

disability (ID) is an unexplored field. This research considers the general principles of assessment
for learning (AfL) (Hattie, 2009; Wiliam & Leahy, 2015) in an educational context specifically
for students with ID and teachers and paraprofessionals in a compulsory special school.
The European Union has advocated the use of ongoing evaluation in a practice-orientated
process, but ongoing evaluations should meet certain requirements. They should be held early in
the process, be in close proximity to the participants, benefit the participants, foster continuous
feedback, contribute as a basis for development-oriented learning and the achievement of the
various actors, study how the goals are achieved and can change over time and contribute to
public debate and knowledge (Svensson & Brulin, 2011). These requirements also sum up the
project process in the research reported.

Lotta ANDERSON, Daniel ÖSTLUND. Assessments for learning in grades 1-9 in a special school for student´s with intellectual
disability in Sweden
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Learning is often linked to an individual process within the child; however, according 509
to modern research on teaching and learning, this conceptualization is problematic (Daniels &
Heedegard, 2011). From a socio-cultural viewpoint, learning relies on the relationships and the
context of the students’ activities during their school day. Within this understanding of learning,
children are expected to be active participants in their own learning (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986;
Wiliam & Leahy, 2015).
In working with AFLor with formative assessment, some basic assumptions arise which
are intimately linked to the questions about what knowledge is and how knowledge is produced
and reproduced. Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall and Wiliam (2004) provide a definition of AfL:
An assessment activity can help learning if it provides information that teachers

and their students can use as feedback in assessing themselves and one another and
in modifying the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged. Such
assessment becomes “formative assessment” when the evidence is actually used to
adapt the teaching work to meet learning needs. (Black et al., 2004 p. 10)
On the other hand, studies (Karvonen, Wakeman, Flowers & Moody, 2013) that include
students with intellectual disabilities have shown that assessment practice is more complex
since the student group is often very heterogeneous. Towles-Reeves, Kearns, Kleinert and
Kleinert (2009, p. 241) declare: "as a field, alternate assessment for students with disabilities is
in its infancy".
A criterion for successful work in AfL is the student’s awareness and understanding of the
learning goals of their education. This includes assessment that accurately reflects such learning
goals (Black & Wiliam, 2006). Unfortunately, studies have shown that students are not always
given such conditions (Good & Brophy, 2003), and teachers do not always have the competence
to create accurate “tools” with which they can conduct the appropriate assessments for students
with intellectual disability that are reliable and valid (Browder, Spooner, Algozzine, Algrim-
Delzell, Flowers & Karvonen, 2003; Roach & Elliot, 2006). Towles-Reeves, Kearns, Kleinert
and Kleinert (2009) carried out a study in three states in the United States that concludes that
students who need a more alternative assessment can be divided into two subgroups. One with
students who use symbols to communicate and have the ability to engage in social interaction
and at least have some level of functional reading and math skills. The second group of students
characterized by that they not yet have an acquired formal symbolic communication system;
students who still need to learn to initiate, maintain and end social interaction. The two groups
described in Towles-Reeves et al. (2009) are similar to the participating children in this research.
In AfL, it is crucial for students to be involved in their own learning and have knowledge
about the goals that have been set in order to develop their goals in education. This implies
that when a student’s goals and learning process are followed accurately and supported in
collaboration with the students, teachers and paraprofessionals are an essential component of
the process.
In recent years, AfL, has gained a more prominent position in the daily work of
preschools and elementary education, as well as in educational research (Wiliam & Leahy,
2015). Hattie (2014) found that, in general, work with AfL has a positive effect on student
academic achievement. An early study from Black and Wiliam (1998) reports similar results on
achievement as well as benefits from teacher awareness of the AfL concept.
International researchers such as Browder et al. (2003), Roach and Elliot (2006) and
Tindal, Nese, Farley, Saven, and Elliot (2015) have reported additional challenges in working
with assessments for students with more severe cognitive disabilities. However, results from
studies carried out by Black and Wiliam (1998), Timperley and Alton-Lee (2008), Hattie
(2009) and Wiliam and Leahy (2015) demonstrate the importance of the teacher’s role in
assessment for students with severe cognitive disabilities. This includes increased competence
in conducting accurate assessments, in part, through self-reflection of their teaching as well

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
510 as skill development in collaboration with other teachers. Karvonen, Wakeman, Flowers and
Moody (2013) study that involves 400 teachers across three states in the USA gave evidence
of teachers 'conviction, as well as their instructional planning processes for students with
significant cognitive disabilities. Results showed that teachers who believed that the assessment
process had an impact tended to have students with higher performance skills.
The research on AfL in relation to students with ID is not extensive from a Swedish
perspective (Anderson, Sundman Marknäs and Östlund, 2016). Research has shown that
students generally enjoy school, need greater challenges in their learning and must be involved
in their learning by having a basic knowledge of what goals they are working toward (School
Inspectorate, 2016). In some studies (Hedegaard-Sorensen & Tetler, 2016; Mineur, 2015;
Östlund, 2012; Östlund, 2015), questions have been raised regarding the complexity of the
educational context, particularly in relation to the opportunities for students to participate
in school and society. Research has characterized the school context as “care-giving,” and
under-challenged in relation to the curriculum goals. There are several studies in Sweden on
educational work in special schools (Anderson, 2002; Mineur, 2015; Szöniy, 2005; Östlund,
2012; Östlund, 2015), but few of these studies focus on issues relating to AfL.
Compulsory Schools for Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Sweden
Major changes made by the National Board of Education in the curriculum for the
compulsory school for pupils with ID (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2011) indicate
that teachers and paraprofessionals have identified new areas for development in the local
school practice to increase the students’ academic performance. The structure of the curriculum
has changed and now contains different concepts and content.1 New demands are placed on
teachers and paraprofessionals, such as interpreting the new terminology of the curricula and
developing new ways of assessing the students’ learning. Further, a dilemma for teachers and
students has arisen because the links between learning goals and knowledge requirements are
not clear. The students’ understanding of their learning goals and the assessment criteria are
essential for positively affecting learning outcomes (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 2014). The
students’ noticeable gap in understanding between their goals and assessment criteria created a
risk, that the educational goals and standards would be perceived as meaningless and unclear.
Transparent learning outcomes and assessment criteria allow students to be involved in their
learning and achieving their goals.
The Swedish Education Act (2010:800) stipulates that all children should receive
education in compulsory schools. Children are not expected to achieve the standard learning
outcomes because they have an ID and have the right to receive education in special schools for
pupils with ID (with their own curricula and syllabi), often locally integrated into mainstream
schools. The decision made is based on a medical, psychological, social, and pedagogical
assessment. Currently, approximately 9800 pupils receive their education in compulsory
schools for pupils with ID, which amounts to 1% of all students between the ages of 6–16 in
Sweden (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2016).
Two programs, which are based on the assessed needs of the students with ID, are
available: 1) teaching subjects and 2) teaching subject areas (Swedish National Agency for
Education, 2011).
1. Teaching subjects can be compared to that of mainstream schools but are adapted
both in their content and by their teaching methods to be geared for pupils with mild
ID.
2. For students with severe ID, ‘training schools’ offer subject areas such as artistic
activities, communication, everyday activities, motor skills, and perception of
reality. The training school consists of students with a wide variety of support needs.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Situated Learning and Collaboration 511
The opportunities to learn and develop connect to the process that allows the learner to
fully participate in a community. Lave and Wenger (1991) describe the concept of ‘situated
learning’, which contributes to an understanding of learning that emphasizes the learner’s
participation within their social context. Within a sociocultural perspective, learning is seen
as a process, which is anchored in the teachers and paraprofessionals’ everyday lives at school
where they interact with each other and their students in various activities. This can be expressed
as learning, and AfL is social and situated (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Findings in Meyers
(2011), Meyers and Lester (2013) studies on alternative forms of competence development for
teachers, suggest that teachers' development of new skills and knowledge that can be integrated
into their own classroom practice is more successful when the competence development is
performed within the context they are working in. A situated learning perspective demands
that learning, documentation, and knowledge must relate to a context or an activity. Ongoing
learning activities cannot be separated from the social and cultural contexts in which they take
place. The teachers in Jones and Lawson's (2015) study, that was conducted on the basis of
Lave and Wenger's (1991) theoretical framework, emphasized that their learning was tied to
their possibility to be engaged in developing their own school context. The study shows that the
teachers used the knowledge and understanding to adapt evidence-based strategies and make
educational decisions, especially with regard to the attitude of students and their relationship
with students with severe intellectual disability. Such an approach, as Lave and Wenger (1991)
assert, also means that if teaching models cannot be “copy and paste,” the models must be
recreated and reflected on by the participants. The models and concepts must be tried out in
relation to the school organization and the classes, and the culture and circumstances within
the school. In Meyers (2011) and Meyers and Lester (2013) studies it was a factor to reach
better achievement if the education was conducted in the teachers' own school organization,
which led them to relate their new knowledge to their own teaching practice in a better way.
This means that the school’s own ability to develop the practice of AfL, must be evaluated,
reflected on and discussed to create the best learning environment possible. For example,
teachers and paraprofessionals within a learning community can create a common vision with
common values, and this could possibly be linked to positive emotions, feeling good, and the
joy of working with like-minded others. Collaboration is about meaningful relationships, and
to work together in common, practical activities focused around teaching and AfL provides an
opportunity to feel a sense of accomplishment. The teachers (Meyers & Lester, 2013), who
participated in shared decision-making, learned answer strategies from each other that helped
them solve unexpected problems and situations. They brought their prerequisites and newly
acquired knowledge that they created through their collaborative efforts to the practice of their
own school. This research examines how a learning community can be developed to support
skill building and change in relation to the use of innovative teaching methods.
Aim and Research Questions
The aim is to analyze teachers and paraprofessionals’ work and reflections in AfL
during a professional development project in a special school. The analysis contributes to
research on formative assessment (Jönsson, 2013; Lundahl, 2014) by including teachers and
paraprofessionals working with students with ID. The analysis also contributes to a variety of
results of how teachers and paraprofessionals can find ways to involve students with ID in the
assessment process and thus better identify the students’ learning.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
512 Research Questions
1. What was learned by the teachers and paraprofessionals?

2. What do teachers and paraprofessionals consider as important aspects when assessing
learning for students with intellectual disability?
Methodology of Research
The research of AfL in compulsory special school began as a school development project.
In February 2012, a policy decision was made by the City of Malmö. The school improvement
work for increased effectiveness in learners’ achievements was supported, and the city offered
a grant to the professionals to work with developing the education. From a pool of many
applications, the compulsory special school, in focus for this research, was chosen by the city
council of Malmö because of the school’s detailed justification. In its application, the special
school had been chosen to focus on AfL.
Participants
The participants comprise seven special need teachers and special education teachers, 2
one leisure-time pedagogue3 one teacher (in total, eight women and one man, who from here
on will all be referred to as ‘teachers’), eleven paraprofessionals (nine women and two men),
and one principal (woman). The teachers have been working in their professions between 1–22
years. The paraprofessionals are trained student assistants and have 8–30 years of professional
experience. Paraprofessionals play a major role in the social and academic outcomes of children
with disabilities, and many children with disabilities spend much of their classroom time with
paraprofessionals instead of the teacher (Brown & Chapman, 2014) and thus play an important
role in the assessment process.
In total, 20 teachers and paraprofessionals working in seven classes with about 35
children from grades 1–9 were involved in the school effort. The number of adults who worked
in each class relates to the extent of each child’s disabilities and support needs. In classes where
children had severe disabilities, the staff-to-student ratio was one-to-one. Most of the staff in
these cases was paraprofessionals. In classes where children had mild or moderate disabilities,
the ratio was usually one teacher and two paraprofessionals per class of 4–5 children. The
recurrent discussions between the two researchers,4 teachers and paraprofessionals were about
how they could select and define a development area that could be reasonable to implement and
evaluate during the coming school year. The four teams were formed by grouping the staff by
how similar their answers were when answering the following questions: In what areas would
they work? What frames are available? How to document the processes? What resources are
needed? How to evaluate the assessment work? These discussions resulted in four development
areas, and the seven classes were organized into four teams according to the selected areas on
AfL. They included the following subjects: Swedish Language, Mathematics, Natural Science,
and the subject areas of Perception of Reality and Communication (see table 1).
Setting
The entire AfL learning process during three semesters (2014–2015) was characterized
by reciprocity, flexibility, and continuity (Kvale & Brinkman, 2014) in informal and formal
conversations between the researchers and participating teachers and paraprofessionals. The
continued talks between the researchers and the teams had consequences for the teams’ planning
and handling of the work with AfL in the classes. In addition to collegial conversations, the

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
researchers lectured on the topics as assessment in general and methods used in assessments as 513
well as supporting and giving feedback to the four teams during the process. This study adopted
a participatory design (Chevalier & Buckle, 2013).
Data Collection
In line with Wiliam and Leahy (2015), these were the starting points for the teams:
identifying and valuing the students’ individual goals to work with, giving feedback relating
to the goals, learning about how the children achieve their goals, and finally, evaluating and
monitoring the learning process. Each team gradually designed strategies to implement the
planned development areas depending on the choice of subject and the facilities and interests of
the team. In this context, it is important to note that the processes to improve the AfL are a long-
term project and will take time; in addition, they depend on the students’ conditions and abilities
as well as the professionals’ needs and competence (Blossing, 2013). Table 1 below shows
teams, students, subject, subject areas and used methods for collecting the empirical data.
Table 1. Teams, students, subjects, subject areas and used methods.
Subject/subject
Team Students Methods
areas
Special school program 1: Video recording and video
Team 1:
Seven students with mild analysis relating to the learn-
One teacher, two parapro- Mathematics
intellectual disabilities (grades ing outcomes of the curricu-
fessionals
1–3) lum in mathematics
Video feedback and

Team 2: Special school program 2: individual notebooks for
Communication
Three teachers, six para- Ten students with severe dis- each student related to the
professionals abilities (grades 1–9) learning outcomes of the cur-
riculum in Communication.
Templates and video feed-

Special school program 1–2: Swedish Language/
Team 3: back related to the learning
Thirteen students with mild Communication,
Three teachers, two outcomes of the curriculum
and moderate intellectual Natural Science/Per-
paraprofessionals in Swedish Language and
disability (grades 4–9) ception of Reality
Natural Science
Written documentation of
Team 4: Special school program 2:
the work with the support of
Two teachers, one para- Five students with moderate
Communication observations of the teaching
professional intellectual disabilities (grades
and iPad and digital camera
1–2)
were used
Data Analysis

During the research process, it became clear that different approaches and data collection
methods could be tested and evaluated. An openness to methodology and flexibility in the
use of different methods is an important feature in the ongoing evaluation or research-based
evaluation (Ahnberg, Lundgren, Messing & von Schantz Lundgren, 2010). The data material
used in this research is based on the four teams’ documentation (written texts) of their work
with AfL. The texts are analyzed using a qualitative content analysis (Graneheim & Lundman,
2004). This methodology is built upon clarifications in both the terminology and the procedures

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
514 of analysis made by Alexandersson (2004), Graneheim and Lundman (2004) and Bryman
(2012). The texts are read several times, reflected upon, and notes are made in the margins
(Alexandersson, 1994). The manifest content analysis started (Bryman, 2011; Cohen, Manion
& Morrison, 2011; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004), including meaningful units from the texts
and condensed written materials (i.e., texts), were categorized and grouped together according
to many themes, for example, ‘new way of thinking’, teaching and learning”, “changing focus”,
“acting more passive”. The units would ultimately be combined to form two overall themes:
Reflections and lessons were learned by four teams and important aspects were expressed by
four teams when assessing learning. Selecting meaningful units can be difficult; if they are too
large, there runs the risk that they contain more than one phenomenon and the selection of too
small units means the risk of material fragmentation. In both cases, important information is
missing. Categorization also is a critical phase and probably the most difficult in the whole
process. It is, often declared that the categories should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive
(Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007; Granheim & Lundman, 2004).
Ethical Considerations
There are many ethical considerations to take into account in regard to children with
disabilities. This becomes especially clear when it comes to ID, where a relative or another adult
acts as an agent for the child, most often when the child has limited or no verbal communication.
Due to the communication difficulties of the students in the research, the staff is the primary
focus during the process. Initially, all parents were informed about the planned school effort
and work with AfL that would take place over three semesters. The parents signed a form by
which they consented to the process and the assessment work that the teams were involved in.
Children were informed but did not sign the agreement because they are minors. Further, the
parents received feedback relating to their child’s performance.
Credibility
A decision to use the concept of credibility, because the research was based on qualitative
data was made (Bryman, 2012; Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). The requirements of
credibility, authenticity and transferability in the study have been taken into account. The
city council of Malmö, who supported the study, required that the processes were monitored
and evaluated. This means that one of the researchers followed and documented all steps in
the research process. The researcher took notes during team meetings and meetings with the
school's headmasters. The researchers discussed both how the process progressed, and the
data collection was used by teams to carry out the assessment work in each class. One of the
researchers as well documented the joint discussions. Authenticity is important in qualitative
studies and the four teams were involved throughout the entire research process. Their written
texts are the basis of the quotations in the research. Credibility was considered relatively high,
even if subjective elements can never be ignored. The study is unique in its implementation and
there is a desire for utilitarian perspective with the results. If the research content can provide
knowledge and understanding of AfL it could be transferable and benefit for staff in special
school for ID (Anderson, Sundman Marknäs and Östlund, 2016).
Results of Research
Reflections from discussions can be summarized as follows: The teachers and

paraprofessionals discussed issues about teaching on a scientific basis, subject area assessment,
the goals in the curricula, and the shift from curricula with practice content to more academic
content. Additionally, the groups discussed the issue of communication for students with
multiple and severe disabilities and the need for consensus and uniform language between

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
the teachers and paraprofessionals to find useful tools for AfL and feedback. The teachers 515
desired participant observations in classes, tutoring, and feedback from the researchers. The
staff also had expectations about finding functional tools to carry out assessments versus the
heterogeneous group of children in their classes. The future of their work was expressed through
considering evaluation as a natural part of their daily work as well as involving the whole staff
in the AfL process.
The four teams later expressed a greater understanding of the importance of giving
children time and space in the classroom and be more active in their own listening. These
expressions from the teams have contributed to a better quality of teaching and that students
have developed in relation to their learning outcomes. A key finding in the study has been to
relate the teaching to the students’ interests, to stimulate their telling and retelling.
Reflections and Lessons Learned by Four Teams
The most important results from Team 1 show that everyone is aware of the curriculum
content and focusing the students’ academic achievements. Throughout the staff groups, the
discussions about the curriculum, learning, and assessment processes are now on a different
level than they were before. The discussions on education are more in focus. Team 1 states:
The common pattern – the teacher asks the questions, some students respond, and the teacher
evaluates the students’ responses – needs to be replaced with a dialogic classroom. (excerpt 1,
Team 1)
The teacher's role to evaluate the students’ responses was replaced so that the teachers
and paraprofessionals instead could become active listeners.
New Way of Thinking about Learning
The efforts on assessment had a major impact on Team 2, and the team expressed that they
have developed new ways of thinking, took part in new discussions, and gained new insights.
The children´s’ individual notebooks produced by Team 2 give everyone a greater opportunity
to participate in the assessments. The notes give a good indication of how different members of
the team assess the students’ learning and provide a good basis for further development of the
AfL in the classes. Reflections from Team 2 describe this in the following way:
If different categories of the team should have the opportunity to work with each other
and not next to each other, we need discussions with a clear framework, clear content, and a
clear focus on teaching, the students, and assessment and learning. (excerpt 2, Team 2)
The work that Team 2 carried out shows how important it is that everyone, both teachers
and paraprofessionals, are involved in the assessment. It is also highly important that everyone
in the team have good knowledge of the content of the curriculum and syllabus, knowledge of
pedagogy and assessment, and knowledge about how students develop their learning. Team 3
has learned:
Through an increased focus on giving students direct feedback, we have become better at
assessing and seeing what the students have learned and how they evolve. It has also contributed
to the more academic conversations about student learning; we express to each other what we
see, and it has resulted in a good dialogue within the team. (excerpt 3, Team 3)

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
516 Learning and Teaching are Connected to Each Other
In a good learning environment, learning and teaching connect to each other to optimize
the students’ opportunities to achieve their educational goals. Team 3 states:
If learning and teaching are not connected, there is a risk that students will not reach
the intended educational objectives. (excerpt 4, Team 3)
To make visible where students are in the learning process and use this information to
adapt the teaching to the students’ needs, it is essential to support their learning in the best way.
This means that teachers need to have knowledge of the student’s learning, what lies behind the
students’ achievements, and the way the students themselves need to be aware of their learning.
Team 3 writes:
It is important to have the opportunity to [conduct] regular comprehensive discussions

with experienced personnel, but it is equally important to sit down with the team and discuss
the current students and their learning processes. (excerpt 5, Team 3)
Team 4 saw the advantages of their own learning process over time and describe what
they learned from their participation:
Through changing how we talk with students about their learning and by giving the
students more time to express themselves, we developed a more dialogical approach in the
work with assessment for learning. (excerpt 6, Team 4)
Team 4 reflects on how they changed their role by actively listening to the children and
by giving them the time they need to express themselves. Through working with AfL in this
class, the feedback was embedded in dialogues developed through the team's new approach.
Team 4 writes:
The ongoing talks in the team have contributed to both mutual trust and respect for
each other's professions that increased their understanding of regulatory documents, learning,
assessment, and knowledge. (excerpt 7, Team 4)
The Students’ Effect on Teachers
Team 1 have clearly improved their teaching strategies by not only having developed
their way of asking the children questions but also informing them about their learning. The
team states:
Working with formative assessment in a systematic way complements the work of

Individual Educational Plans (IEP) and includes the students in their learning. (excerpt 8,
Team 1)
Through a sharper focus on the importance of giving feedback to the students, team
4 tutored them during the process and provided clear feedback directly to them. Through an
increased focus on giving students’ feedback, they have become better at assessing and seeing
what students have learned and how their learning has progressed. It has also contributed to
more academic conversations about student learning, which appear in the reflections from Team
4:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
We have a good dialogue among us. The development has increased the trust in the 517
team and has developed our professions. (excerpt 9, Team 4)
Team 1 thought that by letting the children answer the questions, What have you learned?
and How did you learn it?, they would eventually catch sight of their learning. This proved to
be too difficult. These were issues that were simply too large and abstract for the children in
this class; instead, the team reflected on the lessons. By allowing students to share and put
into words what they had done during the lesson, the teacher and paraprofessionals in Team 1
reflected in the following way:
The goal was to get better at asking the students questions that would open up for their
own thoughts and words. This was difficult, but with the help of video sequences from the
reflection sessions, we got good feedback on our work as leaders of the conversation and could
also develop in our own role. (excerpt 10, Team 1)
The video sequences from the lessons in classroom made the strategies visible and clear
and helped with the feedback on the children’s thinking. Team 1 explains:
Video clips from the math lessons show how we explain to the students how they
should solve a problem when they say that they have done something else. (excerpt 11, Team
1)
The video clips from the lessons also clarify, repeat, and reinforce math concepts such as
more, as many, addition, subtraction, etc. and increase opportunities for the students to acquire
a common language. In the educational context, this means that the student’s abilities integrated
in the learning context and the teaching effectiveness depends on the efforts of both teacher
and student. Therefore, an effective classroom is a classroom characterized by high student
participation. Team 3 also had benefited greatly from the video recording when the students
made their oral presentations. It has also been a useful tool in the evaluation of the goal. The
team has learned that this tool gives a good, clear picture of the students’ skills and abilities.
Video recording is a useful tool for both students and professionals. The students can
see and evaluate their capability along with a teacher, and it gives the opportunity to look at
specific parts of the video clips several times to highlight what has been good and what needs
to be improved. (excerpt 12, Team 3)
Team 2 describes that there is much left to be desired, especially more time for continuous
discussions when the entire staff group is present. It is important that the two professional areas
in compulsory special schools, that of care and knowledge/learning, can be met in line with the
children and their learning needs. The team has developed in giving verbal, direct feedback
to the children. All categories of staff are more likely to reconnect, validate, and visualize
everything from simple communication signals to clear learning processes of the child, and in
some cases, the children communications become more clear and distinct, but it is still hard to
know how the children perceive themselves.
Acting More Passive in Relation to Students
However, AfL is not just about delivering information about student performance. Team
4 describes the need to include information on how the students can change their way of thinking
or acting in order to achieve the learning outcomes. This type of response has shown how to
produce positive effects on student achievement, motivation, and commitment to the effort.
The students’ social skills and peer relationships have developed during the process, and Team

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
518 4 expresses that “The students have gone from going through an adult to make contact with a
peer to make contact directly with peers.” The team has discovered that students talk directly
with each other and take initiative in a different way than before. The result partly relates to the
team members acting more passive in relation to the students. A tangible result of the work is
that Team 4 learned to give students more time to reflect throughout the day. Team 4 describes:
We have developed listening [skills], giving the students’ greater opportunities to

express themselves. We have become more aware of how they communicate to [the other]
students what to do/work with. The formative assessment is done continuously in the everyday
work and in constant interaction with students. (excerpt 13, Team 4)
Important Aspects Expressed by Four Teams when Assessing Learning
The teams’ descriptions of their work in the classroom are the focus, and the challenge
is to involve all students in the work of the AfL. The teams expressed that they had different
challenges in the classes depending on the student group’s composition and the students’
abilities and needs.
Changing the Focus from Caring to Learning
Team 2 expressed that there is a lack of consensus on students learning in training school.
The team members were frustrated and felt helpless and could not relate their group of students
to the curriculum text. Moreover, the teachers felt that the care and needs of the students were
not acknowledged in the curriculum text. Swedish National Agency for Education (2001) states
that much focus has been placed on nurturing and caring for the student in special school. The
nurturing is important, but it also runs the risk of preventing students from being challenged in
their learning if caring is given too much importance in the classroom. The solution for Team
3 was to highlight students the learning that happened during nurturing and caring activities.
Team 2 expressed a need to shift the focus from “care to students learning”.
Team 4 based their work mainly on three basic questions asked to students: 1) Where
are you going? 2) Where are you now? 3) How do you proceed? The three questions gave the
teams the tools to start working, and meant they could use the students’ previous experience and
knowledge as a starting point. The questions fall in line with the idea that all education should
be designed to teach students in their proximal zone of development. Reconciling assessment
for learning with IEP facilitates the daily work in the classroom. AfL could work in a natural
and logical way in the students’ IEPs.
Team 3 introduced a model with an AfL template for the students to use in the subject
of Swedish Language and the subject area, Communication. The basic purpose of the template
was to clarify to the students what they would learn in relation to a specific goal. The template
also informed the children about how their task, for example, a written text or speech, would be
assessed by the teachers. The first step, relating to the question, “Where are you going?” was to
identify the level of knowledge each student had in the subject or subject area. After identifying
the child’s ability, the teacher could formulate goals that stemmed from the students’ interests
and cognitive level, and thus, teaching could begin that would be in line with the students’
proximal zone of development. The objectives of each child, along with what would be assessed
by the teacher, were described on each student’s individual template. Team 3 expresses in their
text:
When the students finished working with their assignment, they looked at their AfL template
and reflected on whether they felt ready to give a presentation to their peers and teachers.
When evaluating the students work, the team asked the students if they thought they had
managed to reach the goal. (excerpt 14, Team 3)

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Through the systematic and continuous work with AfL, the didactic questions of what? 519
why? and how? help the children to recognize what and why they should learn when working
within a specific lesson. Team 3 made progress in their professional development by relating
the teaching to the questions and connecting the subject to the students’ experience as learners.
Team 3 stated:
Working with AfL has also enabled the students to become learning resources for each
other. They were given the opportunity to jointly reflect on their own and their peers’ learning.
(excerpt 15, Team 3)
This may signal a shift in perspective – going from a teaching model that emphasized
individual learning to a new concept that understands learning as social interaction. This falls
in line with the theoretical view of learning that emphasizes forms of guided participation and
apprenticeship.
Strategies in the Classrooms Involving the Students in Their Own Learning
The four teams focused largely on providing verbal feedback directly in the activity;
feedback that did not simply give praise and say “good.” Pupils need to hear what is good.
The students love to see themselves in photos and video clips and the team decided to use
this tool in their data collection. After a number of meetings with the researchers, a clearer
focus on abilities emerged which facilitates understanding and teaching in subject areas. When
discussions in about concepts in curriculum and syllabi ended, it was time to start thinking
about assessment for team 2. The team agreed that they lacked a method or a tool to make all
the participants involved in the observation of the learning process, and to some extent, the
assessment. Team 2 decided, to continually write their observations in individual books, which
were divided into the five subject areas in training school.
By individually evaluating each student’s learning Team 3 developed the ability to self-
assess their performance and articulate in the text:
The approach has been clear to the students, who become more involved in their own
work. The AfL template also serves as a good support for the entire team. When evaluating the
template with the students, it emerged that the templates had been clear and concrete. Students
expressed their support and the benefit of using the AfL templates. (excerpt 16, Team 4)
Discussion
The results are discussed in light of the two research questions: reflections and lessons
learned by the teams, and important aspects expressed by the teams when assessing the
learners’ achievements. The results presented in the excerpts made the development in the
educational practice visible in the studied compulsory special school. Initially, the process was
characterized by uncertainty about how the teachers were expected to interpret and understand
the core content, knowledge, and skills in the curriculum. The four teams’ descriptions in
their texts made visible how they developed and changed their teaching practice. The overall
aim of the research, including a focus on student engagement in their learning, is linked to an
understanding of the team's relationship with, and assessment of, student learning. Together and
in collaboration with the researchers, the teams changed both their approach to student learning
and their view on how children learn. In the analyzed texts written by the four teams, a shift
occurred away from the norm of student learning as an individual phenomenon to a view of
student learning as being regarded as a social phenomenon (e.g., excerpts 10 and 12). Teachers
and paraprofessionals developed their cooperation within the team as well, and all took joint
responsibility for the AfL (e.g., 6 and 7). In this context, the team development can relate to

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
520 Lave and Wenger’s (1991) and Jones and Lawson´s (2015) ideas of learning communities,
which asserts that all team members, specifically the paraprofessionals, carry out their work
with student learning in a more independent way. This finding indicates the importance
of consider learning in both care and education. In other words, this means combining the
profession’s assignments and roles regarding perceptions of student learning. The teams’
expanded collaborations show that their work provided meaningful relationships, and their joint
effort in common practical activities with a focus on AfL provided opportunities to develop the
assessment processes. The learning community developed the four teams’ skills and changed
their practice to more innovative teaching methods, which had an impact on children’s learning.
The teams’ expanded collaboration show that their work provided meaningful relationships,
and their joint effort in common practical activities with a focus on AfL provided opportunities
to develop the assessment processes. One aspect contributing to the change can be connected to
that all professional roles benefited from the educational work with AfL and that all expected to
contribute actively with their specific expertise. As asserted by Svensson and Brulin (2011), a
shared responsibility for the development emphasizes the need for evaluation to come in early in
the process, provides continuous feedback, and motivates cooperation between different actors
to create a development-oriented environment (e.g., excerpts 2, 9 and 13). There is a strong
emphasis that learning takes place in relation to and in collaboration with others, a learning that
is situated and relational. The participants also stressed the need for joint effort including other
professionals and students themselves for developing their work with AfL Similar results are
recalled in studies of Meyers (2011), Meyers and Lester (2013) and Jones and Lawson (2015).
The four teams expressed that process-oriented approach of AfL led to new insights and
a developed understanding of what, how, why, and when students learn, and the ways in which
student learning can be represented (e.g., excerpts 1, 3, and 4). William and Leahy (2015) and
Jones and Lawson (2015) highlight this and point to similar processes within their research.
In the analyzed texts, it appears that discussions helped the different professions, teachers
and paraprofessionals, in their work with each other and not alongside each other. The teams
reflected that they not only developed professionally in giving clearer feedback to the children
but also developed a new language to address each other in the team and give feedback within
the team (e.g., excerpts 2 and 5). The classes usually consist of many adults, and to achieve
success in teaching requires close and respectful cooperation characterized by responsiveness
to the others in the team (Svensson & Brulin, 2011).
Both in descriptions and reflections, the participants emphasized that they became a
better team and that trust in each other increased. In reconciliation, and in the results above,
there are signs that their collegial learning has become visible in the four teams (Timperley,
2008). In the same way, the teams describe that the students have begun to learn from each other,
have confidence and trust in each other. It is also important to highlight the paraprofessionals’
role as observers, especially in connection to the AfL, where paraprofessionals are sometimes
responsible for the implementation of teaching in one-to-one tutoring. From such a perspective,
the assessments are an issue for teachers, as well as for the paraprofessionals, in the team (e.g.,
excerpt 7). In compulsory special school, paraprofessionals have an important role, which in
many cases, is underestimated (Brown & Chapman, 2014). By working together with a strong
focus on student achievement, the teachers can become better at finding evidence of how the
students’ ‘skills meet the established objectives and criteria, and thus implement education
and use assessment in a way that meets the students’ needs. An important contribution to the
development of all four teams has been the changes that were made in the way they give students
feedback (William & Leahy, 2015). The increased focus on providing relevant feedback about
the students’ learning process and the tasks the students work with have helped the students to
become more involved in their learning (e.g., excerpts 12, 14 and 15). (Browder et al., 2003;
Roach & Elliot, 2006; Tindal, et al., 2015).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Limitations 521
The amount of time the staff had to work actively with AfL proved to be more
problematic than the local school board first thought. Some reasons for this were the change of
principals and different working conditions for the teachers and paraprofessionals. The result
indicates that it often becomes difficult to organize joint meetings of the entire staff. This led to
frustration in both professional categories. The aim of learning from each other and developing
new knowledge together took longer than initially planned. There was sometimes a “sense of
alienation” among the paraprofessionals because their strictly regulated working hours imposed
limits on how much they could participate in joint meetings.
Concluding Remarks and Implications
In their reflections, the teams show that they view students’ learning as a joint
responsibility between teachers and paraprofessionals. They also show that understanding the
importance of dialogue contributes to respecting and trusting each other’s competence, which
also is highlighted in the research of Meyers and Lester (2013), and Jones and Lawson (2015).
The teams increased their awareness of the importance of dialogue for the development of
teaching and learning in relation to the students’ conditions. They express that they have become
more aware that learning outcomes can be concretized in various ways to involve students in
their learning and that feedback about student performance is important. Moreover, the teams
highlighted important aspects in their work with AfL. In addition to serving as a resource for
each other, systematic work with assessment for learning, combined with IEP, includes students
in their learning and tries out approaches that work to visualize and confirm the students’ own
learning.
Capturing and discussing important issues takes time (Blossing, 2013: Meyers &
Lester, 2013), and although the questions about developmental areas come from the teachers
and paraprofessionals themselves, this does not mean that they will work through the process.
To bring about change requires sustainable support structures that enable continuous talks
and cooperation. If it is allowed to twist and turn on thoughts, there also must be awareness
that implementing change takes time. The teachers and paraprofessionals must feel that the
employers believe in their ability and willingness to change and develop the daily work.
Conclusions
The result has shown that development processes are not linear, take time, and depend
on the conditions available and given. The research contributes knowledge of the assessment
of learners attending special schools, an assessment practice that is still in its infancy and needs
to be further developed through extensive studies. A challenge for the teams is to unite the
learners’ care needs with the curriculum knowledge requirements and ensure the learners taught
within a holistic perspective. Towles-Reeves et al. (2009) research shows a similar pattern and
highlights the challenge of teaching and assessing students with alternative communication
and severe intellectual disability. Another challenge is to study the sustainability of a change
processes. The questions below posed by Team 2:
Will the knowledge and understanding of learning processes and assessment gradually erode?
Or can we hope that this will eventually be self-evident?

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
522 References
Ahnberg, E., Lundgren, M., Messing, J., & von Schantz Lundgren, I. (2010). Följeforskning som
företeelse och följeforskarrollen som konkret praktik. [Follow research as a phenomenon and the
role as follow researcher in practice]. Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv, 16 (3), 55–66.
Alexandersson, M. (1994). Metod och medvetande [Method and Consciousness]. Göteborg Acta
Universitatis Gothoburgensis.
Anderson, L., Sundman Marknäs, A., & Östlund, D. (Eds.), (2016). Hur ska vi göra då? Praktiknära
utveckling av en grundsärskolas arbete med bedömning för lärande. [Practical oriented work with
formative assessment in a compulsory special school]. Malmö stad: Förskoleförvaltningen.
Anderson, L. (2002). Interpersonell kommunikation: en studie av elever med hörselnedsättning i
särskolan [Interpersonal Communications - a Study of Students with Hearing Disability]. Diss.
Lund: Lunds universitet.
Black, P. J., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education:
Principles, Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7–74, http://dx.doi.org: 10.1080/0969595980050102.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2004). Working inside the black box:
Assessment for learning in the classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 86 (1), 8–21.
Browder, D., Spooner, F., Algozzine, R., Algrim-Delzell, L., Flowers, C., & Karvonen, M. (2003). What
we know and need to know about alternative assessment. Exceptional Children, 70, 45–61, http://
dx.doi.org: 10.1080/08957340701431385.
Brown, T.S., & Stanton-Chapman, T. L. (2014). Experiences of paraprofessionals in US preschool special
education and general education classrooms. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs,
17, 18–30, http://dx.doi.org: 10.1111/1471-3802.12095.
Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods. Oxford University Press.
Blossing, U. (2013). Förändringsagenter för skolutveckling: Roller och implementeringsprocess
[Change Agents for School: Roles and Implementation Process]. Pedagogisk forskning i Sverige,
18 (3–4), 153–174.
Chevalier, J.M., & Buckles, D.J. (2013). Participatory action research: Theory and methods for engaged
inquiry. Routledge UK.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (7th Ed.). London:
Routledge.
Daniels, H., & Hedegaard, M. (Eds.), (2011). Vygotsky and special needs education: Rethinking support
for children and schools. London: Continuum.
Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (1986). Effects of systematic formative evaluation - a meta-analysis. Exceptional
Children, 53 (3), 199–208.
Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (2003). Looking in classrooms (9th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Graneheim, U., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research, procedures and
measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24, 105–112.
Hattie, J. (2014). Synligt lärande: en syntes av mer än 800 metaanalyser om vad som påverkar elevers
skolresultat [Visible learning]. Stockholm: Natur & Kultur.
Hedegaard-Soerensen, L., & Tetler, S. (2016). Evaluating the quality of learning environments and
teaching practice in special schools. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 31, 264–278.
http://dx.doi.org 10.1080/08856257.2016.1141524.
Heritage, M. (2010). Formative assessment and next-generation assessment systems: Are we losing
an opportunity? National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing
(CRESST) Graduate School of Education and Information Studies. University of California, Los
Angeles.
Jones, P., & Lawson, H. (2015). Insights into teacher learning about pedagogy from an international group
of teachers of students with severe intellectual disabilities. European Journal of Special Needs
Education, 30 (3), 384-401, http://dx.doi.org 10.1080/08856257.2015.1023000.
Jönsson, A. (2013). Lärande bedömning [Learning assessment]. Malmö: Gleerups.
Karvonen, M., Wakeman, S., Flowers, Cl., & Moody, S. (2013). The relationship of teachers' instructional
decisions and beliefs about alternate assessments to student achievement. Exceptionality, 21 (4 ),
238-252.
Kvale, S., & Brinkman, S. (2014). Den kvalitativa forskningsintervjun [Qualitative research interview].
Lund: Studentlitteratur.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: 523
University Press.
Lundahl, C. (2014). Bedömning för lärande [Assessment for learning]. Lund: Studentltteratur.
Meyers, S. (2011). Life skills training through situated learning experiences: An alternative instructional
model. Journal of International Special Needs Education, 26 (3), 142-149.
Meyers, S., & Lester, D. (2013). The effects of situated learning through a community partnership in a
teacher preparation program. SAGE Open, http://dx.doi.org 10.1177/2158244013497025.
Mineur, T. (2015). Swedish education in upper secondary schools for students with intellectual disabilities:
From a student perspective. Research and Practice in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities,
2 (2), 165–17, http://dx.doi.org 10.1080/23297018.2015.1067866.
Roach, A., & Elliott, S. (2006). The influences of access to general education curriculum on alternate
assessment performance of students with significant cognitive disabilities. Educational Evaluation
and Policy Analysis, 28 (2), 181–194, http://dx.doi.org 10.3102/01623737028002181.
Schools Inspectorate (2016). Integrerade elever. Undervisningssituationen för elever som är mottagna i
grundsärskolan och får sin undervisning i grundskolan [Integrated pupils: Teaching situation for
pupils who belong to compulsory special school and get their education in elementary school].
Report 016-10-0.
SOU 2010:800. Skollagen [The Swedish Education Act].
Swedish National Agency for Education (2011). Läroplan för grundsärskolan. [Curriculum for the
Compulsory Special School]. Stockholm: Fritzes.
Swedish National Agency for Education (2016). Sveriges officiella statistik. [Sweden's Official Statistics].
Stockholm: Swedish National Agency for Education.
Svensson, L., & Brulin, G. (2014). Lärande som drivkraft och för utveckling. Lärande i arbetslivet:
möjligheter och utmaningar: en vänbok till Per-Erik Ellström (pp. 279–292). [Learning as a
driving force and development]. Linköping: Linköpings universitet.
Säljö, R. (2000). Learning in practice – a sociocultural perspective. Stockholm: Prisma.
Timperley H. (2008). Teacher professional learning and development. Educational Practices Series 18.
International Academy of Education: Brussels.
Timperley, H., & Alton-Lee, A. (2008). Reframing teacher professional learning: An alternative policy
approach to strengthening valued outcomes for diverse learners. In: G. Kelly, G. Luke & J. Green
(Eds.), Disciplines, knowledge and pedagogy. Review of Research in Education, 32, Washington
DC: Sage Publications, http://dx.doi.org 10.1080/00336297.2013.826139.
Tindal, G., Nese, J. F.T., Farley, D., Saven, J. L., & Elliot, S. (2005). Documenting reading achievement
and growth for students taking alternate assessments. Exceptional Children, http://dx.doi.org
10.1177/0014402915585492.
Towles-Reeves, E., Kearns, J., Kleinert, H., & Kleinert, J. (2009). An analysis of the learning characteristics
of students taking alternate assessments based on alternate achievement standards. Journal of
Special Education, 42 (4), 241-254.
Wiliam, D., & Leahy, S. (2015). Handbok i formativ bedömning. Strategier och praktiska tekniker.
[Handbook of formative assessment. Strategies and practical technique]. Stockholm: Natur och
Kultur.
Östlund, D. (2012). Deltagandets kontextuella villkor: fem träningsskoleklassers pedagogiska praktik.
[Contextual conditions of participation. Five training school classes’ pedagogical practice]. Diss.
Malmö: Malmö högskola.
Östlund, D. (2015). Students with profound and multiple disabilities in education in Sweden: teaching
organization and modes of student participation. Research and Practice in Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities, 2 (2), 148–164, http://dx.doi.org 10.1080/23297018.2015.1085327.
Endnotes
1 The reform implemented meant more space for academic content, and the requirements for
students to achieve the goals have increased
2 In Sweden, there are two different professions, which focus on special needs education. Special
education teachers work with school development, educational investigations, and guidance,
whereas the main mission for special needs teachers is to support individual students and subject
development.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
524 3 Leisure-time/after school pedagogues have a leading role in the afternoon center, which often is
located at the school.
4 The third researcher had the role of following and documenting the AfL process.

Received: November 15, 2017 Accepted: December 23, 2017
Lotta Anderson PhD, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö University,

Nordenskiöldsgatan 10, 205 06 Malmö, Sweden.
E-mail: lotta.anderson@mah.se
Daniel Östlund PhD, Senior Lecturer in Special Education, Faculty of Teacher

Education, Kristianstad University, SE-291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden.
E-mail: daniel.ostlund@hkr.se

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
VIEWS OF A GROUP OF PRE-SERVICE 525
SCIENCE TEACHERS ON THE USE OF

EXPERIMENTAL ACTIVITIES IN SCIENCE
TEACHING
Elaine A. Colagrande
Nove de Julho University, São Paulo, Brazil
E-mail: elainecola@gmail.com
Simone Alves de Assis Martorano

Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema, Brazil
E-mail: sialvesmartorano@gmail.com
Agnaldo Arroio
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
E-mail: agnaldoarroio@yahoo.com
Abstract
Teachers often consider experimental activities to be fundamental to the teaching of scientific concepts.
However, there are different views about their purpose in science classes; these views are linked to
teachers' different understandings of the construction of scientific knowledge. It was analyzed the views
of 19 pre-service science teachers (PST) on the use of experimental activities in science classes. These
PSTs were enrolled in the subject of science teacher training course of a Brazilian federal university. In
their course work, the PSTS were organized into groups and they participated in a pedagogical activity
during which they reported their views on two experimental scripts. They answered questions about how
they would use these experiments in the future. The activity occurred in two stages: the first was before
studying texts on the nature of science with an emphasis on the role of experimentation in the foundation
of hypotheses; the second stage was after this. The data analysis was performed using the content analysis
technique. The results suggest the importance of debates and deep themes in training courses for science
teachers, so that experimental activities are not seen reductively and only as ways to motivate classes or
to complement theory, but rather as potential aids in the construction of scientific meaning.
Keywords: experimental activities, nature of science, teacher education.
Introduction
Scientific knowledge can be built in different environments, such as a laboratory. In

laboratories, scientists make analyses and look for means to explain phenomena. Lab experiments
correspond to one of the procedures used by scientists to elaborate their explanations. In school
environments, however, experiments are seen as fundamental to natural science classes such
as chemistry, physics and biology. However, their use is often linked to proving theories, thus
strengthening the idea of a unique and rigid scientific method.
Much research has presented experiments as themes of interest: Hofstein and Lunetta
(2003), Mamlok-Naaman and Barnea (2012), Mumba, Mejia, Chabalengula and Mbewe (2010),
Reid and Shah (2007) and Toplis and Allen (2012) discussed the context and importance of
laboratory work and its role in teaching; Cossa and Uamusse (2014), Antúnez, Pérez and Petrucci

Elaine A. COLAGRANDE, Simone Alves de ASSIS MARTORANO, Agnaldo ARROIO. Views of a group of pre-service science teachers
on the use of experimental activities in science teaching
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
526 (2008) and Dikmenli (2009) examined teachers' conceptions about experimental activities or
laboratory work; Guimarães (2009) and Ferreira, Hartwing, and Oliveira (2010) discussed
strategies for the development of experimental activities. Some researchers have pointed out
that science teachers often believe in the use of experiments to prove in practice concepts
studied in theory (Gonçalves & Marques, 2013; Kang & Wallace, 2005; Silva, Machado &
Tunes, 2010). Such an idea may have arisen from the professional training courses themselves
or through the planning and development of theoretical and practical disciplines.
Arruda and Laburú (2009) highlighted teachers’ answers to the question: what is the
function and importance of experimental activities in science? They categorized the results
in three types: epistemological, which involves understanding the experimental activity as a
way of proving a theory and suggests a traditional view of science; cognitive, which involves
understanding experimental activities as facilitators of learning concepts; motivational, which
involves using these activities to increase interest in learning (p.61). Hodson (1994) also
presented categories for the use of experimental activities, including the teaching of laboratory
techniques, the development of skills and the creation of "scientific attitudes" (p. 300). These
different ways of understanding the purpose of using experimental activities in science teaching
created the motivation for this research.
According to Galiazzi and Gonçalves (2004), teachers and students generally present
a simplistic view of experimentation based on observations followed by theorization. In
this sense, studying the nature of science is a relevant contribution "because this knowledge
influences student learning in experimental activity" (Galiazzi & Gonçalves, 2004, p. 327).
Deep discussions of this theme with pre-service science teachers is an important action in
teacher training courses, given that teachers’ conceptions of the use of experiments in science
classes will influence how they teach.
Based on all these initial considerations, an educational intervention with pre-service
science teachers was designed to assist and promote their reflection on the pedagogical meaning
of experimental activities in science teaching.
The present research aims to identify how a group of pre-service science teachers at
a Brazilian federal university conceive of the use of experimental activities in science classes.
To accomplish that, a pedagogical activity was organized as part of an elective subject in an
undergraduate course attended by the pre-service science teachers. This subject focused on
the nature of science to help reformulate pre-service science teachers' conceptions about the
construction of scientific knowledge.
Two questions emerged as a focus of research: (1) Does the study of the nature of
science contribute to the understanding of the role of experimental activities in the construction
of scientific knowledge? (2) How do the pre-service science teachers conceive of the use of
experimental activities in science classes? The answers to these questions reveal important
ideas that can contribute to the planning of pedagogical activities for science teachers.
Theoretical Framework
The discussions with the PSTs were based on the study of the nature of science with
contributions from the history, philosophy and sociology of science. This formed a theoretical
framework for the elaboration and planning of activities using an explicit and reflexive
approach (Abd-El-Khalick & Akerson, 2009). The PSTs had constant opportunities (along with
the course’s activities) to reflect on their own ideas. Some aspects were commonly discussed,
including the dynamic character of science, the historical context in which science has been
constructed, the image of the scientist and the relationship between science and society. It is
possible to consider that these discussions influence the formulation or reformulation of views
regarding the role of experiments in science teaching.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
In general, teachers understand experimental activities as fundamental to science 527

teaching and they justify this position through different points, such as: the experiments attract
the students' attention and are motivators of learning; they help to show in practice what has
been studied in theory; they facilitate understanding of the content (Silva, Machado & Tunes,
2010). Such justifications suggest a lack of understanding of the idea that experiments can help
students to elaborate and test hypotheses, thus constructing meanings about the phenomenon
under study. Experimental activities are part of the process of building scientific knowledge, so
there must be a link between theory and practice.
In order to promote this link, inquiry-based experimental activities have been gaining
ground in discussions on the role of the experiment in science teaching. Some studies have
discussed such activities. Mamlok-Naaman and Barnea (2012) present a case of curricular
modifications in Israel in which inquiry-based laboratory activities were included. Furthermore,
in their study involving resident scientists (MSc and PhD students) and teachers, Mumba, Mejia,
Chabalengula, and Mbewe (2010) discuss the levels of inquiry-based laboratory activities. As
Azevedo (2004) argues, "student action should not be limited to the work of manipulation or
observation, it must also contain characteristics of a scientific work: the student must reflect,
discuss, explain, report, which will give her/his work the characteristics of a scientific inquiry"
(p. 21).
From this perspective, students are not limited to the simple execution of a previously
established script, but can begin to reflect on the whole process, reporting and arguing about
their observations actively by proposing possibilities for resolution of a problematic situation
studied. Although there are distinct ways of developing an activity with an inquiry-based
character, there is a consensus of their importance in science education.
According to Zômpero and Laburú (2011), besides being used for learning conceptual
content, inquiry-based activities allow the development of procedural content. Also, in addition
to these two aspects, it is worth mentioning that attitudinal content can also be developed during
these activities, since it is possible to encourage the valuation of collective work, for example, by
showing the importance of listening and hearing, sharing ideas and making decisions together.
Inquiry-based experimental activities, according to Zômpero and Laburu (2011), have
as main objectives the development of students’ cognitive abilities, the accomplishment of
procedures such as hypothesis elaboration, annotation and data analysis and the development
of argumentative capacity. These activities all start from problematic situations by which the
students, through the teacher's mediation, may become interested, develop skills related to
concepts, procedures and attitudes and actively participate in them.
General Background
The research was carried out during an elective subject of a natural science teacher
training course at the Federal University of São Paulo in the first semester of 2015 (from March
to May). This was in the context of a project developed in the course, called "Projeto Zero", that
involved discussing actions and projects based on the collaboration of researchers from different
research areas with the aim of improving the quality of basic teacher education. This qualitative
research analyzed pre-service science teachers’ (PSTs) understanding and knowledge of the
nature of science through activities planned with an explicit and reflexive approach (Abd-El-
Khalick & Akerson, 2009). It is important to understand PSTs’ conceptions about the role of
experimental activities in science teaching.
The pedagogical activity was carried out in two stages: the first occurred at the beginning
of the course and the second occurred after the PSTs participated in the research and discussed

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
528 texts on the nature of science (the dynamic character of science, the work of the scientist,
inquiry-based experimental activities, the social role of science, etc.). The PSTs performed the
activity in five groups (indicated by G1 to G5 – G: group) because of the limited amount of
material available for the practice.
The group work allowed the sharing of opinions and disagreements. Not only is group
discussion considered important in teacher education, it also promotes the understanding that
science happens collectively. The results allowed an understanding of how the PSTs construct
ideas about the role of experimental activities in teaching.
Sample
The pedagogical activity was carried out by 19 pre-service science teachers (number of
PSTs enrolled according to their own interest, because the elective subject was not obligatory).
In this university, the natural science teacher training course lasts for four years. In the first
half of the course, PSTs take basic and general subjects; in the second half, PTSs select their
specialization area from four fields: physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics. These PSTs’
specialization areas were: physics (four PSTs), chemistry (two PSTs) and biology (thirteen
PSTs). This classification was random, since the PSTs chose to study the subject according
to their interest in the themes studied. Each PST voluntarily participated in the research after
signing a written consent form and receiving information about the research goals.
Instrument and Procedures
First stage
In this stage, two experimental scripts were prepared along with a previously-defined
sequence that the PSTs would follow. The first script (experimental activity 1), showed in the
Figure 1, focused on materials’ electrical conduction and the second script (experimental activity
2) focused on material density. These themes were chosen because they included subjects that
comprise the natural sciences curriculum.
Figure 1: Excerpt of the script (experimental activity 1).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
At the end of each script was the following question (indicated by Q1 - Q: question): 529
If the group were to teach a science class that involves the theme [of the experiment], how
would you use experiments in that class? The objective of the question was to identify how
the students understood the experimental class (whether it was a demonstration of the theory, a
strategy to attract students' attention, or a proof of the theoretical class).
At the end of the activity, after the two experiments were performed, another question was
asked: For the group, what is the role of experimental activities in science classes? (indicated
by Q3) The aim of this question was like that of the first: the PSTs should express their ideas
about the role of experimentation in teaching.
Second stage
In the second stage of the activity, which occurred after the study and discussions of texts
on the nature of science, the same experimental scripts were distributed. Since at this stage the
PSTs had already discussed the concept of inquiry-based experimental activities, the following
situation was proposed to them: Based on the classroom discussions about the process of
constructing scientific knowledge, how can the group turn this script into an inquiry-based
activity? The objective of this question (indicated by Q2) was to identify if the PSTs understood
inquiry-based activities as important aids to students’ creation of hypotheses, besides instigating
logical reasoning and argumentation. At the end of the activity, the question was asked again:
For the group, what is the role of experimental activities in science classes? The objective of
repeating this question from the first stage of the activity was to identify changes in the PSTs’
views on experimental activities.
Data Analysis
The groups' answers to the questions in the two steps were analyzed. For this, the content
analysis technique was used (Bardin, 2011). This technique involves breaking up a given text
into units to identify the different nuclei of meaning that make up the text, then grouping these
units into categories. In this research, qualitative analysis was used from the responses produced
by the groups. After several readings of the group descriptions, phrases that indicated the
PSTs’ views on experimentation were selected. From this selection, certain categories emerged
from the data of these specific PSTs' groups. Two classes of categories were elaborated - one
involving Q1 and Q2 and the other involving Q3. The categories were based on similar meaning
in the PSTs' responses, and they were grouped by common characteristics identified.
Results of Research
The first part of the results analysis refers to the questions asked at the end of each script:
If the group were to teach a science class that involves the theme [of the experiment], how would
you use experiments in that class? (requested in the first stage) and Based on the classroom
discussions about the process of constructing scientific knowledge, how can the group turn
this script into an inquiry-based activity? (requested in the second stage, after the study of the
texts). Q1 indicates the first question and Q2 the second question for each experiment. The
purpose of these analyses was to identify if the proposals presented an inquiry-based approach.
Table 1 shows the identified categories. The groups were grouped into G1 to G5.
For a better understanding of the categories that emerged from the groups’ responses
(Q1 and Q2), it was adopted the following description:
Sequential approach - This category is composed of proposals that began with theoretical
content that was later developed into an experimental activity (either carried out by the students
or demonstrated by the teacher).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
530 Mixed approach - This category is composed of proposals that presented ideas about
problematic situations and included discussions of the theme, but also contained some
characteristics of the sequential approach.
Inquiry-based approach - This category is composed of proposals that presented
problematic situations that encouraged students to elaborate hypotheses about possible
solutions. The experimental activity was intended to assist the discussion of such hypotheses.
Table 1 shows the approaches that were identified from the groups’ responses for
experimental activity 1.
Table 1. Approaches identified in the groups’ proposals - experimental activity 1.
Experimental activity 1 - Q1 Experimental activity 1 - Q2

Proposal
(groups) (groups)
Sequential approach G1, G3, and G5 No group
Mixed approach G2 and G4 G1, G3, G4, G5
Inquiry-based approach No group G2
Similarly, Table 2 shows the approaches that were identified from the groups’ responses
for experimental activity 2. There are some similarities between the two tables regarding the
data. For example, no group indicated the sequential approach for Q2; instead, the popularity of
the mixed approach increased significantly.
Table 2. Approaches identified in the groups’ proposals - experimental activity 2.
Experimental activity 2 - Q1 Experimental activity 2 - Q2

Proposal
(groups) (groups)
Sequential approach G3 and G5 No group
Mixed approach G2 and G4 G1, G3, G4, and G5
Inquiry-based approach G1 G2
The second part of the analysis refers to the general question (Q3): For the group, what
is the role of experimental activities in science classes? (for both steps). The groups’ responses
were analyzed and found to contain descriptions of various purposes. Considering Silva,
Machado, and Tunes’ (2010) study on the role of experiments in science classes, categories
were elaborated, as are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Categories for the general question (Q3).
Category Description frequency

The experimental activity (practical part) proves the theoreti-
Proof of theory G1, G3, G5
cal content studied previously.
The experimental activity assists in the development of
Skills development G1, G4
cognitive and procedural skills.
Importance of collective Experimental activity values teamwork, as scientists do in the
G1, G2
work construction of science.
The experimental activity facilitates learning and draws the
Motivation for learning G1, G2, G3, G4, G5
attention of students, making the lesson more interesting.
The responses with the highest frequencies were “proof of theory” and “motivation for
learning.” It can also be noted that the groups indicated more than one category to explain their
ideas.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Discussion 531
The analyses, presented in Tables 1 and 2, showed that in experimental activity 1, before
the study of the texts, three groups’ proposals were classified as sequential (G1, G3, and G5),
two groups as mixed (G2 and G4) and no groups followed the inquiry-based approach. After the
discussion of the texts, in the second stage of the activity, there was a notable change: no groups
had a sequential approach, four groups were mixed (G1, G3, G4, and G5), and one group had
an inquiry-based approach (G2). A similar situation can be observed in relation to experimental
activity 2. In the first part of the activity, two groups were classified as sequential (G3 and G5),
two groups as mixed (G2 and G4) and one group as inquiry-based approach (G1). After the
study of the texts, no groups had a sequential approach, four groups were mixed (G1, G3, G4,
and G5), and one group had an inquiry-based approach (G2).
The results of the answers for the two experimental activities point to a gradual change in
the starting frame, in which the groups that had initially presented a more sequential approach
started to think about the activity in a mixed way by considering the importance of discussions
on the studied phenomenon and adding research features to proposals. This change evidences
a reformulation of the initial ideas after discussing texts, sharing issues that involve the nature
of science, and learning of the process of constructing science. Excerpts from the responses of
G1 and G5 exemplify these results:
Brief presentation - examples of daily life presented by students and guided by the teacher (observation,
hypothesis). Experiment manipulated by students to develop manual skills [...] (G1 - experimental activity
1 - Q1).
Students have to write down the situations in which the lamp lights up. Later they check on a periodic
table for common characteristics of materials that can cause the lamp to light ...[...] (G1 - experimental
activity 1 - Q2).
In the first part of the activity, G1 presented an account that suggests a sequential approach
that emphasizes observation, hypothesis, and a teacher orientation. Experiments would be used
for the development of procedural aspects and not for relating to the scientific concept involved.
In the second part of the activity, G1 reported a proposal that contains some elements of inquiry,
such as the fact that the students stop being spectators and move to a more active position of
observing the process, recording their observations, and making comparisons with existing data
(properties of elements of the periodic table).
We would use the experiment to demonstrate the difference in density and mass of materials...
(G5 - experimental activity 2 - Q1)
[...] The experiment would become a research activity where students begin to perceive and identify the
different characteristics in the most varied types of materials present in nature.
[...] Students would answer questions such as: Why do materials have different masses, densities, and
volumes? Is there a proportional relationship between these physical quantities? Why does it happen?
(G5 - experimental activity 2 - Q2).
In the first part, G5 presented a sequential approach in their proposal. In the second part,
an inquiry-based approach was not clear in the answer, but G5 presented words that suggest a
change and highlighted skills such as perceiving and identifying, as well as questions asked of
the students.
These changes suggest that the PSTs reflected on the role of experimental activities
when considering the nature of science promoted by the course texts and discussions. The

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
532 groups, in general, included in their proposals characteristics of inquiry-based experimental

activities, such as those discussed by Azevedo (2004) and Zômpero and Laburu (2011), such as
problematization to involve experiments, the development of important skills like observing,
recording, comparing, testing hypotheses, and arguing, and attitudes that give the activity an
active and participatory character.
With respect to the general question formulated in the two stages of the activity, it can be
observed that the experimental activities had several attributed purposes (Table 3). For example,
comparing Tables 1 and 2 shows that G3 and G5 presented proposals in a sequential approach
before the texts and discussions on the nature of science and, after that study, presented proposals
classified as mixed. G3 and G5 indicated, for Q3, that one of the purposes of experimental
activities is proving theory, which seems to agree with a more sequential approach. Such a
view was also indicated by Arruda and Laburú (2009) when, in their study of teachers, they
identified epistemological, cognitive, and motivational characteristics regarding the purpose of
experimental activities in science. Also, Dikmenli (2009), in his research on pre-service biology
teachers, identified views about the purpose of laboratory work, including "verifying facts and
principles already taught" (p. 6). Kang and Wallace (2004) carried out an analysis with three
high school science teachers about the use of laboratory work and indicated similar views: that
it is effective in proving “the verity of the scientific knowledge” and “the explanatory power of
scientific theories” (p. 148).
The PSTs provided some examples of such ideas:
To approach the student of science, facilitating his/her understanding of the matter, because the lesson
leaves the theory and goes to the practice. (G3 - Q3 - stage1)
Experimental activities allow students to interact with the theoretical content applied in the classroom, in
addition to facilitating the students’ understanding of certain content. (G5 - Q3 - stage 1).
In the second part of the activity, for the general question, G3 mentioned the importance
of promoting discussions with students about the phenomena observed, but a proposal of
articulation between theory and practice was not clear. G5 pointed out that experimental
activities are illustrative in order to facilitate learning:
The experiments serve to bring the student's daily life closer to science, to demonstrate concepts, to
promote discussions about observed phenomena, and to help students understand the content studied.
(G3 - Q3 - stage 2)
[...] The experimental activities in classes represent an illustrative way of explaining scientific phenomena;
they are for students a means of understanding in a physical and visual way, and thus facilitate learning.
(G5 - Q3 - stage 2).
It is important to highlight that laboratory work helps with skill development, but
students need a teacher to guide them, since only executing the procedure without reflecting on
the whole process may not lead to the understanding of scientific concepts in students.
In addition, it is interesting to note that all groups indicated that experimental activities
are potential motivators of learning, as they illustrate, arouse students’ interest, and can facilitate
learning. These visions accord with reflections already presented in research on the same theme
(Arruda & Laburú, 2009; Gonçalves & Marques, 2013; Silva, Machado & Tunes, 2010, Kang
& Wallace, 2004). The motivation to learn is an important product of experimental activities;
however, the main objective corresponds to the opportunities for students to construct meanings
about studied concepts. In this sense, it is important for teachers to think about the question: Can
student motivation be influenced by the way experimental activities are planned and developed?

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
The result of the activity carried out with the pre-service teachers was that discussion 533
about the role of experimental activities in science classes should be continuous. The process
of reformulating ideas did not happen only with a developed activity. This process is dynamic
and is the result of other activities that can be carried out during education and in professional
training. Ultimately, the pre-service teachers showed efforts to rephrase their views regarding
the use of experimental activities in teaching.
Conclusions
The analysis of the responses in the two stages of the activity suggest changes in the
PSTs’ initial views; the reading of texts and classroom debates contributed to these changes.
In this sense, the study of the nature of science and the construction of scientific knowledge
created a broader understanding of the use of experimental activities in science teaching. It is
emphasized, however, that the PSTs’ reformulation of ideas was a gradual process that began
in the science teaching course and will continue in their professional careers. The PSTs pointed
out several purposes for experimental activities, but they did not indicate a single role. In some
of the groups’ reports, there was a reformulation of views in the sense of greater articulation
between theory and practice. Other reports, however, showed the need to deepen the study of
the subject.
The aim of the present research was reached because it provided the PSTs with the
opportunity to study and discuss the nature of science and the role of experimental activities
in science teaching. An important result of this research is that the discussion about the nature
of science can assist in rethinking ideas about the use of experimental activities in science
education. A possibility for future studies is to examine how experimental activities are
developed in training courses and the trends of approaches to such activities.
Finally, it is possible to consider that discussions about the nature of science influenced
the PSTs’ views of the role of experimental activities. In this sense, it is necessary for science
teacher training courses to develop teaching strategies so that pre-service science teachers can
explain their thoughts, learn to construct pedagogical activities with a more inquiry-based
character, and reflect on the science that they wish to teach in order to they feel more secure in
the planning of their future pedagogical activities.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the group of pre-service science teachers from the Federal
University of São Paulo and also thank "Projeto Zero" (http://www.projetozero.com).
References
Abd-El-Khalick, F., & Akerson, V. L. (2009). The influence of metacognitive training on preservice
elementary teachers' conceptions of the nature of science. International Journal of Science
Education, 31 (16), 2161-2184.
Antúnez, G. C., Pérez, S. M., & Petrucci, D. (2008). Concepciones de los docentes universitarios sobre
los trabajos prácticos de laboratório [University teacher's conceptions about laboratory work].
Revista Brasileira de Educação em Ciências, 8 (1). Retrieved 1/10/2017, from https://seer.ufmg.
br/index.php/rbpec/article/viewFile/2227/1626.
Arruda, S. M., & Laburú, C.E. (2013) Considerações sobre a função do experimento no ensino de ciências
[Considerations about the role of experiments in science teaching]. In: Nardi, R. (Org) Questões
atuais no Ensino de Ciências. São Paulo, SP: Escrituras.
Azevedo, M. C. P. S. (2004). Ensino por investigação: problematizando as atividades em sala de aula.
[Research teaching: Problem-solving activities in the classroom]. In: Carvalho, A. M. P. (Org).
Ensino de Ciências - unindo a pesquisa e a prática. SãoPaulo, SP: Thomson.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
534 Bardin, L. (2011). Análise de Conteúdo [Content analysis]. São Paulo, SP: Edições 70.
Cossa, E. F. R., & Uamusse, A. A. (2015). Effects of an in-service program on biology and chemistry
teachers’ perception of the role of laboratory work. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
167, 152 – 160.
Dikmenli, M. (2009). Biology student teachers' ideas about purpose of laboratory work. Asia-Pacific
Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 10 (2), article 9. Retrieved 1/10/2017, from https://
www.eduhk.hk/apfslt/download/v10_issue2_files/dikmenli.pdf.
Ferreira, L. H., Hartwing, D. R., & Oliveira, R. C. (2010). Ensino experimental de química: uma
abordagem investigativa contextualizada [Experimental teaching of chemistry: A contextualized
inquiry approach]. Química Nova na Escola, 32 (2), 101-106.
Galiazzi, M. C., & Gonçalves, F. P. (2004). A natureza pedagógica da experimentação: uma pesquisa
na licenciatura em química [The pedagogical nature of experimental activities: Research in a
teaching credentials course in chemistry]. Química Nova, 27 (2), 326-331.
Gil Pérez, D., & Valdéz Castro, P. (1996). La orientación de las prácticas de laboratório como
investigación: um ejemplo ilustrativo [The orientation of laboratory practices as research: An
illustrative example]. Enseñanza de las Ciencias, 14 (2), 155-163.
Gonçalves F. P. & Marques, C. A. (2013) Problematización de las actividades experimentais en la
formación y la práctica docente de los formadores de profesores de química [The problematization
of experimental activities in teaching and training for chemistry teacher trainers]. Enseñanza de
las Ciencias, 31 (3), 67-86.
Guimarães, C. C. (2009). Experimentação no ensino de química: caminhos e descaminhos rumo à
aprendizagem significativa [Experimentation in chemistry education: Roads and detours towards
a meaningful learning]. Química Nova na Escola, 31 (3), 198-202.
Hodson, D. (1994) Hacia un enfoque más crítico del trabajo de laboratorio [Towards a more critical
approach to laboratory work]. Enseñanza de las Ciencias, 12 (3), 299-313.
Hofstein, A., & Lunetta, V. N. (2003). The laboratory in Science Education: Foundations for the Twenty-
First Century. Willey Periodicals, Inc., 28-54.
Kang, N-H., & Wallace, C. S. (2005). Secondary science teachers’ use of laboratory activities: Linking
epistemological beliefs, goals, and practices. Science Education, 89 (1), 140–165.
Mamlok-Naaman, R. & Barnea, N. (2012). Laboratory activities in Israel. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics,
Science & Tecnology Education, 8 (1), 49-57.
Mumba, F., Mejia, W. F., Chabalengula, V. M. & Mbewe, S. (2010). Resident Scientists' instructional
practice and their perceived benefits and difficulties of inquiry in schools. Journal of Baltic
Science Education, 9 (3), 187-195.
Reid, N., & Shah, I. (2007). The role of laboratory work in the university chemistry. Chemistry Education
Research and Practice, 8 (2), 172-185.
Silva, R. R., Machado, P. F. L., & Tunes, E. (2010). Experimentar sem medo de errar. In: Santos, W.L.P
& Mardaner, O.A. (Orgs). Ensino de Química em Foco. Ijuí, RS: Editora Unijuí.
Toplis, R. & Allen, M. (2012). I do and I understanding? Practical work and laboratory use in United
Kingdom schools. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Tecnology Education, 8 (1), 3-9.
Zômpero, A. F., & Laburú, C. E. (2011). Atividades Investigativas no Ensino de Ciências: aspectos
históricos e diferentes abordagens [Investigative activities in science teaching: Historical aspects
and different approaches]. Revista Ensaio, 13 (3), 67-80.
PhD, Professor, Department of Education, Nove de Julho University,

Elaine Angelina Colagrande
Av. Dr. Adolpho Pinto, 109 - São Paulo/SP – Brazil.
(Corresponding author)
E-mail: elainecola@gmail.com
PhD, Professor, Federal University of São Paulo -

Simone Alves de Assis Martorano
Rua São Nicolau, 210 - Diadema/SP – Brazil.
E-mail: sialvesmartorano@gmail.com
Agnaldo Arroio PhD, Professor, Faculty of Education, University of São Paulo, Av. da
Universidade, 308 - São Paulo/SP - Brazil
E-mail: agnaldoarroio@yahoo.com

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL 535
EDUCATION AND TRAINING SKILLS:

AN ANTIDOTE FOR JOB CREATION
AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF
NIGERIAN ECONOMY
James Edomwonyi Edokpolor
Benson Idahosa University, Nigeria
E-mail: jedokpolor@biu.edu.ng
Robinson Osarumwense Owenvbiugie

University of Benin, Nigeria
E-mail: Osarumwense.owenvbiugie@uniben.edu
Abstract
The research is aimed at assessing the important role of TVET on job creation and sustainable development
of Nigerian economy. Two research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation statistics,
while two hypotheses were tested using t-test statistic. A survey method was employed for the research.
A four-point scale questionnaire was employed as the instrument for collection of data. The population
consists of 332 TVET lecturers in 3 universities and 4 colleges of education in Edo and Delta States. There
was no need to adopt sampling technique, nor select any sample size, since the entire population is of a
manageable size. The instrument was validated by two experts and its reliability coefficient value using
Cronbach alpha method was 0.81. The research revealed that TVET can equip students with skills for job
creation and sustainable development of Nigerian economy. It also revealed that there was no significant
difference between the mean ratings of TVET lecturers in Edo and Delta States on the extent to which
TVET can equip students with skills for job creation. It further revealed that there was no significant
difference between the mean ratings of male and female TVET lecturers on the extent to which TVET can
equip students with skills for sustainable development of Nigerian economy. Optimizing sufficient amount
of financial resources, regular supplies of state-of-the-art facilities, sourcing for qualified manpower, and
organization of advocacy programme, that would help in effective management delivery of TVET were
further recommended.
Keywords: job creation, Nigerian economy, sustainable development, social ills, TVET skills.
Introduction
A number of developing nations across the globe have taken the lead to invest sufficient
amount of resources (both financially and otherwise) for the development of their education
sector. This effort has consequently improved the quality of their education and the lives of
their youths. The productive capabilities of these youths in terms of skills and competencies
have been the key driver of transformation from stagnation to growth and from low-income
status to high-income status as well as overcoming the problems of unemployment and under-
development. This means that skilled and competent manpower played a key role in their de-
velopment processes. Economic development therefore depends on effective use of intangible
assets, such as skills and/or competencies as a resource for achieving competitive advantage

James Edomwonyi EDOKPOLOR, Robinson Osarumwense OWENVBIUGIE. Technical and vocational education and training skills:
An antidote for job creation and sustainable development of Nigerian economy
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
536 (Lisbon Council, 2007). A skill can be defined as the ability to perform tasks and solve prob-
lems (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2009). For instance, the term
‘21st century skills’ is often used to refer to sets of cognitive, non-cognitive, and technical
skills (Global e-Schools and Communities Initiative, 2013). Cognitive skills are basic abili-
ties that people use to think, study, and learn, for example, literacy, numeracy, and the use of
theory, concepts, or tacit knowledge, non-cognitive skills refer to socio-emotional personality
traits, behaviours, and attitudes (also called ‘soft’ skills), while technical skills include business,
ICT, and specialized skills (Burton, cited in GeSCI, 2013). Technical skills are also regarded
as industry-specific skills required for the production of goods and services (Edwards, 2008;
Prospects, 2010). In view of this, it is clear that individuals can create their own jobs or become
self-employed by equipping them with these skills which can be acquired through technical and
vocational education and training (TVET).
Technical and Vocational Education and Training is an integral part of secondary and
post-secondary education that is designed to educate individuals about, through and for careers
(Rojewski., Asunda, & Kim, 2008). It is aimed at developing human resources and facilitates
the transition of a nation to a more sustainable economy. Broadly speaking, the National Asso-
ciation of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium (NASDCTEC) acknowl-
edged that:
TVET provides students and adults with the technical skills, knowledge and training nec-
essary to succeed in specific occupations and careers. It also prepares students for the world of
work by introducing them to workplace competencies that are essential no matter what career
they choose. And, TVET takes academic content and makes it accessible to students by providing
it in a hands-on context (NASDCTEC, 2003).
In fact, advanced science and technology education and training have been and will
continue to be the engine for economic growth and national security (Li, Swaminathan & Tang,
2009). As pointed out in the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) science and technology policy
document:
Science and technology are to modern life what the hands are to the body. They are used
to harness the forces of nature and to transform the raw resources with which nature endows man
into goods and services for better quality of life (FRN, 1986).
The United Nation’s International Center for TVET (UNEVOC) in its desire to highlight
the important role of TVET in relation to job creation and sustainable development, ascertained
that:
The changing nature of the world of work, especially due to globalization and techno-
logical change, demands that TVET develop a skilled, committed and motivated workforce that
understands how global changes impact upon local opportunities for business and industry and
how these changes impact upon the quality of social, economic and environmental conditions
(UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2009).
The UNESCO-UNEVOC (2012) noted in its report on the important role of TVET
that: This form of education has great prospect for tackling poverty, enhancing employability
through skill acquisition and boosting sustainable development in different continents. Many
people, both in developed and developing countries, recognized the important role that TVET
plays in equipping individuals with requisite skills, thus enabling them to effectively participate
in social, economic and technology innovation processes (Netherlands Organization for Inter-
national Cooperation in Higher Education, 2010). The UNESCO (2010) further estimated that
about 80% of occupations around the world are based on the application of TVET skills for the
world of work. This implies that the future success of any country, individual, enterprise, and
community increasingly depend on the possession of TVET skills. No wonder, Akerele (2007)

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
and Rufai (2013) pointed out that TVET is a viable aspect of education that exposes students for 537
the acquisition of demonstrable skills that could further be transferred into the economic benefit
as well as sustainable livelihood.
In the framework of “what is TVET?” the UNESCO-UNEVOC indicated that TVET
is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge and skills for the world of work (UNESCO,
2010). It is seen as a special type of programme that emphasized the application of knowledge,
skills and attitudes required for employment in a particular occupation or cluster of related oc-
cupations in any field of social and economic activity (Gu, Gomes & Brizuela, 2011). Similarly,
MacLean and David (2009) asserted that TVET is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge
and skills for the world of work to increase the opportunities for productive empowerment
and economic development in knowledge economies and rapidly changing work environment.
MacLean and Wilson (2009) sees it as acquirement of education and skillfulness for the world
of work to raise prospects for productive work and personal empowerment and socio-economic
development for sustainable livelihood in the speedily changing work milieu. Furthermore,
Kingombe (2012) and Badawi (2013) stipulated that TVET was adopted by the UNESCO and
the ILO in consultation with their member States and partner agencies to mean those facets of
educational and training procedures involving the study of technologies and related sciences,
and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge in various sectors
of economic and social life. The UNESCO (2005) also posited that the aspect that differentiates
TVET from other forms of education and training are its emphasis on work productivity. No
wonder, Awotunde (2000) and Igwe and Oragwu (2014) pointed out that TVET is an integral
part of national development strategies in many societies because of its impact on productivity
and economic development.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2004) in her education policy document cap-
tures the aims of TVET to its recipients as manpower development strategy that leads to the
acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge for useful living
within the society. Typically, the purpose of TVET is understood as both improving social and
economic well-being of individuals as well as serving society by ensuring an educated work-
force (Adams & Gamage, 2008). To keep fulfilling this dual purpose, leaders and managers of
TVET need to keep optimizing sufficient amount of resources (both financially and otherwise)
to meet the needs of students and the society. The present research focuses on the important role
of TVET in developing requisite skills for job creation and sustainable development of Nigerian
economy.
It can be deduced from the foregoing that TVET is an important programme that equips
recipients with the requisite skills required to improve access to employment opportunities,
raise income capacities for poverty alleviation, and promote peace and security. Hailu (2012)
asserted that after or having acquired the necessary skills, TVET graduates’ career options
are either wage employment or self-employment, in which both are vital that the former is
to supply the industry with the skilled labour and the latter is job creation. Drawing from the
international experience, especially in some countries, like Japan, Korea, Singapore, and other
Asian industrializing tigers, the Nigerian government recently established a number of TVET
institutions so as to launch the country steadily on the path of industrialization and economic
development in furtherance of her commitment to TVET sector. Despite the effort to tackle the
issue of unemployment and scourge of poverty by different approaches, the goal of abundant
wealth creation and youth employment still remains elusive (Olaitan, 1996; Adekoya, 2010).
The quest for technological breakthroughs, industrialization and economic development is slow
and unimpressive as evidenced by the increasing rates of unemployment and poverty (Ladipo,
Akhuemonkhan & Raimi, 2013).
The quest to promote technological progress, industrialization and national development
is far from being actualized, probably because TVET programme is currently constrained by so

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
538 many challenges. Prominent among them are inadequate infrastructure and facilities, dearth of
qualified staff with practical experience relevant for training students to meet the contemporary
needs of industry and employers of labour, wide gap between TVET and industry, weak support
by industries to TVET institutions, inadequate budgetary allocations for TVET, absence of a
National Qualifications framework and inadequate regulatory and monitoring activities, among
others (Chukumerije, 2011). This situation also affects other developing nations especially in
the South Asian region like Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, among others because
their TVET system has been characterized by low level of competent teachers, limited private
sector involvement, and inadequate budgetary allocations (H1-Haq & Haq, cited in Agrawal,
2013). In other words, TVET in South Asian region is neither supporting a high economic
growth rate, nor expanding the global markets, nor increasing employment opportunities. This
is because, many youths in these countries are unable to find jobs, while those who are already
working are not gainfully employed; in other words they are under-employed (Ekpenyong &
Edokpolor, 2015a).
The paradigm of the world today appears to be shifting to that of TVET as evidenced by
some Asian countries. In Japan, Singapore and Korea, for instance, TVET sector has contrib-
uted significantly in the process of economic development (Asian Development Bank, 2004).
In these countries, TVET system is well-established because the rate of unemployment has re-
mained constantly low, both because their populations possessed TVET skills and the high eco-
nomic growth rate that the skilled populations are fostering (H1-Haq & Haq, cited in Agrawal,
2013). Based on this success story, Nigerian government may have to look at the policies that
have been put in place in these Asian countries so as to enable her youths to acquire marketable
skills and translate these skills into job creating ventures. In this sense, job creation can be seen
as a means of using individuals’ acquired skills to achieve self-reliance in order to ensure eco-
nomic survival. Job creation and unemployment may be likened to two sides of a coin and are
parallel in nature. Job creation is positive, while unemployment is negative to the sustainable
economic development.
The debate at the national assembly over the budget may have shown that Nigeria ap-
preciates the gravity of mass unemployment and underemployment in the face of the pressing
needs of 191.8 million people as estimated by the United Nations (Worldometers, 2017). It is
disheartening to see that Nigeria is under-developing and not moving forward in a land that is
once considered to be flowing with milk and honey. Programmes embarked upon by the gov-
ernment, aimed at giving the majority of youth economic lifeline, end up empowering the few,
which in turn leaves the larger number unemployed, which eventually create a social burden and
all manner of social ills (Adeyemi & Titiloye, 2014). For instance, the rate of unemployment
has increased from 13.3% in second quarter of 2016 to 13.9% in third quarter of 2016, while the
rate of underemployment has increased from 19.3% in second quarter of 2015 to 19.7% in third
quarter of 2016 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2016). This unpleasant situation has consequent-
ly created the scarcity of basic needs among the populace (Igbinedion, Edokpolor & Oyenuga,
2015). Unemployment and poverty have in some cases led to fall in national output, high level
dependence ratio, and low standard of living, to an extent that a great multitude of people in
Nigeria live in abject misery (Osinubi, 2005). These twin socio-economic problems have led to
the tremendous increase in criminal activities and social vices in Nigeria (Ekpo, 2011; Olajide,
2015). Unemployment and poverty may also be seen as potential sources of political instability
in Nigeria for disenchanted, disgruntled and revolutionary elements (Anyanwu & Oaikhenan,
cited in Olajide, 2015).
The increasing rate of unemployment is a mere pointer to the fact that most Nigerian
youths may not have the skill to start and operate a business and become self-reliant. This
means that the country at large suffers economically, lacking the skilled manpower for job
creation and sustainable development. Unemployment is a major socio-economic problem that

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
affects Nigerian economy. It has become a national crisis which has to be addressed if Nigeria 539
is to enjoy sustainable development. It is evident that the high rate of unemployment is respon-
sible for the under-developing Nigeria. Some of the youths who are unemployed have probably
turned themselves to suicide bombers, vandals, terrorists, kidnappers, militants, armed robbers,
and lots more, thereby causing Nigeria a great loss in revenue earnings, which in turn hinders
her development. To keep meeting the requirement for skilled manpower and sustainable de-
velopment of Nigerian economy, stakeholders of TVET programme need to keep optimizing
sufficient amount of funds so that qualified staff, better facilities, and quality curriculum can be
made available, which would further help in meeting the needs of students and the society. Tilak
(2002) had remarked that TVET has an important role to play in alleviating mass unemploy-
ment, providing specific skills for self-employment and re-orienting student’s attitudes towards
societal growth. Maclean (2008) further stated that an effective skill development for employ-
ability and sustainable livelihood is essential if sustainable development is to be achieved, and
this further provides a foundation for peace building through poverty alleviation and rising
levels of income.
The high rate of unemployment and all manner of social ills in Nigeria has necessitated
the need for governments, NGOs, parents and employers of labour to collaboratively invest
their resources on TVET programme. This strategic management approach as pointed out by
Adewuyi and Okemakinde (2013) can help to serve various purposes, which includes financial
management, staff development, curriculum development, service delivery, students mentor-
ing, equipment donation, raising course awareness, facility management, and lots more. The
research of Burchardt, Le Grand and Piachaud (2002) also showed that investment in human
capital (vocational knowledge and technical skills) stimulates economic growth and develop-
ment by improving the quality of skilled manpower and it also saves social costs. This effort
would further help to promote the development of knowledge and skills in home economics,
business or office, agricultural science, as well as industrial technical, including a good blend
of career guidance, entrepreneurship, and Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
orientation. If these skills are well-taught and properly inculcated, they would help graduates
of TVET to secure gainful employment; start-up their own business, and become employers
of labour; and pursue further education both at the graduate and post-graduate levels. Also,
exploiting employment opportunities seem to provide the dispensable income that further fuels
sustainable development.
TVET skills in the context of this study denote those practical and applied skills needed
to transform Nigerian economy from low-income status to high-income status. TVET skills for
sustainable development simply mean adopting a more holistic approach to TVET programme
with the hope of creating a rebranded Nigeria for youths in this present and future generation.
It is aimed at helping youths to continuously acquire TVET skills to make informed decisions
for the benefit of themselves and others, now and in the future. Ideally, TVET skills for sustain-
able development are regarded as an approach that not only provides theoretical information
to youths but also gives them practical tools which could be used to move Nigeria towards
development. This has made the important role of TVET skills on sustainable development to
become crucial and stressed by multinational organizations (OECD, 2009; ADB, 2008; ILO,
2008; World Bank, 2007; Department for International Development 2007; European Training
Foundation, 2006a).
Sustainable development is defined as the development that meets the needs of present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
(World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). It has been defined by Kurya
and Hassan (2007) as a continuous and progressive increase and expansion of the volume of
goods or services provided in a given economy with the improvement in social, economic, and
political life of the present and future generation. Hardi (1997) pointed out that sustainable

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
540 development is not a fixed state of harmony; rather, it is an on-going process of evolution in
which people take actions leading to the development that meets their current needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. With these conceptual
understandings in place, sustainable development of Nigerian economy can be seen as a pattern
of development that permits the future generations to have access to basic life-sustaining es-
sentials, such as food, protection, healthcare, clothing and shelter as well as current generation
having access to at least high level of living, self-esteem and freedom. Sen (1999) also argued
that no one person is free if he or she cannot choose or is imprisoned by living on the mar-
gins of subsistence with no education and skill. It is on this premise that, Chukumerije (2011)
stated that TVET remains the only imperative for economic development in Nigeria. The author
however appraised different policies towards economic development but all to no avail. This
research therefore sorts to assess the important role of TVET on job creation and sustainable
development of Nigerian economy.
Problem of the Research
The increasing rates of unemployment and underemployment, together with the high in-
cidence of economic degradation (or extreme underdevelopment) have necessitated the need to
assess the important role of TVET programme on job creation and sustainable development of
Nigerian economy. The National Bureau of Statistics (2016) had reported that unemployment
rate has increased from about 13.3% in the second quarter of 2016 to about 13.9% in the third
quarter of 2016, while underemployment rate has increased from about 19.3% in the second
quarter of 2015 to about 19.7% in the third quarter of 2016. The high rates of unemployment and
underemployment appear to be responsible for the underdevelopment of Nigerian economy. As
such, the insecurity in Nigeria such as the spate of suicide bombing, vandalism of oil facilities,
armed robbery, terrorist attacks, kidnappings, assassination, militancy, breakdown of law and
order are not unconnected with the increasing rates of unemployment, especially among youths
(Ekpo, 2011; Olajide, 2015). Also, the existence of low levels of basic needs, self-esteem, and
freedom appears to be connected with the high rates of unemployment and underemployment in
the country. However, one of the ways to address these upsurges seems to lie in the acquisition
of TVET skills. The acquisition of TVET skills may help in promoting entrepreneurial activi-
ties that would further provide the income capacity for economic growth and development in
a sustainable manner. It is based on this situation that the authors embarked on this research in
order to provide an empirical data on the important role of TVET in equipping recipient with
requisite skills for job creation and sustainable development of Nigerian economy.
The main purpose of this research was to assess the extent to which TVET can equip
students with the requisite skills for job creation and sustainable development of Nigerian econ-
omy. Specifically, the following research questions were put forward to guide the research:
1. To what extent can TVET equip students with skills for job creation?
2. To what extent can TVET equip students with skills for sustainable develop-
ment?
Methodology of the Research
General Characteristics
The design employed for this study was a survey research design. Survey research
design (also called descriptive research design) uses instruments such as questionnaires and
interviews to gather information from groups of individuals (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Walker,

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
2014). A survey design was suitable for this research, in that it allows the researchers to de- 541
scribe the opinions of technical and vocational education lecturers as regards the important role
of TVET programme on job creation and sustainable development of Nigerian economy.
Sample Selection
The sample consists of 298 out of 332 technical and vocational education lecturers from
universities and colleges of education in Edo and Delta States responded to the survey question-
naire, which yielded a return rate of 90%. There was no need to adopt any sampling technique,
nor select any sample size for the research study, because the population is of a manageable size
(Jack & Jelly, 2005).
A structured questionnaire was used as an instrument for data collection. The question-
naire was, titled: Questionnaire on the Extent to which TVET Can Equip Students with the
Skills for Job Creation and Sustainable Development of Nigerian Economy (QETVETCES-
JCSDNE). Bryman (2007) stated that survey questionnaire is an appropriate instrument for
collecting quantitative data. The instrument was validated by two experts. The reliability was
determined by administering the instrument to 20 TVET lecturers who were not part of the
research. Their responses were analyzed using the Cronbach alpha method, which yielded the
coefficient alpha value of 0.81. The questionnaire was further administered to the respondents
by the researchers with the help of two trained research assistants. The questionnaire was re-
trieved as soon as they were completed.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using the mean, standard deviations and t-test statistics. The
mean was used to answer the research questions, while the t-test was used to test the hypotheses
at .05 level of significant. The standard deviations were used to determine the extent to which
the responses of TVET lecturers were clustered to or deviated from the mean responses. The de-
cision rule for the research questions was based on any calculate mean equal to, or greater than
2.50 means that technical and vocational education lecturers agreed to a very high extent with
the questionnaire items raised; while any calculated mean less than 2.50 means that technical
and vocational education lecturers disagreed to a very low extent with the questionnaire items
raised. Also, any standard deviations value between 0.00 and 0.96 shows that technical and vo-
cational education lecturer’s responses are very close, which further means that their responses
are clustered around the mean. Furthermore, the value (p) was used in taking the decisions on
the hypotheses. If the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05, the null hypotheses is rejected, but if
the p-value is greater than 0.05, the null hypotheses is not rejected.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
542 Results of the Research
The results of the research are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Mean responses and standard deviations of vocational education

lecturers in universities and colleges of education on the extent to
which TVET can equip students with the skills to create jobs.
Item Statements
S/N x̅ SD Remarks
To what extent can TVET:
1. Equip students with skills to set up documentary services (business centres). 3.85 .41 HE
2. Equip students with skills to manage documentary services (business centres). 3.66 .56 HE
Equip students with skills to buy goods from production companies and sells in other
3. 3.57 .61 HE
areas of demand.
4. Equip students with the skills to set up plumbing services. 3.55 .62 HE
5. Equip students with skills to set up electrical installation industry. 3.47 .62 HE
6. Equip students with skills to set up electrical electronics workshops. 3.49 .58 HE
7. Equip students with skills to set up automobile industry. 3.48 .58 HE
8. Equip students with skills to set up metal works industry. 3.45 .60 HE
9. Equip students with skills to set up welding and fabrication industry. 3.43 .62 HE
10. Equip students with skills set up block laying and concreting industry. 3.40 .61 HE
11. Equip students with skills to set up carpentry and wood work industry. 3.47 .58 HE
12. Equip students with skills to set up early child management services. 3.32 .59 HE
13. Equip students with skills to set up event management services. 3.83 .45 HE
14. Equip students with skills to set up fashion design industry. 3.62 .58 HE
15. Equip students with skills to set up cake baking industry. 3.63 .58 HE
16. Equip students with skills to set up catering services. 3.61 .59 HE
17. Equip students with skills to set up decoration services. 3.43 .61 HE
18. Equip students with skills to set up hospitality services. 3.47 .62 HE
19. Equip students with skills to set up textiles industry. 3.48 .56 HE
20. Equip students with skills to set up agro business firms. 3.44 .58 HE
21. Equip students with skills to set up soil laboratory services. 3.42 .60 HE
22. Equip students with skills to set up food laboratory services. 3.44 .63 HE
Results of the data presented in Table 1 show the mean ratings of responses by vocational
education lecturers in universities and colleges of education on the extent to which TVET pro-
gramme can equip students with skills for job creation. The results revealed that 22 items had
the mean scores that ranged from 3.32 to 3.85, while the corresponding standard deviation val-
ues ranged from 0.41 to 0.63. However, the mean scores are indications that TVET programmes
to a very high extent can equip recipients with skills for entrepreneurial activities, while the

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
standard deviation values are indications that vocational education lecturer’s responses are very 543
close.
Table 2. Mean responses and standard deviations of vocational education

lecturers in universities and colleges of education on the extent to
which TVET can equip students with the skills to develop Nigerian
economy in a sustainable manner.
Item Statements
S/N x̅ SD Remarks
To what extent can TVET:
23. Equip students with skills to pursue lifelong learning activities. 3.57 .58 HE
24. Equip students with skills to participate entrepreneurial activities. 3.49 .63 HE
25. Equip students with skills to improve internal-generated revenue. 3.51 .59 HE
26. Equip students with skills to generate high income for youths. 3.50 .60 HE
27. Equip students with skills for poverty alleviation. 3.49 .60 HE
28. Equip students with skills to redeem youths from a bleak future 3.46 .60 HE
29. Equip students with attitudes to promote peace and security. 3.48 .61 HE
30. Equip students with skills to promote industrialization. 3.40 .62 HE
31. Equip students with skills to promote technological breakthroughs. 3.47 .58 HE
32. Equip students with skills to promote economic self-reliance. 3.45 .59 HE
33. Equip students with skills to provide basic needs among youths, 3.44 .62 HE
34. Equip students with skills to improve self-esteem among youths. 3.47 .63 HE
35. Equip students with skills to improve freedom among youths. 3.45 .62 HE
36. Equip students with skills to confidently invest on domestic and foreign trade. 3.42 .60 HE
Results of the data presented in Table 2 show the mean ratings of responses by voca-
tional education lecturers in universities and colleges of education on the extent to which TVET
programmes can equip students with skills for sustainable development of Nigerian economy.
The results revealed that 14 items had the mean scores that ranged from 3.42 to 3.57, while the
corresponding standard deviation values ranged from 0.58 to 0.63. However, the mean scores
are indications that TVET programmes to a very high extent can equip students with skills for
sustainable development of Nigerian economy, while the standard deviation values are indica-
tions that vocational education lecturer’s responses are very close.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the mean responses of

TVET lecturers in Edo and Delta States on the extent to which TVET can equip students with
skills for job creation.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
544 Table 3. t-test analysis between TVET lecturers in Edo and Delta States on the
extent to which TVET can equip students with skills for job creation.
Variable Categories N x̅ SD df t p Decision

Extent to which TVET can
equip students with skills for job Edo 84 3.57 .21 296 .153 .127 NR
creation
Delta 214 3.50 .39
Source: Field Study (2017). NR: Not Rejected (Retained Hypothesis).
Results presented in table 3 show that the aggregate mean ratings of responses by TVET
lecturers in Edo and Delta States on the extent to which TVET can equip recipients with skills
for job creation are 3.57 and 3.50, while the corresponding standard deviation values are .21
and .39 respectively. The table has indicated that the t-value is .153 at df of 296, while the p-
value is .127. Testing at alpha level of 0.05, the p-value is not significant, since the p-value is
greater than the alpha value (0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is not rejected; hence there is
no significant difference between the mean responses of TVET lecturers in Edo and Delta States
on the extent to which TVET can equip students with skills for job creation.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of male

and female TVET lecturers on the extent to which TVET can equip students with skills for
sustainable development of Nigerian economy.
Table 4. t-test analysis between male and female TVET lecturers on the
extent to which TVET can equip students with skills for sustainable
development of Nigerian economy.
Variable Categories N x̅ SD df t p Decision

Extent to which TVET can equip
students with skills for sustainable Male 156 3.40 .49 296 .457 .001 R
development
Female 142 3.55 .22
Source: Field Study (2016). R: Rejected (Rejected Hypothesis).
Results presented in Table 4 show that the aggregate mean ratings of responses by male
and female TVET lecturers on the extent to which TVET can equip students with skills for sus-
tainable development of Nigerian economy are 3.40 and 3.55, while the corresponding standard
deviation values are .49 and .22 respectively. The Table indicated that the t-value is .457 at df
of 296, while the p-value is .001. Testing at alpha level of 0.05, the p-value is significant, since
the p-value is not greater than the alpha value (0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected;
hence, there is significant difference between the mean responses of male and female TVET
lecturers on the extent to which TVET can equip students with skills for sustainable develop-
ment of Nigerian economy.
Discussion
From the results, it is clear that TVET to a high extent can equip students with relevant
skills in home economics, office, agricultural science and industrial technical for the world of
work and sustainable economic growth and development. Specifically, the results from research

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
question one which seeks to assess the extent to which TVET programmes can equip students 545
with skills for job creation reveals that TVET can equip students with the requisite skills for job
creation. However, this finding is in line with the assertion of Gu, Gomes and Brizuela (2011)
who noted that TVET is a special type of education and training that emphasizes the applica-
tion of skills and competencies required for employment in a particular occupation or cluster of
related occupations in any field of social and economic activity. This also implies that TVET is
an integral part of secondary and post-secondary education that is designed to educate people
about, through and for careers both in work and in learning (Rojewski., Asunda, & Kim, 2008).
Hailu (2012) further asserted that after or having acquired the necessary skills, TVET gradu-
ates’ career options are either wage employment or self-employment, in which both are vital
that the former is to supply the industry with the skilled labour and the latter is job creation.
Typically, the major aim of TVET is understood as both serving society by ensuring an educated
workforce as well as improving social and economic well-being of individuals (Adams & Gam-
age, 2008).
The results from research question two revealed that TVET to a very high extent can
equip students with the skills to develop Nigerian economy in a sustainable manner. This further
makes it clear that if people, especially the young youths, are equipped with TVET skills with
which they can access the labour markets, then the incidence of underemployment, poverty,
unemployment, insecurity, militancy, and other consequences of social burdens and economic
exclusion would be reduced to the barest minimum in Nigeria (Famiwole, Oke & Amadii,
2012). The finding is also in agreement with the assertion of MacLean and David (2009) who
remarked that TVET is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge and skills to increase op-
portunities for productive empowerment and sustainable economic development in knowledge
economies and rapidly changing work environment. Similarly, MacLean and Wilson (2009)
describe TVET as the acquirement of skillfulness for the world of work in order to raise pros-
pects for productive work and personal empowerment and socio-economic development for
sustainable livelihoods in the speedily changing work milieu. It is on this note that Akerele
(2007) and Rufai (2013) opined that TVET is an aspect of education that exposes students for
the acquisition of demonstrable skills that could further be transferred into the economic benefit
as well as sustainable livelihood.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The findings of this research attempted to provide a descriptive data on the important
role of TVET in equipping students with requisite skills for job creation and sustainable de-
velopment of Nigerian economy. However, the research specifically revealed that TVET has
an important role to play in equipping students with the skills for job creation. It also showed
that TVET to a very high extent can equip students with sellable skills for sustainable develop-
ment of Nigerian economy. There was no significant difference between the mean responses of
TVET lecturers in Edo and Delta States on the extent to which TVET can equip students with
requisite skills for job creation. The research also shows a significant difference between the
mean responses of male and female TVET lecturers on the extent to which TVET programme
can equip students with the requisite skills for sustainable development of Nigerian economy.
The researcher therefore concluded that the state of Nigeria economy, particularly in terms of
unemployment, underemployment, poverty and insecurity, can only be surmounted through ef-
fective implementation of TVET programme.
Based on the findings of the research, the following recommendations were made:
1. Stakeholders of TVET should endeavour to optimize sufficient amount of re-
sources (both financially and otherwise) in order to meet the needs of students
and the society.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
546 2. Regular supply of the state-of-the-art facilities should be collaboratively em-

barked on by governments and other major stakeholders so as to ensure the effec-
tive delivery of TVET programmes in Nigeria.
3. Government should endeavour to provide adequate funds in order for TVET man-
agers to be able to source for qualified manpower that would effectively teach
TVET courses.
4. Government should endeavour to implement an advocacy programme in order for
the people of Nigeria to be aware of the relevance of TVET on job creation and
sustainable development of Nigerian economy.
References
Adams, D., & Gamage, D. T. (2008). A study of leadership effectiveness in a large VET institution in
Australia. International Journal of Educational Management, 22 (3), 214–228.
Adekoya, C. O. (2010). An imperativeness of adoption: A human right approach to poverty reduction
strategy in Nigeria. University of Ado-Ekiti Law Journal, 4, 36–71.
Adeyemi, A. B., & Titiloye, K. A. (2014). Effective management of small scale enterprises in Nigeria.
Kaduna State. Print Mark Press and Bindery.
Adewuyi, J. O., & Okemakinde, T. (2013). Higher education financing in Nigeria: Issues and trends. In-
ternational Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, 5 (7), 121-127.
Agrawal, T. (2013). Vocational education and training programmes (VET): An Asian perspective. Asia-
Pacific Journal of Cooperation Education, 14 (1), 16-17.
Akerele, W. O. (2007). Management of technical and vocational education in Nigeria: The challenges of
the country. Lagos Journal of Educational Administration and Planning, 3 (1).
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C. K., & Walker, D. A. (2014). Introduction to research in education (9th
Ed.). United States: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2004). Improving technical education and vocational training: Strate-
gies for Asia. Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank.
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2008). Education and skills: Strategies for accelerated development in
Asia and Pacific. Manila Philippines: Department of External Relations.
Awotunde, D. O. (2000). Technical and vocational education for national development: The Nigeria ex-
periences. A Lead Paper Presented at the National conference, University of Ibadan, on Science
13th August, 2000, Ibadan.
Badawi, A. A. (2013). TVET and entrepreneurship skills. In Revisiting global trends in TVET: Reflec-
tions on theory and practice. UNESCO International Centre for Technical and Vocational Educa-
tion and Training (UNEVOC). Retrieved from http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/fileadmin/up/2013_
epub_revisiting_global_trends_in_tvet_book.pdf.
Bryman, A. (2007). Qualitative data analysis. London, UK: SAGE Publications.
Burchardt, T., Le Grand, J., & Piachaud, D. (2002). Introduction. In J. Hills., J. Le Grand., & D. Piachaud
(Eds.). Understanding social exclusion. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Chukwumerije, U. (2011). The imperative of technical and vocation education in Nigeria. Convocation
Lecture, Anambra State University. December 7, 2011.
Department for International Development (DFID) (2007). Educating out of poverty. Edinburgh: DfID.
Edwards, J. (2008). Building a self-sustaining, indigenous film industry in Kenya. Retrieved from http://
worldstoryorganization.org/docs/WSOKenyaFilmIndustryReport.pdf
Ekpenyong, L. E., & Edokpolor, E. J. (2015a). Winning the war against unemployment and poverty in
Nigeria: is there a role for TVET-private sector partnership? The Nigerian Vocational Association
Journal (NVAJ), 20 (1), 125 – 132
Ekpo, A. H. (2011). Nigeria and its growing unemployment crisis. Broad Street Journal. Nigeria. TELL
Magazine, 7, 28.
European Training Foundation (ETF) (2006a). Skills development for poverty reduction. Luxembourg,
European Union Publications Office.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Famiwole, R. O., Oke, J. O., & Amadii, N. S. (2012). Potentials of vocational technical education: Em- 547
powering youths and vulnerable adults for poverty reduction in Nigeria. International Journal of
Social and Management, 1 (2).
Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2004). National policy on education, Lagos: NERDC Press.
Global e-Schools and Communities Initiative (2013). Development of 21st century skills for innova-
tion and enterprise: Exploring the role of Informal learning environments in the development
of skills and aptitudes for the digital creative media industries. Retrieved from http://gesci.org/
fileadmin/user_upload/2_Youth_Skills_Enterprise_Files/AKE_research_-_21C_Skills_Full_Re-
port_-_2012_.pdf
Gu, C. C., Gomes, T., & Brizuela, V. S. (2011). Technical and vocational education and training in sup-
port of strategic sustainable development. Thesis submitted for completion of Master of Strategic
Leadership towards Sustainability, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Karlskrona, Sweden.
Hailu, E. T. (2012). Analyzing the labour outcomes of TVET in Ethiopia: Implication of challenges and
opportunities in productive self-employment of TVET graduates. Being a Research Paper Pre-
sented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Obtaining the Degree of Masters of Arts in
Development Studies.
Hardi, P. A. (1997). Assessing sustainable development: Principles in practice. Manitoba: International
Institute for Sustainable Development.
Igbinedion, V. I., Edokpolor, J. E., & Oyenuga, A. O. (2015). Trends towards a closer integration of vo-
cational education and career guidance in Nigeria. The Vocational and Applied Science Journal
(TVASJ), 12, 48-63.
Igwe, L. E. B., & Oragwu, A. A. (2014). Techno-vocational skills acquisition and poverty reduction
strategies in vocational institutions: The case of rivers state. African Journal of Education and
Technology, 4 (1), 47-58.
International Labour Organization (ILO) (2008). Skills for improving productivity, employment growth
and development. Geneva. International Labour Office.
Jack, K. N., & Jelly, K. T. (2005). Research methods in physical activities. Chicago: Human Kinetics
Campaign Report, 62-81.
Kingombe, C. (2012). Lessons for developing countries from experience with technical and vocational
education and training. In O. E. G. Johnson (Ed). Economic challenges and policy issues in ear-
ly twenty-first-century Sierra Leone. International Growth Centre Retrieved from https://www.
theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Johnson-Ed.-2012-.pdf.
Kurya, U. L., & Hassan, B. (2007). Technical and vocational education for productive and sustainable
development in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference of the Nigeria Association of
Teachers of Technology (NATT). Kaduna, Nigeria.
Ladipo, M. K., Akhuemonkhan, I. A., & Raimi, L. (2013) Technical vocational education and training
(TVET) as mechanism for sustainable development in Nigeria (SD): Potentials, challenges and
policy prescriptions. Being a paper Presented at the Commonwealth Association of Technical
Universities and Polytechnics in Africa (CAPA) International Conference, Held in Banjul, Gam-
bia between 3-8 June 2013. Banjul.
Li, Q., Swaminathan, H., & Tang, J. (2009). Development of a classification system for engineering stu-
dent characteristics affecting college enrollment and retention. Journal of Engineering Education,
98 (4), 361-376.
Lisbon Council (2007).Skills for the future. A paper prepared for the European Union’s Lisbon Council.
Retrieved from www.lisboncouncil.net/component/downloads/?id=214.
Maclean, P. (2008). Education for peace building and sustainable development: Delusion, illusion, or re-
ality? Retrieved from http://www.winderdoon.com/WEFT/files/publication_rupertmaclean_edu-
cationforpeace.pdf
McLean, R., & David, N. W. (2009). International handbook of education for the changing world of work:
Bridging academic and vocational learning. Retrieved from http://toolkit.ineesite.org/toolkit/IN-
EEcms/uploads/1093/International_Handbook_of_Education_Changing.pdf.
McLean, R., & Wilson, D. (Eds.) (2009). International handbook of education for the changing world of
work: Bridging academic and vocational learning, 1 (6). Springer Science + Business Media B.
V. 2009.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
548 National Association of State Directors of Career and Technical Education Consortium (NASDCTEC)
(2003). Back to school: Career Tech 101. Retrieved from http://www.careertech.org/show/publi-
cations.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2016). Unemployment/under-employment watch. Abuja. Retrieved
from http/nigerianstat.gov.ng/download/397.pdf.
Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education (2010). NICHE strategy on
technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Retrieved from https://www.nuffic.nl/
en/files/documents/niche-strategy-on-technical-and-vocational-education-and-training-tvet.pdf.
Olaitan, S. O. (1996). Vocational and technical education in Nigeria: Issues and analysis. Onitsha: Noble
Graphic Press.
Olajide, S. E. (2015). Repositioning technical and vocational education toward eradicating unemploy-
ment in Nigeria. International Journal of Vocational and Technical Education, 7 (6), 54-63. Re-
trieved from http://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1436978905_Olajide.pdf.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2009). Learning for jobs: OECD
policy review of vocational education and training initial report. Paris, OECD.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2009). 21st century skills and com-
petences for new millennium learners in OECD Countries. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/
officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=EDU/WKP(2009)20&doclanguage=en.
Osinubi T. S. (2005). Macro econometric analysis of growth, unemployment and poverty in Nigeria.
Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 48 (2), 249-269. Retrieved from http://pu.edu.pk/images/
journal/pesr/PDF-FILES/7%20OSINUBI%20Macroeconometric%20Analysis%20of%20Nige-
ria.pdf.
Prospects (2010). Graphic design: Your skills. Retrieved from http://www.prospects.ac.uk/options_graph-
ic_design_your_skills.htm.
Rojewski, J. W., Asunda, P., & Kim, S. J. (2008).Trends in career and technical education research.
Journal of Career and Technical Education, 24 (2), 57-68. Retrieved fromhttp://files.eric.ed.gov/
fulltext/EJ860502.pdf.
Rufai, A. (2013). Human capital development in technical and vocational education and training (TVET)
for sustainable national development. Journal of Education and Practice, 4 (7), 100-107.
Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. New York: Knopt.
Tilak, J. B. G. (2002). Vocational education and training in Asia. In J. P. Keeves & R. Watanabe (ed.). The
hand book on educational research in the Asia Pacific Region. Berlin, Germany: Kluwer.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2005). Revised recom-
mendation concerning technical and vocational education (2001): In UNESCO (2005). Norma-
tive instruments concerning technical and vocational education. 7. Retrieved from http:/unesdoc.
unesco.org/images/0014/001406/140603e.pdf.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2010). Education for sus-
tainable development (ESD). Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/en/esd/.
UNESCO-UNEVOC (2009). TVET and ESD. Retrieved from http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/
wiki.0.html?&no_cache=1&tx_drwiki_pi1[keyword]=more_about_tvet_for_sd.
UNESCO-UNEVOC (2012) Transforming TVET from idea to action. UNESCO-UNEVOC International
Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, UN Campus, Bonn, Germany.
World Bank (2007).World development report. Washington, DC, World Bank.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987). Our common future. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Worldometers (2017). Population of Nigeria. Retrieved from http://www.worldometers.info/world-pop-
ulation/nigeria-population.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Received: October 15, 2017 Accepted: December 08, 2017 549
James Edomwonyi Edokpolor M.ed, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Social Science Education, Faculty
of Arts and Education, Benson Idahosa University, P.M.B.1100, Benin City,
Edo State, Nigeria.
E-mail: jedokpolor@biu.edu.ng
Robinson Osarumwense PhD, Lecturer One, Business Education Unit, Department of Vocational and
Owenvbiugie Technical Education, Faculty of Education, University of Benin, P.O. Box
1154, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria.
E-mail: Osarumwense.owenvbiugie@uniben.edu

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
550
PREDICTING A FAST-TRACK MARITIME
CAREER: CHARACTERISTICS OF
SUCCESSFUL OFFICERS DURING
TEENAGE YEARS
Manuel Joaquín Fernández González
University of Latvia, Latvia
E-mail: manuels.fernandezs@lu.lv
Dmitrijs Semjonovs, Irma Narica, Diāna Strautmane, Sandra Ozola

Ltd. “Novikontas Jūras Koledža”, Latvia
E-mail: ds@novikontas.lv in@novikontas.lv dist@novikontas.lv so@novikontas.lv
Abstract
Fast-track maritime career is a topical question worldwide due to the shortage of seafarers in maritime
industry. Assuming that the fast-track career officers’ relevant common characteristics in adolescence
could predict future maritime career speed, the research questions of this research are: What were the
common characteristics of fast-track career officers when they were 16-18? Were there any statistically
significant differences between the fast-track career groups and the officers with a slower career at that
age?
A questionnaire survey involving 175 maritime officers was conducted in Latvia in January – October
2016, regarding officers’ family context, school achievement, involvement in sports, and personality traits
when they were 16-18.
Fast-track career officers perceived themselves as more conscientious, calm and more leadership oriented
than the whole group in adolescence. Statistically significant differences among career-speed groups were
found regarding family socioeconomic status, family atmosphere and family career support at that age.
Based on those communalities among maritime officers with a fast-track carrier when they were 16-18,
maritime education and training institutions could better find and give appropriate career guidance to
prospective maritime officers. Even if maritime career speed is a very individualized phenomenon, family
characteristics could be studied further as a potential good predictor of fast-track maritime career.
Keywords: career success predictors, fast-track career, maritime career, maritime officers.
Introduction
Career choice is an important and often a difficult issue for adolescents. Several recent
studies unfold adolescents’ self-doubt, anxiety and uncertainty in career decision-making
process (Negru-Subtirica, Pop, & Crocetti, 2015; Vignoli, 2015). The perception of negative
aspects of the profession (barriers) has an influence in career choice (Albeit & Luzzo, 1999).
High-school students (males and females) have been found to perceive very soon barriers
to their future college attendance and work lives (McWhirter, 1997; McWhirter, Hackett &
Bandalos, 1998). In Latvia there are many students in grades 11 and 12 who have not yet even
begun to explore career possibilities seriously (Ļubenko & Sebre, 2007). A recent study states
that “among [Latvian students] finishing secondary school (Form 12) there are quite a lot of
respondents whose career choice is rather unclear” (Jurgena, Gedrovics, & Cedere, 2014, p.
527). This delay in career decision may be an obstacle for future career development, especially
in maritime field, which requires a strong personal and academic involvement from the very
first study year.

Manuel Joaquín FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ, Dmitrijs SEMJONOVS, Irma NARICA, Diāna STRAUTMANE, Sandra OZOLA. Predicting a
fast-track maritime career: Characteristics of successful officers during teenage years
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
In the process of choosing a career, several cultural factors are especially relevant in 551
Latvia. Young adults try to graduate from an educational institution and to reach a career peak
as soon as possible, in order to become financially independent from their family (Kolesovs,
2013). Especially among middle and low social classes, youngsters want to avoid being a
financial burden for their parents, who often have low salaries and low retreats. A recent study,
comparing youth prospects in a time of economic recession in different European countries,
shows that Latvian Post-Soviet socio-cultural context pushes youngsters to seek for financial and
emotional independence sooner than in other European countries. Poverty rates of young adults
living in Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia increased between 2007 and 2011 by 9%, 5.5 %, and
4.8 %, respectively for young people aged 18 – 35. The increase of subjective (self-perceived)
deprivation between 2007 and 2011 was particularly high in Latvia (8.8%). This economic
hardship is a push factor for young adults to leave home as soon as they find employment. In
fact, in Lithuania and Latvia co-residence with parents decreased during the recession period
2005-2007 (Aassve, Cottini, & Vitali, 2013).
Maritime career is a good professional option for youngsters in Latvia, as it offers fast-
track career possibilities and good salaries. Fast-track maritime career is a topical question
worldwide. For example, the Northeast Maritime Institute in Fairhaven, Massachusetts, offers
a new degree for fast-track maritime careers (the Associate of Applied Science of Nautical
Science Degree), facilitating graduates’ transition straight into vessel management positions. In
addition, seafarers’, and especially officers’ salary, is much higher than salaries in other ashore
professions. As an example, the salary of rating on tanker ships (the lowest rank) can vary from
€900 to €1,700 per month. In the position of junior officer (3rd or 2nd Officer, 4th or 3rd Engineer)
salary can vary from €3,000 to €5,500 per month. In position of senior officers (Master, Chief
Officer, Chief Engineer, 2nd Engineer) salary starts from €7,000 per month. In Latvia, it is
really difficult to have such salaries working ashore in other professions (Fernández González,
Semjonovs, Bogdaņecs, & Ozola, 2014).
Fast-track maritime career is also a relevant issue for maritime companies, which are
interested in discovering timely good potential maritime officers. According to the latest
five-year Manpower Report issued by the Baltic and International Maritime Council and the
International Chamber of Shipping (BIMCO/ICS, 2015), the average age of acting seafarers
is growing, and additional 147,500 officers will be required by 2025 to serve in the world
merchant fleet. The situation is similar in Latvia, where the Latvian maritime educational
establishments have difficulties to ensure long-term sustainable supply of ship officers (Gailītis,
2013). However, in Latvia, as in other European highly industrialized countries, 16-18 year-old
youngsters today found less attractive working on board, and a little proportion of them is still
interested in the seafaring profession (Berzins & Barbare, 2013). In this context, it is important
to give appropriate and proactive career guidance to youngsters who are now 16-18, specially
to those who are thinking about choosing the maritime career (Geldard, Geldard, & Foo, 2015).
The aim of this research was to examine what factors could indicate that youngsters
could have a successful fast-track career as maritime officer. To address this question, it was
assumed that fast-track career was influenced by several factors that could be traced back to
the adolescence of successful officers. Therefore, a research was conducted among current
maritime officers who had a fast-track career, looking for communalities among them when
they were 16-18, assuming that these common characteristics could be considered as predictors
of fast-track maritime career. The analysis focussed on some hypothetical predictors, such as
family environment, their involvement in different kinds of sports, how they did at school and
how was their personality like at the age of 16-18. The research questions were formulated
as follows: What were the relevant common characteristics of fast-track career officers when
they were 16-18 regarding their family environment, experience at school, sport practised and
personality traits, compared with the other officers? And were there any statistically significant
differences between the fast-track career groups and the officers with a slower career regarding
these aspects?

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
552 Knowing more about the factors influencing a fast-track maritime career could help
youngsters to make a more informed career choice, facilitating a proper self-assessment about
one’s possibilities to engage successfully in this field. This research could also help maritime
institutions to discover the youngsters who have higher chances of having a fast and successful
career as a maritime officer, based on communalities among maritime officers with a fast-track
career when they were 16-18, and to give appropriate guidance to those who desire to enter the
maritime higher education.
Theoretical Background
The Concept of Career Success
Career success has been defined as the positive psychological or work-related outcomes
or achievements that a person accumulates as a result of work experiences (Judge & Bretz,
1994; London & Stumpf, 1982). Scholars have used various operationalizations of career
success in their research. Traditionally, the construct has been viewed as having conceptually
distinct objective and subjective components. Empirical research on career success has tended
to use mostly the objective measures, although there are studies that utilize both objective
and subjective assessments (Callanan, 2003). Over the past several years, particular attention
was paid to the organizational factors that have an influence on the construct, considering that
individual career success can eventually contribute to organizational success (Eby, Sorensen &
Feldman, 2005). Recent studies mention intrinsic fulfilment, external compensation and work–
life balance as the major components of career success (Zhou, Sun, Guan, Li, & Pan, 2012).
Subjective career success indicators measure self-perceived or intrinsic career success
(Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005). From a subjective point of view, career success depends on
the individual’s perception of satisfaction with the job and with career progress. Subjective career
success becomes apparent in the person’s reactions to career experiences, and is associated with
greater satisfaction, motivation, and performance (Beauregard, 2007). One of the subjective
indicators of career success is attitude towards work, towards oneself, towards environment
and towards life. Attitude is defined as a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently
favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975).
Positive attitude for balancing career and family commitments, as well as the actual experience
of managing well competing demands from work and from home, are considered to be significant
indicators of employees’ perceptions of subjective career success (Tziner, Loberman, Dekel,
& Sharoni, 2012). Passion is also mentioned as an important subjective indicator of career
success. Passion at work is connected with a sense of personal vocation: the work that we have
chosen to pursue is born out of a need to help and to make a difference in people’s lives. Passion
enhances also the ability to handle frustration and failure, and pushes to hard work. All these
factors lead to a positive subjective feeling of being successful in career (Prinstein & Patterson,
2003).
Objective indicators measure objective or extrinsic career success. Even if career
success is an evaluative concept, and therefore judgments of career success depend on who
does the judging (Jaskolka, Beyer, & Trice, 1985), objective career success can be measured
by observable exoteric metrics, such as salary and number of promotions, status, and other
tangible accomplishments (Gattiker & Larwood, 1988; Judge & Bretz, 1994; Kotter, 1982).
Some researchers define objective career success as observable career accomplishments which
can be measured against the metrics of pay and ascendancy (Judge, Cable, Boudreau, & Bretz,
1995).
For the purposes of this research, even recognizing the importance of subjective
(self-perceived) career success, it was decided to approach the research question from the
perspective of a specific objective indicator of career success, namely, career speed. It should
be acknowledged that this choice can be controversial, and that this perspective could be

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
complemented with other approaches based on subjective career success indicators. A fast- 553
track career path is not always a sign of career excellence: for example, a recent study revealed
that, in university field, academic fast-track has a bad reputation – one of unrelenting work
hours that allow little or no room for a satisfying family life (Mason, Goulden, & Frasch, 2009).
In addition, the possible relation between fast-track development programs and participants’
frustration has also been studied (Feild & Harris, 1991). The rationale for our choice is the
high relevance of career speed in the socio-cultural context of the research. As it was said
before, nowadays in Latvia it is important for youngsters to become financially independent
from family and to reach a career peak as soon as possible. In addition, maritime education
institutions are interested in looking at predictors of fast-track career because of the shortage
of seafarers in maritime industry. This is why it seemed that the perspective of fast-track career
would be interesting for the readers of this research. In the next section authors’ understanding
of the concept of “fast-track career” is presented.
Definition of Fast-Track Career for Maritime Officers
In Latvia, the minimum education required to obtain the professional qualification of

a sailor or motorman (i.e., the beginning of seaman licensed profession) is basic education
(grade 9), but, to become marine officer, higher education (grade 12) is needed (CoM, 2013). At
present there are 2 possible paths to get a diploma of a marine officer without work limitation:
a) to enter a maritime school after finishing the basic education (grade 9), to study there for 4
years for getting a diploma of maritime officer with work limitation, and then to study 3 years
more in maritime higher education; or b) to enter maritime higher education establishment after
finishing the secondary education (grade 12) and to study for 4 years.
Once they graduate, young seafarers can work in navigation department or engineering
department with several levels of responsibility. According to the International Convention
on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW, 2011), after
completion of higher maritime education, a young seafarer initially becomes 3rd Officer (4th
Engineer in engineering department). Then s/he can become 2nd Officer (or 3rd Engineer),
after that Chief Officer (or 2nd Engineer) and finally – Captain (or Chief Engineer). To become
captain (or chief engineer), the candidate should have spent at sea at least 36 months, working
at least 12 months as chief officer (or 2nd engineer) and 6 months under the direct supervision of
a captain. The speed of career path depends not only on the level of professional competence,
but also on the availability of places, the policy of the shipping company, and the opinion of the
Captain on the ability of the candidate to work in a higher level of responsibility.
Considering all these factors, in this research “fast-track career” was defined as the path
of a seafarer who obtained the certificate of competence as Captain or Chief engineer 7 to 9
years after entering maritime higher education. In the next section we present the rationale for
the choice of the hypothetical predictors of fast-track career that were analysed in this research.
Predictors of Successful Career
Previous research in vocational psychology has investigated various individual and

contextual factors that have an influence in career development process, such as family
socioeconomic context, quality of relations inside the family, acculturation, self-efficacy and
self-awareness, school achievement, cultural values etc. (e.g., Ghosh & Fouad, 2015; Tang,
Fouad, & Smith, 1999).
Family relationships strongly influence youngsters’ career aspirations (Tziner, Loberman,
Dekel, & Sharoni, 2012). For many individuals, relationships with family members are some
of the most powerful and significant relational experiences in their lives (Whiston & Keller,
2004). Although there are many definitions of family, and the term has biological, sociological,
and psychological connotations, in this research we focus on officers’ “family of origin” (when

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
554 were 16-18 years-old). Typically, the family of origin refers to one’s natural family or the family
into which one is born or adopted (Nichols, 2003; Sauber, L’Abate, Weeks, & Buchanan,1993).
Already more than 50 years ago, researchers investigated the influence of the family of origin on
individuals’ career development. A. Roe (1956) theorized that parental styles had a significant
influence on individuals’ career direction, although his research findings are not supported by
latter research (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996; Trice, Hughes, Odom, Woods, & McClellan, 1995).
Recent theoretical perspectives based on family systems theory (Bowen, 1966) propose that
the family operates as a system or unit, where patterns of interactions evolve, and relational
aspects of the system have a significant influence on individuals’ behaviour and future career
development (Carr, 2000).
School achievement has also been often considered as a predictor of future career
success. Regarding the transition from high school to university level, recent studies show that
maintaining high school grade point average (GPA), over 3.0, correlates with enrolling in and
successfully completing credit-bearing college courses (ACT, 2012; Mishook, 2012). Meeting
or exceeding benchmark scores on state and national assessments also are indicative of future
success (Cumpton, Schexnayder, & King, 2012). Several studies had been conducted to improve
the selection of students for a concrete professional field, concluding the importance of school
achievement in secondary education as a predictor of further success in studies and career. In
the field of medical studies, Z. Meshkani (2004) reports that no factor has predicted college
achievement of students more accurately than high school GPA, even acknowledging that
parent's education and occupation influence the students' attitudes toward their higher education
studies. Some studies address also the importance of youngsters’ “vocational situation status”
(i.e., the student’s perceived level of conviction that s/he made has already made the right career
choice) in further career development (Holland, Daiger, & Power, 1980).
In recent research, personality is associated with career success in different ways. Some
studies, drawing from the model of emergent interactive agency (Bandura, 1989), examine
proactive personality and self-control as predictors of extrinsic and intrinsic career success
(Converse, Pathak, DePaul-Haddock, Gotlib, & Merbedone, 2012). Personality might associate
with extrinsic career success directly (if traits such as assertiveness, emotional stability, and
leadership motivation “fit” the tasks of the employee) or indirectly, through human capital and
motivational variables: e.g., those more open to new experiences may accept more international
assignments, while persons with a more conscientious personality can accept working evenings
or long hours (Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001). Consensus is emerging that a five-factor model
of personality, often termed the “Big-Five”, can be used to describe the main salient aspects of
personality (Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, & Barrick, 1999).
Several studies investigated also the influence of gender (Goldin, 2004) and genetics
(Ariga, Ohkusa, & Brunello, 1999) on fast-track career paths. Considering the specificity of
maritime career, we were interested in investigating also if involvement in sports could be
considered as a hypothetical predictor of fast-track career. The practice of sport not only includes
learning positive health habits and becoming physically fit, but enhances youth development
holistically, as it demands the use and development of diverse competencies, such as sport
ethics, self-worth, team working, adaptation abilities, optimism, hope, ability to set goals and
manage stress etc., which can help a young person in their current life and in their future career
(Gould & Carson, 2008).
Taking into account this literature review, four hypothetical predictors of fast-
track maritime career were chosen for analysis in this research: family context (including
socioeconomic characteristics of the family, the career support received from family, and the
quality of the internal relations in the family), school achievement (including self-reported
marks at school, subject matter preferences, and vocational situation status (decided, waiting,
hesitating) at the age of 16-18), personality characteristics (the Big-Five personality construct),
and involvement in sports.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Methodology of Research 555
General Background
In order to answer to the research questions, it was decided to conduct a research

based on a social survey approach (De Vaus, 2013; Bryman, 2015), which allowed obtaining
standardised information from a large group of seafarers. Using a questionnaire was chosen as
a survey method.
The research was conducted at the Novikontas Maritime Training Centre (NMTC) of
Riga, (Latvia), which has a relevant data base of current and former seafarers. The NMTC
provides a wide range of training courses for seafarers in accordance with the requirements
of the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers (STCW, 2011), as well as upgrade programs for Navigators and Marine Engineers. It
was established in Latvia in 2005 as an affiliated company of the Novikontas Maritime Training
Centre in Klaipeda (Lithuania).
The questionnaire was elaborated and piloted in January – April 2016. Data were
collected in May – June 2016. In Summer 2016 data were processed and analysed, and the
interpretation of the data and elaboration of conclusions took place in Autumn 2016.
Research Instruments
Due to the novelty of the perspective of this research, none of the existing standardized
questionnaires were suitable for answering to the research questions. Therefore, a new
questionnaire was designed and validated. First, three exploratory semi-structured interviews
(Creswell, 2013) with young captains with a fast-track career were conducted, in order
to define the topics to be included in the questionnaire. Respondents were chosen based on
their availability and their personal contacts with the researcher team. During the preliminary
interviews, it was also important to determine whether the respondents remembered easily
enough the information required from them, or if some issues provoked respondent’s confusion,
reluctance or hesitancy, etc. Interviews were audio-recorded and analysed using AQUAD 7
software. Based on the results of the analysis, the questionnaire was elaborated and piloted
with ten respondents whose profile corresponded to the needs of the research. Respondents’
feedback was used for adjusting the questionnaire (some of the questions were rephrased, the
order of questions was modified, some items were eliminated).
The final questionnaire contained information about respondents’ profile (including
the age when respondent accessed to the current position, for creating career-speed groups),
schooling and career perspectives, involvement in sport activities, personality characteristics
(Big-Five) and characteristics of the family. It included closed questions (where respondents
should choose one answer from the list), as well the scale questions (5-point Likert scale) and
open questions about respondents’ past activities, motivation to choose maritime profession,
and hobbies at age 16-18. The questionnaire was prepared both in paper and electronic format.
Both versions were identical.
Sample Description and Data Collection Procedures
Most of the respondents completed the questionnaire on line, using the link to the
electronic questionnaire that was sent to their e-mail. In order to avoid excluding from the
research those new captains or chief engineers whose current position was not still updated
in the NMTC data base, the electronic questionnaire was sent to all 3984 marine officers from
all ranks and departments (deck and engine) from NMTC data base, asking them to fill the
questionnaire only if they were already captains or chief engineers. A control question (“Please,
indicate your current position”) was included in the questionnaire. 314 electronic questionnaires

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
556 were received. During the data cleaning process it was found that 189 respondents had not yet
reached the position analyzed in this research (captains and chief engineers), and therefore only
125 electronic questionnaires were retained for analysis.
In addition, 50 paper questionnaires were collected in the premises of the NMCT from
different captains and chief engineers during their training courses or upgrading programs.
Therefore, overall, 175 questionnaires were collected (125 electronic questionnaires and 50
paper questionnaires). The collected answers were introduced in a common data base in MS
Excel and transferred to SPSS software for analysis.
As regards the profile of the respondents (captains and chief engineers), all of them were
males. Almost one third were from Riga, the capital of Latvia (N=53, 30%), one quarter from
other Latvian regions (N=46, 26.28%) and the rest from other Baltic countries (N=76; 43.42%).
The age range when respondents took their position as captain/chief engineer variates between
24-61 years (Mean=37.47; SD=5.87).
Data Analysis

For further data analysis, respondents were divided into three groups, according to
their career speed: Fast-track career: respondents, who reached the position of masters or
chief engineers 7 to 9 years from the moment of entering maritime higher education (N=50,
28.5%); Normal career path: respondents who reached this position between 10 and 15 years
after entering maritime higher education (N=79, 45.2%); and slow career speed: respondents
who reached this position more than 15 years from the moment of entering maritime higher
education (N=46, 26.3%).
Various methods were used for the data analysis: frequency analysis for descriptive
statistics, cross-tabulation for comparison between groups, Cramer's V method for analysing
the statistically significance of group differences. The validity of the data set was tested using
Cronbach’s alpha test (α=0.620). The results are presented in the next section.
Results of Research
Descriptive Results
Family characteristics. Respondents’ reported family characteristics, including

socioeconomic status, parents’ education, family career support, family composition and
atmosphere in the family, are presented below (see Table 1).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Table 1. Family characteristics. 557
Score* 1 2 3 4 5 Total
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
Family socioeconomic status
(1=Low; 2=Lower Middle; 3=Middle; 4=Higher Middle; 5=Upper)
Overall 32 (18.4) 40 (23.0) 80 (46.0) 21 (12.1) 1 (0.6) 174 (100.0)
Fast-track 13 (26.0) 12 (24.0) 16 (32.0) 8 (16.0) 1 (2.0) 50 (100.0)
Parents’ education
(1= Less than 12 years at school; 2=High school grad.; 3=College student; 4=College grad.; 5= Professional HE grad.)
Overall 38 (21.7) 25 (14.3) 12 (6.9) 42 (24.0) 58 (33.1) 175 (100.0)
Fast-track 8 (16.0) 8 (16.0) 1 (2.0) 12 (24.0) 21 (42.0) 50 (100.0)
Family support
(1=Emotional support; 2=Financial support; 3=No support; 4=Emotional and Financial support)
Overall 58 (33.3) 16 (9.2) 26 (14.9) 74 (42.5) - 174 (100.0)
Fast-track 24 (48,0) 4 (8,0) 5 (10,0) 17 (34,0) - 50 (100,0)
Family composition
(1= Mother and father); 2=Single (mother or father); 3=Living with family relatives; 4=Orphan (not living with parents)
Overall 132 (75.4) 37 (21.1) 3 (1.7) 3 (1.7) - 175 (100.0)
Fast-track 36 (72.0) 13 (26.0) 1 (2.0) 0 (0.0) - 50 (100.0)
Atmosphere in the family
(1=Stressful/Conflictive; 2=Friendly/Loving, supporting; 3=Calm / Normal)
Overall 16 (9.10) 69 (39.4) 90 (51.4) - - 175 (100.0)
Fast-track 5 (10.0) 13 (26,0) 32 (64.0) - - 50 (100.0)
Almost half of the families of the fast-track career group provided only emotional –
not financial support (Mode=1; N=24, 48%), and only one third of them (N=17, 34%) were
reported to provide both emotional and financial support (N=17). On the contrary, for the
overall group of respondents the proportions are inverted: most of the respondents received
both emotional and financial support from their families (Mode=4: N=74, 42.5%), and only
one third received just emotional support (N=58; 33.3%). 50% of the fast-track group perceived
family socioeconomic status as low or lower-middle (N=25; 50%), which is a slightly higher
proportion than for the whole group (41.49%). The majority of the respondents’ parents were
“Graduates or had professional higher education” (N=58; 33.1%), and this tendency is more
marked in the fast-track group (N=21; 42%). Similarly to the overall group, most of fast-track
group respondents were living in full families (N=36, 72%; overall: N=132, 75.4%). In most of
the cases, the fast-track group’s family atmosphere was rated as “calm/normal” (N=32; 64%;
overall, slightly lower: N=90; 51.4%) or “friendly/loving, supporting” (N=13; 26%; overall,
slightly higher: N=69; 39.4%). Summarizing the most salient family characteristics of fast-track
career group, it can be said that they mostly provided only emotional – non-financial support,
whereas, overall, most of the respondents received both emotional and financial career support.
Half of fast-track career respondents perceived their family socioeconomic status as low or
lower-middle, which is slightly higher proportion than for the overall group. The majority of the
fast-track career respondents’ parents were graduates or had professional higher education, and
were living in full families whose atmosphere, in most of the cases, was rated as “calm/normal”.
Schooling and career perspectives. The description of the respondents’ schooling and
career perspectives when they were 16-18 is presented next (see Table 2).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
558 Table 2. Schooling and career perspectives.
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
Marks at school
(1=Very low; 2=Rather Low; 3=Middle; 4=Quite high; 5=Very high)
Overall 0 (0) 1 (0.6) 68 (38.9) 85 (48.6) 21 (12.0) 175 (100.0)
Fast-track 0 (0) 0 (0.0) 17 (34.0) 24 (48.0) 9 (18.0) 50 (100.0)
Subject preferences
(1=Humanities; 2=Sciences; 3=Both)
Overall 19 (10.9) 70 (40.0) 86 (49.1) - - 175 (100.0)
Fast-track 4 (8.0) 26 (52.0) 20 (40.0) - - 50 (100.0)

Future career choice
(1=I knew I would go to MET; 2=I had several options to choose from; 3=I had no idea about my future profession)
Overall 103 (59.2) 48 (27.6) 23 (13.2) - - 175 (100.0)
Fast-track 28 (56.0) 16 (32.0) 6 (12.0) - - 50 (100.0)
Fast-track career respondents more often preferred exclusively “science” subjects

(Mode=2), whereas the overall tendency is to feel comfortable with both subjects (overall
Mode=3). Similarly to the whole group, most of fast-track career respondents reported marks at
school as “quite high” (N=24, 48.0%; overall: N=68, 38.9%) and they were confident in their
choice of maritime career (“I knew I would go to maritime education”: N=28; 56.0%; overall:
N=103, 59.2%). Summarizing, fast-track career respondents reported marks at school as “quite
high” and were confident in their choice of maritime career, similarly to the whole group. But
they more often preferred exclusively “science” subjects, whereas the overall reported tendency
was to feel comfortable with both subjects.
Involvement in sport activities. The description of the respondents’ involvement in sport
activities when they were 16-18 is presented next. In this research, based on a standardized
classification of sports (Mitchell, Haskell, Snell, & Van Camp, 2005), it was decided to look at
the social character of the sport (individual, pair or team), combined with the intensity of physical
effort demanded (relax or active). Respondents were asked to evaluate their involvement in 6
different kinds of sport when they were 16-18: individual – relax, individual – active, pair –
relax, pair – active, team – relax and team – active (see Table 3).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Table 3. Involvement in sports. 559
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
Involvement in individual – relax sports (yoga, golf, bowling, diving)
Overall 109 (63.7) 27 (15.8) 22 (12.9) 12 (7.0) 1 (0.6) 171 (100)
Fast-track 29 (58.0) 16 (32.0) 3 (6.0) 2 (4.0) 0 (0.0) 50 (100)
Involvement in individual – active sports (running, swimming, body building, orientation etc.)
Overall 20 (11.5) 23 (13.2) 55 (31.6) 63 (36.2) 13 (7.5) 174 (100)
Fast-track 5 (10.0) 9 (18.0) 16 (32.0) 18 (36.0) 2 (4.0) 50 (100)
Involvement in pair – relax sports (chess, billiard, cricket etc.)
Overall 43 (25.0) 59 (34.3) 52 (30.2) 16 (9.3) 2 (1.2) 172 (100)
Fast-track 12 (24.0) 16 (32.0) 15 (30.0) 6 (12.0) 1 (2.0) 50 (100)
Involvement in pair – active sports (table tennis, tennis, boxing, squash etc.)
Overall 31 (17.9) 35 (20.2) 55 (31.8) 40 (23.1) 12 (6.9) 173 (100)
Fast-track 12 (24.0) 11 (22.0) 16 (32.0) 8 (16.0) 3 (6.0) 50 (100)
Involvement in team – relax sport (sailing, team orientation, etc.)
Overall 93 (54.7) 28 (16.5) 35 (20.6) 10 (5.9) 4 (2.4) 170 (100)
Fast-track 30 (60.0) 8 (16.0) 9 (18.0) 1 (2.0) 2 (4.0) 50 (100)
Involvement in team – active sports (football, hockey, rowing, basketball etc.)
Overall 19 (11.1) 25 (14.6) 47 (27.5) 42 (24.6) 38 (22.2) 171 (100)
Fast-track 7 (14.0) 8 (16.0) 14 (28.0) 10 (20.0) 11 (22.0) 50 (100
(*) 1=Never; 2=Rarely; 3=From time to time; 4=Often; 5=Very Often
Individual – active sports were the most popular among fast-track career respondents,
as well as for the whole group. Most of the respondents answered that they practised them
“often” (N=63; 36.2%) and “from time to time” (N=55; 31.6%). Team – active sports were also
popular: only 14.0% (N=7) of the fast-track career group reported that they never practised
them (overall: N=17, 11.1%). 42% (N=21) of fast-track career group practised this kind of
sport often or very often (overall: 46.8%, N=80). Contrarily, individual – relax sports were not
at all popular among fast-track career respondents: 90% of them never or rarely involved in this
kind of sport (overall: 79.5%). Fast-track career respondents were also slightly less attracted by
pair – active sports than the whole group: 46% of fast-track career respondents (N=23) reported
to practice them “never” or “rarely”, compared to 38.1% (N=66) overall. 60% of fast-track
career group never practiced team – relax sports (overall: 57%). Summarizing fast-track career
respondents’ involvement in sports, it can be said that, similarly to the whole group, individual
– active and team-active sports were the most popular, whereas individual – relax and team –
relax sports were not very popular among them.
Personality characteristics. We present next the description of the respondents’ self-
reported personality characteristics when they were 16-18, following the Big-Five classification
of personality features (see Table 4).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
560 Table 4. Self-reported personality characteristics (Big-Five).
Score 1 2 3 4 5 Total
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
Closed (1) vs Open-minded (5)
Overall 3 (1.7) 11 (6.4) 60 (34.9) 79 (45.9) 19 (11.0) 172 (100.0)
Fast-track 1 (2.0) 6 (12.0) 11 (22.0) 26 (52.0) 6 (12.0) 50 (100,0)
Disorganised (1) vs Conscientious (5)
Overall 0 (0) 8 (4.6) 41 (23.7) 89 (51.4) 35 (20.2) 173 (100.0)
Fast-track 0 (0) 1 (2.0) 9 (18.0) 27 (54.0) 13 (26.0) 50 (100,0)
Introverted (1) vs Extraverted (5)
Overall 3 (1.7) 15 (8.7) 66 (38.2) 63 (36.4) 26 (15.0) 173 (100.0)
Fast-track 0 (0) 6 (12.0) 20 (40.0) 15 (30.0) 9 (18.0) 50 (100,0)
Disagreeable (1) vs Agreeable (5)
Overall 1 (0.6) 15 (8.8) 63 (36.8) 80 (46.8) 12 (7.0) 171 (100.0)
Fast-track 1 (2.0) 4 (8.0) 18 (36.0) 23 (46.0) 4 (8.0) 50 (100,0)
Calm (1) vs Nervous (5)
Overall 19 (11.1) 61 (35.7) 68 (39.8) 19 (11.1) 4 (2.3) 171 (100.0)
Fast-track 6 (12.0) 21 (42.0) 15 (30.0) 6 (12.0) 2 (4.0) 50 (100,0)
Leadership (1) vs Operational (5)
Overall 28 (16.2) 45 (26.0) 61 (35.3) 34 (19.7) 5 (2.9) 173 (100.0)
Fast-track 14 (28.0) 10 (20.0) 15 (30.0) 8 (16.0) 3 (6.0) 50 (100,0)
The main characteristic of fast track respondents’ self-reported personality compared

with the whole group is that, as adolescents, they thought they were more calm than nervous
(for the overall group: Mode=3; N=68, 39.8%, but for the fast-track career group: Mode=2
(closer to “calm”); N=21, 42%). After analysing the dyad leadership vs operational, it appeared
that almost 30% of fast-track respondents considered themselves definitively to be leaders
during adolescence rather than “operational” (score 1: 28%, N = 14), whereas only 16.2% of
the overall group considered themselves as such (N=28). Fast track career respondents consider
themselves slightly more conscientious than the overall group: the Mode for both groups is 4,
but taking scores 4 and 5 together slight differences appear (fast-track career: 80%, N = 40,
compared to 71.6%, N = 124 for the overall group). Similarly to the whole group, they reported
themselves overall as more open-minded than closed, with a Mode of 4 (N=26; 52%). They
are nor introverted or extraverted (Mode=3, N=20, 40%) and they see themselves as agreeable
rather than disagreeable (Mode=4; N=23, 46%). Summarizing, fast-track career respondents
consider themselves as more calm, leadership-oriented and conscientious than the overall
group. They also think they were open-minded and acceptably agreeable.
Summary of descriptive results. Summarizing, maritime officers with a fast-track career
received little financial support for career choice, as their parents were reported to have a
lower socioeconomic status than the whole group. They preferred science topics, and they
perceive themselves as more calm, leadership-oriented and conscientious than the whole group.
Similarly to the whole group, they mostly had full families (mother and father) with middle
socioeconomic status and a calm/normal atmosphere, they got quite high marks at school and
they were confident in their career choice. They practiced team and individual active sports
often or very often, and they considered themselves to be quite open-minded and acceptably
agreeable during adolescence.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Analysis of Differences between Career Speed Groups 561
The differences between career speed groups were analysed using the Cramer's V test
on all the variables. One of the most relevant findings of this research is that statistically
significant differences were found only regarding some of the family aspects: kind of career
support received in the family, atmosphere in the family and perceived socioeconomic status
of their family.
Statistically significant difference between career speed groups was observed in the kind
of career support received in the family (Cramer's V=.211; p=.017). The analysis of the Cross
tabulation (see Table 5) showed that almost half (48.0%) of the fastest officers received only
emotional career support from their family (Mode=1, whereas for the other groups the mode
was 4: emotional and financial support). It can be noted also that 28.3 % of the officers with
slow career track reported that they did not receive family support, compared with around
10.0% for the two other groups.
Table 5. Kind of support received from family for career choice.
Score* 1 2 3 4 Total
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
Slow/very slow-track 13 (28.3) 3 (6.5) 13 (28.3) 17 (37.0) 46 (100)
Middle-track 21 (26.9) 9 (11.5) 8 (10.3) 40 (51.3) 78 (100)
Fast/very fast-track 24 (48.0) 4 (8.0) 5 (10.0) 17 (34.0) 50 (100)
Overall 58 (33.3) 16 (9.2) 26 (14.9) 74 (42.5) 174 (100)
(*) 1=Emotional; 2=Financial; 3=No support; 4=Emotional and financial
There were also statistical significant differences between groups regarding the
atmosphere in the family (Cramer's V=.196; p=.010. See Table 6): Two thirds (64.0%) of the
fastest officers had calm/normal family relations, but this proportion was significantly lower for
the two other groups. It can be noted also that 15.2% of the officers with slow career track had
stressful/conflictive relationships in their families, but this proportion was significantly lower
for the two other groups.
Table 6. Atmosphere in the family.
Score * 1 2 3 Total
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
Slow/very slow 7 (15.2) 14 (30.4) 25 (54.3) 46 (100)
Middle-track 4 (5.1) 42 (53.2) 33 (41.8) 79 (100)
Fast/very fast 5 (10.0) 13 (26.0) 32 (64.0) 50 (100)
Overall 16 (9.1) 69 (39.4) 90 (51.4) 175 (100)
(*) 1=Stressful/Conflictive relationships; 2=Friendly/Loving, supporting; 3=Calm/Normal
There were also statistical significant differences (Cramer's V=.213; p=0.46) between
groups regarding the perceived socioeconomic status of their family at the age of 16-18 (see
Table 7). Half (50.0%) of the officers with a fast career had parents with low or lower-middle
socioeconomic status, which is a significantly higher proportion than for the other two groups.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
562 Table 7. Family socioeconomic status.
Score * 1 2 3 4 5 Total
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
Slow/very slow-track 11 (23.9) 6 (13.0) 26 (56.5) 3 (6.5) 0 (0) 46 (100)
Middle-track 8 (10.3) 22 (28.2) 38 (48.7) 10 (12.8) 0 (0) 78 (100)
Fast/very fast-track 13 (26.0) 12 (24.0) 16 (32.0) 8 (16.0) 1 (2.0) 50 (100)
Overall 32 (18.4) 40 (23.0) 80 (46.0) 21 (12.1) 1 (0.6) 174 (100)
(*) 1=Low; 2=Lower Middle; 3=Middle; 4=Higher Middle; 5=Upper
Summarizing the main statistical significant differences between speed groups, it can
be said that most of the officers with fast-track career received only emotional – not financial
support from their family, they reported more often calm/normal family relations, and their
family socioeconomic status was perceived as being lower than in the other groups.
Discussion
This discussion is structured around two topics, according to the research questions: the
relevant common characteristics of fast-track career officers when they were 16-18 (regarding
personality traits and involvement in sports); and the statistically significant differences
between the fast-track career groups and the officers with a slower career (regarding the family
characteristics).
As regards their common personality characteristics, as it was said, officers with a fast-
track career participating in this research think they were quite open-minded and acceptably
agreeable during adolescence, and they perceived themselves as more conscientious, calm and
being more leadership-oriented than the whole group at that age. It seems that personality traits
have a certain impact in future career success: recent studies (e.g., Wille, De Fruyt, & Feys,
2013) provided a careful description of the relations between personality and career success,
and examined the prospective effects of psychological traits on career success assessed 15 years
later, showing that career success is significantly and substantially predicted by Big-Five traits,
although the predictive validity of separate traits was also found to vary across time. According
to recent research, a high percentage of people believe that communication skills (extroverted
psychologic characteristic) are very important for the successful completion of every day
professional tasks (Fragoulis & Phillips, 2011). But on the other side, some researchers (Etzel
& Nagy, 2016) recently found that personality traits did not improve the prediction of academic
success, compared with other factors such as students’ perceptions of person–environment fit.
It could be discussed if the previously mentioned personality characteristics could have
a positive impact specifically on fast-track maritime career. Given the characteristics of the
everyday work of maritime officers, it seems that leadership orientation would facilitate the rapid
acquisition of the sense of responsibility that is necessary for making fast progress in maritime
career. An agreeable character, together with professional competence and conscientiousness,
probably plays also a positive role in creating a favorable impression on the captains that
supervised those young seafarers during the different career steps. A calm personality can help
to deal with the long periods at sea that are necessary for a fast progress in the career when they
are still quite young, and open-mindedness could play a positive role in accepting the available
places when the opportunity appears. The results of this research do not allow to verify these
hypothesis, and more longitudinal research is needed for investigating these factors.
As regards the kind of sport practiced, individual – active sports were the most popular
among the fast-track career participants, and most of them practised often or very often team –
active sports. Involvement in sports could have an influence on the choice of maritime career.
In recent research there is some evidence about the relations between leisure and vocational

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
interests. For example, Leuty, Hansen and Speaks (2015), using Latent Profile Analysis method, 563
highlighted that some leisure interests are highly related to vocational interests, such as interests
in social, artistic, and realistic activities. More research is needed to investigate whether any
kind of sport practised has a direct influence on the choice of maritime career.
As regards career speed itself, it seems that the previously mentioned sport activities
could hypothetically have a positive impact on it. Young seafarers certainly may have a good
physical preparation in order to carry out the tasks that are entrusted to them, and involvement
in individual active sports certainly help to develop this ability. In addition, the involvement in
active team sports during adolescence could help to develop the team-working skills that are
necessary for implementing a number of common tasks onboard. Moreover, recent research
established that life-skills acquired by practising sports can help a young person not only to
succeed in the sport he or she is playing, but also help the individual once he or she transfers
the skills to non-sport settings in which they are used successfully (Gould & Carson, 2008).
Certainly, efforts need to be made to transfer sport-based skills to other life situations, but it
might be argued that competencies developed through sport are often actually employed by
the young person in different settings (Gould & Carson, 2008). However, this research does
not provide clear evidence about the impact of the kind of sport practised on maritime career
speed, and more research is needed to establish more precisely which sport-based skills foster
fast-track maritime career.
One of the most relevant findings of this research is that statistically significant differences
between career speed groups were found regarding some of the family aspects: socioeconomic
status of their family, kind of career support received in the family and atmosphere in the family.
The majority of the fast-track officers had full families (mother and father) with a background
of lower to middle social statuses. This is somewhat in line with the fact that the fast track
officers describe their families as less supportive concerning family financial assets. Lower
financial support may enhance youngsters’ sense of responsibility and the need of having a
fast-track career for being financially independent from the family as soon as possible, as was
explained in the introduction.
Another statistically significant difference was that fast-track career respondents reported
emotional career support and a calm/normal atmosphere in the family more often than the slower
career track officers. The impact of these characteristics on fast-track career can be discussed.
From one side, recent research shows that both perceived career-specific parental involvement
and warmth were somehow associated with goal-related stress three years after finishing
secondary education (Dietrich & Salmela-Aro, 2013), which could be counterproductive for a
high career speed. On the other hand, some researchers stress the role of positive parent-child
relations in promoting high vocational aspiration among adolescent (Sadolikar, 2016). Other
studies (Metheny & McWhirter, 2013) suggest that both family stability and family support
are associated with social cognitive career development outcomes of young adults in college.
There are studies that show that one of the predictors of college student success is parents’
“memorable messages” encouraging and supporting hard work during the studies (Kranstuber,
Carr, & Hosek, 2012). A recent study on African American, Asian, Latino, and White college
students showed that for all participants, career-related parent support accounted for a significant
portion of the coping efficacy with educational and career barriers (Raque‐Bogdan, Klingaman,
Martin, & Lucas, 2013), which may have a positive impact on career speed.
Several limits can be acknowledged in this research: the respondents had to report in
retrospect about the data referring to the family of origin, school, or to personality, which could
have had an impact on the reliability of results. The subjectivity involved in using traditional
rating scales could have been partially reduced using behaviourally anchored rating scales or
other techniques to be sure whether all of respondents had the same criteria in mind when
thinking back to the time in question. The analyses of the variables were conducted separately,
and no controls were used (family composition, schooling, etc.). Finally, as indicated in the
theoretical section, the objective perspective of career success should be complemented with
other studies based on subjective career success indicators.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
564 Conclusions
Youngsters who are deciding about their future profession may be attracted by
maritime career, which offers fast-track career possibilities and good salaries. In this research,
communalities among maritime officers with a fast-track maritime career when they were 16-
18, regarding family environment, experience at school, sport practised and personality traits,
were analysed, assuming that these common characteristics could be seen as the predictors of
fast-track maritime career.
One of the most relevant findings of this research is that statistically significant differences
among career-speed groups were found regarding the families of the fast-track career officers:
these families had more often a middle-low socioeconomic status and a normal/calm family
atmosphere than those of officers with a slower career, and they provided emotional rather than
financial career support. In addition, fast-track career officers perceived themselves as more
conscientious, calm and leadership oriented than the slower career groups in adolescence.
These findings are relevant for those maritime education and training institutions that are
eager to discover youngsters who could become successful maritime officers quite fast. Based
on communalities among maritime officers with a fast-track career when they were 16-18, these
institutions could also give more appropriate guidance to young adolescents who desire to enter
maritime education and training.
Career speed is a very individualized phenomenon that cannot be easily reduced to a
number of initial parameters. In order to foster career success and a fast career progress in
maritime education, it is certainly necessary to be aware of students’ family characteristics,
personality and academic records, but a personalized approach to each student is most important.
Many knowledge gaps remain still regarding the prediction of fast-track maritime career.
Some issues could be suggested for further research: It may be interesting to study several
fast-track career factors in their interplay, using for example discriminant analyses, in order
to look at different variables and their impact on career speed in a single analysis. The impact
of personality characteristics on fast-track maritime career could be studied deeper, using
standardized personality scales and regression analysis. For future research, it could be also
useful to explore the impact on maritime career speed of other possible factors that were not
addressed in this research.
References
Aassve, A., Cottini, E., & Vitali, A. (2013). Youth prospects in a time of economic recession. Demographic
Research, 29, 949-962.
ACT - American College Testing. (2012). The condition of college & career readiness. Iowa City, IA:
Author.
Ariga, K., Ohkusa, Y., & Brunello, G. (1999). Fast track: is it in the genes? The promotion policy of a
large Japanese firm. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 38 (4), 385-402.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44 (9), 1175–1184.
Beauregard, T. A. (2007). Family influences on the career life cycle. In M. Ozbilgin & A. Malach-Pines
(Eds.), Career choice in management and entrepreneurship: A research companion (pp. 101-126).
Great Britain: Edward Elgar Press.
Berzins, J., & Barbare, I. (2013). Development of maritime human resources and education. Career
education in Latvian maritime academy. European Integration Studies, 7, 14-17. Retrieved
November 20, 2017, from http://www.eis.ktu.lt/index.php/EIS/article/view/4381/2956.
BIMCO/ICS (2015). Manpower Report 2015. London: Marisec Publications. Retrieved November 20,
2017, from http://www.ics-shipping.org/free-resources/manpower-report-2015.
Bryman, A. (2015). Social research methods. London: Oxford university press.
Callanan, G. (2003). What price career success? Career Development International, 8 (3), 126–133.
Carr, S. (2000). As distance education comes of age, the challenge is keeping the students. Chronicle of
Higher Education, 46 (23), 39-41

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
CoM - Cabinet of Ministers (2013) Cab. Reg. No 895 - Regulations Regarding Certification of Seafarers 565
(with amendments to 23.04.2013.) [MK Noteikumi nr. 895 - Jūrnieku sertificēšanas noteikumi
(ar grozījumiem līdz 23.04.2013.) Retrieved November 20, 2017, from http://vvc.gov.lv/image/
catalog/dokumenti/Cab._Reg._No._895_-_Regulations_Regarding_Certification_of_Seafarers.
doc
Converse, P. D., Pathak, J., DePaul-Haddock, A. M., Gotlib, T., & Merbedone, M. (2012). Controlling
your environment and yourself: Implications for career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
80 (1), 148-159.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches.
London: Sage publications.
Cumpton, G., Schexnayder, D., & King, D. T. (2012). Factors associated with education and work after
high school for the classes of 2008 and 2009. Austin, TX: Central Texas Student Future Project.
De Vaus, D. (2013). Surveys in social research. London and New York: Routledge.
Dietrich, J., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2013). Parental involvement and adolescents' career goal pursuit during
the post-school transition. Journal of Adolescence, 36 (1), 121-128.
Eby, L., Sorensen, K., & Feldman, D. (2005). Predictors of objective and subjective career success: A
meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 58 (2), 367–408.
Etzel, J. M., & Nagy, G. (2016). Students’ perceptions of person–environment fit. Do fit perceptions
predict academic success beyond personality traits? Journal of Career Assessment, 24 (2), 270-
288.
Feild, H. S., & Harris, S. G. (1991). Participants' frustrations in fast-track development programmes.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 12 (4), 3-8.
Fernández González, M. J., Semjonovs, D., Bogdanecs, A., & Ozola, S. (2014) Youngsters’ motivations
and difficulties for choosing seafarer career. The case of Latvia. European Integration Studies, 8,
131-140. doi:10.5755/j01.eis.0.8.7323.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and
research reading. MA: Addison-Wesley.
Fragoulis, I., & Phillips, N. (2011). Social skills for successful career development. Review of European
Studies, 3 (1), 85.
Gailītis, R. (2013). Assessment of contribution of maritime education institutions in Latvian seafarers’
pool. Journal of Maritime Transport and Engineering, 2 (1), 4-12.
Gattiker, U. E., & Larwood, L. (1988). Predictors for managers' career mobility, success, and satisfaction.
Human Relations, 41 (8), 569-591.
Geldard, K., Geldard, D., & Foo, R. Y. (2015). Counselling adolescents: The proactive approach for
young people. London: Sage publications Ltd.
Ghosh, A., & Fouad, N. A. (2015). Family influence on careers among Asian parent–child dyads. Journal
of Career Assessment, 24 (2), 318–332. doi:10.1177/1069072715580417.
Goldin, C. (2004). The long road to the fast track: Career and family. The Annals of the American Academy
of Political and Social Science, 596 (1), 20-35.
Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Life skills development through sport: Current status and future directions.
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1 (1), 58-78.
Holland, J. L., Daiger, D.C., & Power, P.G. (1980). My vocational situation: Description of an
experimental diagnostic form for the selection of vocational assistance. Counselling Palo Alto,
CA: Psychologists Press, Inc.
Jaskolka, G., Beyer, J. M., & Trice, H. M. (1985). Measuring and predicting managerial success. Journal
of Vocational Behavior, 26 (2), 189-205.
Judge, T. A., & Bretz, R. D. (1994). Political influence behavior and career success. Journal of
Management, 20 (1), 43-65.
Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R. D. (1995). An empirical investigation of the
predictors of executive career success. Personnel Psychology, 48 (3), 485-519.
Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & Barrick, M. R. (1999). The Big-Five personality traits,
general mental ability, and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52 (3), 621-
652.
Jurgena, I., Gedrovics, J., & Cedere, D. (2014). Students’ views on the professional career opportunities.
Proceedings of the 13th International Scientific Conference Engineering for Rural Development,
29-30.05.2014, University of Agriculture, Faculty of Engineering, Jelgava, Latvia. Retrieved
November 20, 2017, from http://www.tf.llu.lv/conference/proceedings2014/Papers/89_Jurgena_I.
pdf.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
566 Kolesovs, A. (2013). Domain-specific and general future orientation of high school students in Latvia
under socioeconomic changes. Tarptautinis Psichologijos Žurnalas: Biopsichosocialinis Požiūris,
12, 71-83.
Kotter, J. P. (1982). General managers are not generalists. Organizational Dynamics, 10 (4), 5-19.
Kranstuber, H., Carr, K., & Hosek, A. M. (2012). “If you can dream it, you can achieve it.” Parent
memorable messages as indicators of college student success. Communication Education, 61 (1),
44-66.
Leuty, M. E., Hansen, J. I. C., & Speaks, S. Z. (2015). Vocational and leisure interests. A profile-level
approach to examining interests. Journal of Career Assessment, 24 (2) 215-239.
London, M., & Stumpf, S. A. (1982). Managing careers. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Ļubenko, J., & Sebre, S. (2007). Adolescents’ identity achievement, attachment to parents and family
environment. Baltic Journal of Psychology, 8 (1-2), 37–48
Mason, M. A., Goulden, M., & Frasch, K. (2009). Why graduate students reject the fast track. Academe,
95 (1), 11-16. Retrieved November 20, 2017, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40253290.
Meshkani, Z. (2004). High school achievement as a predictor for university performance. Journal of
Medical Education, 5 (1), 11-12.
Metheny, J., & McWhirter, E. H. (2013). Contributions of social status and family support to college
students’ career decision self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Journal of Career Assessment,
21 (3), 378-394.
Mishook, J. (2012). College readiness and smart education systems. Voices in Urban Education, 35,
42-50. Retrieved November 20, 2017, from http://vue.annenberginstitute.org/sites/default/files/
issues/VUE35.pdf.
Mitchell, J. H., Haskell, W., Snell, P., & Van Camp, S. P. (2005). Task Force 8: Classification of sports.
Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 45 (8), 1364-1367.
Bowen, M. (1966). The use of family theory in clinical practice. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 7 (5), 345-
374.
Negru-Subtirica, O., Pop, E. I., & Crocetti, E. (2015). Developmental trajectories and reciprocal
associations between career adaptability and vocational identity: A three-wave longitudinal study
with adolescents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 88, 131-142.
Nichols, W. C. (2003). Family-of-origin treatment. In T. L. Sexton, G. R. Weeks, & M. S. Robbins (Eds.),
Handbook of family therapy (pp. 83-100). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
Osipow, S. H., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1996). Theories of career development (4th Ed.). Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Prinstein, M. J., & Patterson M. D. (Eds.). (2003). The portable mentor: Expert guide to a successful
career in psychology. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media.
Raque‐Bogdan, T. L., Klingaman, E. A., Martin, H. M., & Lucas, M. S. (2013). Career‐related parent
support and career barriers: An investigation of contextual variables. The Career Development
Quarterly, 61 (4), 339-353.
Roe, A. (1956). Early determinants of vocational choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 4(3), 212-
217.
Sadolikar, U. (2016). Positive parent-child relations and girls' vocational aspiration. Journal of
Psychosocial Research, 11 (1), 177.
Sauber, S. R., L'Abate, L., Weeks, G. R., & Buchanan, W. L. (1993). The dictionary of family psychology
and family therapy (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Liden, R. C. (2001). A social capital theory of career success. Academy
of Management Journal, 44(2), 219-237.
STCW (2011). International convention on standards of training, certification and watchkeeping for
seafarers, 1978, as amended in 1995/2010. London, UK: International Maritime Organisation.
Tang, M., Fouad, N. A., & Smith, P. L. (1999). Asian Americans' career choices: A path model to examine
factors influencing their career choices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54 (1), 142-157.
Trice, A. D., Hughes, M. A., Odom, C., Woods, K., & McClellan, N. C. (1995). The origins of children's
career aspirations: IV. Testing hypotheses from four theories. The Career Development Quarterly,
43 (4), 307-322.
Tziner, A., Loberman, G., Dekel, Z., & Sharoni, G. (2012). The influence of the parent offspring
relationship on young people´ s career preferences. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las
Organizaciones, 28(2), 99.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Vignoli, E. (2015). Career indecision and career exploration among older French adolescents: The specific 567
role of general trait anxiety and future school and career anxiety. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
89, 182-191.
Whiston, S. C., & Keller, B. K. (2004). The influences of the family of origin on career development a review
and analysis. The Counselling Psychologist, 32(4), 493-568. doi:10.1177/0011000004265660.
Wille, B., De Fruyt, F., & Feys, M. (2013). Big-Five traits and intrinsic success in the new career era: A
15‐year longitudinal study on employability and work–family conflict. Applied Psychology, 62
(1), 124-156.
Zhou, W., Sun, J., Guan, Y., Li, Y., & Pan, J. (2012). Criteria of career success among Chinese employees:
Developing a multidimensional scale with qualitative and quantitative approaches. Journal of
Career Assessment, 21 (2) 265-277. doi:10.1177/1069072712471302.
Manuel Joaquín Fernández Dr.Paed, Leading Researcher, Scientific Institute of Pedagogy, Department
González of Education, Psychology and Arts, University of Latvia, Jurmalas Avenue 76,
Riga, LV-1083, Latvia.
E-mail: manuels.fernandezs@lu.lv
Website: https://www.pzi.lu.lv/eng/
Dmitrijs Semjonovs Mg. Paed., Deputy Director, Ltd. “Novikontas Jūras koledža”, Duntes iela 17,
Riga, LV- 1005, Latvia.
E-mail: ds@novikontas.lv
Website: http://www.novikontas.lv/en/
Irma Narica Mg. Ing., Information Technology and Technical Drawing, Ltd. “Novikontas
Jūras koledža”, Duntes iela 17, Riga, LV- 1005, Latvia.
E-mail: in@novikontas.lv
Diāna Strautmane B.Soc.Sci, Quality Control Manager, Novikontas Maritime College, Ltd.
“Novikontas Jūras koledža”, Duntes iela 17, Riga, LV- 1005, Latvia.
E-mail: dist@novikontas.lv
Sandra Ozola Undergraduate Student Soc.Sci., Administrative Department Coordinator,

Ltd. “Novikontas Jūras koledža”, Duntes iela 17, Riga, LV- 1005, Latvia.
E-mail: so@novikontas.lv

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
568
CAREER IN THE LIGHT OF EDUCATIONAL
ATTAINMENT AND CAREER MANAGEMENT
SKILLS
Miha Lovšin
Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET, Slovenia
E-mail: miha.lovsin@cpi.si
Abstract
The career usually refers to individuals’ working life, education and training and to life in general.
The studies and reports evaluating the relations between these components mainly justify the power
of educational attainment level in gaining employment or higher socio-economic status. In contrast to
Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital providing the theoretical background of these reports and studies,
the concept of career management paradigm shift, elaborated by Jarvis, justifies the power of career
management skills over the educational attainment level in gaining employment or higher socio-economic
status.
Such approach towards the evaluation of someone’s career entirely overlooks the individuals’ notion of
what would be relevant for their working life, education and training or life in general. Secondly, neither
the concept of career relevance from the individuals’ point of view nor the career management skills were
included when the relation between different career components was evaluated. The survey addressing
these two problems was based on quantitative empirical methodology, conducted in 2016 in Slovenia. The
non-random sample of 150 men and 468 women, born between 1940 and 1998, was collected through an
online questionnaire.
Four different variables were set: career relevance, career management skills, social, cultural and
economic capital. The indicators of career relevance were built upon various definitions of career. Career
management skills were conceptualised according to Law’s and Krumboltz’s theoretical discourse
of social learning and career learning. Their forms of capital were conceptualised according to the
Bourdieu’s conception of social, cultural and economic capital which is in direct relation to the OECD
concept of socio-economic status.
Bivariate analysis proved a statistically significant correlation between career relevance from individuals’
perspective and career management skills, educational attainment level, social, cultural and economic
capital. However, the multivariate linear regression model confirms that only career management skills
and economic capital, as independent variables, influence the dependent variable career relevance from
individual’s perspective. One-way ANOVA proved that employed and unemployed differ statistically
significant in the level of career management skills, career relevance, social and economic capital. In
this respect, the results imply more systemic approach to career management skills learning in formal
education.
Keywords: career guidance, career management skills, policy making, career relevance, socio –
economic status
Introduction
There are many definitions of the term career. The Encyclopaedia of Career Development
(Greenhaus & Callanan, 2006) states that a comparison of these various constructs of career
reveals some common elements that refer to “[…] individual work histories, sequences of and
patterns in occupations and work positions, and upward progression in an occupation or in life
generally.”(Greenhaus & Callanan, 2006, p. 60).Some other definitions go behind working life
and also refer to education and training (OECD, 2004; ELGPN, 2012). Bringing together these

Miha LOVŠIN. Career in the light of educational attainment and career management skills
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
two sets of elements defines career as a notion that refers to individual’s working life, education 569
and training and to life in general.
When evaluating career the statistical categories such as employment status, income
and educational attainment level have been used most commonly. Socio-economic status is
also the concept that has been commonly used in this relation. A closer look to the indicators
reveals that the concept refers mainly to working life, education and training and less to the
life in general. Again the, educational attainment level, occupation and material wealth such
as income and number of home possessions have been set as indicators of socio-economic
status (OECD, 2015; Saegert,Adler, Bullock, Cauce, Liu, & Wyche, 2006). The addaed value of
OECD definition would be the conceptualisation of socio-economic status as the combination
of social, economic and culutral status (OECD, 2015). There is a direct parallel of these three
statuses with the Bourdieu’s concepts of social, cultural and economic capital. Whereby the
later refers directly to the material wealth, the former two offer more in-depth explanation.
According to Bourdieu, social capital is “[…] the aggregate of the actual or potential
resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized
relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition” (Bourdieu, 1986, p. 21).In this respect, it
addresses the individual as a social being that depends on the social relationship. The concept of
cultural capital is even more complex. According to Bourdieu, there are three forms of cultural
capital: embodied state, objectified state and institutionalised state. The embodied state refers
to long lasting dispositions of body and mind such as culture and cultivation and the objectified
state to cultural goods such as books, music instruments, etc. The institutionalised state refers
to the objectification of cultural capital in the form of academic qualifications (Bourdieu, 1986).
In this respect measuring social, cultural and economic capital would provide a much broader
picture of individuals career than measuring just educational attainment level, occupation and
material wealth. It introduces the categories such as social network, cultural goods, individual
values, and attitudes toward culture.
Bourdieu highlights also the power of educational attainment level in building social,
cultural and economic capital. Academic achievement becomes an individual property, and at the
same time, it makes legal access to the important positions in the society. Educational attainment
level also have the exchanging value between economic and cultural capital. (Bourdieu,
1986). In the chapter, Distinction, of his book Social Stratification, Class, Race, & Gender in
Sociological Perspective, Bourdieu shows in the diagram that higher class is well equipped
with economic and cultural capital which includes also higher educational attainment level.
On the contrary, the characteristic of lower social classes is lower educational attainment level,
poorly equipment with economic and cultural capital (Bourdieu, 2001). The later has been often
justified in reports and studies (OECD, 2015; OECD, 2017a; OECD, 2017b; ILO, 2015; Ažman
& Gradišnik, 2015). Statistics often refers also to the positive correlation between educational
attainment level and employment status (EURSTAT, 2017). Strategies, communiques and other
policy documents reflect these findings in presenting the rising of the educational attainment
level as one of the keys for the reduction of the unemployment rate and the rise of socio-
economic status (European Commission, 2010; European Ministers for Vocational Education
and Training, the European Social Partners and the European Commission, 2010; ILO, 2015).
On the other hand, the statistics proves also the facts showing different perspective. The
study on the employability of young people during the economic crisis has shown that those
youngsters with tertiary educational degree have been the most affected. The rate of young people
between 15 and 29 not being in employment, education or training (NEET) increased by 39.8%
during 2008 and 2013. Whereby those with upper secondary and non-tertiary postsecondary
degrees, saw a 24.4% increase. With the 18.9 % increase, those with lower degrees (Meierkord,
Meyer-Hamme, & Thies, 2017). Although the share of NEET with tertiary educational degree
has been still the lowest compared to the share of NEET with medium and those with lower
degrees the above trend suggests that the educational attainment level itself does not determine
the employability.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
570 More than a decade ago Jarvis claimed that the important part of an individual career
within the knowledge based society is not a diploma or a degree but skills certification and
non-linear perpetual learning (Jarvis, 2003). According to Jarvis, it has been that way due to
the characteristics of knowledge society in which production of quick, smart and knowledge-
based solutions enables the prosperity of the production market. In this respect, he sees that
outsourcing, project orientation and employment resilience have prevailed over vertical
integration of workers, jobs as continuous duty and job security (Jarvis, 2003). In this respect,
Jarvis talks about the career management paradigm shift: “The new career management
paradigm recognises that career development is a life-long process of skill acquisition and
building through a continuum of learning, development and mastery”(Jarvis, 2003, p. 7). As
Jarvis has stated, career management skills play an important role in this process (Jarvis, 2003).
Aditionally The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network (27 EU member states, Iceland
and Norway) (ELGPN) confirms the importance of mastering the career management skills in
order to have a relevant career (ELGPN, 2012; ELGPN, 2015a).
The concept of career management skills has largely been built upon the theoretical
discourse of social learning and career learning. The common premises of both theories are that
it is important to go beyond actual decision-making and to focus on career development as a
learning process where the knowledge, skills and competences on managing career have been
acquired (Krumboltz, 1994; Law, 2010). As Ronald Sultana points out, definitions of career
management skills vary from country to country, while "career management skills" (CMS)
is itself "a particularly Anglo-Saxon term in origin" (Sultana, 2012). A common framework,
however, has been provided by a definition set by European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network.
The definition refers to career management skills as a "[...] set of competences (knowledge,
skills, attitudes) that enable citizens at any age or stage of development to manage their learning
and work life paths. The knowledge, skills and attitudes concern personal management, learning
management, and career management." (ELGPN, 2015, p. 13). Furthermore, the definition
provides examples of all three kinds of management that refer to social skills, planning,
understanding of the relationship between the self, learning and work, making career decisions
and transitions. It also brings forward that knowledge, skills and attitudes develop during life and
depend on the individual life span moment (ELGPN, 2015a). Career management skills consist
of four sets of skills that develop through the process of career learning. Originally, Law and
Watts (1977) defined these four sets of skills as four stages in the process of career development
i.e. self-awareness, decision-making, and transition learning. According to the initial letters of
four sets, this definition is known as the DOTS model (Law & Watts, 1977). Subsequently, these
four stages were defined as four sets of career management skills that needed to be developed
mutually in a lifelong process, which may be seen in the above definition.
As already indicated there have been many studies, reports and policy papers claiming
the importance of educational attainment level for the individuals’ career. On the contrary,
the importance of career management skills for the individual’s career has been brought
forward rarely. The obscure importance of career management skills has been proved also
by scrutinising the guidance practices in schools and school curriculums. In Slovene schools
there is no systemic approach toward teaching of career management skills (Štremfel, Bezić,
Bijuklič, Gril, Kelava, Klemenčič, & Lovšin, 2015; Sentočnik, 2012a; Sentočnik, 2012b).
Similarly to this ELGPN has reported that teaching of career management skills in schools has
been approached systematically in some European countries only recently (ELGPN, 2015b).
In this respect, ELGPN calls for more evidence (ELGPN, 2012; ELGPN, 2015a). There has
been detected a report claiming the positive impact that the mastering of career management
skills has for the skills outcomes and career aspirations (Hughes , Mann, Barnes, Baldauf , &
McKeown, 2016). However, no study has been detected that would examine the correlation
between career management skills attainment and career relevance.
There are two main problems arising from the above presented content. Firstly, the
evaluation of someone’s career entirely overlooks the individuals’ notion of what would be

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
relevant for their working life, education and training or life in general. Instead, evaluation 571
focuses on statistically available benchmarks for these categories. Secondly, neither the concept
of career relevance from the individual point of view nor the career management skills have
been included when the relationship between different career components has been examined.
Instead, the power that educational attainment level has on the employment status and socio-
economic status has been overestimated. The main aim of the research below is to addresses
these two problems.
General Background
The research has introduced the concept of career relevance from the individual point
of view and has offered thereby a more holistic approach towards the understanding of career.
The overestimated power of educational attainment and the overlooked power of career
management skills in individuals’ career has been relativized as well. In this respect, three
research questions have been set: (1) What is the correlation between educational attainment
level and career management skills; (2) What is the correlation between career relevance from
the individuals’ point of view and their career management skills, social, cultural and economic
capital; (3) What are the differences regarding the employment status between individuals with
different career relevance from the individuals’ point of view, educational attainment level,
career management skills, social, cultural and economic capital?
In order to answer all three research questions, five variables have been set: career
relevance, career management skills, social, cultural and economic capital. The research
was conducted in Slovenia in 2016 and was based on quantitative empirical methodology,
data obtained from the questioners were statistical processed. Each of the five variables was
conceptualized differently. The concept of career relevance was built upon various definitions
of career. Career management skills were conceptualized according to Law and Krumboltz’s
theoretical discourse of social learning and career learning. Three forms of capital were
conceptualized according to the Bourdieu’s conception of social, cultural and economic capital
which is in direct relation to the OECD concept of socio-economic status.
Sample
The survey was carried out on a sample of men and women born between 1940 and 1998.
Altogether, 1364 individuals were reached.775 questionnaires were sent back, 618 of which
had been completed in full. There were 468 female respondents and 150 male respondents.
The average age of the respondents was 42.38 years. Most of the respondents had a permanent
employment contract (n = 423). Others had either a temporary employment contract (n = 59),
they were in part-time employment (n = 25), they were owners or co-owners of a company
or they were sole traders (n = 42). In 54 cases, respondents were unemployed. Regarding
education, the majority had a university qualification equivalent to the second Bologna cycle
(n = 318). The rest completed a first-cycle programme or equivalent university programme
(n = 131), post-graduate studies (n = 80), IVET (n = 55) or secondary general education (n
= 30). Two respondents passed a master craftsman examination, one respondent completed
elementary education and one respondent did not attain any formal education qualifications. In
this respect the sample was non-random.
Instrument and Procedure
No standardized inventories for measuring the variables were detected. . The variable
career relevance was set according to the above definition of career including the educational,

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
572 occupational and general life aspects. 11 indicators were formulated in a way that they reflected
the individuals’ opinion on how relevant were their own educational, occupational and general
life aspects. The inventory from the counsellors manual by Ažman, Jenko and Sulič (2012)
was adapted in order to measure the variable career management skills with 35 indicators such
as knowledge about own skills, values, interests, knowledge about how to find various types
of information relating to education and work, ability to reflect on past and anticipate about
the future decisions and communication skills. To define the variable social capital, domestic
and foreign studies measuring this form of capital were compared (Gaber, Marjanovič Umek,
Antić Gaber, Tašner, Žveglič, Pfifer, & Mejak, 2015; Mignone, 2003; Putnam, 2001; Foxton &
Richard, 2011). 16 indicators were adopted from these studies measuring the extent of social
network, interaction with the community and involvement in voluntary activities. Measuring the
cultural capital, focus was put on what Bourdieu describes as sociologically relevant indicators
of cultural capital. The inventories from OECD Pisa surveys and a national survey on success
factors in VET were adopted (Pedagoški inštitut, 2009; Flere, Klanjšek, Musil, Tavčar Krajnc,
Kirbiš, & Naterer, 2008). 12 indicators adopted from these surveys measured involvement with
art and reading habits of the respondents. Economic capital was measured with 12 indicators
on the satisfaction with the income, investment in material goods and leisure activities. The
indicators were adapted from the inventory used in the OECD Pisa survey (Pedagoški inštitut,
2009).
The variables career relevance, career management skills, social, cultural and economic
capital were measured on a 5-point Likert scale. The reliability of the variables was measured
by the Cronbach coefficient α. Good reliability of the measuring instrument was proved for
variables career path (α = .838), career management skills (α = .912), social capital (α = .795)
and cultural capital (α = .803). The value of the Cronbach coefficient α for the variable economic
capital was low (α = .371), which indicated poor internal consistency of the indicators. The
cause of the low value of α was in a small number of indicators, which were diverse in content
and the result from different preferences of individuals to financial investment in goods and
leisure activities. In order to retain the diversity of economic capital indicators in the further
analysis, despite the low Cronbach coefficient α, the variable economic capital was used.
The online questioner was used in order to collect indicators that measured the variables.
Respondents completed a questionnaire, which they accessed via social networks Facebook
and LinkedIn. Questionnaires were also sent out via the network of the Slovenian Human
Resource Association and through the network of the Employment Service of Slovenia. The
questionnaires were also sent to people in the email database of the Institute of the Republic of
Slovenia for VET.
Data Analysis

The data were analysed with IBM SPSS software. Bivariate analysis was used to measure
the Pearson or Spearman correlation coefficients between career relevance and social, cultural
and economic capital and between the educational attainment level and career management
skills. Multivariate linear regression was used to examine how career management skills and
different forms of capital have an impact on career relevance. One-way ANOVA was used to
measure whether there was any statistically significant difference in career relevance between
inhabitants living in different settlements (cultural capital) and between individuals having
different living conditions (economic capital).One-way ANOVA was also used to measure
whether there was any difference in employment status between those having different level of
career management skills, educational attainment level, career relevance, social, cultural and
economic capital.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Results of Research 573
The values of the arithmetical means of the career relevance and of the career management
skills variables were moderate to high. The sample has had relevant career and many career
management skills. The values of variables social and cultural capital were lower (Table 1).
Table 1. Frequencies – career relevance, CMS, capital.
N M* SD
Career relevance 641 4.02 .59
Career management skills 775 3.88 .42
Cultural capital 623 2.67 .60
Social capital 627 2.51 .57
*min. = 1, max. = 5
Regarding the size of the settlement as a separate factor of cultural capital, the majority
lived in cities with more than 100000 inhabitants (31.6%, n = 195). Education was also measured
separately from cultural capital. On the scale 1 (incomplete elementary education) to 12 (PhD,
3rd Bologna cycle) the Mode was 10 which indicates that most of the respondents had attained
a university qualification equivalent to the second Bologna cycle (51.5 %, n = 318).
Table 2. Frequencies – educational attainment level.
Educational attainment level

N 618
Mo 10
n 318
*min. = 1 (I. unfinished primary school), max. = 12 (VIII/2. PhD, third Bologna cycle)
The variable economic capital was measured on different scale (min. = 0, max. = 4).
The value of arithmetic mean was 2.35 (N = 635, SD = .65), which is a moderate value. The
population has had medium economic capital. It has been indicated already that living conditions
as one of the factors of economic capital was measured separately due to the different scales
involved. Most of the respondents lived in a flat or house that they either owned or co-owned
(70%, n = 434). This corresponds to a relatively high level of economic capital.
Table 2. Frequencies – living conditions.
N %
Flat owned or co-owned by me 215 34.7
Rented flat 76 12.3
House owned or co-owned by me 219 35.3
Rented house 7 1.1
At parents 81 13.1
Others 22 3.5
∑ 620 100.0
The bivariate correlation test showed that there is a statistically significant correlation
at the level p ≤ .01 (rs = .153, n = 618) between educational attainment levels and the level of
career management skills attainment. The Bivariate correlation tests showed also that there is

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
574 a statistically significant correlation at the level p ≤ .01 between career relevance and career
management skills, educational attainment level, economic, cultural and social capital (Table
3).
Table 3. Correlations with career relevance.
Career relevance N
Career management skills R .489** 641
Economic capital R .400** 635
Educational attainment level rs .296** 618
Cultural capital R .255** 623
Economic capital rs .153** 618
Social capital rs .132** 627
** p ≤ .01
Regarding the correlation between career relevance and settlement size (cultural capital
dimension), Dunnett's test showed that there is no statistically significant difference in career
relevance between inhabitants living in different settlements. Regarding the correlation between
career relevance and living conditions (economic capital dimension), the Bonferroni correction
showed that there is a statistically significant difference (p ≤ .05) in the average level of career
relevance between those who live with their parents and those who live in a flat or in a house,
which they own or co-own. The latter have more relevant careers. There is also a statistically
significant difference (p ≤ .05) in the average level of career relevance between those who live
in a flat or a house they own and those who live in a rented flat or house. The latter have less
relevant career.
The multivariate linear regression model, in which the relationship between independent
variables (career management skills, social, cultural and economic capital) and the dependent
career relevance variable were examined, showed a statistically significant correlation (F
= 70.071, p ≤ .01). All four independent variables explain 30.8 % of the dependent career
management skills variable (R2 adj. = .308). Multivariate linear regression showed that there
is a statistically significant positive correlation between the economic capital and career
management skills on one hand and career relevance on the other hand. According to β values
there is a weak positive correlation between career relevance and career management skills (β
= .402; p ≤ .001) and economic capital (β = .255; p ≤ .001). There is no statistically significant
correlation between social and cultural capital on one hand and career relevance on the other in
the multivariate linear regression model (Table 4)
Table 4. Multivariate linear regression.
β p
Career management skills .402** p ˂ .0001
Economic capital .255** p ˂ .0001
Social capital .041 .234
Cultural capital .044 .235
R adj.= .308, F= 70.071
2
** p ≤ .01

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Dependent variable: Career relevance 575
One-way ANOVA confirms that there are statistically significant differences (p ≤ .05) in
employment statuses between different individuals having different level of career management
skills, career relevance, educational attainment, social and economic capital (Table 4).
Table 5. One-way ANOVA – employment status.
Variable Test Employment Status Employment Status M diff. SE p

Temporary employment
-.573* .105 ˂ .0001
contract
Permanent employment .081
Career relevance Bonferoni Unemployed -.719* ˂ .0001
contract
Owners or co-owners of a
-.610* .115 ˂ .0001
company, Sole traders
Career management Permanent employment .060
Dunnett Unemployed -.235* 0.004
skills contract
Owners or co-owners
Permanent employment .091
Social capital Bonferoni of a company, Sole .433* ˂ .0001
contract
traders
Permanent employment -.496* .106
˂ .0001
contract
Economic capital Dunnett Unemployed
Owners or co-owners of a -.577* .142
.002
company, Sole traders
Owners or co-owners
Educational attainment Permanent employment
Bonferoni of a company, Sole -.333* .334 .005
level contract
traders
* p ≤ .05
A statistically significant positive correlation between education and career management

skills has been proved. A statistically significant positive correlation between career relevance
and career management skills, social, cultural and economic capital has been proved also.
However, the multivariate linear regression model confirms that only career management
skills and economic capital as independent variables influence the dependent variable career
relevance. The more career management skills and the more economic capital individuals have
the more relevant their career is. There is no statistically significant difference in employment
statuses between those having different level of cultural capital. However, there are statistically
significant differences in employment statuses between those having different level of career
management skills, educational attainment, career relevance, social and economic capital.
Discussion
The majority in the sample was female, has attained a university qualification equivalent
to the second Bologna cycle and has had the permanent employment contract. The majority has
lived in a proprietary housing in cities with more than 100000 inhabitants, has had a relevant
career and many career management skills, moderate economic and cultural capital and lower
social capital. The data was collected through an online questionnaire. The afore-mentioned
specifics present limitations of the above research and should be considered when making
conclusions.
All forms of capital, career management skills and educational attainment level
statistically largely correlate with career relevance. These results confirm the thesis on the
correlation between social, economic and cultural capital i.e. the building concepts of socio-
economic status with the career relevance from individuals’ point of view. Regarding the
importance of educational attainment level for individuals’ career, the results are in line with

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
576 the OECD surveys (2015, 2017a, 2017b). These results also confirm the previous findings
of Bourdieu (2001) on the importance of educational attainment level in someone’s career.
However comparing the values of correlation coefficient the results suggests that career
management skills play more important role in career relevance as perceived by individuals.
The correlation coefficient between career relevance on one hand and career management skills
and economic capital on the other is much higher than between career relevance and the other
two forms of capital and educational attainment level.
The multivariate linear regression model only proves that in this model social and cultural
capital do not have any statistically significant influence on career relevance. The first conclusion
would be that career relevance does not predominantly depend on educational attainment level,
social and cultural capital as it depends on economic capital and career management skills.
This speaks for the thesis that economic capital plays more important role in the individuals’
perception of their own career relevance than their social and cultural capital. The thesis on the
importance of career management skills over the educational attainment level that Jarvis (2003)
has claimed gets its justification with this result.
There is a statistically significant positive correlation between educational attainment
level and career management skills. In other words, the longer individuals stay in education, the
more career management skills they have. Students who attend higher educational level usually
have higher school achievements than those in lower levels of education or NEET. This means
that the level of career management skills also correlated with higher school achievements.
The link between higher school achievements and higher level of career management skills
attainment is claimed by the report on positive effects of career education for the students’
outcomes. Therefore, the report claims that the career education has enabled students to gain the
career management skills and thereby better learning outcomes (Hughes, Mann, Barnes, Baldauf,
& McKeown, 2016). In this respect it is assumed that if there is no systematical teaching of
career management skills in schools, the level of career management skills attainment depends
significantly on the individuals’ school achievements and their educational attainment level.
The later makes the gaps between high and low school achievers even wider.
A statistically significant difference between unemployed and employed in the level of
career management skills attainment has been proved as well. However, there is no statistically
significant difference in educational attainment level between unemployed and employed. The
statistical data on higher educational attainment level of employed compared to the educational
attainment level of unemployed cannot be undermined with this research. Neither can this
research undermine the ILO study (2015) that justifies the statistical data just mentioned. On
the other hand, these results are in line with the study on the employability of young people
during the economic crisis, proving that educational attainment level is no guarantee for the
employment (Meierkord, Meyer-Hamme, & Thies, 2017). On the contrary, this research suggests
that the career management skills have a more decisive role in gaining the employment. In this
respect, the results support the previous findings of ELGPN (2015) on the importance of career
management skills for the employability.
Regarding education, there is a statistically significant difference in educational
attainment level between owners or co-owners of a company or sole traders and those having a
permanent employment contract, whereby the latter had a higher educational attainment level.
This may be seen as a consequence of differences in employment requirements between public
and private sector. The majority of jobs with a permanent working contract are concentrated
within the public sector. It is very significant for this sector that the proportion of working
places that require university level of education strongly prevails over those which require
secondary or even lower education.
Additional important finding regarding the differences between those having a permanent
employment contract and those being owners or co-owners of a company or sole traders, refers
to the statistically significant difference in social capital. Those with permanent working contract
have statistically significant higher educational attainment level than owners or co-owners of

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
a company or sole traders. On the other hand, those with permanent working contract have 577
statistically significant lower level of social capital than owners or co-owners of a company
or sole traders. In other words, they have weaker social networking and participate less in the
voluntary organizations. It is anticipated that the difference has appeared since the owners or
co-owners of a company depend more on the social networks in order to start and to grow their
own business than those having a permanent working contract, mostly within public sector.
According to Jarvis, social networking and cooperation with the community is important for
the individual’s career within the knowledge society (Jarvis, 2003). As there was no statistically
significant difference in career management skills attainment level between those having a
permanent employment contract and those being owners or co-owners of a company or sole
traders, it can be assume that the activities for growing the social capital could be seen as the
supplement to the career management skills learning.
There has not been any statistically significant difference in social capital and cultural
capital between employed and unemployed. However, there is a statistically significant
difference between employed and unemployed in economic capital. The latter confirms the
fact that due to the shortage of income during the unemployment period, these individuals are
economically weaker. Nevertheless, the results of the survey suggest that unemployment can
affect individuals’ irrespective of their academic qualification, social and cultural capital.
Conclusions
In the broader sense of the word, the career refers to an individual’s working life, education
and training and to the coordination of all three with personal life. Two different views that refer
to the importance of education for career have been compared. One has referred to the academic
achievement and the other to the career management skills attainment. Despite the limitations
of the survey, it has been proved that these two concepts are complementary. Educational
attainment level, career management skills, social, cultural and economic capital correlate
statistically significant with career relevance. However, the multivariate linear regression model
has proved that career relevance depends only on the level of career management skills and of
the economic capital. In this respect, this survey represents an important evidence that supports
the supremacy of career management skills over educational attainment level in the influence
to career relevance.
Regarding the importance of career management skills for career relevance, additional
evidence has been provided when comparing the employment status of those with different
career relevance, educational attainment level, career management skills attainment level, social
cultural and economic capital. The results have confirmed that statistically relevant differences
between unemployed and employed are not educational attainment level, social and cultural
capital but career management skills, career relevance and economic capital. Reports stressing
only education as being crucial for the rise of socio-economic status should be in this respect
supplemented with the data on career management skills.
Despite the fact that there is no statistically significant difference between employed and
unemployed in social capital there is the difference in social capital between those working
as owners or co-owners of a company or sole traders and those having a permanent working
contract. This is worth to bring forward as the employment trend regarding the share of
working contracts shows the decrease of permanent working contracts. Outsourcing and project
orientation being the characteristics of labour market in knowledge society suggest that the
share of sole traders and owners or co-owners of small and medium enterprises will grow. In
this respect social networking and cooperation with the community as main characteristics of
social capital are important for the career relevance. When planning the reforms of education
this has to be considered as well.
Although there is no systematic approach toward the acquisition of career management
skills during the educational process in Slovenia, the respondents acquired these skills

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
578 informally. The statistically significant correlation between educational attainment level and
career management skills suggests that part of this informal learning of career management
skills happens in the school. Mastering the career management skills increases the possibility
to get and to retain the job significantly. In this respect, the acquisition of career management
skills can no longer be left only to the informal learning. In this respect the result implies more
systemic approach toward career management skills learning in the educational cycle.
References
Ažman, T., & Gradišnik, S. (2015). Socialni in kulturni kapital v šolah, vrtcih in njihovih okoljih [Social
and cultural capital in schools, kindergartens and their environments]. Retrieved October 27,
2017, from Šola za ravnatelje: http://solazaravnatelje.si/ISBN/978-961-6637-87-9.pdf.
Ažman, T., Jenko, G., & Sulič, T. (2012). Ugotavljanje, vrednotenje in razvijanje kompetence načrtovanje
kariere, priročnik za svetovalce [Assessing, evaluating and developing career planning competence,
guide for consultants]. Retrieved June 12, 2017, from Andragoški center Slovenije: http://arhiv.
acs.si/prirocniki/Ugotavljanje_vrednotenje_in_razvijanje_kompetence_nacrtovanje_kariere.pdf.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of the theory of research for
the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). New York: Greenwood.
Bourdieu, P. (2001). Distinction. In D. B. Grusky (Ed.), Social stratification, class, race, & gender in
sociological perspective (pp. 870–893). Boulder (CO): Westview Press.
ELGPN. (2012). Lifelong guidance policy development: A European resource kit (R. Vuorinen, & A. G.
Watts, Eds.) Jyvaskyla: University of Jyvaskyla, Finland.
ELGPN. (2015a). Guidelines for policies and systems development for lifelong guidance: A reference
framework for the EU and for the Commission. Retrieved June 6, 2016, from European Lifelong
Guidance Policy Network: http://www.elgpn.eu/publications/browse-by-language/english/elgpn-
tools-no-6-guidelines-for-policies-and-systems-development-for-lifelong-guidance.
ELGPN. (2015b). A report on the work of the European lifelong guidance policy network 2007–15.
Retrieved June 7, 2016, from European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network: http://www.elgpn.eu/
publications/browse-by-language/english/elgpn-summative-report-2007-2015.
European Commission. (2010). Euro-Lex. Retrieved October 10, 2017, from Europe 2020 A strategy for
smart, sustainable and inclusive growth: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?ur
i=CELEX:52010DC2020&from=en.
European Ministers for Vocational Education and Training, the European Social Partners and the
European Commission. (2010). European Commission. Retrieved October 10, 2017, from The
Bruges Communiqué on enhanced European Cooperation in Vocational Education and Training
for the period 2011-2020: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/policy/
vocational-policy/doc/brugescom_en.pdf.
EUROSTAT. (2017). Employment rate by educational attainment level. Retrieved October 24, 2017,
from EUROSTAT: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&plugin=1&language=en
&pcode=tsdec430.
Flere, S., Klanjšek, R., Musil, B., Tavčar Krajnc, M., Kirbiš, A., & Naterer, A. (2008). Dejavniki šolske
uspešnosti v poklicnem izobraževanju [Factors of school performance in vocational education].
Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru.
Foxton, F., & Richard, J. (2011). Social capital indicators review. Retrieved June 12, 2017, from Office
for National Statistics: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.
ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171766_233738.pdf.
Gaber, S., Marjanovič Umek, L., Antić Gaber, M., Tašner, V., Žveglič, M., Pfifer, A., & Mejak, M. (2015).
Kazalniki socialnega kapitala, kulturnega kapitala in šolske klime v napovedovanju šolske
uspešnosti otrok in mladostnikov [Indicators of social capital, cultural capital and school climate
in predicting the school performance of children and adolescents]. Retrieved June 14, 2017,
from Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport: http://www.mizs.gov.si/fileadmin/mizs.
gov.si/pageuploads/podrocje/razvoj_solstva/evalvacija/pdf/POROCILO-Kazalniki_socialnega_
kulturnega_kapitala_in_solske_klime....pdf.
Greenhaus, J., & Callanan, G. (Eds.). (2006). Encyclopedia of career development. Thounsand Oaks,
London, New Delhi: Sage Publications.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Hughes, D., Mann, A., Barnes, S. A., Baldauf, B., & McKeown, R. (2016). Institute for employment 579
research / education and employers research. Retrieved November 28, 2017, from Careers
education: International literature review: https://www.educationandemployers.org/wp-content/
uploads/2016/07/Careers-review.pdf.
ILO. (2015). Global employment trends for youth 2015; Trends for youth 2015. Retrieved October 23,
2017, from ILO: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/
documents/publication/wcms_412015.pdf.
Jarvis, P. S. (2003). Career management paradigm shift: Prosperity for citizens, windfalls for governments.
Retrieved March 20, 2015, from University of Ottawa: http://www.choixdecarriere.com/pdf/6573/
Jarvis(2003).pdf.
Krumboltz, J. (1994). Imporving career development from a social learning perspective. In M. L.
Savickas, & R. Lent (Eds.), Covergence in career development theories (pp. 9-32). Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press.
Law, B. (2010). Career learning theory. Retrieved October 22, 2016, from The Career-learning Cafe:
http://www.hihohiho.com/newthinking/crlrnoriginal.pdf.
Law, B., & Watts, A. (1977). Schools, careers, and community: a study of some approaches to careers
education in schools. London: CIO Publishing for the General Synod Board of Education.
Meierkord, A., Meyer-Hamme, A., & Thies, L. (2017). Bertelsmann Stiftung. Retrieved November 20,
2017, from An Incomplete Recovery Youth Unemployment in Europe 2008 – 2016: https://www.
bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/BSt/Publikationen/GrauePublikationen/An_Incomplete_
Recovery_-_Youth_Unemployment_in_Europe_2008_-_2016.pdf.
Mignone, J. (2003). Measuring social capital: A guide for first nations communities. Retrieved June 13,
2017, from Canadian Institute for Health Information: http://caid.ca/MeaSocCapGuiFirNat2003.
pdf.
Pedagoški inštitut. (2009). OECD Program mednarodne primerjave dosežkov učencev 2009: Vprašalnika
za dijakinje in dijake. [OECD International Comparison of Student Achievements 2009:
Questionnaire for Students and Pupils]. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut.
OECD. (2004). Career guidance a handbook for policy makers (R. Ledinek, Trans.) Paris: OECD.
OECD. (2015). PISA 2015 Results (Volume I), Excellence and Equity in Education. Retrieved October 23,
2017, from OECD: http://www.oecd.org/education/pisa-2015-results-volume-i-9789264266490-
en.htm.
OECD. (2017a). Education at a Glance 2017, OECD Indicators. Retrieved October 23, 2017, from
OECD: http://www.oecd.org/edu/education-at-a-glance-19991487.htm.
OECD. (2017b). Understanding the Socio-Economic Divide in Europe. Retrieved October 23, 2017, from
OECD: https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/cope-divide-europe-2017-background-report.pdf.
Putnam, R. (2001). Social capital: Measurement and consequences. Retrieved June 12, 2017,
from University of Warsaw: http://hbanaszak.mjr.uw.edu.pl/TempTxt/Putnam_XXXX_
SocialCapitalMeasurementAndConsequences.pdf.
Saegert, S. C., Adler, N. E., Bullock, H. E., Cauce, A. M., Liu, W. M., & Wyche, K. F. (2006). American
Psychological Association. Retrieved October 22, 2017, from Report of the APA Task Force on
Socioeconomic Status: http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/task-force-2006.pdf.
Sentočnik, S. (2012a). Analiza učnih načrtov obveznih predmetov osnovne šole z vidika vseživljenjske
karierne orientacije s priporočili [Analysis of compulsory subjects curricula in primary school
from the lifelong career guidance perspective with recommendations]. Retrieved February 15,
2015, from Zavod RS za zaposlovanje: http://www.ess.gov.si/_files/3931/analiza_osnovna_sola.
pdf.
Sentočnik, S. (2012b). Analiza učnih načrtov obveznih predmetov v gimnaziji z vidika vseživljenjske
karierne orientacije s priporočili [Analysis of compulsory subjects curricula in general schools
from the lifelong career guidance perspective with recommendations]. Retrieved February 15,
2015, from Zavod RS za zaposlovanje: http://www.ess.gov.si/_files/3932/analiza_gimnazije.pdf.
Solberg, V. J., Wills, J., Redmond, K., & Skaff, L. (2014). Use of individualized learning plans as a
promising practice for driving college and career readiness efforts: Findings and recommendations
from a multi-method, multi-study effort. National collaborative on workforce and disability for
youth, Institute for educational leadership. Retrieved November 28, 2017, from: http://www.
ncwd-youth.info/sites/default/files/ILPs-%20A-Promising-Practice-for-Driving-College-and-
Career-Efforts.pdf.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
580 Sultana, R. (2012). Learning career management skills in Europe: A critical review. Journal of Education
and Work, 25/2, 225–248.
Štremfel, U., Bezić, T., Bijuklič, I., Gril, A., Kelava, P., Klemenčič, P., & Lovšin, M. (2015). Poročilo o
ključnih ugotovitvah razprav »karierna orientacija kot integralni del osebnostnega in socialnega
razvoja učencev in letnega delovnega načrta šole« na študijskih skupinah za svetovalne delavce
osnovnih šol [The report on key findings of the discussions "Career guidance as an integral part of
the personal and social development of pupils and of the annual school work plan" in study groups
for primary school counsellors]. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut.
Miha Lovšin PhD, Senior Advisor at the Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET, Kajuhova
32U, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: miha.lovsin@cpi.si

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
ADULT EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE: 581
BETWEEN EXPECTATIONS AND

POSSIBILITIES
Alzira A. M. Manuel, Domingos Buque, Rosário Quive

Eduardo Mondlane University, Mozambique
E-mail: alzira@uem.mz; alziramanuel92@gmail.com, domingos.
buque@uem.mz, rosquive@yahoo.com.br
Abstract
Adult education has been and continues being an important area of education. In developing contexts, it
is considered the way for social inclusion and poverty reduction and it is expected to provide knowledge,
skills and values to youth and adults who did not get opportunity to education in their early age. Adult
education also serves as a way to improve people’s competences throughout their life span. However, the
concept of adult education in Mozambique has been used as literacy, referring only to the development
of reading, writing and calculation skills. Using content analysis of documents, this research attempts to
gain insight of adult education in the context of Mozambique. The findings reveal that adult education in
the perspective of change and development as it is in Mozambique is linked to the objectives of poverty
reduction and social inclusion. In this sense quality and relevance in adult education, as in other type of
education, is needed to be able to develop functional knowledge and skills to youth and adults and allow
them continuing learning in their life. Literacy and adult education have been considered an important
field for social and economic development in the country, but contextual factors contribute to a narrow
perspective of adult education, focusing mainly on literacy and numeracy as its final goal.
Keywords: adult education, poverty reduction, social inclusion.
Introduction
The context of social and economic changes caused by globalization and the neoliberal
policies increases social disintegration, exclusion and poverty, particularly in developing
societies. Education, including adult education, is seen as one of the ways to enhance people’s
competences to help them to cope more effectively with the challenges of changes and their
increased participation in society.
Adult education is considered to be one of the ways that can help many adults and out of
school youth to develop knowledge and skills as a continuing process. This vision is important
not only to help those who did not get opportunity to education in their early age or those who
dropped out prematurely from school, but also to allow people to learn throughout their life
time. However, adult education in the context of Mozambique is implemented in a restricted
way, focusing on literacy and numeracy teaching. This approach limits the youth and adults’
opportunities for the acquisition of functional skills. This means that adult education should be
seen beyond literacy, as literacy skills are the foundations for the development of further skills
and competences. Thus, literacy cannot be the ultimate goal of adult education.
Adult education is a multifaceted and complex field of education; reducing it to literacy
only is to hinder the educational process (Gadotti, 2009). In this sense, the aim of this research
is to get insight of adult education in Mozambique, reflecting between its goals and practices.
For this purpose, the following research questions were formulated:

Alzira A. M. MANUEL, Domingos BUQUE, Rosário QUIVE. Adult education in Mozambique: Between expectations and possibilities
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
582 • How is adult education considered in policies and practice in Mozambique?

• Which are the main challenges for the effective adult education programmes?
Problem of Research
Adult education in developing countries, as is the case of Mozambique, is in general

linked to ambitious expectations, such as poverty reduction, social inclusion and increased
participation of youth and adults in social and economic spheres of society. However, studies
show that in practice adult education in Mozambique tends to be seen as only literacy and
numeracy skills teaching offered to out of school youth and adults (Luís, 2012). Torres (2004,
p. 12) referring to developing countries, noted that literacy is perceived “as a simple elementary
skill”. This understanding and practice contradict the actual youth and adults’ aspirations which
go beyond the acquisition of basic writing, reading and calculation skills.
Research Focus
The context of rapid changes, which characterizes the today’s societies increases social
exclusion, poverty, unemployment, and the gap between the rich and the poor as well as social
disintegration (Torres, 2004). This scenario has an influence in increasing frustration amongst
people. The world is becoming standardized by the neoliberal culture brought by globalization
promoting competition and individualism. Adult education has an important role in this
context, not as a miraculous solution but as a mean to improve people’s competences, attitudes,
values and awareness for their active participation in the construction and reconstruction of
their lives. This is not possible in the environment of illiteracy and ignorance. The linkage
between effective youth and adult education and participation in democracy and economy is of
international consensus (Luís, 2012).
In the micro level, studies showed that adults, particularly women who achieved
considerable levels of education, “are likely to ensure that their children go to and remain in
school” (Fien & Hughes, 2007, p. 17). This can contribute to reduce drop outs in schools and
to help many children, adolescent and youth to develop foundational skills. These skills are
crucial for their continuing learning and contribute for the reduction of illiteracy amongst youth
and adults in Mozambique.
Studies emphasize the benefits of investment on education as a key strategy in the fight
against poverty. To implement this ideal, “new objectives, priorities and goals are established
on a global scale in order to increase the level of education of the population as a whole and
increase its effectiveness…” (Tarabini, 2009, p. 204).
In this agenda, amongst different instruments, the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) can be pointed out. The SDG 4 intends to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. The focus of this goal is “on
the acquisition of foundational and higher order skills, greater and more equitable access to
technical and vocational education and training and higher education throughout life, and
the knowledge, skills and values needed to function well and contribute to society” (United
Nations, 2009, p. 5). This goal constitutes a challenge for many developing countries, of which
Mozambique is not an exception.
The limitations that characterize adult education hamper people’s opportunity to enjoy
their right to education and limit the chance of improving their lives. Drawing from Freire,
a Brazilian educator and philosopher widely known in education through his work entitled
“Pedagogy of the oppressed”, in which he discusses his ideas of critical pedagogy and his
interpretations of the world, it is possible to say that the different barriers to learning in adult
education are the negation of people’s “ontological vocation to be more fully humans” (Freire,
2005, p. 74).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
To improve their potential, people need to learn without limits. “Learning is an essential 583
ingredient to the growth and development of the human person…” (Jarvis, 2007, p. 125). Thus,
the limiting situations in adult education can be considered as the ‘distortion’ of the most basic
‘vocation’ of youth and adults, as human beings – the vocation of becoming more fully humans.
In that sense, adult education should offer empowering opportunities.
The concept of empowerment is widely linked to adult education and to Freire’s
philosophy, who suggested a project of liberating the oppressed people of the world through
education (Hur, 2006). Recently the concept of empowerment is used in a variety of scientific
fields. It is a complex social process which can take place in various dimensions of life
including sociological, psychological, economic and political, as well as in various levels such
as individual, group and community (Hur, 2006).
Empowerment in the learning context “is the development of knowledge, skills and
abilities in the learners to enable them control and to develop their own learning” (Nwanosike,
2012, p. 216). This concept is associated to the strengthening of people’s capacities resulting in
an increased ability to make choices, to take decisions and to generate positive changes in their
lives. It can also be interpreted as “gaining power and control over decisions and resources that
determine the quality of one’s life” (Nwanosike, 2012, p. 216).
Adult education, particularly in the framework of development, needs to be an
empowering process. “We must consider this a process which goes beyond the simple teaching
of reading and writing” (Gõni, 2006, p. 114) towards functional knowledge and competences
development. In this study adult education is seen as educational activities organized to provide
knowledge, skills and attitudes to people considered as adults. In the context of Mozambique
adult education programmes (specially literacy classes) include adolescents and youth who by
different reasons could not enroll in the regular classes in formal primary education.
To carry out this research the following methodology was used.
General Background
This research is qualitative; it values the interpretation of data and the authors’
experience to produce knowledge. It generates “words, rather than numbers, as data analysis”
(Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest & Namey, 2005, p.2). It focuses on adult education in
Mozambique, and it was carried out between February and November 2017.
Research Sample
This research results from content analysis of documents. Therefore, it is based on a

set of documents, namely Mozambique’s policy documents on education, particularly adult
education (strategic plans of education, Strategy of Literacy Adult Education and Non-Formal
Education 2001-2005, Strategy of Literacy and Adult Learning, 2010-2015) and different
evaluation reports and studies.
The criterion of selection was based on their credibility, they are published documents
related to adult education in Mozambique, basically from the year 2001, the year of
implementation of the first strategy of adult education in the country.
In this research, electronic and printed documents were used. According to Bowen
(2009), document analysis is a systematic process for reviewing and evaluating printed
and electronic material. The researchers selected the documents purposively based on their
judgments oriented by the aim of the research, the research questions and their experience as
researchers and lectures in adult education.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
584 For data collection, the documents were read repeatedly, and the data were selected and
transcribed to allow its analysis. Later, the selected data were interpreted; compared and the
similar ones were reduced.
After data analysis the initial findings were shared with professionals on adult education
who contributed to improve them. According to Brink (1993, p. 37) “to reduce threats to internal
reliability with data analysis” in qualitative research, “peer examination” is required.
Data Analysis
Concerning data analysis, the research employs content analysis of documents, a

“subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process
of coding and identifying themes…” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1278). The main purpose of
content analysis is to generate “knowledge and understanding of the phenomena under study”
(Downe-Wamboldt, 1992, p. 314). As Bowen (2009) advises, data require to be examined and
interpreted in order to bring meaning and develop empirical knowledge.
The analytical process in this research was based on examination of data, selection of
relevant excerpts from the texts and comparison of different excerpts. Similar data were reduced,
and the excerpts were organized according to their meaning, interpreted and coded. The process
of constant reading and interpretation of data led to identification of the categories that were
repeatedly compared with the entire data. This process allowed the reduction of the number
of categories by aggregation of similar data to the same category. According to Rossman and
Rallis (2003), in qualitative research, researchers use their own experience and perception to
make sense of the data and the world they explore.
The results of this research are presented in the section below.
Results of the Research
The findings of this research come from the content analysis of documents. They
are aligned with the respective objectives, research questions and are based on the adopted
theoretical framework, as well as the researchers’ own experiences and understanding of the
topic.
Adult Education in Mozambique
Adult education in Mozambique is widely administrated by the National Directorate

for Literacy and Adult education, and guided by a strategic plan which is designed to be
implemented in five years, but by different reasons the strategies are implemented in more than
five years. For instance, the first strategy of adult education that was implemented in 2001 was
extended until 2009.
The objective of the Strategy of Literacy Adult Education and Non-Formal Education
for 2001 to 2005 (the first strategy in the area of Literacy and adult education in Mozambique)
was to promote, coordinate and ensure equal access to basic education for youth and adults, in
partnership with the civil society in order to eradicate illiteracy towards economic, social and
cultural development and poverty reduction in Mozambique (Ministério da Educação e Cultura,
2001). This strategy focused on the improvement of three challenging areas. These areas are
presented as part of the findings of this study to allow the discussion on what is stated in policies
(aspirations) and the practices.
Access to Adult Education Programmes
The issue of access to adult education programmes, according to Ministério da Educação

e Cultura (Ministry of Education and Culture) (2001), includes increased participation and

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
retention of youth and adults in the training programmes with special attention to girls and 585
women. Retention in adult education includes literacy teachers themselves, as many of them
use to drop out from literacy classes.
Quality Improvement
The matter of quality included different aspects; some of them are the development of a
new curriculum and the increased development of human resources. This strategy was the first
one with vocational subjects.
Reinforcement of Institutional Capacity
This issue includes the continuing development and implementation of policies and
strategies for the subsector of Literacy and Adult Education, as well as the improvement of
resources and the increase of funding. These aspects also contribute for quality programmes,
which can respond to the learners’ needs, and increase their chances to participate in the social
and economic spheres in their communities and society.
The curriculum was planned to include not only literacy and numeracy skills, but also
other topics such as vocational skills, ‘good’ attitudes, civic and cultural values, including the
culture of peace and democracy. Seven years later, the implementation of the first literacy, adult
education and non-formal education strategy in the country was evaluated (Lind, Patel, Buque,
Buduia, Cambaza & Cambula, 2008). The main aim was to get foundations for the development
of the second adult education strategic plan, which was planned to be implemented from 2010
to 2015.
This strategy was named Strategy of Adult Literacy and Learning in Mozambique 2010-
2015. Its purposes are to “increase learning opportunities for young people and adults in order
to improve their living conditions and the communities where they live” (Ministry of Education,
2011, p. 15). “The overall goal of this Strategy is to increase opportunities for young people and
adults to become literate, with special attention to women and girls in order to reduce illiteracy”
(Ministry of Education, 2011, p. 23).
Achievements in Adult Basic Education Programmes
According to Lind, Patel, Buque, Buduia, Cambaza and Cambula (2008), during the
implementation of the Strategy of Adult Education and Non-Formal Education 2001-2005 in
Mozambique, some encouraging aspects were registered. The strategy itself represents a great
progression in Adult Education, as it is the first one in this area in the country. It contributed
for the increase of enrolment of youth and adults in educational programmes, as well as the
establishment and strengthening of partnership between the now Ministry of Education and
Human Development, with different governmental and non-governmental institutions, as well
as religious organisations.
The involved organisations carried out different responsibilities. The most remarked are
related to financial support. For instance, non-governmental organizations were included in
the provision of funds for the subsidies of literacy teachers, and for the implementation of
vocational courses – the so-called ‘educação-não formal profissionalizante’- (professionalizing
non-formal education) and the related activities (monitoring and evaluation) at the provincial
level with collaboration of the local directorates (Lind, Patel, Buque, Buduia, Cambaza &
Cambula, 2008).
In the context of implementation of the first adult education strategy, the vocational
courses were designed taking into account the needs of the learners and their communities
(Van der Linden & Manuel, 2011). In this sense organic horticulture production, small business
management and low cost construction were implemented in the provinces of Inhambane,
Manica and Sofala, respectively. These courses were implemented in the regular literacy classes.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
586 It is important to mention that the strategic plan 2001-2005 (even the subsequent one)
privileged three approaches of literacy in Mozambique. The already mentioned regular literacy
programme; literacy via radio and the REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean Literacy Through
Empowering Community Techniques) programme. While the former is the most comprehensive,
as it is offered countrywide, REFLECT is the less spread and less known literacy programme
in the country. According to Bhalalusesa (2003), REFLECT is based on dialogue and action,
awareness-raising, collaboration and empowerment. In this methodology the learners explore
common problems in their communities and try to identify ways to solve such problems. In this
process some relevant topics emerge and from them teachers find ways to teach literacy and
numeracy.
The existence of a variety of literacy programmes increases people chances of choices.
However, regular literacy is the most preferred as it offers opportunity to continue in other
levels of education and it is considered equivalent to basic formal education. This means that
at the end of the level three, participants get a certificate equivalent to grade five of formal
education, but the same do not occur in other types of literacy programmes, as they do not get
equivalence.
The second strategy, which was planned for 2010-2015, also privileged the three
approaches to literacy, to make available different choices for the potential participants and
increase access to learning.
Barriers to Effective Adult Education and Learning
There are different factors that contribute for low quality and lack of relevance of
literacy and adult education programmes in Mozambique. Some of these factors are related to
the quantity and quality of literacy teachers. For instance, in 2008 approximately 80 percent
of literacy teachers were volunteers, with low educational background and with no specific
training, and then the existing number of professional literacy teachers could not respond to the
demand (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2011).
The Ministry of Education (2011) noted that the motivation of literacy teachers was
weak; being one of the main causes attributed to irregularities in payment of their subsidies
(that are only symbolic payment). Buque (2013), in his study of literacy programmes in
Pemba (located in the northern part of Mozambique) and Boane (in the Southern part), found
demotivated literacy teachers as a result of irregular payment of the subsidy, which is very low
(650 Meticais – around 10 American dollars per month). Accordingly, some of the literacy
teachers quit and seek out other activities that can ensure better income.
Mangrasse (2004) refers that the layout of literacy and adult education programmes
are excessively formal. This formalism humpers flexibility in terms of attainment of learners
learning needs and implementation of learner centred learning – one of the requisites of adult
education. The implementation process of the programmes does not include actions of monitory
or programme evaluation to allow critical reflection and possibility for programme improvement
or a permanent teacher training (Vieira, 2006).
The other factor is the lack of teaching and learning materials. Teachers do not have
appropriate material, mainly in level three, wherein they use books from formal education.
Due to their social and economic condition, the learners cannot provide learning material from
themselves and the literacy centres cannot support them (Vieira, 2006). This aspect and the lack
of relevance of the literacy programmes can be part of the factor that contributes for learners
drop out. For instance, Buque (2013) noted that learners drop out from the literacy programmes,
specially literacy through radio, due to disparity between their expectations and the programme
content, which is very basic and limited.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Discussion 587
Adult education in the context of Mozambique is seen as fundamental for the development
of skills for youth and adults for their participation in the wider social life. For instance, the
strategy of adult education, 2001-2005 aimed at eradicating illiteracy, towards economic, social
and cultural development in Mozambique (Ministério da Educação e Cultura, 2001). However,
this aspiration is less aligned to the existing condition in the field.
Literacy teachers do not have enough competences to appropriately deal with the
teaching process, which impacts negatively the learning process and the objectives of adult
education. Manuel, Popov and Buque (2015) concluded that adult education programmes tend
to be teacher centred. This aspect on one hand contributes for lack of empowering learning
experiences; on the other hand, hampers creativity and critical thinking on the learners.
The issue of lack of participation and drop outs can be, in part, attributed to these
aspects, since adult learners are motivated to learn when they realize that they can apply the
new knowledge to solve real problems in their lives.
The scenario in which the majority of literacy teachers are volunteers (in 2008 they
were around 80 percent) (Ministry of Education, 2011) and lacking appropriate support, cannot
contribute to effective and relevant adult education. Teachers use to wait around two or six
months without earning their subsidies, which is just a symbolic payment. In this situation
many literacy teachers drop out and try to find other activities for their subsistence in other
areas of activity.
Looking at these different limitations one can question to what extent the knowledge
and skills acquired in the three levels of literacy programmes can be in fact, equivalent to the
knowledge and skills acquired in grade five of formal education, as stated by the Ministry of
Education and Human Development in Mozambique.
According to Gõni (2006, p. 123), “adult education is oriented to prepare individuals
for their civic and social responsibilities and responding to their requirements, needs and
aspirations, while offering opportunities and ways to develop their personality”, which requires
competent and motivated literacy teachers and relevant curriculum. The investment for curricula
improvement has been attempted in the context of implementation of adult education strategies.
For instance, in the strategy for 2001- 2005, which lasted up to 2009, the improvements were
basically characterized by the introduction of vocational skill contents in literacy classes. This
innovation contributed to an increased participation and retention of learners. However, it did
not last longer due to lack of facilitators in vocational courses and lack of material for practice.
The negative experience, in terms of interruption of the vocational courses, contributed
to a certain extent for the reduction of focus on these courses in the subsequent Strategy –
the Strategy of Literacy and Adult Education, 2010-2015. In this Strategy the “educação não-
formal profissionalizante” (as vocational courses were named), is not clearly mentioned as one
of the objectives in literacy and adult education. The effort of programme design, development
of manuals for the learners and teachers, and teacher training for vocational education was tried
away. Nowadays vocational courses are not implemented in literacy classes (Van der Linden
& Manuel, 2011), and the purpose of dissemination of experiences in this matter in the whole
country disappeared.
The second strategy of literacy and adult education for 2010-2015 focuses on adult
education as literacy in its narrow sense as teaching of literacy and numeracy skills, and the
concept of non-formal education as referring to other skills is not clearly developed. This can
be also seen from its designation as “Strategy of adult literacy and learning in Mozambique
2010-2015.
Non-formal education as vocational training is not widely planned as it was in the first
strategy. The focus is on literacy. Undoubtedly, literacy skills are needed as they help people
to improve other competences. But literacy should be considered as foundational skills, not as
the end in itself. Literacy teaching should be seen as a process which goes beyond the simple

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
588 teaching of reading and writing in order to place it within the purposes of achieving functional
skills, to help people to deal with and adopt social changes in their contexts (Gõni, 2006).
“There is a growing international consensus that basic education that includes life skills for
young people and adults provides an essential tool to encourage participation in democracy and
in economy” (Luís, 2011, p. 4). This means that adult education in the context of Mozambique
is still implemented in a narrow perspective. This is a great challenge specially in the context of
growing social and economic changes, which contrasts with the increased economic and social
inequalities in the country.
Adult education “is perceived to give the individuals the capacity to make choices in all
areas of life. The choices include being able to work in dignity, supporting themselves and their
families, as well as being respected and effective member of a community” (Fien & Hughes,
2007, p. 16). Adult education is the empowerment of youth and adults and this cannot happen
without a diversity of powerful learning experiences in an appropriate context.
Conclusions
This research aimed to gain insight of adult education in the context of Mozambique,
focusing on the main policies of adult education and on the main challenging factors for
the effective adult education. It concludes that, apart from literacy skills development, adult
education is linked to economic development, social inclusion and poverty reduction. These
are the main aspirations expressed in police documents, particularly in developing countries,
including Mozambique. However, Mozambique is still limited to provide sound policy
framework that can offer appropriate environment for the development of quality and relevant
adult education towards lifelong learning perspective.
Literacy is fundamental in Mozambique mainly when we consider that more than a half of
youth and adults are not able to read and write, but it cannot be seen as a goal of adult education.
Literacy and numeracy are the pillars skills that all youth and adult need to be able to benefit
from other learning opportunities. If adult education aims to tackle poverty and exclusion it
should be an empowering process providing a variety of quality learning opportunities in a
continuing process. In this sense the providers of adult education, particularly the educational
sector, need to design sound policies framework that can contribute to strengthen partnership
with different actors. These actors could be a) universities, by involving students in their practical
activities as mediators of adults learning, as well as their lecturers in the process of training,
monitory and evaluation of the training programmes and research on literacy programmes; b)
Non-Governmental Organisations, in a collaborative process and exchange of experiences. This
may help adult education to increase participation of youth and adults in social, economic and
political life towards achievement of its aspirations.
References
Bhalalusesa, E. (2004). Towards sustainable development through reflect methodology in Tanzania:

Major trends and lessons. Adult Education and Development, 6, 51-61.
Bowen, G. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9
(2), 27-40.
Brikci, N. & Green, J. (2007). A guide to using qualitative research methodology. London: London School
of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Retrieved 10/09/2017, from https://cloudfront.ualberta.ca/-/
media/science/research-and-teaching/teaching/qualitative-research-methodology.pdf.
Brink, H. (1993). Validity and reliability in qualitative research. Paper delivered at SA Society of Nurse
Researchers’ Workshop. Retrieved 31/01/2016 from https://www.curationis.org.za/index.php/
curations/article/.../1350.
Buque, D. (2013). Literacy Programmes in Mozambique: Adults’ motivations, needs and expectations.
Doctoral thesis. University of the Western Cape.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Downe-Wamboldt, B. (1992). Content analysis: Method, applications and Issues. Health Care for Women 589
International, 13, 313-321.
Fien, J. & Hughes, Ph. (2007). Education and the end of poverty. Three ways forward. In M. Clarke &
S. Feeny (Eds.) Education for the end of poverty: Implementing all the Millennium Development
Goals. (pp 11-21) New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Freire, P. (2005). Pedagogy of the oppressed. London: Continuum.
Gadotti, M. (2009). Educação de adultos como direito humano [Adult education as human right]. São
Paulo: Editora e Livraria Instituto Paulo Freire.
Gõni, J. (2006). What is adult education? UNESCO answers. San Sebastian: UNESO Centre. Retrieved
2/6/2016, from http://www.unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001494/149411e.pdf.
Hsieh, H. & Shannon, S. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health
Research, 15 (9), 1277-1288.
Hur, M. (2006). Empowerment in terms of theoretical perspectives: Exploring a typology of the process
and components across disciplines. Journal of Community Psychology, 34 (5), 523-540.
Jarvis, P. (2007). Globalisation, lifelong learning and the learning society. Sociological perspective (Vol.
2). London: Routledge.
Lind, A., Patel, S., Buque, D., Buduia, I., Cambaza, A., & Cambula, A. (2008). Análise da situação de
alfabetização educação de adultos e educação não-formal em Moçambique [Situational Analysis
of literacy, adult education and non-formal education in Mozambique]. Maputo: UNESCO/
Ministério da Educação e Cultura.
Luís, R. (2012). Youth and adult learning and education in Mozambique. Kwazulu-Natal: Open Society
Initiative for Southern Africa (OSISA) & Internationale Zusammenarbeit des Deutschen
Volkshochshul-Verbandes (DVV International). Retrieved 28/04/2014 from http://www.osisa.org/
sites/default/files/mpzambiqueyale final.pdf.
Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative research methods.
A data collector’s field guide. North Carolina: Family Health International. Retrieved 9/11/2017
from https://www.fhi360.org/.../Qualitative%20Research%20Methods%.
Mangrasse, L. (2004). A ideologização do processo de alfabetização e educação de jovens e adultos na
província de Nampula, Moçambique, no período de 1975 a 2003: Tensão entre factores políticos
e culturais [The ideologization of literacy and youth and adult education process in Nampula
province, Mozambique, between 1975 and 2003: Tension between political and cultural factors].
Tese de Doutoramento. São Paulo: Pontifícia Universidade Católica.
Manuel, A., Popov, O., & Buque, D. (2015). Towards programme improvement in non-formal vocational
education and training. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 67, 61-70.
Ministério de Educação e Cultura [Ministry of Education and Culture] (2006). Plano estratégico de
educação e cultura 2006-2010/11 [Strategic plan of education and culture 2006-2010/11]. Maputo:
Ministério da Educação e Cultura.
Ministério da Educação [Ministry of Education and Culture] (2001). Estratégia do subsector de
Alfabetização e educação de adultos/educação não formal [Strategy of the sub-sector of literacy,
adult education and non-formal education]. Maputo: Ministério de Educação.
Ministry of Education (2011). Strategy of adult education and learning in Mozambique 2010-2015.
Maputo: Ministry of Education.
Nwanosike, O. (2012). Importance of capacity building, human resources development and empowerment.
Nigeria Journal of Education, Health, Environment and Technology Research, 3 (1), 213-220.
Rossman, G., & Rallis Sh. (2003). Learning in the field: An introduction to qualitative research. 2nd ed.
London: SAGE Publications.
Tarabini, A. (2009). Education and poverty in the global development agenda: Emergence, evolution and
consolidation. International Journal of Educational Development, 30, 204-2012.
Torres, R. (2004). Lifelong learning in South: Critical issues and opportunities for adult education. Sisa
studies no II. A. Sisak (Ed.). Stockholm: Edita Sverige AB. Retrieved 17/07/2015, from http://
www.sida.se/.../lifelong-learning-in-the-south-critical-issues-and-opportunities-for-ad.
United Nations (2016). The sustainable development goal report. New York. Retrieved 16/03/2017
from http://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/The%20Sustainable%20Development%20
Goals%Report%%202016.pdf.
Van der Linden, J. & Manuel, A. (2011). Beyond literacy: Non-formal education programmes for adults
in Mozambique. Compare, 41 (4), 467-480.
Vieira, M. (2006). Educação de adultos, analfabetismo e pobreza em Moçambique [Adult education,
illiteracy and poverty in Mozambique]. Piracicaba: Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
590
Alzira A. M. Manuel PhD, Lecturer, Eduardo Mondlane University, Julius Nyerere Av. P.O. Box
257, Maputo, Mozambique.
E-mail: alzira@uem.mz; alziramanuel92@gmail.com
Domingos Buque PhD, Lecturer, Eduardo Mondlane University, Julius Nyerere Av. P.O. Box
E-mail: domingos.buque@uem.mz
Rosario Quive Msc. Lecturer, Eduardo Mondlane University, Julius Nyerere Av. P.O. Box
E-mail: rosquive@yahoo.com

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
EXPLORING OF MULTI MATHEMATICAL 591
REPRESENTATION CAPABILITY IN
PROBLEM SOLVING ON SENIOR HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENTS
Nizaruddin, Muhtarom, Yanuar Hery Murtianto
University PGRI Semarang, Indonesia
E-mail: nizaruddin@upgris.ac.id, muhtarom@upgris.ac.id, yanuarheri@upgris.ac.id
Abstract
The students’ multi-mathematical representation capability in problem solving is very important and
interesting to discuss, specifically for problems in the two-variable linear equation system. Data was
collected from 48 students using written tests and in-depth interviews with selected participants. The
research findings showed that few students are using three representations namely symbolic - verbal - table
representation, and symbolic representation, however most of the students are using three representations
namely symbolic - verbal - images representation, and two representations namely symbolic – verbal
representations, and the rest used symbolic representation. In the use of verbal representation, some
students had difficulty composing words and all students encountered difficulties in the translational
process from symbolic representation and verbal representation to other types of representation. The
ability to understand concepts and relationships between mathematical concepts was found to be a
necessary condition for the achievement of multi-mathematical representation capability. It is therefore
recommended that teachers use a variety of different types of representation, such as verbal, tables and
images, to enhance students' understanding of the material.
Keywords: multiple representations, problem solving, two-variable linear equation system.
Introduction
Mathematical representation ability is important in understanding mathematics, both

when students are solving mathematical problems and when they need to communicate their
solutions to others, and it is also a form of attitude in mathematics. Problem-solving abilities
are related to metacognition (Muhtarom, Juniati & Siswono, 2017), as well as mathematical
representation abilities. Moreover, representation can be presented in the form of images,
symbols, and signs (notation), which are all forms of mathematical concepts (Vergnaud, 1997).
Representation is a kind of configuration process to present something in a different situation
which involves identification, selection and the delivery of ideas (Goldin & Kaput, 1996;
Romberg & Kaput, 1999; Seeger et al, 1998). Everything that students do to externalize and
show their work is called representation (Kalathil & Sherin, 2013). Hwang, Chen, Dung, &
Yang (2007) conclude that good representational skills are the key to gaining the right solutions
to solve problems.
Every problem can be solved by using different types of representation (Gagatsis & Elia,
2004) and this means there is a close relationship between the problem and its representations.
Mathematical representations that are associated with the simultaneous use of different methods,
such as symbols, diagrams, tables, verbal statements, figures and so on, are known as multiple-
representations (Brenner et al., 1997). The use of multiple representations allows one to explore
mathematical concepts in various ways, and emphasizes that there may be more than one
possible mathematical process for producing a solution to a problem (Romberg & Kaput, 1999).

NIZARUDDIN, MUHTAROM, Yanuar Hery MURTIANTO. Exploring of multi mathematical representation capability in problem
solving on senior high school students
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
592 Keller & Hirsch (1998) stress that the use of multiple representations is an advantage, since it
avoids limitation to a single type of representation and builds something new, which is clearer
and more useful for the problem-solving process. Thus, there are several functions of multiple
representation: 1) the different representations complement each other; 2) the interpretation
of other representations is limited; 3) the process of constructive understanding is enhanced
(Ainsworth, 2006). This means that the use of multiple representations is recommended by
many mathematical educators. Similarly, the mathematics community supports the idea that
students can interpret mathematical concepts through the experience of multiple representations
(Janvier, 1987; Sierpinska, 1992).
The use of different representations can make concepts more accessible and enjoyable
for the student. Romberg & Kaput (1999) and Hiebert & Carpenter (1992) state that the use
of multiple representations helps students to learn by using their own thinking and learning
habits. Nizaruddin et al, (2017) offers the view that game-based learning can improve students’
problem-solving skills, and furthermore it has the potential to develop the representation skills
needed for solving mathematics problems. It is generally recognized that learning facilitates
students in accommodating their thoughts to develop their own knowledge schemes (Muhtarom,
Yanuar & Sutrisno, 2017). Therefore, a learning process that uses two representations is better
than a process using only a single representation (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999; Ainsworth,
2006). Thus, an understanding of multiple representations can support students’ comprehension
of mathematical concepts, as well as anticipating the fallacy of concepts in mathematics. This
means that the ability to understand concepts and relationships between mathematical concepts
is a necessary condition for the achievement of multi-mathematical representation capability.
In Indonesia, to date there has been little research on multiple-representation capability;
existing studies tend to discuss only the types of representation used by students (Santia,
2015; Tyas, 2016; Muhamad, 2017) and do not offer views on the multiple-representation
capability of students or the translation process from one representation to another. Therefore,
it is interesting to research students' multi-mathematical representation in problem solving,
especially among students in Indonesia. The purpose of this current research is to determine
the multi-mathematical representation capability of students in solving mathematical problems,
specifically two-variable linear equation problems.
Research on multiple representations is an important topic to address because the
identification of multiple representation capability can be used for developing teaching material.
In addition, the importance of multiple representations in this research can be used to improve
students’ creative thinking. This research will explore multiple representation capability,
specifically in mathematical problem solving in two-variable linear equation problems,
observing the following thought processes: procedure-oriented, process-oriented, math object-
oriented and concept-oriented.
Research Methodology
General Background
This research is qualitative and explores multi-mathematical representation capability

in problem solving, specifically in two-variable linear equation problems. The results of the
research can be used as the basis for developing teaching material for the two-variable linear
equation system based on multiple representations so as to improve students' creative thinking
ability, especially in Indonesia.
Sample
The participants in this research were 48 Senior High School students from the Madrasah
Aliyah Darun Najah Senior High School in the Margoyoso District of Pati Regency during

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
the academic year 2017/2018. The selection of participants was based on the following 593
considerations: 1) the students had already been given sufficient material that they were
expected to be able to complete a two-variable linear equation mathematics problem, 2) the
participants selected were considered to possess good communication skills enabling them to
express the process used for solving the problem, 3) in problem solving, the participants used
a number of different kinds of representation. A trial of the research instrument was conducted
on May 30, 2017. From the results of the trial, it was seen that the problem could be solved
using various types of representation. The test results were then analyzed based on validity and
reliability to determine the feasibility of the problem as a research instrument. This research
involved participants who were class XI students. In the initial stage, the students were given a
written test. In this research, the written test was taken by 48 prospective participants consisting
of 5 male students and 43 female students. The selection of research subjects was also based on
a review of the students' mathematics grades.
The instrument used in this research was a written test on problem solving and a guided
interview based on the problem solving task to explore the multiple-representation capability
of students. Prior to use, the instrument was first validated by three validators who are experts
in mathematics education, and was declared eligible to be used for obtaining research data. The
written test instrument was as follows: "A two-variable linear equation system has a finite set
{3.3}. If the first variable coefficient is an even number and the second variable coefficient is an
odd number, make a two-variable linear equation example! Also show the steps used to solve
the problem using your own choice of representations”. The data was collected in two stages.
The first stage was the written test, as described above, which was held on July 14, 2017 at 7
a.m. in the classroom of XI IPA and at 8.40 a.m. in the classroom of XI IPS. The second phase
was to conduct interviews with selected subjects. The interviews were conducted based on an
agreement between the researcher and the research scientist. The details of the interviews are
presented in Table 1 below:
Table 1. List of interviews.
No Date Participant’s Code Time Location

1 28 July 2017 DP 1 p.m. School
2 28 July 2017 FA 2 p.m. School
3 31 July 2017 MN 10 a.m. School
4 31 July 2017 RI 11 a.m. School
Data Analysis

In the first stage of the data collection, students were asked to solve a two-variable linear
equation problem using various representations that they were familiar with. Based on the data
obtained from this test, a data analysis and reduction were then performed to obtain a detailed
description of the students' multi-mathematical representation capabilities in problem solving.
Next, four suitable participants who fulfilled the necessary criteria were selected to participate
in semi-structured interviews which focused on their multiple-representation capabilities in
solving a two-variable linear equation problem. The four participants were RI (participant with
code RI) who used three representations, namely symbolic - verbal - image representations; FA
(participant with code FA) who used three representations, namely symbolic - verbal - tables,
DP who used two representations, namely symbolic - verbal, and MN (participant with code
MN) who used only symbolic representation in solving the mathematics problem (see Table 1).
Next, the data was analyzed and validated using the triangulation method, where data from the

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
594 results of the triangulation was valid participant data for providing a description of the students’
multi-mathematical representation capabilities.
Results of Research
Table 2 presents a clear description of the results of the data analysis of the 48 students.
From this, the types of representation used by students for solving the problem can be identified,
namely: symbolic - verbal - image representations, symbolic - verbal - table representations,
symbolic - verbal representations, and symbolic representation. The percentage of students
using three representations, namely symbolic - verbal - table representation was 8.33%, the
use of symbolic - verbal - image representation was 37.5%, those using two representations
namely symbolic – verbal representation was 45.83% and those using only one representation
was 8.33%.
Table 2. Representation used by participants.
Type of representa- Selected partici-

Representation Participant’s Code %
tion pants with code*
DN, RD, NA, ES, SY, RI*, DR,
Symbolic - verbal -
PR, UN, AK, DI, MF, RM, ET, 37.5 RI
images
Three representations CN, NL, MN, MA
Symbolic - verbal -
FA*, MK, NN, BR 8.33 FA
table
SW, ZN, NS, K, IA, RW, NDS,

DP*, NM, CL, RM, ZY, AP, PN,
Two representations Symbolic - verbal 45.83 DP
HN, ZN, PL, MD, EF, NS, IK,
VN
One representation Symbolic ME, MN*, ND, AS 8.33 MN
Participant RI solved the two-variable linear equation problem using 3 representations,

namely symbolic - verbal - image representations. When answering using symbolic and verbal
representations, participant RI was able to answer correctly but when answering using image
representation there were mistakes in the answer. The representation and thought process of
RI’s problem solving is shown clearly in Table 3.
Table 3. Analysis of the results of the participant with code RI.
Thought Representation
Process Symbolic Verbal Image
Proce- Able to manipulate symbols to Unable to use the proper proce-
dure- ori- complete the results compre- Able to use the right procedure. dure to obtain the image form of
ented hensively and systematically. the problem.
Process- Able to interpret the meaning of Able to apply the process well Unable to understand or apply the
oriented written symbols. with few mistakes. problem-solving process properly.
Math Able to use words in under-
Able to operate the relevant Unable to interpret images in
object- standing the mathematical
mathematical symbols. problem solving.
oriented objects.
Able to relate procedures and Able to relate procedures and Unable to relate procedures
processes applied to symbolic processes applied to verbal and processes applied to image
Concept- representation in mathematical representation in mathematical representation in mathematical
oriented concepts and able to identify concepts and able to identify concepts but able to identify
concepts used in mathematical concepts used in mathematical concepts used in mathematical
operations. operations. operations.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
The participant with the code FA solved the two-variable linear equation problem using 3 595
representations, namely symbolic - verbal - image representations. When answering with the use
of symbolic representation, the participant FA was able to answer correctly but when answering
using verbal and table representations, there were a number of mistakes in the answer. For a
clearer picture, the representation and thought process of the participant FA’s problem solving
are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Analysis of the results of the participant with code FA.
Process Symbolic Verbal Table
Able to manipulate symbols
Procedure- to complete the results Unable to use the procedure Unable to use the proper proce-
oriented comprehensively and system- appropriately. dure to complete the results.
atically.
Unable to implement the Unable to understand and
Process- Able to interpret the meaning
problem-solving process implement the problem solving
oriented of written symbols.
properly. process.
Able to use words in under- Unable to interpret the problem
Math object- Able to operate the relevant
standing the mathematical in the form of mathematical
oriented mathematical symbols.
objects. tables.
Able to relate procedures Unable to relate procedures
Unable to relate procedures and
and processes applied to and processes applied to
processes applied to precise ta-
Concept- symbolic representation in verbal representation in
ble representation and unable to
oriented mathematical concepts and mathematical concepts but
identify and operate mathemati-
able to identify concepts used able to identify concepts used
cal concepts.
in mathematical operations. in mathematical operations.
The participant with code DP solved the two-variable linear equation problem using two
representations, namely symbolic - verbal representations. When answering with the use of
symbolic representation, it appeared that the participant was able to use the relevant symbols,
namely variables x and y, and able to complete the process well even though the procedure used
was not yet complete. The participant was able to interpret the symbols used, able to relate the
procedures and processes applied to symbolic representation in the mathematical concepts, and
able to identify the concepts used in the mathematical operations. Participant DP was able to
answer correctly and was aware of the mistakes made in the completion process using verbal
representation because of his understanding of the characteristics of the two-variable linear
equation system. The representation and thought process of participant DP’s problem-solving
are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Analysis of the results of the participant with code DP.
Process Symbolic Verbal
Procedure- Able to manipulate symbols in the results Able to use appropriate and systematic proce-
oriented although still incomplete. dures.
Process- Able to interpret the meaning of written
Able to apply the process correctly.
oriented symbols.
Math object- Able to operate the relevant mathematical Able to use words in understanding the math-
oriented symbols. ematical objects used.
Able to relate procedures and processes ap- Able to relate procedures and processes applied
Concept- plied to symbolic representation in mathemat- to verbal representation in mathematical concepts
oriented ical concepts and able to identify concepts and able to identify concepts used in mathemati-
used in mathematical operations. cal operations.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
596 Table 6. Analysis of results of participant with code MN.
Thought Process Representasi Simbolik Symbolic Representation

Unable to manipulate symbols to complete the results comprehensively and systemati-
Procedure-oriented
cally.
Process-oriented Able to interpret the meaning of written symbols.
Math object-oriented Able to operate the relevant mathematical symbols.
Unable to relate processes and procedures applied to symbolic representation in math-
Concept-oriented
ematical concepts but able to identify concepts used in mathematical operations.
The participant with the code MN solved the problem of a two-variable linear
equation system using symbolic representation. This is evident from the use of variables x
and y. Participant MN was unable to use the proper procedures and processes because there
was still a large amount of verbal representation. The participant was essentially able to
interpret the symbols used but was unable to relate the procedures and processes applied to the
symbolic representation in mathematical concepts though able to identify the concepts used in
mathematical operations. The representation and the problem-solving thought process of the
participant with code DP are presented in Table 6.
Discussion
The results of this research show that students essentially have the ability to solve
problems using various types of representation. It was found that only 8.33% of students solved
the problem presented using only a single type of symbolic representation. Students who had
a high level of independence were seen to use a number of different types of representations,
unlike other students who used only a single type of representation to solve the problem. In
addition, the students' understanding of mathematical concepts was reflected in the greater
number of representations used to solve the problem (Brenner et al., 1997). However, it should
be noted that some of the students still encountered difficulties in the process of transferring
the use of different types of representation, for example, in the beginning they used symbolic
representation, then verbal or image representation (other types of representation). This is in line
with the research of Gagatsis & Elia (2004) which concludes that students encounter numerous
difficulties in changing from symbolic representation (algebra) into verbal representation.
An investigation by Janvier (1987) shows how a successful transfer between one type of
representation and another varies depending on the nature of the relationship between the chosen
representations. Thus, in order to use different representations, students require knowledge of
the subject matter as well as knowledge about representation because not all material can be
presented using all types of representation.
This provides an overview of the importance of the ability to understand concepts and
relationships between mathematical concepts, which are the main requirements for achieving
multi-mathematical representation capability. The fact that some students were incapable of
creating a proper representation for understanding the problem is believed to be because teachers,
especially in Indonesia, often use only symbolic representation for solving mathematical
problems, including two-variable linear equation problems. It should be recognized that the use
of different representations makes concepts more accessible and enjoyable for students, and for
this reason, solving the same problem using different representations or multiple representations
shows better results than the use of a single representation (Hiebert & Carpenter 1992; Romberg
& Kaput, 1999). Ainsworth (2006); Bransford & Schwartz (1999); and Keller & Hirsch (1998)
state that two representations are better than one because they avoid the limitations of a single
type of representation and build a new, clearer representation for the problem-solving process.
This means that the ability to understand concepts and relationships between mathematical

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
concepts is a necessary condition for the achievement of multi-mathematical representation 597

capability, and multiple-representation ability itself is able to support students in understanding
each different mathematical concept and anticipating mistakes in understanding mathematical
concepts.
Conclusions
Students tend towards the use of symbolic representation rather than other types of
representation in solving two-variable linear equation problems. When students use verbal
representation, they are inclined to have difficulty in composing words while in image or table
representation they are unable to solve the problem correctly. Based on these facts, we can
conclude that the choice of representation used to solve a problem greatly affects the students'
answers because the use of a particular type of representation requires knowledge of the
mathematical concept as well as an understanding of the representation itself. Suggestions for
further research include an exploration of the students' thought process in transitioning between
different types of representation, such as verbal representation to symbolic representation or
vice versa.
References
Ainsworth, S. (2006). DeFT: A conceptual framework for considering learning with multiple
representations. Learning and Instruction, 16 (3), 183–198.
Bransford, J. D., & Schwartz, D. L. (1999). Chapter 3: Rethinking transfer: A simple proposal with
multiple implications. Review of Research in Education, 24 (1), 61–100.
Brenner, M. E., Mayer, R. E., Moseley, B., Brar, T., Durán, R., Reed, B. S., & Webb, D. (1997). Learning
by understanding: The role of multiple representations in learning algebra. American Educational
Research Journal, 34 (4), 663–689.
Gagatsis, A., & Elia, I. (2004). The Effects of Different Modes of Representation on Mathematical
Problem Solving. International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Retrieved
from http://emis.ams.org/proceedings/PME28/RR/RR171_Gagatsis.pdf.
Goldin, G. A., & Kaput, J. J. (1996). A joint perspective on the idea of representation in learning and
doing mathematics. In: L. P. Steffe, P. Nesher, P. Cobb, G. A. Goldin, & B. Greer (Eds.), Theories
of mathematical learning (pp. 397–430). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hiebert, J., & Carpenter, T. P. (1992). Learning and teaching with understanding. In D. A. Grouws (Ed.),
Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning: A project of the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (pp. 65-97). New York: Macmillan.
Hwang, W.-Y., Chen, N.-S., Dung, J.-J., & Yang, Y.-L. (2007). Multiple Representation Skills and
Creativity Effects on Mathematical Problem Solving using a Multimedia Whiteboard System.
Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 10 (2). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/
jeductechsoci.10.2.191.
Janvier, C. (1987). Representation and understanding: The notion of function as an example. In C. Janvier
(Ed.), Problems of representation in the teaching and learning of mathematics (pp. 67–71).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kalathil, R. R., & Sherin, M. G. (2013). Role of students’ representations in the mathematics classroom.
In International Conference of the Learning Sciences: Facing the Challenges of Complex Real-
world Settings (p. 27). East Sussex: Psychology Press.
Keller, B. A., & Hirsch, C. R. (1998). Student preferences for representations of functions. International
Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 29 (1), 1–17.
Muhamad, N. (2017). Pengaruh Metode Discovery Learning untuk Meningkatkan Representasi Matematis
dan Percaya Diri Siswa. (The Influence of the Discovery Learning Method on Improving Students'
Mathematical Representation and Confidence). Jurnal Pendidikan UNIGA, 10 (1), 9–22.
Muhtarom., Murtianto, Yanuar Hery & Sutrisno. (2017). Thinking Process of Students with High-
Mathematics Ability (A Study on QSR NVivo 11-Assisted Data Analysis). International Journal
of Applied Engineering Research, 12 (17), 6934-6940.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
598 Muhtarom., Juniati, Dwi., & Siswono, T.Y.E. (2017). Exploring Beliefs in a Problem-Solving Process of
Prospective Teachers’ With High Mathematical Ability. Global Journal of Engineering Education,
19 (2), 130-136.
Nizaruddin, Muhtarom, & Sugiyanti. (2017). Improving Students’ Problem-Solving Ability in
Mathematics through Game-Based Learning Activities. World Transactions on Engineering and
Technology Education, 15 (2), 102-107.
Romberg, T. A., & Kaput, J. J. (1999). Mathematics worth teaching, mathematics worth understanding.
In E. Fennema, & T. A. Romberg (Eds.) Mathematics classrooms that promote understanding (pp.
3–18). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Santia, I. (2015). Representasi Siswa SMA dalam Memecahkan Masalah Matematika Berdasarkan Gaya
Kognitif. (High School Students' Representation in Solving Mathematics Problems Based on
Cognitive Style). JIPM (Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Matematika), 3 (2). Retrieved from http://e-
journal.ikippgrimadiun.ac.id/index.php/jipm/article/view/505.
Seeger, F. (1998). Representations in the mathematics classroom: Reflections and constructions. In F.
Seegers, J. Voigt, & U. Waschescio (Eds.), The culture of the mathematics classroom (pp. 308-
343). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sierpinska, A. (1992). On understanding the notion of function. The concept of function: Aspects of
epistemology and pedagogy, 25, 23–58.
Tyas, W. H., Sujadi, Imam., Riyadi. (2016). Representasi Matematis Siswa dalam Menyelesaikan
Masalah Matematika pada Materi Aritmatika Sosial dan Perbandingan ditinjau dari Gaya Kognitif
Siswa Kelas VII SMP Negeri 15 Surakarta Tahun Ajaran 2014/2015. (Students' Mathematical
Representation in Solving Social Arithmetic Mathematics Problems and a Comparison with the
Cognitive Style of Class VII Students from the No. 15 Surakarta State Middle School Academic
Year 2014/2015). Jurnal Elektronik Pembelajaran Matematika, 4 (8), 781-792.
Vergnaud, G. (1997). The nature of mathematical concepts. In P. Bryant (Ed.), Learning and Teaching
Mathematics. East Sussex: Psychology Press.
Received: October 12, 2017 Accepted: December 18, 2017
Nizaruddin M.Si., Lecturer, Department of Mathematics Education, Faculty of Mathematics

Education and Natural Science, University PGRI Semarang, Indonesia.
Email: nizaruddin@upgris.ac.id
Web: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1166-6006
Muhtarom M.Pd., Lecturer, Department of Mathematics Education, Faculty of Mathematics

Email: muhtarom@upgris.ac.id
Web: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muhtarom_Muhtarom
Yanuar Hery Murtianto M.Pd., Lecturer, Department of Mathematics Education, Faculty of Mathematics
Email: yanuarheri@upgris.ac.id
Web: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yanuar_Hery_Murtianto

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
SCHOOL FACTORS AFFECTING ESTONIAN 599
STUDENTS’ SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING AT

THE BASIC SCHOOL
Marika Ratnik, Eha Rüütel
Tallinn University, Estonia
E-mail: marika.ratnik@mail.ee, eha@tlu.ee
Abstract
This research focuses on the personal well-being of basic school students and on the school environment
factors affecting it. The authors were also interested to know whether there are any differences between
two age groups (6th grade and 9th grade) in the perception of the school environment and school relations.
The research included 934 students (426 boys and 508 girls) aged 12 to 17 years. The well-being was
measured by the WHO-5 Well-Being Index; school factors included perceived school relationships,
perceived learning environment and academic performance. The indicators differentiating between the
groups with low and high well-being were: obtaining help from the school, the pleasantness of lessons,
relationships with teachers, and relationships with schoolmates. In both age groups, higher well-being
was predicted by relationships with teachers and schoolmates, obtaining help from the school, and parents’
relationships with the school. The results indicated that students establish relationships supporting their
well-being not only in their class. It is rather the wider communication culture in the school that supports
the students’ well-being. The results also indicate the wider effect of school relationships in that the
factor of obtaining help from the school (the school`s pro-social organization) is more significant for the
students’ well-being that the pro-social behaviour of the classmates.
Keywords: adolescence academic performance, perceived school relationships, perceived learning
environment, subjective well-being.
Introduction
Students may be better experts in matters related to school life than adults. It is important
to identify and account for the students’ opinions, and to provide students with the sense of
involvement in school improvement. The monitoring of children’s rights and parenting in
Estonia indicated that children are mostly able to participate in the solving of matters related
to their home and family and able to have a say in their personal matters, but that they have
significantly less opportunities to express their opinion in relation with their school environment
(Laes, Krusell, Reinomägi & Toros, 2013). Among the children, 34% have been able to have a
say in the organization of school events, 24% in the establishment of their school’s rules, 21%
in the setting of the amount of homework, and 15% in the choice of school meals (Karu, Turk,
Suvi & Biin, 2012). Regular internal and external audits are performed in Estonian schools,
but the tradition of asking children themselves about their opinion of their school environment,
disclosing it to the public, and learning from it is hard to develop (Ilves, 2013). This is why the
article focuses on the students’ own assessment on the school factors affecting their well-being.
The Well-Being of Estonian Basic School Students with their Life and School
In the international study of students’ health behaviour in 2013/2014 where 42 countries

participated, the Estonian general indicator of students’ satisfaction with their life was ranked
15th among 11 years old students, 7th among 13 years old students and 17th among 15 years

Marika RATNIK, Eha RÜÜTEL. School factors affecting Estonian students’ subjective well-being at the basic school
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
600 old students (Inchley et al., 2016), being in the top half of the results. Satisfaction with one’s
life reflects satisfaction with one’s living environment, health, emotional state and opportunities
in life. As education and the school are important in the life of adolescents, their satisfaction
with life is related with their behaviour and experiences in the school and with their attitudes
toward their school environment (Salmela-Aro & Tuominen-Soini, 2010). Based on the data
of the aforementioned study, Estonian students’ enjoyment in attending school among the
participating 42 countries was ranked the last for 11 and 13 years old students and the last but
one for 15 years old students (Inchley et al., 2016). Looking at that indicator as percentages of
11-15 years old students participating in the research (n = 4,808), it becomes clear that 62% of
them liked or rather liked attending school and 38% rather did not like it or did not like it at all
(Aasvee et al., 2016).
The enjoyment of school is used to define the level of satisfaction with the school
(Huebner, 1994). Satisfaction with the school is one of the contextual factors of students’
subjective well-being and studies have shown that students tend to be more dissatisfied with
their school than with their family, friends, themselves, their living environment, or their life
as a whole (Huebner, Gilman, Reschly & Hall, 2009). Therefore, the difference between the
satisfaction with their life and the satisfaction with their school, shown in the results of the
research, is nothing extraordinary. Yet, issues are raised by Estonian students’ ranking as the last
places among countries where student`s enjoyment of their school was asked.
Theoretical Background: Students’ Subjective

Well-Being and their Well-Being at School
Subjective well-being is defined through emotional state. Diener (1984) has defined
subjective well-being as a multi-dimensional construct including both positive (joy) and
negative (anger, sadness) affects and cognitive assessment of life in general (overall satisfaction
with life) and/or to specific fields like the school environment’s good and bad aspects or family
relationships. Konu, Lintonen and Rimpelä (2002) presented a conceptual model of well-
being at school, describing the specific school conditions related with well-being: the physical
environment (the timetable, the study load, the size of study groups, punishments, the school’s
level of security, the school’s health services, school meals); the school relationships (the climate
at school, group relationships, student-teacher relationships, the relationships with same-age
schoolmates, school bullying, home-school co-operation, the acceptance of students, teachers’
level of interest toward the students’ life, obtaining help from the school); self-realisation
opportunities (valuing the work of students, encouragement, possibilities to participate in
deciding the matters pertaining to school life, supporting self-worth and creativity, free time
activities in the school). Beside the school conditions, the student’s health (falling ill, chronic
illnesses, overall state of health, health behaviour) is also important in the model. On the other
hand, Engels, Aelterman, Van Petegem and Schepens (2004) highlight the positive emotional
state resulting from the meeting of personal needs and expectations as a factor of students’
well-being. Noble, McGrath, Wyatt, Carbines and Robb (2008) relate the student’s well-being
to personal factors: experiencing mainly positive feelings and attitudes; pro-social behaviour
towards schoolmates and teachers; strength of personality; an optimistic concept of self and
satisfaction with learning experiences.
Students perceiving school factors as positive also give higher assessments to
their subjective well-being (Liu, Mei, Tian & Huebner, 2016; Pilkauskaite-Valickiene &
Gabrialaviciute, 2015; Tian, 2008; Tian, Liu, Huang & Huebner, 2013), they cope better with
the school’s challenges and are more engaged in learning (Salmela-Aro & Tuominen-Soini
2010). However, Salmela-Aro, Moeller, Schneider, Spicer and Lavonen (2016) stress that
positive and negative aspects of engagement should be studied and modeled together as some

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
students experienced elevated levels of both engagement and burnout. Their study revealed that 601
resources experienced at school were related to situational and stable measures of engagement,
while demands were related to burnout.
Previous Research: School Factors Affecting Subjective Well-Being
The adolescent years are an important time in shaping one’s personal identity, therefore
the subjective well-being is influenced by the school social relationships (Eccles & Roeser,
2011), positive student-teacher relationships (Liu et al., 2016; Suldo, Shaffer & Riley, 2008;
Suldo et al., 2009), social support experienced at school (Tian, Zhao & Huebner, 2015), support
by teachers and specific help obtained from teachers (Bird & Markel, 2012; Simmons, Graham
& Thomas, 2015). The student’s well-being is also connected to the relationships between
students: with classmates (Liu et al., 2016; Tian et al., 2015), with same-age schoolmates
(Uusitalo-Malmivaara, 2012), with friends at school (Casas, Baltatescu, Bertran, Gonzales &
Hatos, 2013), with bullying behaviour present at school (Gobina, Zaborskis, Pudule, Kalnins &
Villerusa, 2008; Tiliouine, 2015).
Concerning the learning environment, the following factors have been highlighted as
those affecting well-being: the students’ involvement in decision-making processes (Engels, et
al, 2004; Lewis, Huebner, Malone & Valois, 2011); fair treatment based on the school’s rules
(Samdal, Nutbeam, Wold & Kannas, 1998); the school’s level of security (Samdal, et al., 1998);
behavioural and emotional engagement (Li & Lerner, 2011). As a separate factor, academic
results have been highlighted (Gilman & Huebner, 2006; Soutter, 2011).
In a Holfve-Sable (2014) study where 6th year students participated (n = 1,540), their
subjective well-being depended the most on three factors: the student’s relationships with
teachers, the student’s relationships with other students, and the student’s learning experience
i.e. satisfaction with the learning climate. A study conducted in the U.S. among 5th and 7th
year students (n = 1,286), their subjective well-being was predicted by their satisfaction with
the school, containing the students’ assessments to their class relationships, grades, school
experience, and the school’s quality in general (Newland, Lawler, Giger, Roh & Carr, 2015).
A study by Pilkauskaite-Valickiene and Gabrialaviciute (2015) indicated that the level of well-
being among students (aged 15-19 years) differs with regard to their attachment to school,
teacher support and open classroom climate for discussions.
Similar to this research, Tian et al. (2013) has compared students in various age groups.
The sample was formed of 13-16 years old students. For younger students, their well-being
at school was predicted by social support from teachers and parents; for older students, their
well-being at school was predicted by support from teachers and friends. Those indicators also
characterised positive feelings toward the school. But in general, wider studies of students’
satisfaction with life have shown that any differences by age or demography are small (Huebner
et al., 2009).
The Aim of this Research
International research regarding school students, conducted in recent years (2013-

2014), indicate that Estonian students are rather at the bottom of the ranking list of school
attendance enjoyment. Yet, substantive changes have been introduced in schools since 2010,
such as developing support systems, involving students in the organization of school life, and
involving students with special needs in ordinary school. Based on that, this research has aimed
at observing certain school factors and their role in shaping the school well-being, so as to get
a better understanding of and highlight those aspects of the school life that influence students
the most.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
602 The aim of the research is to describe the school-related factors that affect the student’s
subjective well-being in the younger age group (6th grade) and in the older age group (9th grade)
of the basic school. Based on the aim, two research questions were posed:
1) What differences are apparent among the school-related factors affecting well-
being in the 6th year and the 9th year?
2) What differences are apparent comparing the relationship of the well-being of
students with school-related factors among students having a high score and
students having a low score of well-being?
A quantitative research was carried out on the basis of a semi-structured questionnaire

focusing on perceived school relationships, learning environment, academic performance and
subjective well-being. The research was conducted in spring 2011. The sample included schools
with following profiles: four schools with a health promotion bias, four ordinary schools and
six schools with an art bias. The number of schools with an art bias was bigger because of the
smaller number of students.
Sample
The research included 6th grade and 9th grade students from 14 general education schools
with Estonian study language, a total of 934 students including 419 (44.9%) boys and 499
(52.8% girls). The respondents were aged 12-17 years. The number of the 6th grade students was
490 (52% of the sample), with average age being 12.5 years, and the number of the 9th grade
students was 444 (48% of the sample), with average age being 15.5.
Research Procedure and Ethical Aspects
First, the directors of the selected schools (n = 14) were contacted by e-mail, introducing
the goals and ethical principles of the research, and asking for the permission to conduct the
research in their schools. Only these schools were included in the sample, the directors of which
permitted the questionnaire, therefore the sample can be considered a convenience sample.
The research was conducted during the school hours and in all schools by the first author of
this paper. The schools were allowed to have a representative present during the conduct of the
research, but mostly none were sent. The research questionnaire was voluntary for the students.
Before starting with the questionnaire, its goals and an overview of its content were introduced
to the students. Those who did not wish to fill in the questionnaire, stayed in the classroom but
had free time. The presence of the research conductor provided the students with the opportunity
to get clarifications of the content of questions if needed. The filled-in questionnaires were
collected by the conductor; they were not shared with anyone in the schools. To ensure the
anonymity of the data, the filled-in questionnaires were encoded per school and per student.
Instruments
Well-being. The students’ well-being was measured by the 5-item World Health
Organization (WHO, 1998) Well-Being Index (WHO-5) which is a short and generic global
rating scale. WHO-5 is a positively worded scale designed to assess emotional well-being
within the previous two weeks, covering positive mood, vitality, and general interest. The scale
has adequate validity both as a screening tool for depression and as an outcome measure in
clinical trials, and has been applied successfully as a generic scale for well-being across a wide
range of study fields (Topp, Østergaard, Søndergaard, & Bech, 2015). WHO-5 is validated in
Estonian language (Sisask, Värnik, Kõlves, Konstabel, & Wasserman, 2008). The five items

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
are: (a) being in good spirits, (b) feeling relaxed (c) having energy (d) waking up fresh and 603
rested, (e) being interested in things. Each of the five items is rated on a 6-point Likert scale
from 0 (= not present) to 5 (= constantly present). The results are in the range of 0-25 where
higher scores (13-25) indicate a high level of well-being. The findings of the review by Topp,
Østergaard, Søndergaard and Bech (2015) show that the WHO-5 is a highly useful tool that can
be applied to compare well-being between groups. For adolescents, the WHO-5 Well-Being
Scale has been used by e.g. de Wit, Pouwer, Gemke, Delemarre van de Waal and Snoek (2007;
Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was 0.82), and Yallop, McDowell, Koziol-McLain and Reed
(2013).
The WHO-5 Well-Being Index was also used in the international SEYLE study of
students (Carli et al., 2013); 1,036 Estonian students participated in the study; its Cronbach`s
alpha was 0.76. In the SEYLE study (Lumiste, 2011) Estonian students aged 14-15 years were
asked about their mental health and their health-related and risk-related behaviour; it turned
out that 88% of the respondents had a high level of subjective well-being as measured by the
WHO-5 Well-Being Index; 12% of the students had a subjective well-being level below the
critical threshold.
For school factors, questions from earlier studies of Estonian students’ life and
circumstances (Rüütel & Pill, 2008) and from the school related well-being profile questionnaire
by Konu and Lintonen (2006) were used.
The questions related to perceived school relationships formed five summary indicators
by factor analysis: relationships with teachers (it is easy to communicate with teachers; teachers
encourage me to express my opinion in the classroom; most teachers are friendly; most teachers
are interested in how I am doing; teachers treat me fairly; the feedback from teachers inspires
me to make an effort for better results; α = 0.83); relationships with other students (it is easy
to communicate with schoolmates; schoolmates accept me as I am; I get along well with my
classmates; α = 0.79); pro-social behaviour of classmates (classmates help each other with
homework; classmates help each other with problems; classmates intervene if someone is
being bullied; α = 0.80); fair rules of behaviour (the school has certain rules for behaving in
problem situations; the school’s rules are reasonable; the school’s punishments are fair; α =
0.80); parents’ relationships with the school (parents value my schoolwork; parents are willing
to come to the school to discuss with teachers if necessary; r = 0.46; p < .001. Five options for
responses were provided (1 = fully agreed; 2 = partly agreed; 3 = so-so; 4 = partly disagreed; 5
= fully disagreed). Two separate questions were used to study bullying behaviour: “How often
have you been bullied at school during this academic year?” and “How often have you taken
part in bullying other students during this academic year?” (options for responses: 1 = not at
all; 2 = on some occasions; 3 = 2-3 times a month; 4 = about once a month; 5 = several times
a month).
Four indicators were used to determine the perceived learning environment. Students
were asked to assess the study load (1 = always too high; 2 = sometimes too high; 3 = suitable; 4
= sometimes too low; 5 = always too low). School’s development was studied with the following
question: “Have you experienced that the school becomes better?” (1 = not at all; 2 = rarely; 3
= often). The enjoyment of classroom lessons was studied with the following question: “What
do you generally feel when going to classes?” (1 = I gladly go to most classes; 2 = there are
classes where I gladly go to; 3 = I am uncomfortable with going to most classes). Help from the
school was studied with the following question: “Is it easy to obtain help from the school for
your worries and problems?” (1 = yes, 2 = rather yes; 3 = rather no; 4 = no).
As an indicator of academic performance, the students were asked to state their average
grade of all subjects for the latest academic quarter. In the Estonian grading system, 5 is the
best grade.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
604 Data Analysis
Anova dispersion analysis was used for comparison of groups (low/high well-being and
6th and 9th grade). Multiple regression analysis was used to find the predictors of perceived
well-being.
Results of Research
The analysis is presented in two age groups because no statistically significant gender
differences were apparent. The average WHO-5 score was 17.2 for boys (SD = 4.9); 15.8 for
girls (SD = 4.8); t = 1.37, p = .7.
The Relations between the Well-Being of Students and School-Related

Factors for Students with Low and High Well-Being
Table 1 shows the average assessments given to school-related factors by the 6th year
and the 9th year students with high and low well-being, as well as their differences and mutual
interactions. The share of students with low well-being was similar in both age groups: 22% in
the 6th year and 25% in the 9th year.
Table 1. The differences and mutual interactions of the 6th year and the 9th
year student groups with high and low well-being (ANOVA 2-factor
dispersion analysis).
Low well-being High well-being

Main effect F
WHO5 0-12 WHO5 13-25
Variable 6th year 9th year 6th year 9th year Well- Inter-action (F)
n=91 n=109 n=333 n=332 year being
M/SD M/SD M/SD M/SD group
Perceived school
relationships
Relationships with
19.9/4.8 17.9/4.2 15.7/4.9 15.2/4.5 9.9** 82.9*** F(1, 466) = 5.32*
teachers2
Relationships with
8.6/3.6 7.7/4.0 6.3/2.9 5.8/2.6 7.7** 74.4*** F(1, 480) = 0.67
other students2
Pro-social behaviour
9.0/3.0 8.1/3.2 7.1/3.0 6.8/2.7 6.1* 45.6*** F(1, 477) = 2.87
of classmates2
Fairness of the rules
19.5/5.1 18.8/4.6 15.9/5.2 16.7/5.0 0.004 47.1*** F(1, 480) = 6.5*
of behaviour2
Parents’ relation-
ships with the 4.7/2.1 4.9/2.4 3.8/1.9 3.6/1.9 2.3 51.7*** F(1, 474) = 0.37
school2
Bullied by school-
2.4/1.4 1.5/0.9 1.8/1.1 1.3/0.8 69.9*** 24.6*** F(1, 482) = 2.06
mates2
Participated in bul-
1.9/1.1 1.5/0.9 1.7/0.9 1.4/0.8 20.3** 5.3* F(1, 482) = 1.01
lying2
Perceived learning
environment
Study load1 2.0/0.7 2.1/0.7 2.5/0.6 2.5/0.8 0.1 59.3% F(1, 616) = 1.61
School’s develop-
1.8/0.6 1.9/0.6 2.1/0.6 2.0/0.7 0.03 24.3*** F(1, 622) = 2.77
ment2
Enjoyment of class-
2.1/0.6 2.1/0.6 1.7/0.6 1.7/0.6 0.1 85.2*** F(1, 607) = 0.04
room lessons
Help from the
3.1/0.8 3.1/0.8 2.4/0.9 2.5/0.8 0.2 97.1*** F(1, 617) = 0.82
school2
Perceived academic
performance
Average grade1 4.1/0.7 3.9/0.65 4.2/0.65 4.0/0.61 12.6*** 4.4** F(1, 464) =1.65
¹ a higher result shows a better situation; ² a lower result shows a better situation.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Statistical differences based on well-being groups were apparent for all studied 605
indicators; the most significant difference occurred between the help obtained from school and
the enjoyment of classroom lessons, as well as between the relationships with teachers and
with other students, showing a significantly better perceived situation in the group of high well-
being. There is also a clear difference between the age groups with high and low well-being,
indicating that the relationships with teachers are better and there is more pro-social behavior
of classmates in the 9th year compared to the 6th year. Relationships with teachers also indicate
the interaction between age group and the well-being group, referring to a larger difference
between the average scores of the age groups in the low well-being group and highlighting that
the relationships with teachers are better in the high well-being group and in the 9th year.
Differences independent from the age group were apparent between well-being groups
concerning two indicators of the perceived school relationships – the fairness of the rules of
behaviour, and the parents’ relationship with the school – and concerning all indicators of the
perceived learning environment – the study load, the school’s development, the enjoyment of
classroom lessons, and the help obtained from school. There were no differences between age
groups concerning the fairness of the rules of behaviour. Yet, the analysis of well-being groups
highlighted the interaction between the age group and the well-being group – the high well-
being group of the 6th year perceived the rules of behaviour as more fair and the same year’s low
well-being group as less fair than the relevant groups in the 9th year.
School-Related Factors Predicting Well-Being
All 12 variables were included as independent variables in the multiple regression

analysis, in order to determine the school-related factors predicting the students’ well-being
in the 6th and the 9th year. For 6th year students, their well-being was predicted by (Table 2):
relationships with teachers, relationships with other students, help obtained from the school, and
parents’ relationships with the school; the latter is in the model as a statistically non-significant
predictor. The model describes 23% of the variance.
Table 2. The regression model of school-related factors predicting the subjective

well-being of 6th year students.
St. error of
Variable BETA B St. error of B t (828)
BETA
Intercept 26.76 .84 31.78***
Relationships with teachers -.28 .05 -.28 .05 -5.53***
Relationships with other students -.15 .05 -.24 .07 -3.37***
Help obtained from the school -.15 .05 -.83 .28 -2.99**
Parents’ relationships with the school -.07 .05 -.21 .13 -1.60
R² = 0.24; adjusted R² = 0.23 ; p < .000; n = 408;
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
For the 9th year students, the same school-related factors predicting well-being were
apparent (Table 3): help obtained from the school, relationships with other students, relationships
with teachers, and parents’ relationships with the school. The model describes 19% of the
variance.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
606 Table 3. The regression model of school-related factors predicting the subjective
well-being of the 9th year students.
St. error of St. error

Variable BETA B t (828)
BETA of B
Intercept 25.56 .60 42.40***
Help obtained from the school -.22 .05 -1.14 .27 -4.18***
Relationships with other students -.20 .05 -.28 .07 -4.12***
Relationships with teachers -.15 .05 -.14 .05 -2.83**
Parents’ relationships with the school -.06 .05 -.14 .11 -1.19
R² = .20; adjusted R² = 0.19; F(4, 395) = 24.41; p < .000; n = 400
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
When comparing the regression models of the 6th and the 9th year, the models are similar
concerning both variables and the descriptive capacity (23% of variance for the 6th year, 19%
for the 9th year); the student’s relationships with teachers are the most significant predictor and
the parents’ relationships with the school are the least significant predictor in both models.
A difference can be noted for the 9th year as an increase of the significance of help obtained
from the school. Support from classmates is not a predictor for either age group; yet, a wider
indicator of social relations i.e. relationships with other students are.
Discussion
This research focuses on the relationship between the students’ subjective well-being and
the specific school-related factors. The data analysis was centered on different dispersions; the
relationships of the factors of perceived school relationships, perceived learning environment
and academic performance to the student’s well-being were observed.
The analysis highlighted the factors differentiating between well-being groups and the
factors predicting well-being. The factors differentiating between well-being groups were
divided into factors related with the age group and factors independent from it. The school-
related factors independent from the age group, differentiating high well-being group from the
low well-being group, were the help obtained from the school, the enjoyment of the classroom
lessons, the parent’s better relationships with the school, the perceived school’s development,
and the fairness of the school’s rules. The differences resulting from the age group indicate to the
more positive assessment of school-related factors in the older age group – better relationships
with teachers and other students, less bullying behaviour, more pro-social relationships with
classmates. In the dynamics of school relationships, changes at the level of both classroom
and school-level relationships take place upon transitioning to the third stage of education. On
the one hand, it is related with changes taking place in the teaching culture, as an individual
approach is replaced with engaging and instructing the entire class as a whole. On the other
hand, the relationship changes stem from the fact that in the middle stage of adolescent years,
dyad-based relationships are replaced with group relationships while social comparison and
mutual competition are becoming more important. Also, relationships with “other important”
adults like e.g. teachers gain importance, because at that stage of development, adolescents try
to distance themselves from their parents (Di Stasio, Savage & Burgos, 2016).
A decrease of bullying behaviour upon transitioning from the early to the middle stage
of adolescence is also highlighted by Troop-Gordon (2017), and it was also shown by the study
of health behaviour among 11 to 15 years old Estonian students (Aasvee, et al., 2016). One
of the reasons for the reduction in bullying behaviour may also be the drop-out of students,
incl. those connected to bullying, from the school at that age, which in turn may be related
with the phenomenon that teenagers find companions at school on the basis of similarity to

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
themselves, e.g. on the basis of their school engagement (Kindermann, 2007). This research 607
does not discuss the backgrounds of bullying behaviour, but there seems to be an important
connection with a study by Di Stasio et al. (2016), which indicates that at the middle adolescent
age, bullying behaviour at school is more related to relationships outside the classroom. This
may also explain the results showing higher main effect of the well-being group in the case
of the relationship with other students, while the pro-social behaviour of classmates remained
a less important factor and differentiator of well-being groups. The impact of school-related
relationships outside the classroom to the well-being has been indicated by several earlier
studies (Danielson, Samdal, Hetland & Wold, 2009; Uusitalo-Malmivaara, 2012; Casas, et al.,
2013; Newland et al., 2015). Eccles and Roeser (2011) stress the effect of a same-age group in
the school environment on adolescents’ behaviour and their personal and social identity. The
importance of the relationships with schoolmates, as found in this research, indicates that more
research of social relationships at various levels (school, classroom) in the school environment
should be conducted while clearly differentiating between them.
Based on the research results, a connection related to well-being can be highlighted –
students establish relationships supportive of well-being not only within their own classroom,
and it is rather the wider communication culture at school that supports a student’s well-
being. Within this research, the wider impact of the school is also indicated by the result that
obtaining help from the school (the school’s pro-social organization) is more important for the
student’s well-being than the pro-social behaviour of classmates and is also a more important
factor differentiating between the low and the high well-being group. This brings into focus
the school’s willingness and capability to offer the students help corresponding to their needs.
This result is also supported in a research by Renshaw, Long and Cook (2014), which also
highlighted that the subjective well-being of students is affected by both the school’s social
support and the school’s pro-social organization. The fairness of the school’s rules of behavior
(which can be conditionally classified as an indicator of the school’s pro-social organisation)
also turned out to be an important characteristic differentiating between well-being groups,
although it was not a predictor of the students’ well-being.
The current research highlighted a similar regression model predicting subjective well-
being in the both age groups, describing 23% of the variance for the 6th year and 19% of the
variance for the 9th year. In both age groups, students’ relationships with teachers and obtaining
of help from the school were shown to be important predictors of well-being as it also been
found by several other authors (Suldo et al., 2008; Suldo et al., 2009; Bird et al., 2012; Simmons
et al., 2015). The third important predictor was the student’s relationships with schoolmates,
drawing attention to the school-related relationships’ quality of valuing one’s person. In
adolescence, various interpersonal relationships are important, and friendships may no longer
be related to classmates only but to wider school-related connections instead. Adolescents with
more interpersonal relationships feel themselves less lonely, they have fewer negative emotions
and they use more social support (Lennarz et al., 2016).
The fourth predictor in the model was the parents’ relationships with the school, which
was also an indicator differentiating between the well-being groups. In the regression model of
the 9th year, the parents’ relationships with the school were a statistically important predictor.
This hints at the importance of the parents’ engagement with the school not only in the younger
age group where the parents’ help in and knowledge of the school’s matters is considered natural
and necessary. The parents’ school engagement was also an important predictor of the students’
well-being in a study by Suldo et al. (2008). In that study, engagement was considered to be the
communication between the school and the home and the parents’ visits to the school.
Several studies indicate that school-related subjective well-being is not a value in and
of itself, instead affecting significantly the students’ adaptation, academic performance, school
behaviour and the satisfaction of their main psychological needs at school (Elmore, 2007;
Huebner et al., 2006). Tian et al. (2015) stresses the interactive role of social contexts and
personal factors in affecting the well-being of adolescents. The notes and interpretations by the

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
608 students themselves are critical mediators of school-related factors and the students’ feelings,
beliefs and behaviour (Eccles et al., 2011). The knowledge about which factors of the school
environment influence the students’ well-being at the classroom and the school level, help the
school as an institution make a sustainable contribution to the assessment and improvement of
precisely those aspects.
Conclusions
As of from 2010, Estonian education system has been paying more attention to students’
well-being, precisely through national measures. The results of this research demonstrate
which factors of the school environment should be constantly assessed and focused on. The
knowledge about the factors supporting the well-being of different age groups at the classroom
and the wider school level enables to plan interventions and changes in the school environment
for positive empowerment of the students. Undoubtedly, the student’s well-being is also
significantly affected by personal and other contextual factors. Nevertheless, the results of the
research clearly show that the key aspect to the student’s well-being is the school’s capability
to offer help corresponding to the student’s needs, to support the teachers’ coping with the
multitude of relationships, and to find a way to communicate the school’s values to the parents
on the basis of their child’s contribution to the school’s functioning.
It would be needed to continue the research, focusing on the possibilities of receiving
support from the school and improving relations in the school environment, involving both
students and the specialists of the support system of the schools as target groups.
References
Aasvee, K., Liiv, K., Eha, M., Oja, l., Härm, T., & Streiman, K. (2016). Eesti kooliõpilaste tervisekäitumise
uuring. 2013/2014. õppeaasta uuringu raport [Health behaviour of Estonian school-aged children.
Study report of 2013/2014 study year]. Tallinn: Tervise Arengu Instituut.
Bird, J. M., & Markel, R. S. (2012). Subjective well-being in school environments: Promoting positive
youth development through evidence-based assessment and intervention. American Journal of
Ortopsychiatry, 82 (1), 61–66.
Carli, V., Wasserman, C., Wasserman, D., Sarchiapone, M., Apter, A., Balazs, J.,…Hoven, C. W. (2013).
The saving and empowering young lives in Europe (SEYLE) randomized controlled trial (RCT):
Methodological issues and participant characteristics. BMC Public Health, 13, 479. DOI:
10.1186/1471-2458-13-479.
Casas, F., Baltatescu, S., Bertran, I., Gonzalez, M., & Hatos, A. (2013). School satisfaction among
adolescents: Testing different indicators for its measurement and its relationship with overall life
satisfaction and subjective well-being in Romania and Spain. Social Indicator Research, 111,
665–681.
Danielson, A. G., Samdal, O., Hetland, J., & Wold, B. (2009). School-related support and student
perceived life satisfaction. The Journal of Educational Research, 102, 303-320.
De Wit M., Pouwer, F., Gemke, R. J. B. J., Delemarre van de Waal, H. A., & Snoek, F. J. (2007). Validation
of the WHO-5 Well-Being Index in adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 30 (8), 2003-
2006.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well- being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542-575.
Di Stasio, M. R., Savage, R., & Burgos, G. (2016). Social comparison, competition and teacher-student
relationships in junior high school classrooms predicts bullying and victimization. Journal of
Adolescence, 53, 207-216.
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2011). Schools as developmental contexts during adolescence. Journal of
Research on Adolescence, 21 (1), 225-241.
Elmore, R. (2007). School reform from the inside out: Policy practice and performance. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Education Press.
Engels, N., Aelterman, A., Petegem, K., & Schepens, A. (2004). Factors with influence the well-being of
pupils in Flemish Secondary Schools. Educational Studies, 30, 127-144.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Gilman, R., Huebner, E.S. (2006). Characteristics of adolescents who report very high life satisfaction. 609
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 311-319.
Gobina, I., Zaborskis, A., Pudule, I., Kalnins, I., & Villerusa, A. (2008). Bulying and subjective health
among adolescents at school in Latvia and Lithuania. International Journal of Public Health, 53,
272-276.
Holfve-Sabel, M-A. (2014). Learning, interaction and relationships as components of student well-being:
Differences between classes from student and teacher perspective. Social Indicator Research, 119,
1535-1555.
Huebner, E. S. (1994). Preliminary development and validation of a multidimensional life satisfaction
scale for children. Psychological Assessment, 6, 149-158.
Huebner, E. S., Gilman, R., Reschly, A. L., & Hall, R. (2009). Positive schools. In S. J. Lopez, &
C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd Ed.) (pp. 561-578). Oxford:
University Press.
Huebner, E. S., Suldo, S. M., & Gilman, R. (2006). Life satisfaction. In G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds.),
Children’s needs: Part III. Development, prevention, and intervention (pp. 357–368). Bethesda,
MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Ilves, K. (2013). Laps hariduses ja noorsootöös [Child in education and youth work]. Rmt. Heinsaar, J.
(Toim.), Laste heaolu (lk. 84-106). [Children’s Well-being].Tallinn: Statistikaamet.
Inchley, J., Currie, D., Taryn, Y., Samdal, O., Torbjorn, T., Augustson, L.,…Barnekow, V. (2016). Health
behaviour in school-aged children HBSC study. International Report from the 2013/0214 survey.
World Health Organization.
Karu, M., Turk, P., Suvi, H., & Biin, H. (2012). Lapse õiguste ja vanemluse monitooring. Laste ja
täiskasvanute küsitluse kokkuvõte [Child rights and parenthood monitoring. Summary of children
and adult survey]. Tallinn: Poliitikauuringute Keskus Praxis.
Kindermann, T. A. (2007). Effects of naturally existing peer groups on changes in academic engagement
in a cohort of sixth graders. Child Development, 78 (4), 1186 – 1203.
Konu, A. I., Lintonen, T. P., & Rimpelä, M. K. (2002). Factors associated with schoolchildren`s general
subjective well-being. Health Education Research, 2, 155-165.
Konu, A. I., & Lintonen, T. P. (2006). School well-being in Grades 4-12. Health Education Research, 21
(5), 633- 642.
Laes, T-L., Krusell, S. Reinomägi, A., Toros, K. (2013). Lapsed eri keskkondades [Children in different
environments]. Rmt. Heinsaar. J (Toim.), Laste heaolu (lk. 13-30). [Children’s Well-being].
Tallinn: Statistikaamet.
Lennarz, H. K., Roekel, E., Kuntsche, E., Lichtwarck-Aschoff, A., Hollenstein, T., Engels, R. C. M.
E., & Granic, I. (2016). Associations between interpersonal relationships and negative affect in
adolescents: An experience sampling study on the role of trait coping. Swiss Journal of Psychology,
75 (2), 71-79.
Li, Y., & Lerner, R. M. (2011). Trajectors of school engagement during adolescence: Implications for
grade, depression, delinquency, and substance use. Developmental Psychology, 47, 233–347.
doi:10.1037/a0021307.
Liu, W., Mei, J., Tian, L., & Huebner, S. E. (2016). Age and Gender Differences in the relation between
school-related social support and subjective well-being in school among students. Social Indicator
Research, 3, 1065-1083.
Lumiste, K. (2011). Seyle õpilaste ja õpetajate baasuuringu tulemused. Vaimne tervis ja riskikäitumine
[Results of the baseline survey on students and teachers at Seyle. Mental health and risk behaviour].
Tallinn: Eesti-Rootsi Vaimse tervise ja Suitsidioloogia Instituut.
Lewis, A. D., Huebner E. S., Malone., P. S., & Valois, R. F. (2011). Life satisfaction and student
engagement in adolescents. Journal Youth and Adolescence, 40, 249-262.
Newland, L.A., Lawler, J.M., Giger, J.T., Roh, S. & Carr, E.R. (2015). Predictors of children’s subjective
well- being in rural communities. Child Indicator Research, 1 (8), 177–198.
Noble, T., McGrath, H., Wyatt, T., Carbines, R., & Robb, E. (2008). Scoping study into approaches to
student wellbeing. Australia: Australian Catholic University.
Pilkauskaite-Valickiene, R., & Gabrilaviciute, I. (2015). The role of school context on
subjective well-being and social well-being in adolescence. Procedia-Social and Behavioural
Sciences, 191 (2), 2588-2592.
Renshaw, T. L., Long, A.C., & Cook, C.R. (2014). Assessing adolescents' positive psychological
functioning at school: Development and validation of the Student Subjective Wellbeing
Questionnaire. School Psychology Quarterly, 30 (4), 534-552.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
610 Rüütel, E., & Pill, E. (2008). Õpilase elu-olu 1998–2007. Küsitluse KOOLITUGI kokkuvõte [A student’s
life 1998-2007. Summary of the survey SCHOOL SUPPORT]. Tallinn: Tallinna Ülikool, Tallinna
Haridusamet.
Salmela-Aro, K., & Tuominen-Soini, H. (2010). Adolescents’ life satisfaction during the transition to
post-comprehensive education: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11,
683701.
Salmela-Aro, K., Moeller J., Schneider, B., Spicer, J., & Lavonen, J. (2016). Integrating the light and dark
sides of student engagement using person-oriented and situation-specific approaches. Learning
and Instruction, 43, 61-70.
Salmela-Aro, K., & Upadyaya, K. (2012). The schoolwork engagement inventory: Energy, dedication and
absorption (EDA). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28, 60–67.
Samdal, O., Nutbeam, D., Wold, B., & Kannas, L. (1998). Achieving health and educational goals through
schools: A study of the importance of the school climate and student`s satisfaction with school.
Health Education Research, 13, 383-397.
Simmons, A. C., Graham, A., & Thomas, N. (2015). Imagining an ideal school for wellbeing: Locating
student voice. Journal of Educational Change, 16 (2), 129-144.
Sisask, M., Värnik, A., Kõlves, K., Konstabel, K., & Wasserman, D. (2008). Subjective psychological
well-being (WHO-5) in assessment of the severity of suicide attempt. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry,
62, 431-435.
Soutter A. K. (2011). What can we learn about wellbeing in school? Journal of Student Wellbeing, 5 (1),
1–21.
Suldo, S. M., Shaffer, E.J., & Riley, K. N. (2008). A social-cognitivebehavioral model of academic
predictors of adolescents’ life satisfaction. School Psychology Quarterly, 23, 56.
Suldo, S. M., Friedrich, A.F., White, T., Farmer, J., Minch, D., & Michalowski, J. (2009). Teacher support
and adolescent`s subjective well- being: A mixed-methods investigation. School Psychology
Review, 38, 67-85.
Tian, L. (2008). Developing scale for school well-being in adolescents. Psychology Development and
Education, 3 (24), 100-107.
Tian, L., Chen, H., & Huebner, E. S. (2014). The longitudinal relationships between basic psychological
needs satisfaction at school and school-related subjective well-being in adolescents. Social
Indicator Research, 119, 353–372.
Tian, L., Liu, B., Huang, S., & Huebner, E. S (2013). Perceived social support and school well-being
among Chinese early and middle adolescents: The mediational role of self-esteem. Social
Indicators Research, 113 (3), 991-1008.
Tian, L., Zhao, J., & Huebner, E. S. (2015). School-related social support and subjective well-being in
school among adolescents: The role of self-system factors. Journal of AdolescenceJournal of
Adolescence, 45, 138–148.
Topp, C. W., Østergaard, S.D., Søndergaard, S., & Bech P. (2015). The WHO-5 Well-Being Index: A
systematic review of the literature. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 84, 167–176. DOI:
10.1159/000376585.
Troop-Gordon, W. (2017). Peer victimization in adolescence: The nature, progression, and consequences
of being bullied within a developmental context. Journal of Adolescence, 55, 116-128.
Tiliouine, H. (2015). School bylling victimisation and subjective well-being in Algeria. Child Indicator
Research, 8, 113-150.
Uusitalo-Malmivaara, L. (2012). Global and school-related happiness in Finnish children. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 13, 601-619.
WHO (1998). World Health Organization info package: Mastering depression in primary care.
Frederiksborg: World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Psychiatric Research
Unit. http://www.gp-training.net/protocol/psychiatry/who/whodep.htm.
Yallop K, McDowell H, Koziol-McLain, & Reed P. W. (2013). Self-reported psychosocial wellbeing
of adolescent childhood cancer survivors. European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 17, 711-719.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Received: November 08, 2017 Accepted: December 16, 2017 611
Marika Ratnik Lecturer, School of Natural Sciences and Health of Tallinn University, Estonia.
E-mail: marika.ratnik@mail.ee
Website: www.tlu.ee
Eha Rüütel Professor, School of Natural Sciences and Health of Tallinn University, Estonia.
E-mail: eha@tlu.ee
Website: www.tlu.ee

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
612
IMPLEMENTING THE COMPUTER-BASED
NATIONAL EXAMINATION
IN INDONESIAN SCHOOLS: THE
CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES
Heri Retnawati, Samsul Hadi, Ariadie C. Nugraha
Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia
E-mail: heri_retnawati@uny.ac.id, samsul_hd@uny.ac.id, ariadie@uny.ac.id
Janu Arlinwibowo
Muhammadiyah Health Sciences School of Kudus, Indonesia
E-mail: januarlinwibowo@windowslive.com
Eny Sulistyaningsih, Hasan Djidu, Ezi Apino, Heni D. Iryanti

Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia
E-mail: enylistya@gmail.com, hasandjidu@gmail.com,
apino_ezi@gmail.com, heni.iryanti@gmail.com
Abstract
In line with technological development, the computer-based national examination (CBNE) has become
an urgent matter as its implementation faces various challenges, especially in developing countries.
Strategies in implementing CBNE are thus needed to face the challenges. The aim of this research was to
analyse the challenges and strategies of Indonesian schools in implementing CBNE. This research was
qualitative phenomenological in nature. The data were collected through a questionnaire and a focus
group discussion. The research participants were teachers who were test supervisors and technicians at
junior high schools and senior high schools (i.e. Level 1 and 2) and vocational high schools implementing
CBNE in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The data were analysed using the Bogdan and Biklen model. The results
indicate that (1) in implementing CBNE, the schools should initially make efforts to provide the electronic
equipment supporting it; (2) the implementation of CBNE is challenged by problems concerning the
Internet and the electricity supply; (3) the test supervisors have to learn their duties by themselves
and (4) the students are not yet familiar with the beneficial use of information technology. To deal with
such challenges, the schools employed strategies by making efforts to provide the standard electronic
equipment through collaboration with the students’ parents and improving the curriculum content by
adding information technology as a school subject.
Keywords: computer-based national examination, challenges in implementing CBNE, strategies for
implementing CBNE.

Introduction
Each level of schools needs to conduct an evaluation in order to know the extent of the
learning objective is attained. This evaluation is not only conducted by the school but also
by the government. One of evaluation forms conducted by the Indonesian government is the
national examination for students at the final year of each level of education. According to
the Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia No.5
Year 2015, the national examination is the activity of nationally measuring and evaluating the
attainment of passing competence in a certain school subject (Mendikbud, 2015). This national

Heri RETNAWATI, Samsul HADI, Ariadie C. NUGRAHA, Janu ARLINWIBOWO, Eny SULISTYANINGSIH, Hasan DJIDU, Ezi APINO,
Heni D. IRYANTI. Implementing the computer-based national examination in Indonesian schools: The challenges and strategies
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
examination also has a role in sustaining the educational process as an important instrument for 613
evaluating students’ competence (Bichi & Musa, 2015). Nitko and Brookhart (2011) state that
the occurrence of an evaluation process is employed to obtain information to use to make a
decision related to students, curriculum, learning programs, and educational policy. Therefore,
the national examination as one of the evaluation forms in education has a very important role
in education aspects around the world. Particularly in Indonesia, the national examination today
no longer serves as the sole determining factor in student graduation, but rather, it serves to map
the quality of the learning program and/or the school as stated in the Government Regulation of
the Republic of Indonesia No.13 Year 2015. It is widely accepted that the results of the national
examination can give a clear picture about the reality of education in Indonesia including the
programs being run and other things related to educational systems. This educational mapping
can help portray the condition of education in Indonesia in more detail and thus some follow-
up actions can be further taken to improve it. This is in line with what has been explained by
Bichi and Musa (2015) that evaluation in education is a process of collecting information of
students’ learning and performance to improve education, help measure students’ competence
in acquiring certain behaviour or specific knowledge of certain topics, and become the basis for
ascertaining the quality of education at all levels.
However, the implementation of the previous national examination in Indonesia is
inefficient and time-consuming. A lengthy process has been required to determine the results
of the exam. Meanwhile, the development of this new era along with the development of
technology today also have a significant impact on administering the national examination.
The great demand for quick results has urged the need for technology utilization in it. The
utilization of technology for the national examination in Indonesia can make the execution
more effective, particularly in test distribution to schools in regions far from the city centre.
The technological advancement for the national examination in Indonesia is then realized in
the form of Computer-Based National Examination (CBNE) or also known as the national
examination of Computer-Based Test (CBT) system. CBNE is a computer-based test whose
item selection and presentation are administered in a computerized manner in which the test
takers are given a different package of test items each (BSNP, 2015). In this test, students will
no longer use a paper-based version, but rather, they completely use a computer-based system
already programmed to get the results faster.
Indonesia began to administer the CBNE in the academic year of 2014/2015
(Mendikbud, 2015). It was only conducted by particular schools in some regions that fulfilled
the predetermined criteria for administering CBNE. The schools administering CBNE at this
initial stage are called CBNE-pilot schools. Today, more schools of junior high school (JHS)
and senior high school (SHS) levels (Level 1 and 2) and vocational high schools (VHS) have
already used the CBNE system. The limited number of schools administering CBNE is due to
the reality that not all schools fulfil the predetermined requirements or criteria. According to
the Agency of National Educational Standards (BSNP, 2015), the schools administering the
national examination with a computer-based system have to previously submit a statement
to confirm their willingness to participate as a test executor. The next step is checking by a
verification team to make sure that the schools are well-equipped with facilities and resources
needed.
Concerning technical requirements, schools administering CBNE are required to provide
computers with the minimum specifications for both server and client computers (main and
reserve), an Internet connection network with a minimum bandwidth of 1 Mbps and a Local
Area Network (LAN). The server computer (main and reserve) devices are PC/tower/desktop
(not laptop); accessible port 80; 4 core processor with a frequency of 1.6 GHz; the RAM is 8
GB at the minimum; the operating system (of 64 bytes) is Windows Server 8/Windows 7/Linux;
there are two units of LAN CARD; the UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) which can last
for 15 minutes; the number of server computers is according to the ratio of 1:40 (i.e., 1 server

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
614 computer is for 40 client computers, at the maximum); and there is at least one reserve server
computer. Meanwhile, the main and reserve client computers should meet several requirements
as follows: PCs or laptops with, at the minimum, monitors of 12 inch, processors of one core
with a frequency of 1 GHz; a RAM of 512 MB; the operating system is, at the least, Windows
XP installed as .NET Framework 3.5; the web browser is, at the minimum, Chrome with copied
Exambro (the browser application from the educational evaluation centre for CBNE); the
minimum number of client computers is according to the ratio of 1:3 (i.e., 1 client computer
for 3 participants); the reserve client computers are at least 10%; and headsets/earphones are
provided (for the listening examination at senior high school). For the LAN hardware, the
requirements are cables at least CAT5E 10/100/1000; each server with 1 switch and at least
24ports; a bandwidth of 1 Mbps dedicated; the IP made static (the determination of the IP being
made by the central executor); and at least 1 reserve unit. Besides, in general, UPS at least for
server for 2 hours long and a generator set (or genset) for all the electronic equipment used in
CBNE should be provided (Kemendikbud, 2017).
Schools that offer themselves to administer CBNE should fulfil the criteria not only
related to computer facilities but also related to human resources. They should have at least one
test supervisor, one technician, and room supervisors as needed who fulfil the criteria stated
in the standard operational procedure (SOP) of the national examination. The criteria for test
supervisors are as follows: they are teachers or educational personnel at a school who possess
competence in information and communication technology; they have attended a relevant
training or have served as a test supervisor in CBNE; they are willing to be assigned as test
supervisors at schools administering CBNE; and they do not refuse to sign a pact of integrity.
The criteria for technicians are as follows: they are teachers or educational personnel who
have knowledge, skill, and experience in managing the school LAN; they have attended a
relevant preparatory program or have served as a CBNE technician; and they are willing to sign
a pact of integrity. Meanwhile, the criteria for supervisors are as follows: they are disciplined,
honest, careful and responsible teachers who are able to keep something in confidentiality; they
are in a healthy condition and able to supervise a national examination; they are not teachers
of the subjects being supervised in the examination; they are not from the schools of CBNE
participant; and they are willing to sign a pact of integrity (BSNP, 2017).
Although there is an increasingly greater number of schools that implement CBNE every
year, the implementation still faces various problems. In general, the geographical condition
of Indonesia becomes a crucial factor which can trigger those problems. As widely known,
Indonesia consists of thousands of islands with diverse natural landscapes including the
lowlands near the coast, the highlands and also large areas of hills stretching across regions
in Indonesian. Indeed, the diversity of Indonesian geographical features can be a constraint in
implementing CBNE. For example, there are some challenges in the provision of computers,
internet connection and other facilities required for CBNE implementation. The weather
condition that is occasionally unpredictable, such as heavy rain with thunder and lightning
occurring in the daytime when CBNE is in progress, can disrupt or even damage the computer
system and internet connection. As a developing country, Indonesia has not maximized
technology utilization yet in many aspects of life. Internet connectivity is also a big challenge
here because it is still unevenly distributed to all over regions in Indonesia, especially remote
areas. Besides the constraints of internet access, the stability of electricity supply also becomes
another challenge in administering CBNE (Sanni & Muhammad, 2015). Similarly, the stability
of the electricity in Indonesia is also limited, especially in remote regions. Another constraint
of CBNE implementation in Indonesia is the social condition of its society. People in particular
regions in Indonesia do not completely have awareness about the importance of education for
their life, and thus, do not really care about matters supporting their children’s education.
Regardless the various constraints faced in administering CBNE, there are some results
of research comparing a paper-based national examination with a computer-based national
examination. A study conducted by Retnawati (2015) indicates that a paper/pencil-based test

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
and a computer-based test generally do not differ significantly in results and both of them do not 615
influence the characteristics of the testing medium used. In addition, results of a study conducted
by Piaw (2012) show that a computer-based national examination can be used to replace a
paper-based national examination in testing at educational institutions. Similar findings are also
given by Horchlehnert, Brass, Moeltner, & Juenger (2011) through a study which reveals that
a computer-based examination and a paper-based national examination for students of health
sciences give the same result, by implication, a computer-based examination can be used as
a good method to do written examination efficiently and fairly. Furthermore, a psychometric
test using a computer-based model also gives the same result as that using the paper/pencil-
based model (Baumer, Roded, & Gafni, 2009). The advantages of computer-based testing are:
it is efficient; it improves students’ self-efficacy and motivation (Chua, 2012), and students have
positive attitude toward CBT (Dammas, 2016).
Research Aim
Along with the development of this technological era, the various constraints in
administering CBNE are expected to be well overcome and anticipated. It is because CBNE is
necessary to be conducted even though its implementation still faces various challenges at the
moment. The research concerned here was therefore particularly to analyse the challenges and
strategies of Indonesian schools in the CBNE implementation.
Researcher Role

In this research, the researchers acted as observers during the CBNE implementation.
They investigated the phenomena of challenges faced by schools and their strategies in
implementing CBNE. By using a questionnaire and a focus group discussion, the researchers
collected the data, recorded them in field notes and then analysed them. The researchers then
made the conclusion based on their understanding of the existing phenomena.
Type of the Research
This research is qualitative phenomenological in nature. The type of this research

is descriptive-exploratory research. The phenomenon described in this research was the
challenges faced by JHSs, SHSs, and VHSs in implementing CBNE. The challenges in the
CBNE implementation were examined from several points including the equipment, the
human resources, the test takers (students), and the environment. This research also analysed
the strategies used by the schools in implementing CBNE so that the examination could run
smoothly.
Time and Scope of Research
This research was conducted from February to August 2017. It involved schools
implementing CBNE in the Special Territory of Yogyakarta. There were two school levels
both public and private schools including: (1) Junior High Schools (JHS) and (2) Senior High
Schools (SHS) and Vocational High Schools (VHS). These schools were representative of
schools located in urban and rural areas.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
616 Data and Participants
The data were collected by using a focus group discussion (FGD). The FGD was held
one time. Before the FGD was held, the participants were required to fill in an open-ended
questionnaire. This questionnaire included a number of items related to the sets of hardware
(the server, the reserve server, and the client computers), the topology of a computer network,
stability of the Internet connection, availability of electricity supply, the application setting
(program installation, synchronization with the central system, and the running of Exambro),
troubleshooting when administering CBNE, checking whether the students’ answers had been
already sent to the central server, the preparedness of the test supervisors, technicians, and the
participants (students) of CBNE try-out and implementation, and the security for test equipment
for several shifts of CBNE implementation. The questionnaire items were developed according
to the requirements needed for the CBNE implementation synthesised from the theoretical
review. The participants’ responses to the questionnaire were then discussed in the FGD. In-
depth interviews were also held when further clarification about the FGD data was needed.
Using the data obtained from the Educational Department of Yogyakarta about schools
implementing the CBNE, 45 schools were invited to join the FGD. For each educational level,
there were 15 schools including 10 public schools and 5 private schools located in urban and
rural areas. There was one test supervisor and one technician for each school. Among 45
schools, there were 35 schools attending the FGD, consisting of 35 test supervisors (P1-P35)
and 33 technicians (T1-T33) as the research participants of this study. They came from 11
JHSs, 12 SHSs, and 12 VHSs in Yogyakarta. The participants had at least one-year experience
in implementing the CBNE at their schools (consisting of four series of activities, i.e. three
simulations and one real CBNE implementation).
Data Analysis
The data obtained from the FGD were qualitative in nature consisting of various challenges
and strategies in implementing the CBNE. The data were recorded in field notes and analysed
through data reduction. The results were then presented in tables and re-examined to identify
their subthemes. Afterwards, the data were analysed using a model developed by Bogdan &
Biklen (1982) to determine the inter-theme relations and gain more detail understanding. The
results of this analysis were used to understand the phenomenon of challenges and strategies in
implementing the CBNE in JHSs, SHSs and VHSs.
The researcher informed the FGD participants of this research which was conducted to
obtain their opinions about the CBNE implementation and strategies to overcome the challenges.
This information can be used in other test locations. It can be also used to capture improved
inputs, especially for educational policy makers in order to implement CBNE much better. To
maintain the credibility of the data in this study, the name of the schools and the participants
(test supervisors and technicians) involved in this study had been identified with pseudonyms,
and all the data had been kept confidential as part of the research ethics procedures.
Results of Research
The implementation of CBNE at a number of schools in Indonesia still faces various

constraints. However, the schools can use various strategies to overcome the constraints. The
challenges and strategies are explained in detail as follows.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Challenges of CBNE Implementation 617
In 2017, all JHSs and VHSs in Yogyakarta had already implemented CBNE. To implement
CBNE, the schools must have adequate facilities so that the computer-based examination
system could run well. However, facts in the field indicated that many schools were faced
with constraints in their efforts to fulfil the requirements of facilities which meet the minimum
standards determined by the government. The mapping of challenges in facility requirements
for CBNE implementation found in this research are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Challenges in fulfilling facility requirements for CBNE.
Challenges Theme Inter-Theme Relation
The server computers are expensive.

Many schools do not yet have
Some schools do not have standard server computers
ideal server computers as
yet.
recommended by BSNP.
The number of server computers is limited.
The computers in the school laboratory are already The problems related to
old-fashioned. The number and specification the availability of comput-
of client computers become ers which do not meet
The specifications of the client computers do not meet
constraints in administering the standards and limited
the standards.
CBNE. rooms influence the ratio
The number of client computers is limited.
of server computers to
The room area is limited. client computers, the
Limited space influences the placement layout of
It is difficult to realize the ideal distance from one ratio of the server computers computers, and the cal-
computer to the other. to the client computers and culation of the electricity
The computers in the school laboratory are perma- the ideal computer layout. power required.
nently positioned.
A great quantity of electricity power is required.
Many schools are constrained
There is difficult access to electricity in particular by electricity power and
schools. stability.
There are rolling blackouts.
The availability of computers fulfilled the standards, sufficient rooms, and electricity
become the main assets that should be possessed by the schools in implementing CBNE.
However, the fact is that there are many constraints encountered by the schools in providing
the aforementioned three components as required. The first constraint is the availability of
computers. The school should provide computers as the server and client with the minimum
specifications as follows: the server computer is a PC/tower/desktop in type (i.e., not a laptop)
with a Xeon or i5 processor, a RAM of 8 GB, a hard disk of 250 GB, and a UPS while the
client computer is a PC/laptop with a monitor of 12 inch in screen size, a dual core processor,
and a RAM of 512 MB. Another requirement is that 1 server computer accommodates 40 client
computers at most, there is at least one reserve server computer, one client computer could be
used by 3 participants at most, and there are reserve client computers of at least 10% in quantity.
Ideally, the need for server and client computers can be met by utilizing the computers already
available in the laboratories at the schools. However, the fact is that the majority of schools
do not have the computers with the specifications required and even if they have them, their
number could not match the number of CBNE participants needing them. The cost of server and
client computers is a heavy burden for the school because not only one computer unit is needed
to serve as a client computer. Rather, the number of the client computer units should be equal
with the number of the CBNE participants. Consequently, there are many schools which do
not have computers with the minimum specifications and numbers required for administering
CBNE.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
618 The second constraint is the availability of rooms. In some cases, the schools do not
have the building specifically provided for administering CBNE. Generally, the schools make
use of a laboratory or a classroom, but this strategy raises some problems. The first problem
is that the room area does not conform to the design for administering CBNE. This aspect is
crucial because it is closely related to the ratio of the client computers to the server computers.
The distance from one computer to the other is well arranged in order that participants cannot
communicate and see one another’s monitor screen (BSNP, 2017) or the distance is at least 1
meter (Kemdikbud, 2017). The limited server computer ownership makes the schools wish to
be able to administer CBNE with a server-client computer ratio of 1:40 in order that the number
of the server computers needed is as minimum as possible. However, having 1 server and 40
client computers in a room with the ideal distance from one computer to the other definitely
requires a very spacious room. According to the test supervisors, the laboratory commonly used
as the place for administering CBNE at schools could only accommodate 20 up to 36 client
computers on average. The second problem is related to the placement layout of computers. In
general, the schools make use of the computer laboratory to administer CBNE. Unfortunately,
the computers in the laboratory at some schools are permanently installed in fixed positions
and it is impossible to modify the layout. Therefore, the requirement for providing a classroom
seating arrangement model with no seat facing each other as exhorted by Kemdikbud (2017)
could not be realized at these schools.
The implementation of CBNE requires a good sufficient electric installation. Turning
on very large numbers of electronic devices simultaneously requires a great stable electric
power. Mostly the schools, which implement CBNE for the first time, attempt to upgrade
their electricity power in order that all the electronic devices turn on effectively. If the client
computers provided by the school use tube monitors, the electricity needed is extremely greater.
Another problem with the electricity occurs at some schools located on the provincial borders
because the access to electricity is relatively difficult. A very common trouble is a temporary
shutdown of electric power (or rolling blackout). This problem is a major worry for the school.
If such a blackout occurs when CBNE is being conducted, it will disrupt the process because all
the equipment used is based on electronic devices with electricity supply from PLN.
Stability of Internet networks and understanding of Exambro software greatly determine
whether CBNE runs smoothly. Table 2 presents the mapping of the challenges in the provision
of Internet networks and Exambro software. CBNE requires a good and stable Internet
connection. However, the fact is that even in Yogyakarta province, which is categorized as a
signal-rich zone, there are still regions whose stability in Internet connection is not sufficiently
conducive. According to a test supervisor, the Internet connection at his school tends to be slow
so that it is not sufficiently conducive for administering CBNE. To improve the quality of the
Internet connection, the school already makes efforts to propose the installation of networks
based on optical fibres but until CBNE is held, it has not been yet realized. School location also
influences the stability of the Internet connection. There are schools that are geographically
located in a mountainous region which is lightning-prone so that there is a great risk of network
damage to occur, as proven when the Internet connection was down during CBNE try out
because the device for Internet connection was hit by lightning.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Table 2. Challenges in providing internet networks and running the Exambro. 619
Challenges Theme Inter-Theme Relation
The geographical location of the school is not suf-

ficiently conducive. Many schools are constrained by
unstable Internet access.
The network at some schools is not stable.
The Exambro updating is too close to the day of The committee at

CBNE implementation. school should know
The committee at school should the potentials of the In-
Exambro cannot run compatibly with all browsers. understand and make adjustments ternet connection and
in order that the software runs well. understand Exambro
Windows OS does not all give support. well so that everything
could run smoothly
The central system is at times down.
When listening tasks are to be done, no sound is There are constraints caused by the
heard. central source.
Exambro could be minimized.
The constraints in operating the digital system in CBNE are divided in terms of two
sources, namely, the school local system and the central system. The constraints whose source
is the school local system are related to the OS (Operating System), the Exambro updating
process, and the web browser. The OS is the house of all the applications in the computer.
Using the newest OS version turns out to be not a guarantee of maximum performance of each
computer unit in CBNE. Each OS type or version has its own character, especially in relation
with specifications, in order to be able to run well. Some schools choose the OS Win10, which
is the newest OS version. At a JHS, however, the installation of Win10 in server computers did
not result in good collaboration with the CBNE system. The school decided to downgrade the
OS server to Win7. With the older OS version, it turned out that the server computer could run
well.
Exambro is the software used in administering CBNE. The software is updated in
accordance with a request from the central server so that the local server gets the newest version.
The problem that arises is that Exambro requires updating so often and its newest version
usually releases very closely to the timing of CBNE implementation. At an SHS, for example,
the Exambro updating was conducted closely to the day of CBNE implementation and this
greatly disturbed the preparation. The test supervisors and technicians had to work overtime to
complete the preparation and make sure that all the systems ran well with the newest Exambro
version.
The last constraint coming from the school local system is the choice of web browser.
As stated in the manual of CBNE implementation (Kemdikbud, 2017), Exambro would be
optimum in performance if using the library application web browser ‘Google Chrome.’
However, in practice, many schools were often constrained in choosing the web browser. A
test supervisor at a VHS stated that some schools had a problem concerning the web browser
because the version of Google Chrome they installed is the newest one (i.e., too sophisticated).
Choosing this newest Google Chrome version turned out to be useless as it did not to give a
good impact and it rather became incompatible with the system (troublesome).
The next source of constraints came from the central system including the system
performance, the set of examination items, and the working system of Exambro. These
constraints could not be controlled by the local committee. It is true that the central system
is the controller of all the systems running at the schools, but the implementation of CBNE,
which is simultaneously conducted and involves so many participants, definitely raises the
risk of disturbance in the central system. If the central system is down, the CBNE process will

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
620 be interrupted or even totally stopped. As a result, the implementation of CBNE did not run
effectively as planned. In practice, various problems related to the central system occurred
at the schools in administering CBNE. In an SHS for example, there was a day of CBNE
implementation when the system was down due to problems from the central server. On the
third day, the system was even offline, and therefore, the CBNE implementation was delayed by
65 minutes. Another SHS also faced a system trouble from the central server and consequently
had to endure a 30-minute delay in administering CBNE. However, it is quite possible that at
one school, those system constraints only partially occur.
The set of examination items is an absolute element that the local committee cannot
control when any problem arises. All test items are managed by the central system and given
to the local committee a few moments before CBNE is administered. A problem is found at an
SHS when the listening section of English could not run as it should be. This constraint became
worse as it only happened to six of the client computers in the room.
The last matter related to the performance of the system that the test supervisor and
technician complain about is the Exambro software page appearance that could be minimized
on the monitor screen. Such application ability to be minimized gives an impact that is not so
good to the process of administering CBNE because it enables the students to simultaneously
make use of another application in the computer. The case occurring most frequently is the
utilization of the calculator-making application (which comes in a built-in condition with the
computer) to aid the calculation process in answering a test item. According to the examination
regulations, however, students are forbidden to use such a calculating aid.
Students’ readiness in participating in CBNE is one of the aspects determining the
smoothness in administering CBNE. However, the data indicate that there are still various not-
so-ideal students’ conditions that make the administering of CBNE become hampered. The
results of the mapping of CBNE constraints whose source is the student are as presented in
Table 3.
The CBNE system makes differences sufficiently significant mainly because the process
of doing the examination is under computer control. To be able to do the items well, students
should first be familiar with the basic points of operating the computer, which is followed
with understanding the related software and specifically the Exambro software. The students
participating in CBNE vary in condition, there being those who are already IT literate and those
who are still IT ignorant. Therefore, the school to administer CBNE arranges an introduction to
CBNE by administering a try-out. However, data from technicians and test supervisors mention
that students are not all competent yet at CBNE time. The main cause of the insufficient
competence in IT is that not all students have the computer facility at home and not all students
make use of the try-out well as means of introducing to them the system of the computer-based
examination.
Table 3. Readiness of CBNE participants/students.
Inter-Theme
Readiness of CBNE Participants/Students Theme
Relation
Students are not sufficiently skilled in utilizing the computer Students’ mastery of information
Students are not
for doing the examination when taking part in CBNE. technology and particularly of
yet all able to
Exambro is still insufficient.
Students are surprised by the strict timer system in CBNE. adjust them-
Students make pranks and fool around in making use of the selves to CBNE
hardware. Some students do not feel and students with
Students’ motivation is insufficient. sufficient responsibility for them- special needs
Students are not sufficiently disciplined. selves and the CBNE hardware. are still con-
strained in taking
Many students are allergic to coldness. There are constraints related to part in CBNE.
CBNE could not yet sufficiently facilitate the disabled. health and special needs.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Another problem related to students’ readiness for the system concerns the time 621
allocations of the examination. In the paper-and-pencil examination system used in the UN or
other examinations, the time controller is the examination supervisor who is a teacher while
the time control in CBNE is done by the computer system. The students are not yet familiar
with the accurate time allocations because other examinations like final term examination or
midterm examination are paper-and-pencil-based so that there is emotional interference from
the supervisor often resulting in the occurrence of extra time. The students look surprised and
unprepared when the time for working in the CBNE is ended by the system.
Students’ sense of responsibility also becomes a focus of the spotlight from the school’s
authorities. Some cases indicate that often students do not feel sufficiently responsible for the
CBNE equipment that they use and for themselves. Some schools complain about there being
students making use of CBNE equipment not as they should; in fact, some test supervisors call
it a prank or fooling around, which is intentionally amusing oneself by doing something else.
The mouse and the headset are two computer accessories that students usually play with so that
some of them are damaged. Such behaviour is considerably exhibited by students from another
school which hitches a ride in taking the CBNE because their school does not have sufficient
facilities. It is indicated that such behaviour appears because there is no sense of the objects as
those belonging to them (i.e., the objects are not facilities belonging to their own school).
As for students’ responsibility to themselves, many of them are still insufficiently
motivated to do the CBNE. A test supervisor at an SHS reported the extreme case of some
students coming to do the examination items for 15 minutes only. It was also seen that the
discipline among them was not so good. The students didn’t do the test seriously, as indicated
by their time when they had done it.
Besides IT and responsibility, in the execution of CBNE, some students are constrained
by the health factor. The CBNE is generally held in the laboratory with the air conditioner (AC)
facility running and it makes students who are allergic to coldness become uncomfortable. In
general, the reaction in the part of the allergic students is a blocked nose, a headache, a feeling
of nausea, or a very severe cold feeling. With their body in such conditions, students are greatly
hampered in their efforts to be able to do the examination items to the maximum.
The next thing concerns students’ basic abilities. In 2017, CBNE still could not
facilitate the disabled well. Some inclusive schools held a special paper-and-pencil-based
national examination for their disabled students. The main reason concerned disabled students’
preparedness because the schools were not yet able to get their disabled students ready for
participation in CBNE and the disabled students themselves did not yet have sufficient self-
confidence to do computer-based examination items. For the students with disabled eyesight,
there was another reason: in CBNE, items with pictures were not complemented with spoken
description of the pictures so that sightless students could not get accurate access to them.
The final kind of constraint in administering CBNE is from the committee and supervisor
sector. There are various situations that are not sufficiently ideal so that many complaints
arise from test supervisors, and technicians. Results of the mapping done to the constraints
encountered by test supervisors and technicians from the preparation until the execution of
CBNE are as in Table 4.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
622 Table 4. Constraints encountered by the CBNE committee and supervisors.
Constrains Theme Inter-Theme Relation
The number of teachers who were prepared to become

technicians and test supervisors is at a minimum. There is a lack of human
resources who are qualified The brevity of the prepara-
The number of teachers who understand IT is at a mini- in IT. tion program and minimum
mum. quantity of human resources
who are qualified in IT make the
The preparation given to test supervisors and technicians understanding of those on duty
is insufficient. of the system and execution of
The preparation given to CBNE insufficient. The problem
Test supervisors’ and technicians’ understanding is not yet
technicians and test supervi- is worsened with the addition
firm.
sors is not yet maximum. of the stamina being sapped
The mastery of the CBNE SOP is insufficient. because CBNE is held in three
shifts.
The test supervisors, and
Many schools administer CBNE in 3 shifts.
technicians are exhausted.
The initial constraint experienced by the school is the selection of the personnel to
function as a technician and a test supervisor. These two positions demand sufficient IT insight
in the individuals concerned in order that they could do their job well. Some schools admit
having great difficulty in seeking the personnel with such competence; in fact, because there
are no teachers and other school employees who are prepared to become technicians, a JHS is
forced to recruit technicians from sources external to the school.
The constraints experienced by test supervisors and technicians are initiated with the
admission that their understanding of CBNE is still not yet firm and often there are still doubts
at times of being confronted with a case. Theoretically, such a situation ought not to occur
because they have been given some briefing. However, according to their confession, the
briefing received is still quite a minimum so that there are still many matters that they still could
not thoroughly understand. Often, they encounter a problem that has not been mentioned at the
time of the preparation and orientation program so that they could not respond to it as constraint
speedily and accurately.
In administering CBNE, a constraint that often arises is difference in opinion between
a test supervisor and a committee concerning task distribution. Basically, the tasks are already
assigned in the SOP of the national examination, but it seems that some personnel do not
thoroughly understand yet their respective tasks. In a case occurring at a VHS, the task of being
responsible for the participants’ presence list was passed to a test supervisor while it ought to
be the responsibility of a committee member. Besides the problem of SOP mastery, committee
members, technicians, and test supervisors also have difficulties in maintaining their stamina,
especially at schools administering CBNE up to 3 shifts (with Session 1 from 07.30 a.m. to
09.30 a.m., Session 2 from 10.30 a.m. to 12.30 p.m., and Session 3 from 1.30 p.m. to 3.30
p.m.). The majority of the supervisors, technicians, and test supervisors complain about being
exhausted when they are on the job in the last session.
Solution Strategies
Budget limitations are among the main causes of the school’s difficulties in dealing with
the various shortcomings of the facilities, especially in relation with matters concerning the
availability of computers meeting prescribed standards and the electricity. For overcoming
problems in the midst of budget limitations, the school takes various alternative steps in order
that CBNE could keep running smoothly though without the support of ideal funding. Results of
the mapping done for the strategies for overcoming the challenges resulting from the limitations
of the school funding are presented in Table 5.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Table 5. Strategies for overcoming the challenges. 623
Strategies Theme Inter-Theme Relation
Using non-standard server

Some schools make use of available
Modifying the computer so that it is appropriate
computers as servers and do some
to become a server
borrowing
Borrowing server from students’ parents Budget limitations force
the school to be smart in
Borrowing client computers To provide client computers, the
making use of available
Upgrading laboratory computers school make them available, bor-
assets and maximize
row them, and upgrade laboratory
their use via collaboration
Buying client computers computers
through partnership
Arranging computer layout according to the
available room space Adjusting computer layout to room
size and maximizing hardware use
Improving the quality of the connector cable
The price of local server computers for CBNE that is quite expensive is a problem for
the school. Viewed from the point of their specifications, not all schools have computers with
such requirements. Supplying them is the way most easily thought of to overcome the problem
of server availability. However, not all schools have the financial ability to supply themselves
with such computers by purchasing them. Such a situation demands a solution that takes the
school’s financial stability into consideration. Many schools make modifications on their
available computers to make them fit for their new use. Some computers with specifications of
a lower level are combined to produce a new one with specifications approaching those newly
required and then it is perfected by means of supplying it with new hardware parts to make
it meet the new standard of at least the minimum level. The schools admit that the strategy is
sufficiently effective to provide servers with specifications at the minimum level of meeting the
new needs at minimum cost. The second strategy is using a server with specifications lower in
level than those of the minimum level recommended by the government. That strategy is used
by some schools because they are already unable to find anymore possible source of funding.
The decision to use a server with specifications below the standard set is surely highly risky for
the smooth running of CBNE. Therefore, the school makes use of the try-out time to test server
performance and it turns out that some schools using servers with processors of lower levels
could administer CBNE smoothly. The third strategy is borrowing the server needed. However,
in view of the relatively high level of the server specifications required, not all schools have
access to such borrowing since very rarely are there people already having computers of such
specifications and, moreover, the CBNE server should not be a laptop.
The Ministry of Education and Culture issues the decision that one client computer
could be used by three students in the sense that CBNE could be held in three shifts per day.
If the school has 270 students participating in CBNE, it should provide 100 client computers
consisting of 90 core computers plus 10 reserve computers. The main problem concerning the
availability of client computers is the availability in accordance with the number needed. In the
majority, the schools admit that they are not yet able to meet that need independently. The first
strategy used to meet the need is making the computers available by buying them. However,
the very great number needed makes it impossible for the school to meet all the needs through
the lane of purchases. The second strategy is modifying old computers until they are fit to be
used as client computers. The system used to do it is generally cannibalism, namely, combining
fitting components from various computers until they become one package fit to become a
client computer. In addition, the system of upgrading the specifications of old computers is
also used until they are fit to be client computers in CBNE. Some computers that are already
old and with specifications under the standards set are identified and then the parts not yet

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
624 meeting the minimum standards set are upgraded. The third strategy is the final one because it
is used only when one feels very much forced to do it. It is the strategy of borrowing a laptop
or PC from various sources, especially teachers and other employees of the school. If the loans
from teachers and other school employees still do not meet the need yet, the school generally
collaborates with students’ parents or guardians. In the majority, schools combine the three
strategies to meet the needs.
Room availability is a problem which is relatively difficult to solve because it is not
something that could be provided all of a sudden and its provision also takes very great expense.
The absence of a special room for CBNE forces the school to make use of a classroom equipped
with adequate electric supply, Internet access, and space area. Generally, the school takes the ICT
laboratory as one chosen room because it has adequate Internet connection and electric power
already with the addition of one or more other rooms with electric, Internet, and areal settings
according to need. During CBNE, a constraint that could not be controlled to conform to the
ideal condition is the inter-computer distance. The school tends to arrange the positional layout
of a number of computers in accordance with room area though the ideal distance is 1 meter and
the exhortation concerning computer positional layout that the computers do not face each other
could not be complied with yet. The school puts aside the matter of distance and endeavours
to catch up with the number of participants, considering that the CBNE items are already in
random order when presented to each participant so that the possibility for participants to copy
each other’s work is relatively small. To maximize the usefulness of the available computer
positional layout, generally the school makes efforts to use purchased connector cables of the
best quality.
Electricity is the source of energy that should be well prepared in order that CBNE runs
smoothly. Various constraints concerning the process of providing electric current is anticipated
in various ways by the school. Table 6 presents the results of some mapping of the strategies in
responding to constraints in supplying energy sources in administering CBNE.
The school endeavours to prepare the energy sources as well as possible in order
that the CBNE process runs smoothly, making available client computers varying in power
consumption like laptops, PCs with LCD/LED monitors, and PCs with tube monitors, which
require considerable energy the most. To cope with the various needs of electricity, some electric
circuit manipulation (or power distribution) is done so that each room could be supplied with
electricity as needed.
Table 6. Strategies for supplying electricity at schools.
Inter-Theme Rela-
Strategies Theme
tion
Manipulating electric circuits
Collaborating with the State Electric Company Renewal and maintenance of electric
circuits and preparation of reserve Preparing, manag-
Increasing the power of electricity energy source ing, and arranging
strategies for maxi-
Provision of a generator set
mizing the electric
Focusing on the electric consumption for CBNE potential possessed
Being focused, effective, and ef-
Minimizing the use of electronic equipment ficient in using the electricity
A strategy to guarantee the electric supply needed is collaborating with the State Electric
Company, especially concerning maintenance of electric circuits. In general, schools have a
power quota that is more than enough for daily needs, but it would be disturbed when the use
approaches the limits set. Some schools admit that the power quota for them ought to be able

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
to start the electronic apparatus needed but in practice the electric power is always down when 625
used to simultaneously start all the electronic devices. The main cause is the rare checking
done to the performance of the circuits. In such cases, collaboration with the State Electric
Company becomes crucial in the course of maximizing the electric potential in order to be
able to calculate accurately the difference between the power quota and the amount of power
needed so that if indeed the power supplied is not yet enough, then power raising is done. In
some regions that are often subject to scheduled rotation of blackouts, the school makes efforts
to conduct certain communication with the State Electric Company in order not to be subjected
to scheduled blackout at the time of CBNE execution. In addition, to guarantee surety of energy
source, the school provides itself with a genset.
Besides efforts of getting provided with energy sources, the school also makes
economization of the electric consumption at CBNE time. All the electric power is focused
on the room where CBNE is held. Various electronic apparatus outside the CBNE room with
no need to be turned on are shut down. Hopefully, in that way there is no disturbance from
the electric power being down due to the electricity being absorbed by electronic instruments
outside the CBNE room. The next strategy is minimizing the electric consumption inside the
CBNE room. Some schools turn off various electronic equipment not affecting the CBNE
system, especially the AC, in order that the electric consumption is at a minimum and the
electric power does not become down.
CBNE is a digitally-based examination system that depends on the stability of the Internet
connection and the performance of the application planted in each hardware. Facts in the field
indicate that the school with its local committee should do extra work in order to be able to
provide a stable network and assurance of smoothness in the running of all applications. Table
7 presents results of the mapping done for the strategies for providing the Internet connection
and the participants’ responses to the software-related constraints.
Table 7. Strategies for providing the network and the participants’ responses to
constraints related to the Exambro application.
Preparing the modem Solution to network problems

depends on the school’s ability
Providing the tower in funding. Solution to network stability
Installing the update using the administrative constraints depends on
remote funding ability supported
Working overtime for the test supervisors and Constraints related to the with the work ethic, creativ-
technicians Exambro system are overcome ity, and maturity of those
with the work ethos, creativity, on duty in responding to
Exchanging computers during listening section problems during the execu-
and maturity of the committee in
Communicating with the test centre dealing with the constraints. tion of CBNE.
Managing students’ psychical condition
Generally, the school makes efforts to provide the network for Internet connection which
is based on optical fibres because it is considered the most able to provide Internet connection
with good stability. However, it is unfortunate that not all schools are already able to get an
administrator of such a network. The next alternative for the school to take if not having any
access to optical fiber network is providing itself with a tower. The reason is that the tower-
based network is considered better and more stable in performance compared to a modem.
To assure network availability, the school generally provides itself with, at the minimum,
two types of network. The majority of schools opt for the modem as stand-by companion of
the main network already prepared. That step is taken to anticipate the occurrence of error in

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
626 the main network as in a case taking place at a vocational school located in a lightning-prone
region. Prior to CBNE, the Internet connection network at the school dropped because it was hit
by lightning and the network was damaged. In that situation, the modem became the solution to
the problem of providing the Internet connection network.
One of the characteristics of a modem, compared to another network type, is its relatively
insufficient sensitivity. Therefore, in the course of preparing a modem, the school should make
some research on the match between the location and the cellular provider. The strength and
stability of the signal from each provider vary greatly according to location. In fact, it is quite
possible that inter-location difference of only around 5 meters could result in highly significant
difference in Internet performance. An example of an extreme case took place at a vocational
school which had to provide a modem with three different providers because each room had a
compatibility with a different provider.
The next constraint is related to a condition which is not ideal in the Exambro software.
The first complaint from the school concerns the software updating activity approaching the
day of administering CBNE. Updating Exambro close to the day of administering CBNE
is considered disturbing the preparations very much by the school local committee because
the technicians and test supervisors have to prepare the computers all over again to fit the
newest Exambro version. The majority of schools inform that, to face that matter, the school
local committee have to work overtime to prepare the server and client computers one by one.
However, some schools state that that is not a problem because they use remote admin to do
the process of installing the newest software. The following are statements from the schools in
relation with the Exambro renewal.
The next complaint is about an item-related error that could not be put under control
by the school committee. A case of this occurred when 6 client computers in one of the rooms
at an SHS could not present listening items as they should. The test supervisors responded
to it by doing some manipulated moving of students’ seats. The six students who could not
do the listening items because of the error were asked to do the reading items first and, after
finishing it, they were asked to exchange seating positions with six other students who had
done the listening items. Though taking some moments, that solution was considered effective
in overcoming the problem.
The time when the system does not run as it should makes the committee and the
participants nervous. The first problem found at a JHS was the difficulty to log in. The committee
hypothesized that the problem resulted from the crowded current due to simultaneous logging
in. The problem was overcome when the committee instructed the CBNE participants to log
in in turns based on seating position. The second problem concerned the system becoming
offline as found at many schools. Generally, the committee recommends that students refresh
the system by repeating the logging in. In some cases, the strategy runs well but in other cases
caused by the central server having a problem, the strategy does not give any effect. Then it is
demanded that the committee makes active communication with the central committee so that
the real condition related to the constrained system could be identified well.
The national examination is a very great and important undertaking, particularly for the
students. Therefore, the occurrence of constraints during the execution of CBNE could make
them nervous. There is a demand that the test supervisors be able to manage the students’
psychic state when encountering technical constraints in order that their mental state remains
well protected so that they are able to do the examination items with smoothness. The school
prepares the strategy of managing the students’ psychic state at the time constraints occur during
the briefing before administering CBNE.
The constraints faced by the students are important aspects that should be paid attention
to in order that CBNE runs effectively. In this case, the schools employed various strategies
to anticipate the challenges. An exposition of the strategies of minimizing the constraints
originating in the students’ condition during the execution of CBNE is presented in Table 8.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Table 8. Strategies for anticipating CBNE constraints faced by the students. 627
Inter-Theme Rela-
Strategies Theme
tion
Giving an orientation session Giving stricter orientation and
supervision to minimize the students’ Building a good
Having stricter supervision negative attitudes communication with
Allowing students to wear their alma mater coats Conditioning the room temperature CBNE participants/
to create a conducive atmosphere students
Setting the room temperature for comfort for the students
The school gives orientation to the students in order that they participate in CBNE
as well as possible. The orientation emphasizes that the students are to be responsible for
themselves and for the facilities in the CBNE room. The orientation is done continuously until
a few minutes before starting to administer CBNE. The orientation is loaded with motivation
by clearly outlining the functions of CBNE at the level of the students’ personal self, the
institution, up to the educational mapping mission. Therefore, hopefully, though the national
examination is no longer the sole determinant of their graduation, they remain in possession
of high motivation in participating in the national examination. In addition to motivation, the
orientation also emphasizes using the computers and the accessories in the CBNE room as they
should be used. A sense of the facilities used as their own is planted in students participating in
CBNE at their own school and a sense of being responsible for the facilities used is planted in
students who are visitors at the school where they participate in CBNE. A moment prior to the
execution of CBNE, students are exhorted to be careful with various matters that could cause
disturbance like a seated position with legs straightened or attractively posed so that it has the
potential of damaging/shaking/severing a cable. In concord with the orientation strategy, during
the execution of CBNE, stricter supervision is made. The strict supervision is done to anticipate
various students who do not receive the orientation favourably so that their behaviour is still
not sufficiently decent.
The next students’ internal problem concerns the room temperature. Students’ responses
in relation with temperature vary greatly, there being students who like it cold with some others
being allergic to coldness instead. The test supervisor attempts to adjust the temperature in
accordance with comfort instead of wish. Efforts are made to enable all students to participate
well in CBNE without being constrained by allergy. Some students who could not adjust
themselves to the majority of students’ comfort in the room are allowed to put on their jackets.
The majority of schools urge that the jacket worn be the uniform coat of the students’ alma
mater so that students’ neatness and uniformity are constantly maintained. The following are
some statements by the school in relation with the strategy.
The constraints coming from the local committee are anticipated by forming a solid
collaboration as a team. Reduced data of the various actions made by the local committee as
efforts to neutralize constraints from the preparation until the execution of CBNE are presented
in Table 9.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
628 Table 9. Strategies for dealing with constraints faced by the test supervisors
and technicians.

Learning independently or via social media
group Technicians and test supervisors carry
out an exploration independently Technicians and test
Using trial and error
supervisors must be
Choosing persons with IT knowledge The personnel, particularly technicians, IT competent, in good
should understand IT health, independent in
Recruiting more outside technicians
learning and they should
Choosing young personnel Competent technicians and test supervi- work together solidly in
sors with good a stamina who are able a team.
Maintaining a good cooperation between the to work in a team should be intentionally
test supervisor and the technician chosen
Insufficient possession of knowledge is a hindrance initially felt by test supervisors

and technicians. The briefing program is felt to be quite minimum in preparing them so that
it could not yet meet the requirements for the knowledge needed by technicians and test
supervisors in overcoming various problems. Technicians and test supervisors respond by
learning independently or in groups after the briefing program. Independent learning is done
by reading various literature and attempting to overcome problems by using the technique of
trial and error. Group learning is done through discussions via social media. Thus, problems not
overcome yet at the time of independent learning could be used as material for discussion in the
social media group. Various problems are explored in the social media group by test supervisors
and technicians.
In order to be able to understand the job fast, those chosen to be on duty should have
superior IT knowledge. Thus, hopefully those on duty could make use of their already possessed
IT knowledge as an asset in order to be more competent in responding to various situations.
If the human resources at the school are not sufficient, the alternative is to recruit IT expert
personnel from outside the school. Another matter related to personnel is that the school is well
aware that the execution of CBNE would sap considerable energy because there are very many
preparations like making sure that all equipment functions are well responding to instructions
of conducting software update or to regulations from the central system, and coordinating with
various parties so that the majority of schools choose those young in age and with good stamina
to be the persons on duty to anticipate moments when they should do extra work and work
overtime.
In the execution of CBNE, the persons on duty are to have their own respective jobs but
in practice they are often overwhelmed by their tasks. Therefore, those on duty are directed to
be flexible in playing their respective parts and assist each other in doing their job. The strategy
employed by an SHS is that in the preparation for CBNE, all those on duty become technicians
while at the time of CBNE all of them become test supervisors. All of them are responsible not
only for their own respective jobs but also for the accomplishment of CBNE on the whole. The
strategy is considered sufficiently effective in overcoming the great work load in a relatively
short time.
Limitations
Although the Yogyakarta is a province in Indonesia which has characteristics of the

region that represents Indonesia culturally and geographically, but in the reality, the regions in
Indonesia are more varied. Some provinces consist of islands and mountains that lead to the
increasingly complex challenges of CBNE implementation. Similarly, the ability of students in
using information technology are also varied and these phenomena certainly affect the CBNE
implementation.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Discussion 629
Computer-Based National Examination (CBNE) is one of the evaluation forms done by

the Indonesian government. It has been annually conducted in Indonesia since a few years ago
and even the number of the schools implementing it has been continuously increasing. This
CBNE is conducted to improve the quality of education in Indonesia. Bichi and Musa (2015:
290) support that the statement by saying that evaluation in education is a process of gathering
information of students’ learning and performance to improve education and to become the
basis for ascertaining the quality of education at all levels. It is widely argued that CBNE
is an effective mass evaluation means in education (Temitayo, Adebisi & Alice, 2013) and
that each student gets different examination items in CBNE (BSNP, 2015). Hence, CBNE is
expected to improve the integrity of the national examination. However, it does not mean that
the implementation of CBNE is already perfect and it does not have any constraint related
to the equipment for administering it or the personnel involved in it. According to Thurlow,
Lazarus, Albus, & Hodgson (2010), besides its advantages, a computer-based test also has
some drawbacks. A number of constraints that occur in the CBNE implementation, particularly
in Yogyakarta, based on the results of FGD are constraints in providing the CBNE facilities
including the provision of computers and sufficient rooms which meet the standards and stable
supply of electricity; constraints in Internet networking (due to geographical location and
limited network), and constraints in running Exambro; constraints in the CBNE participants’
readiness; and constraints from the CBNE committee and supervisors. However, some of these
constraints could be overcome or anticipated by the school personnel and other parties through
some efforts. These challenges are in line with the results of studies conducted by Sanni &
Muhammad (2017) and Abubakar & Adaebayo (2014).
The constraints in the CBNE implementation related to the provision of various facilities
including the standard computers and rooms and stable supply of electricity are all very closely
related with funding. It is also stated by Thurlow, Lazarus, Albus, & Hodgson (2010) that in the
CBNE implementation, some schools may not possess a sufficient number of computers and
other supporting types of infrastructure. An alternative solution to deal with the constraint is that
the schools should precisely utilize the available assets to minimize the lack of computers and
rooms needed for implementing CBNE. In addition, cooperation with another school partner
can be done by a particular school in the provision of computers or other equipment needed.
The next constraint is related to the instability of Internet connectivity in some regions
where the schools implemented CBNE. This problem is not completely due to the fault or
unpreparedness of the schools in implementing CBNE, but there are also other influencing
factors such as the geographical location of the schools. The schools in urban areas could access
the Internet easily while some other schools within rural areas had difficulty in getting stable
Internet access. In fact, the Internet access has a very important role in the CBNE implementation
to connect client computers with the central system such as in the process of delivering the
students’ answers. The constraint that might occur related to the Internet connectivity could
be overcome by using a modem with various providers adjusted to the network stability at the
school location and particularly in each room used for CBNE. In addition, for the schools which
have the allocation of funds for the provision of Internet network could build a network tower
to support the process of administering CBNE.
The process of running Exambro also becomes another constraint particularly for the
technicians and the committee involved in administering CBNE who do not have sufficient
experience with and knowledge of the Exambro software. The Exambro updating which usually
releases very prior to the exam day is considered troublesome for some schools, especially
for the administrator and committee. However, some other schools that have anticipated this
constraint appear to be better prepared by making use of administrator remote to adjust the

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
630 setting of the client computers to the newest updated Exambro. In general, the constraint in
using the Exambro software can be anticipated by giving adequate preparation and training to
the CBNE administrator and committee. Some orientation sessions to improve creativity and
fast response in dealing with Exambro changing or updating also need to be given to them.
In addition, the administrator, technicians and the committee of CBNE need to improve their
work ethic and self-autonomy, for example, in learning from various sources about the CBNE
implementation, particularly related to the software used for CBNE. This is very important
because the role of the administrator or technician in the CBNE implementation is crucial from
the beginning (in the preparation) until the end of the exam (such as performing the logout step
if the students have finished their exam but forget to click the logout button on the computer,
uploading all the students’ answers to the central server, and other related tasks (Kemendikbud,
2017).
There are also constraints coming from the students. The student preparation in facing
CBNE not only includes their cognitive aspects but also their psychological condition and
their readiness related to the technical procedure in CBNE which are different from those in
the previous paper-based national examinations. According to Ackerman and Barnett (2005),
readiness is often interpreted as a skill, behaviour, and character of the child in relation with the
expectation of the class or the school. Meanwhile, Sulistyaningsih and Sugiman (2016) state
that students’ readiness and anxiety have a negative correlation which means that the more the
students are ready to face the national examination, the less anxious they become. Furthermore,
the national examination has an impact on teachers and students’ anxiety (Woolfolk & Nicholich,
1984) and students’ readiness and motivation (Astuti & Retnawati, 2017). The teachers’ anxiety
is not only related to the students’ competence and readiness in facing CBNE but also the exam
process, especially in the schools where CBNE is implemented for the first time. Therefore, both
the teachers and the students need to be given adequate preparation and training to face CBNE.
As stated by Thurlow, Lazarus, Albus, & Hodgson (2010), in implementing a computer-based
test, a considerable amount of time is needed for conducting a training for the students about
the technical procedures of the CBNE system, particularly for those who have no skill in using
a computer. It is also possible that some students experience anxiety when using a computer in
their exam (Thurlow, Lazarus, Albus, & Hodgson (2010). The students’ anxiety can impede their
concentration (Mayer, 2008; Vitasari, Wahab, Othman, & Awang, 2010) and this condition will
negatively affect their ability in completing CBNE. The school and the student parents in this
case have an important role in preparing their mental condition and skills in using a computer.
However, today there is no longer information and communication technology (ICT) subject at
JHS and SHS levels. In Curriculum 2013, information and communication technology (ICT)
is omitted from the list of school subjects taught to students. Indeed, this makes students less
familiar with and capable of using a computer, particularly those studying at remote schools.
The impact is that many students still have difficulties in using basic parts of computer
hardware such as keyboards and headsets. The students’ low ability in using keyboards causes
them to feel more comfortable and well prepared with the paper-based examination than the
computer-based examination (Al-Amri, 2007). In fact, the presence of ICT as a school subject
indirectly gives assurance of better facilities and infrastructures from the government such as
the availability of electricity power and computer laboratory at each school. The ICT subject can
also become the basis for computer use for students, especially those attending remote schools.
While the government is currently developing the implementation of CBNE, many students
in some remote schools are not computer literate. By implication, school officials or teachers
should work very hard to give their students guidance in using a computer as needed for the
CBNE implementation. It is expected that the removal of ICT subject from JHS and SHS levels
will be substituted with the integration of computer use in all school subjects. However, not all
teachers master computer use. Many teachers also scarcely use a computer in their teaching

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
and learning process. Therefore, this ICT integration will also face some constraints which 631
then impede the students’ readiness for participating in CBNE. As widely argued, respondents’
unfamiliarity in using technology is one of obstacles in implementing the computer-based
examination (Retnawati, 2015; Rezaie & Golshen, 2015; Magdin & Turčáni, 2015).
Another constraint in administering CBNE is related to the CBNE committee and
supervisors. The committee and supervisors in administering CBNE should meet various
requirements predetermined by the government. Not only the committee in administering
CBNE is responsible for the process of administering CBNE but also, they should know what
action would be taken if a problem arises when administering CBNE. Therefore, the committee
also generally need training first as a step in preparation to administering the computer-based
test (Thurlow, Lazarus, Albus, & Hodgson, 2010), just like the technicians (as technological
staff members). Other than that, the supervisors should also know what actions to do and how
to do them as CBNE supervisors.

Conclusions
This research concludes that various constraints still occur in the implementation of
CBNE in Indonesia. These constraints include problems in providing facilities such as
the stable electric current, computers and rooms which meet the test standard/requirement;
Internet network problems; the preparedness of CBNE participants in using the computer;
and constraints related to the committee and supervisors. However, such constraints can be
anticipated and overcome by means of several activities such as preparing, managing, and
arranging strategies in maximizing the use of available facilities and resources at the school
(for example, computers, servers, electricity, and networks); arranging the layout number of
computers according to the room space available; anticipating and preparing students’ mental
condition in facing the CBNE; making a solid collaboration between technicians and test
supervisors; and giving training and briefing sessions before administering the CBNE.
Considering the constraints in implementing the CBNE, some suggestions are made to
deal with the challenges. First, there should be initiatives from the teachers to meet the standards
of the equipment used to administer the CBNE. Second, the government should improve a more
even distribution of facilities for implementing the CBNE such as electric power, networks, and
computer sets to regions all over Indonesia. Third, ICT should be integrated in the curriculum
as a school subject at the JHS and SHS levels to help the students prepare for the CBNE.
Fourth, the students’ parents together with the society should be actively engaged in supporting
the CBNE implementation. At last, schools in other countries which want to implement the
CBNE need to understand the challenges and readiness of its components. This is to ensure
that the schools can develop an appropriate strategy in order the CBNE implementation can run
effectively and yield a good result without showing any bias.
References
Abubakar, A. S., & Adebayo, F. O. (2014). Using computer based test method for the conduct of
examination in Nigeria: Prospects, challenges and strategies. Mediterranean Journal of Social
Sciences, 5 (2), 47-55. doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n2p47.
Ackerman, D. J., & Barnett, S. (2005). Prepared for kindergarten: What does “readiness” mean? New
Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research.
Alabi, A. T., & Issa, A. O. (2012). The use of computer based testing method for the conduct of
examinations at the University of Ilorin. International Journal of Learning & Development, 2 (3),
68-80. doi:10.5296/ijld.v2i3.1775.
Al-Amri, S. (2007). Computer-based vs. paper-based testing: Does the test administration
mode matter? Proceedings of the BAAL Conference 2007, 101-110. Retrieved from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/86df/c22d8a8b5ff19325b6c991ab37e43ab9801d.pdf?_
ga=2.189936171.1611720179.1507555294-1854837378.1507555294.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
632 Astuti, F. S., & Retnawati, H. (2017). The effect of national examination’s policy on readiness, motivation,
school test score, and national examination score. The Online Journal of New Horizons in
Education, 7 (3), 58-66. Retrieved from http://tojned.net/journals/tojned/articles/v07i03/v07i03-
07.pdf.
Baumer, M., Roded, K., & Gafni, N. (2009). Assessing the equivalence of internet-based vs. paper-and-
pencil psychometric test. Proceedings of the 2009 GMAC Conferencerence on Computerized
Adaptive Testing. Retrieved from www.psych.umn.edu/psylabs/CATCentral/psylabs.
Bichi, A. A., & Musa, A. (2015). Assessing the correlation between continuous assessment and examination
scores of education courses. American International Journal of Research in Humanities,
Arts and Social Sciences, 10 (3), 290-294. Retrieved from http://iasir.net/AIJRHASSpapers/
AIJRHASS15-391.pdf.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1982). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and
methods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
BSNP. (2015). Peraturan Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan No. 0034/P/BSNP/XII/2015 tentang
prosedur operasional penyelenggaraan ujian nasional tahun pelajaran 2015/2016. [BSNP.
(2015). Regulation of Agency of National Educational Standards No. 0034/P/BSNP/XII/2015
about operational procedure of administering national examination in 2015/2016]. (Idn).
BSNP. (2017). Peraturan badan standar nasional pendidikan No. 0043/P/BSNP/I/2017 tentang
prosedur operasional penyelenggaraan ujian nasional tahun pelajaran 2016/2017. [BSNP.
(2017). Regulation of Agency of National Educational Standards No. 0043/P/BSNP/I/2017 about
operational procedure of administering national examination in 2016/2017]. (Idn).
BSNP. (2017). Prosedur Operasional Standar Penyelenggaraan Ujian Nasional. Jakarta: BNSP. [BSNP.
(2017). Standards operational procedure of administering national examination]. (Idn).
Chua, Y. P. (2012). Effects of computer-based testing on test performance and testing motivation.
Computers in Human Behavior, 28 (5), 1580-1586. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.03.020.
Dammas, A. H. (2016). Investigate students’ attitudes towards computer based test (CBT) at chemistry
course. Archives of Business Research, 4 (6), 58-71. doi: 10.14738/abr.46.2325.
Horchlehnert, A., Brass, K., Moeltner, A., & Juenger, J. (2011). Does medical students’ preference of test
format (computer-based vs. paper-based) have an influence on performance? Journal of Medical
Education, 11 (89), 1 - 6. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-11-89.
Kemendikbud. (2017). Manual Ujian Nasional Berbasis Komputer 2017. Jakarta: Puspendik.
[Kemendikbud. (2017). Manual of computer-based national examination 2017. Jakarta:
Puspendik].
Magdin, M., & Turčáni, M. (2015). A few observations and remarks on time effectiveness of interactive
electronic testing. Informatics in Education, 14 (1), 83–102. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/
infedu.2015.06.
Mayer, D. P. (2008). Overcoming school anxiety: How to help your child deal with separation, tests,
homework, bullies, math phobia, and other worries. New York, NY: Amacom.
Mendikbud. (2015). Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia No. 5 tahun 2015
tentang kriteria kelulusan peserta didik, penyelenggaraan ujian nasional, dan penyelenggaraan
ujian sekolah/madrasah/pendidikan kesetaraan pada SMP/MTS atau yang sederajat dan SMA/
MA/SMK atau yang sederajat. [Mendikbud. (2015). Regulation of the Minister of Education and
Culture of Republic of Indonesia No. 5 Year 2015 about the students’ criteria to pass national
examination in junior high school]. (Idn).
Nitko, A. J., & Brookhart, S. M. (2011). Educational assessment of student (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Piaw, C. Y. (2012). Replacing paper-based testing with computer-based testing in assessment: Are we
doing wrong? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 64 (2012), 655-664. doi: 10.1016/j.
sbspro.2012.11.077.
Retnawati, H. (2015). The comparison of accuracy scores on the paper and pencil testing vs. computer
based testing. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 14 (4), 135-142. Retrieved
from http://www.tojet.net/articles/v14i4/14413.pdf.
Rezaie, M., & Golshan, M. (2015). Computer adaptive test (CAT): Advantages and limitations.
International Journal of Educational Investigations, 2 (5), 128-137. Retrieved from http://www.
ijeionline.com/attachments/article/42/IJEI_Vol.2_No.5_2015-5-11.pdf.
Sanni, A. A., & Mohammad, M. F., (2015). Computer based testing (CBT): An assessment of student
perception of JAMB UTME in Nigeria. Computing, Information Systems, Development Informatics
& Allied Research Journal, 6 (2), 13-28. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8a4c/86f
053248651f3bbc55ac66b0b98c6e94f6f.pdf.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Sulistyaningsih, E., & Sugiman, S. (2016). The effect of CBT national examination policy in terms of 633
senior high school students’ cognitive readiness and anxiety facing mathematics tests in DIY
Province. Jurnal Riset Pendidikan Matematika, 3 (2), 198-208. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/
jrpm.v3i2.10868.
Temitayo, F., Adebisi, A., & Alice, O. (2013). Computer-based test (CBT) system for university academic
enterprise examination. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 2 (8), 336-
342. Retrieved from http://www.ijstr.org/final-print/aug2013/Computer-based-Test-Cbt-System-
For-University-Academic-Enterprise-Examination.pdf.
Thurlow, M., Lazarus, S. S., Albus, D., & Hodgson, J. (2010). Computer-based testing: Practices and
considerations (Synthesis report 78). Minneapolis, MN.: University of Minnesota, National
Center on Educational Outcomes.
Vitasari, P., Wahab, M. N. A., Othman, A., & Awang, M. G. (2010). A research for identifying study
anxiety sources among university students. Journal of International Education Studies, 3 (2), 189-
196. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1066077.pdf.
Woolfolk, A. E., & Nicholich, L. M. (1984). Educational psychology for teachers (2nd ed.). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Heri Retnawati Dr, Associate Professor, Mathematics Department, Mathematics and Science
Faculty, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia, Jl. Kolombo Karangmalang
Yogyakarta 55281 Indonesia.
E-mail: heri_retnawati@uny.ac.id
Samsul Hadi Associate Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering Education,
Engineering Faculty, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia, Jl. Kolombo
Karangmalang Yogyakarta 55281 Indonesia.
E-mail: samsul_hd@uny.ac.id
Ariadie C. Nugraha Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering Education,
Engineering Faculty, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia, Jl. Kolombo
Karangmalang Yogyakarta 55281 Indonesia.
E-mail: ariadie@uny.ac.id
Janu Arlinwibowo M.Pd., Lecturer and Researcher, Muhammadiyah Health Sciences School
of Kudus, Indonesia, Jl. Ganesha I, Purwosari, Kudus, Central Java 59316
Indonesia.
E-mail: januarlinwibowo@ windowslive.com
Eny Sulistyaningsish M.Pd., Alumnae, Master Program in Mathematics Education, Graduate
School of Yogyakarta State University, Jl. Kolombo Karangmalang Yogyakarta
55281 Indonesia.
E-mail: enylistya@gmail.com
Hasan Djidu M.Pd., Alumnae, Master Program in Mathematics Education, Graduate
55281 Indonesia.
E-mail: hasandjidu@gmail.com
Ezi Apino M.Pd., Alumnae, Master Program in Mathematics Education, Graduate
55281 Indonesia.
E-mail: apinoezi@gmail.com
Heni D. Iryanti M.Pd., Alumnae, Master Program in English Education, Graduate School of
Yogyakarta State University, Jl. Kolombo Karangmalang Yogyakarta 55281
Indonesia.
E-mail: heni.iryanti@gmail.com

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
634
PROFICIENT CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
THROUGH FOCUSED MATHEMATIC
TEACHING
Marcus Samuelsson, Joakim Samuelsson
Linköping University, Sweden
E-mail: marcus.samuelsson@liu.se, joakim.samuelsson@liu.se
Abstract
A not entirely unusual position among teachers is that they believe that they must first establish a peaceful
classroom before they can begin to teach the subject. This research, shows how a proficient mathematics
teacher teaches his subject and thereby creates a quiet and focused classroom and exerts effective leader-
ship, just by teaching mathematics. The researchers observed a male mathematics teacher for almost half
a year, i.e. one semester. The results of research present several patterns that the researchers saw during
the observations of his teaching. The teacher showed an interest in each student’s mathematical thinking
and expressed explicitly how students were expected to learn mathematics. He also directed students’
attention to mathematics and established a culture where all solutions were important in the teaching
process. In the teaching process, he used multiple representations to motivate students and a lot of sup-
portive expressions that made them feel that they were able to learn mathematics. He worked patiently to
establish structures, and there was almost no disruptive behaviour. Students simply did not have time to
interfere because they were so engaged in learning mathematics.
Keywords: classroom management, mathematics teaching, proficient teacher.
Introduction
A central task for teachers is to lead classroom activities so that students can acquire the
knowledge stipulated in national policy documents. Coping with this work requires different
abilities (Shulman, 1987). Based on empirical research, Granström (1998, 2006, 2007) suggests
one way to describe teachers’ management roles in the classrooms. He argues that teachers are
responsible for all activities and processes occurring in classroom. This presupposes that teach-
ers are able to efficiently manage at least two important roles associated with classroom man-
agement, leadership and teachership. Granström (2007) presents a somewhat simplified picture
of the work of teachers which is not comprehensive, but that captures key aspects of teachers’
work. Teachership means (a) the knowledge of a field (a subject), and (b) the ability to teach this
subject. Leadership is about (a) the knowledge of classroom interaction and group processes,
and (b) the ability to manage classroom interaction and group processes. These concepts are
neither comprehensive nor categorical, but they provide a sense of the features connected to the
concepts and offer the opportunity to investigate teachers’ classroom management (Granström,
2007). Granström (2007) constructs a four-field figure (see Figure 1), where he describes teach-
ers who exert good or bad leadership as well as good or bad teachership.

Marcus SAMUELSSON, Joakim SAMUELSSON. Proficient classroom management through focused mathematic teaching
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
635
Figure 1: Four different teacher types exerting classroom management in

different ways (based on Granström, 2007, p. 18).
As seen in the figure, Granström named the four positions as follows:
- The ideal teacher is a teacher who knows how to teach and is highly capable of
leading the classroom.
- The entertainer is capable of organizing and activating students, but lacks com-
prehensive knowledge of the subject matter.
- The narrow specialist is a knowledgeable teacher who is not skilled in organizing
the classroom.
- The catastrophe is incapable of maintaining order in the classroom and lacks the
knowledge to teach the subject.
Thus, each of the four fields includes aspects of both leadership and teachership. A not
entirely unusual thought among teachers is that a teacher must first establish peace and quiet in
the classroom before he or she can begin to teach the subject. In this study, we will show how a
proficient maths teacher (the ideal teacher in Granström’s model, 2007) teaches his subject and
thereby creates peace and quiet from the class and exerts effective leadership in the classroom.
The following figure (Figure 2) illustrates the shift from exerting leadership in order to teach to
exercising teachership and thereby applying effective leadership.
Figure 2: Illustrates the shift from initially exerting leadership to initially

exerting teachership.
What defines a proficient teacher looks different depending on who defines this and
what perspective they adopt when defining skill. Several studies of proficient teachers’ pres-
ent qualities of teachers that can often be related to Granström’s (2007) concept of teachership

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
636 and leadership. When teachership is discussed in the literature, the following procedures occur
among proficient teachers: (a) the teacher explains well (Beishuizen et al., 2001; Murray, 2001)
(b) the teacher offers individualized instruction (Kutnick & Jules, 1993; Murray, 2001; Murphy,
Delli & Edwards, 2004) (c) the teacher creates interest (Läänemets, Kalamees-Ruubel, & Sepp,
A. 2012;), and (d) they vary their teaching (Kutnick & Jules, 1993; et al., 2012). Leadership
involves (a) the teacher being positive, helpful and friendly, and showing concern (Läänemtes,
et al., 2012; Murray, 2001), (b) the teacher behaving politely (Murray, 2001), (c) the teacher
maintaining relationships (Beishuizen et al., 2001), and (d) the teacher being in control of the
classroom (Kutnick & Jules, 1993). In this study, we want to show how effective teachership
also results in good leadership. An Australian study shows, however, that proficient teaching of
mathematics involves both teachership and leadership (Clark, 1997). Proficient teachers focus
on mathematics and discuss mathematics with students (teachership), as well as creating good
relationships and showing elation and joy if their students succeed (leadership).
The aim of this research was to describe and analyse how a proficient mathematics teach-
er taught mathematics and thereby created effective leadership in the classroom based on ob-
servation as a method. The following research questions were answered: (a) What patterns can
be seen in a proficient mathematics teacher’s teaching that also affect classroom management?
and, (b) What can we learn about classroom management based on a proficient mathematics
teacher’s ways of teaching?
The results of research give examples of teaching activities that can help teacher exert
effective leadership in mathematics classroom.
Characteristics of Classroom Management
Classroom management could be understood as integrated skills (Nordenbo, Søgaard

Larsen, Tifitkçi, Wendt & Østergaard, 2008) which focus on leadership that enables all students
to develop academically as well as socially and morally. Good classroom management can be
likened to effective classroom management (Brophy, 1988, 2006) in which all students receive
customized challenges or opportunities based on their individual circumstances in order to
develop. Such an environment optimizes opportunities for all students to learn (Brophy, 2006).
Research on classroom management has shown that good classroom management is a result
of conscious long-term prevention and patient effort on the part of the teacher (Brophy, 1988,
2006; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Nordenbo, Søgaard Larsen, Tifitkçi, Wendt & Østergaard,
2008; Roache & Lewis, 2011; Emmer & Sabornie, 2014). We identified six important factors
for good classroom management.
Establishing the School Class as a Social System
The school class as a social system is built on the teacher, the students and their social
and cultural backgrounds. Different backgrounds give students different conditions and different
expectations regarding school, the teaching and the teachers. Expectations also reflect the way
in which the students are socialized. Brophy (1988) emphasizes how important it is for teachers
to socialize the students to the social system that the specific educational setting represents.
This means exerting an influence on students’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviours. It also means
expressing how students are expected to behave as well as reinforcing desirable behaviours
(Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash & Weaver, 2008) when needed. The school class as a social
system is based on an ecological approach found in Doyle (2006).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Creating Respectful Relationships with Each Individual 637
Teachers who are good classroom managers understand how important they are as
leaders. They also understand that their leadership is based on respectful relationships between
them and the students as individuals (Lewis, Romi, Katz & Qui, 2008; Muntuoro & Lewis,
2014). They ultimately understand that their leadership is built upon the students accepting
to follow them as leaders because they provide the students with opportunities to develop
through their teaching. There is thus a link between relationships and achievements (Roache &
Lewis, 2011). Classroom management is expressed as a concern for students (Woolfolk Hoy &
Weinstein, 2006), as an interest in each student’s situation.
Establishing a Good Classroom Climate
Learning environments characterized by respectful relationships are easier to manage.

Not just because the students feel involved, but also because such environments are characterized
by stimulating learning activities as part of a friendly climate. Such environments feature more
support for student learning and a leader who, if necessary, changes the environment in order to
establish or maintain a good classroom climate (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash & Weaver,
2008). Brophy (1999) describes such environments as supportive learning communities where
teachers, being role models, socialize students in a desirable manner. To lead a class means,
based on such reasoning, to create and adjust the classroom climate so that academic, social and
moral development is made possible for each student (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Wubbels,
2011). Brophy (1999) points out that a good classroom climate, in the sense of a productive
context, is marked by a concern that permeates teacher-student interaction as well as student-
student interaction.
Establishing Structures, Procedures and Rules
A collaboration that begins with teachers initiating a discussion in order to establish and
then uphold a smaller number of rules and procedures has good potential to be effective (Brophy,
1988; 2006). Good leadership means that the teacher introduces, establishes and maintains a
small number of rules and procedures as part of a fair system that protects and respects the
students (Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). Rules and procedures help the teacher to create
standards and thus become a tool for learning and effective leadership (Doyle, 2006). Teachers
who, at the beginning of a semester or collaboration, work patiently to establish structures
experience less disruptive behaviour, which is related to the established common rules and
procedures (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash & Weaver, 2008). Students who feel involved
get a sense of community, develop self-awareness and commitment, and perform better (Lewis,
Romi, Katz & Qui, 2008).
Having Clear Expectations and Motivating the Students
A well-organized school activity is based on regulatory documents such as the Swedish

Education Act and the syllabus, and strives to optimize the quality of every lesson (Brophy,
2006). Good classroom management is crucial for students, so they can develop an internal
motivation to learn. Most children and students are motivated by (a) interesting tasks, (b) a per-
ceived expectation that they can learn and be successful, and (c) being offered support to devel-
op their skills and abilities (Borich, 1996). Teachers have a crucial role in creating such learning
environments (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). Students’ involvement increases if there

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
638 are internal motives to make an effort and succeed in tasks that relate to their lives, experience
or future events (Garofalo & Lester, 1985). Expectations are not just about the students. They
are also about the teacher’s demands and expectations of their own leadership (Lewis, Romi,
Katz & Qui, 2008). Good classroom management thus means that the teacher leads and shows
what students are expected to do (Brophy, 1988; Nordenbo, Søgaard Larsen, Tifitkçi, Wendt &
Østergaard, 2008; Roache & Lewis, 2011).
Establishing Reasonable Disciplinary Interventions
Students, who have not yet acquired social and moral skills and abilities, need continued
help and support in order to learn them. Such support is usually provided by a teacher, other
students or the whole class. Teachers have an important role for students who violate the norms,
values or rules, partly in seeking to understand the students’ perspectives (Ziehe, 2000; 2010;
2012) and partly in convincing or, at worst, forcing the students to change their behaviours
(Brophy, 1988; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Roache & Lewis, 2011). The way teachers
discipline matters to students, and teachers consequently need to consider how they treat and
support students’ academic and social development (Beaman & Wheldall, 2000). If this is
done in a productive way, by teachers showing that the students’ efforts and achievements are
appreciated, the students develop their self-awareness and involvement, which allows them to
work better (Beaman & Wheldall, 2000; Lewis, Romi, Katz & Qui, 2008). Teachers also need
to explain the rationale behind the discipline they use if they want to stimulate the students’
sense of accountability (Lewis, Romi & Roache, 2012).
Fieldwork
A hallmark of ethnographic field studies is that they are often described as extensive, at
the places or in the practices studied (Delamont, 2006). The idea of fieldwork, to be participat-
ing here and now, by “studying at first-hand what people do and say in particular contexts”
(Hammersley 2006, 4) still applies. But the traditional notion of fieldwork that takes several
years has been challenged by Barth (1994) and perhaps even more by Hannerz (2001), who
problematize the basis of Malinowski’s (1922) ideas about fieldwork whereby a researcher
stayed in one place for a long time and argues for the possibilities offered by shorter fieldwork.
The researchers spent half a year following the selected maths teacher as he taught different
students in different classrooms at a secondary school. The empirical data was gathered through
yo-yo fieldwork (Wulff 2002). As Wulff (2002) suggests, the researchers were stationed in the
environment, the classroom where mathematics lessons were conducted, made observations,
wrote field notes and gathered as much empirical data as possible for our purpose. They oscil-
lated between being present in the field and days distant from the field to transcribe field notes
and reflect on what we had experienced so far. Permission to follow the proficient mathematics
teacher had been gained through contact with him. The researchers moved in and out of math-
ematical practice, week after week for half a year, i.e. one semester (Hannerz 2001). Initially,
they sat or walked around during the practical sessions, made open observations and wrote
visible field notes. The researchers tried to be open and inquisitive (Geertz 1973) and to write
about the interactions between the maths teacher and his students. They tried to register routines
and rituals, and to pay attention to critical events. The researchers also made lists of tools, ma-
terials and posters or signboards.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Participant 639
The aim of the research was to describe and analyse how a teacher of mathematics who
is perceived as proficient teaches mathematics. To study how this happens in practice, the re-
searchers obtained access to a classroom where such a teacher appears. One of the researchers
had heard through contacts of a teacher who many perceived as proficient. The criteria to be
considered were that (a) several groups who were familiar with teaching performed by the
teacher would speak well of the person’s teaching and (b) that the teacher’s students performed
a little better than one would expect. In this research, a strategic selection of an appropriate
teacher was therefore made. The maths teacher selected was perceived as skilful by his school
management, colleagues, students, parents, former students and parents of these children. He
had around 40 years of experience working as a mathematics teacher at Swedish secondary
schools, and he still enjoyed it.
Analysis
The interpretation of the observation and field notes began at the time of the lessons. The
researchers own thoughts were written down in brackets in the observation block. The next step
in the process was retyping observation notes using a computer, in connection with the imple-
mented additional interpretations while the notes became richer. Then the researchers read the
data to get an overall impression. Sections containing relevant information were highlighted
in relation to the purpose of the research. Various portions of the material were compared with
each other to find patterns in data and themes. The next step was to describe and conceptual-
ize the patterns that responded to the study’s purpose and issues. The patterns were named
primarily to reflect the data, which is the most common technique for naming the themes and
categories (Merriam, 1998).
Based on the ethical principles of humanities and social sciences (CODEX, 2012), the
following considerations were made in the implementation of the research. Both written and
verbal information about the research project were given to the teacher, student, parent or guard-
ian. In addition, the school management was also informed. It is imperative that the individual
participates voluntarily in the research project, and that they can cancel their participation with-
out any consequences. Consent for participation has thus been given by the teacher without any
pressure, either from the project or from the immediate surroundings. Students and their parents
or guardians have also given consent for the researcher to participate in classes and to describe
and analyse teaching. All collected empirical data from field notes has been handled, processed,
and reported so that all the individuals involved are anonymous. The teacher has had access to
draft reports and thus the opportunity to comment on the content and interpretation. On these
occasions, the teacher has often been in agreement with the researcher about his interpretations.
In some cases, the teacher helped with clarifications. In the described research project, it has
been clarified to the involved teacher that the research material will be used only for research
purposes.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
640 Results of Research
Mathematics-intensive Classroom
In Leif’s classroom, both he and the students were orientated towards mathematics,
which resulted in a mathematics-intensive classroom.
Even before the researchers entered the classroom for the first lesson, it was obvious
that Leif was a teacher with good contact with the students, both those he taught and those he
just met in the corridor. Leif greeted the students that came his way. He said “Hello!” and al-
ways followed his greeting with the student’s name. “Hello Calle” or “Hello Lisa”. It became
clear that he knew the students’ names. When he opened the door and the students entered the
classroom, the students went directly and sat down in their places. Once all the students had sat
down, the teacher began his mathematical reasoning. As researchers we sat at the back of the
classroom and were completely astonished.
The students and Leif talked about mathematics, they used mathematical words, they
solved problems, and they discussed different solutions: why a solution was better than another,
why a task was difficult, and why a task was easy. Leif constantly gave encouraging comments,
and listened to students’ ideas and solutions. He showed a genuine interest in their thoughts. It
became clear that Leif also integrated a lot of teaching artefacts that he had invented and con-
ceptualized. The students worked with Leif’s tasks, and they used Leif’s magic bar, his magic
squares and his other artefacts. We had ended up in Leif’s mathematics country. The entire
educational atmosphere was characterized by serenity and an interest in students’ wellbeing in
general and in their mathematics learning in particular.
When the students began practising using the mathematics book, Leif noted what time
the lesson would end on the board and what task they would do during the lesson. The frame-
work for the lesson was set, and the students and Leif could continue to test their newfound
insights individually. Leif could test his acquired insights into students’ thinking – important
knowledge that helped him to teach at a reasonable level when he walked around the classroom
and held individual discussions with his students.
Understanding of Students’ Understanding
A recurring action in Leif’s teaching is when he tries to understand what students know
and how they comprehend content. These actions occurred in different arenas. An arena was
defined as a context where meeting between Leif, students and mathematics occurred. Leif’s
mathematics teaching was carried out in four different arenas: (a) whole-class teaching at indi-
vidual level, (b) whole-class teaching at group level, (c) individual practising and (d) testing.
Whole-class teaching at individual level
Whole-class teaching at individual level took place in at least two different ways: (a) an
introducing way and (b) a reasoning way. The introducing way meant that Leif presented a new
concept or procedure. He asked questions that helped him to understand what and how students
understood the content that was presented. Different ways of thinking were discussed, whereby
students became aware of the advantages and disadvantages of different ways of thinking about
mathematics. Whole-class teaching was also carried out in a reasoning way. This meant that
Leif presented a problem that the students solved individually. After all the students had tried
to solve the problem, a whole-class discussion was conducted. Once again Leif reflected on dif-
ferent ways of thinking about the problem and finally summarized what the class had found out.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
In his summary, he pointed out the difficulties the students had managed to overcome and what 641
they should pay attention to when working with such a kind of problem.
Whole-class teaching at group level
Whole-class teaching at group level meant that students solved problem in different
groups thorough discussion. Leif and the students then discussed how the different groups of
students had solved the tasks. Each group’s solution was tested against solutions from other
groups. Leif steered the discussion and asked questions, exposing students’ thinking, reasoned
with groups and summarized the results of the discussions.
Individual practising
Individual practising meant that students were given the opportunity to practise their
abilities to solve tasks that were related to what had been discussed in the class. During indi-
vidual practising, Leif walked around the classroom and discussed individual problems and
supported students’ work.
Testing
When Leif and the students were in the test arena, students conducted the test that the
teacher later gave them feedback on. The feedback was always individual. It was not just about
presenting how many points the student received; Leif listened to how students discussed the
tasks that had been difficult. While listening, Leif tried to help students in their ways of think-
ing about these tasks. Tasks that the students found tricky were discussed in depth. Students
were thus given an individual review of the task that detailed concepts and methods. They then
practised solving similar tasks to those they had experienced problems with.
The intention to identify how students were thinking and how they understood a specific
content was significant to Leif’s work in all arenas.
Inspiring and motivating mathematics teaching
Another important pattern in Leif’s teaching was that he always tried to inspire and mo-
tivate the students in different ways. The following instruction sequence exemplifies how Leif
worked with representation in order to inspire and motivate the students. Through illustrations
and expressions like “Isn’t this exciting”, Leif tried to support the students’ learning. The teach-
ing episode in question drew attention to fractions.
Leif: Now draw a rectangle with sides measuring 12 cm and 3 cm.

Leif: Now I want you to draw lines to divide it up into thirds.

Following Leif’s instructions, the students divided up their rectangles into thirds in sev-
eral different ways. The most common ways are illustrated below.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
642
Leif: Now I want you to draw a picture where you divide the rectangle up into thirds but
in a different way.
Students who designed the above figure then drew the following figure.
Leif walked around the classroom and watched how the students drew figures. This gave him
the chance to make an assessment of how students represented thirds. When looking at how
all the students had solved the task, the class carried on with a similar procedure, this time
drawing quarters. The first representation of the quarters basically looked the same for all
students.
Leif then asked the students to draw another representation of quarters. This task caused
some students major difficulties. The following examples are the most common.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
The students had so far not received any instruction on how to divide a figure into parts. 643
To understand how the students were thinking, Leif asked them questions:
Leif: What should you do to find out the size of a quarter?
Student: You share all the small squares with the part you want to divide into.
Leif looks questioningly at the student and then asks: Are you thinking like this. If
we are to split our figure into quarters, we could think like this. How many small squares
are there? 3*12 = 36 pieces of squares. We divide that number into four piles, 36/4=9.
Then we know that each quarter contains 9 squares. Neat.
By working with several different examples, the students faced different challenges that
gave them opportunities to discover patterns. Leif continued a discussion on the relationship
between different fractions and wondered if someone could show what kind of connection there
was between thirds and sixths. Some students drew the figure below and Leif drew it on the
board and said: “Well, so two sixths is a third, exciting!”
Leif then asked the students: “What is the relationship between thirds and ninths?” The
students drew and showed Leif what they thought.
12 cm
3 cm
Leif said: “Well, so three ninths are required to make one third, fun. Now comes the next
mission for you, twelfths and thirds.” Students drew their figures and presented them to Leif as
he walked around the classroom.
12 cm
3 cm
Once again, the students had been given the opportunity to see that there is a relationship
between different fractions. They used the mathematics they had already mastered to make their
calculations. After the activity, the students had been given an image, a representation of differ-
ent fractions and their relationships. These examples illustrate Leif’s professional knowledge of
how mathematical content can be represented. At the same time, the examples show how Leif
perceived learning. Instead of him drawing the figures on the blackboard and showing what he
wants the students to learn, he lets them – under supervision – draw and seek the pattern that
he was aiming for.
A recurring pattern in Leif’s teaching was his attempt to inspire students to think in pic-
tures while he motivated them towards self-discovery, investigation and confirmation of their

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
644 ways of thinking and solving problems. He also used his language to inspire and motivate the
students. He constantly used phrases such as “fun” and “exciting”.
Supporting Affective Aspects
A fourth pattern that emerges from the observations of Leif’s teaching was his supportive
behaviour towards affective aspects. There were at least two things that Leif did to affect and
develop positive relationships towards school mathematics: (a) create interest, and (b) work
with the students’ confidence in their own ability.
Create interest
When Leif introduced new content, he often connected the mathematics to everyday
events in order to motivate students. The students thereby had the opportunity to understand
the benefits of the mathematics they were going to learn. Leif also used images to concretize
and illustrate various mathematical phenomena. Everyday events and pictures seemed to affect
students’ activity in the lessons, which could be an indication of increased interest.
Leif also used language to make mathematics seem fun. All lessons featured a variety of
positive expressions so that the students would feel that there was something interesting going
on. One example was when various groups had presented their solution to a problem, but Leif
seemed unsatisfied with the solutions and said: “Wouldn’t it be fun to see what I think now?”
Or when a student had demonstrated that he or she had mastered something, he said:
“That’s good, I suppose you are really happy about knowing that?” By talking to the student in
this way, he caught their attention and made the student aware that they actually felt happy that
they had managed mathematics.
Work with the students’ confidence
Students’ thinking about their own mathematical ability has a great impact on their math-
ematical performance. Success and failure when learning mathematics affects their self-confi-
dence. Leif paid attention to how the students talked about their ability. The students were not
allowed to say that they could not do maths or that they were bad at maths.
Student: I can’t!
Leif: Why do you say that? You have demonstrated that you understand how to divide, and
you have shown that you can round off.
Student: Mmm…
Leif: Then I want you to stop saying that you can’t. You can do lots of things. Trust yourself.
Students must succeed in schoolwork to gain self-confidence, but to be successful they

should have a certain degree of self-confidence. Leif gave a lot of positive responses, and they
were never redundant.
Leif: You seem to understand, that’s good. This means that you know things, it’s good, re-
ally good.
He also involved himself in students’ learning. He frequently used expressions such

as “We can do this together” and “I will help you, and you and I must be able to solve this”.
Involving himself in the learning processes reduced students’ anxiety towards mathematics in
general and learning mathematics.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Socio-Mathematical Norms and Meta-Cognitive Aspects 645
A recurring pattern of teaching was that Leif accepted different solutions and ways of
thinking in the mathematics classroom. Normative understanding of what counts as an accept-
able mathematical explanation or justification are socio-mathematical norms. In Leif’s class-
room, diversity of thinking was allowed and discussed in order to learn which method was easi-
est or most problematic, relationships between concepts and why a task was or was not easy. By
discussing these aspects, the students developed their meta-knowledge of mathematics.
Knowledge that one can think differently and be creative in mathematics
The structure of Leif’s teaching gave the students several opportunities to acquire knowl-
edge about how mathematical operations can be conducted while showing how other students
think. Leif encouraged the various creative solutions and students’ explanations of their solu-
tions. Students were given an understanding that mathematics was not always something that
needs to be treated in a certain way. If none of the students could present a solution that Leif
thought was the best, he said: “Now you have to listen to how I solve the problem. Wouldn’t it be
exciting to hear that, Moa?” (Moa gave the impression of not listening so Leif took the chance
to catch her attention and bring her back to the teaching.)
After all the solutions had been presented, they discussed which solutions would be best
and why. Leif argued for his solution; it suited him, and it was the easiest and most effective
way to solve the problem in his experience. Students, for their part, would sometimes argue that
their solution suited them better. If their model was generic and could be built upon mathemati-
cal ideas, Leif let them use it and gave encouraging comments about their proposed solution. If
the solution was not general he tried to reason with the students, so they realized the shortcom-
ings of their thinking and what would happen if they worked with more advanced and complex
problems. In this way, Leif made the students pay attention to both different creative solutions
and the most efficient and mathematically correct solution.
Knowledge of the relationships between the different components as they work in math-
ematics
Leif always tried to link new content to earlier experiences so that the student can under-
stand what context the content was related to. If students could not connect the mathematics to
prior knowledge, Leif went back a step to a concrete representation. The figure below illustrates
how Leif worked with new content. New content was connected to prior abstract knowledge.
If the student had difficulties understanding the abstract line of reasoning, Leif incorporated
concrete representations like pictures and everyday events in his teaching.
Figure 3: An illustration of how new content is introduced and put in its context.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
646 The starting point was to work with mathematical abstractions, moving between spoken
and written symbols and ending up in a mathematical discourse. In this way, Leif gave the
students opportunities to develop their meta-cognitive thinking of school mathematics; they
gained knowledge about mathematics not just skills in mathematics.
Knowledge of what makes the task easy
Another important pattern that arose was Leif’s discussion of why a certain task was
easier than a task that looked similar. For example, when Leif asked the students to conduct a
so-called Leif task, where he presented tasks that contained difficulties that were important to
master.
1. 6.2 + 3.9 =
2. 6.5 - 3.2 =
3. 17.2 - 6.4=
The above example shows that task one and two are relatively simple tasks. By reason-
ing why task two is easier than task one, students were given the opportunity to develop their
knowledge about mathematics, not just in mathematics. Leif could have drawn attention to
what made task one difficult, but instead he chose to focus on what made the second task easier.
This might have had a psychological impact on students’ later work on similar tasks. No task
was difficult, however was one task a little easier.
Discussion
Managing the Social System of the Mathematics Classroom
Leif has created a social system that physically consists of the mathematics classroom
and his students. In the social system that constitutes his classroom, mathematics is in the
foreground and it is mathematics that students should be engaged in during the lesson. Each
time a student falls outside the framework, and goes off-task by not participating in the lesson,
Leif instructs partly in words, but also with body language, how he wants them to work with
mathematics. By constantly asking whether students are off-task, if they have finished with the
task, he hints and reminds them about the mathematical content and what should be done. He
shows in a productive way what students are expected to do (Brophy, 1988; Nordenbo, Søgaard
Larsen, Tifitkçi, Wendt & Østergård, 2008; Roache & Lewis, 2011). Through his transparency,
Leif influences students’ attitudes and beliefs about what should be done in mathematics les-
sons, and how to work. It also means that he puts into words how students are expected to be-
have and reinforces desirable behaviours (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash & Weaver, 2008).
Leif shows that he is aware of things on many different levels and that he deals with many
things that happen simultaneously. In a classroom, changes occur all the time while teaching is
in progress. Leif deals with potential interference by being attentive and having a genuine inter-
est in trying to understand the students. He stops and asks questions publicly to the class about
how they think. In the classroom, he has created a constructive environment that allows him to
think because the students know historically that he needs to get a chance to understand how
they understand in order to help them in the best way (Doyle, 2006). Leif makes sure that every-
one knows what to do and supports them in their work with the subject. Leif’s way of working
reduces the student’s opportunities for disruptive behaviour in any significant way. Leif focuses
on maths and makes it clear that he expects the students to work with maths and nothing else.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Managing Care and Creating Healthy Relationships around Mathematics 647
Teachers’ skilful leadership is the basis for a positive, helpful and friendly atmosphere
(Murray, 2001; Laanemets et al., 2012) and respectful relationships between them and their
students (Lewis, Romi, Xing & Katz, 2005; Nordenbo, Søgaard Larsen, Tifitkçi, Wendt &
Østergaard, 2008). Such leaders are aware of the importance of students agreeing to follow
them as leaders. Again, it is Leif’s interest in listening and trying to understand his students’
problems with mathematics and his desire to help that allows students to accept him as the
skilful leader he is (Murray, 2001; Laanemets et al., 2012). Working with students’ learning in
several arenas through varied teaching (Laanemets et al., 2012) gives Leif many opportunities
to listen to the students’ thinking, which is the basis for the positive and productive relationship
between him and the students. This information also means that he exercises good teachership
(Granström, 2007) and, if necessary, changes students’ statements (Murray, 2001; Beishuizen
et al., 2001) in order to make them understand (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash & Weaver,
2008). He creates a supportive learning community where he, as a role model, socializes stu-
dents in a desirable manner (Brophy, 1999; Evertson & Weinstein 2006; Wubbels, 2011). Thus,
his concern for students’ mathematics learning (Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006; Brophy,
1999) and his interest in the individual student’s learning are an important factor in terms of
creating healthy relations. Through skilful teaching he exercises good leadership.
Managing Motivation and Students’ Confidence in their Own Ability
The student’s interest in mathematics in general and the student’s attitude to mathemat-
ics in particular is largely dependent on the teacher’s actions (Darling-Hammond & Bransford,
2005; Montuoro & Lewis, 2014). Leif motivates students by representing mathematical phe-
nomena in images, allowing students to solve tasks in different ways. Each solution is important
because it provides a basis for discussion. Students are given the opportunity to feel that they
have mastered the content, that they are part of a larger mathematical community, and that they
have the chance to study mathematics. Thus, Leif’s leadership fulfils many of the requirements
necessary to support the motivation to study. Another strategy is Leif’s recurring expression of
how fun and pleasurable mathematics is, and how exciting it is to solve problems and get the
answers. He thereby creates interest (Laanemets et al., 2012; Kutnick & Jules, 1993) and exem-
plifies good teachership (Granström, 2007). Students’ thinking about their own mathematical
ability has been shown to be important in terms of the ability to solve mathematical problems
(Garofalo & Lester, 1985). By constantly trying to get students to experience that they can
succeed, he helps them to develop a positive relationship towards mathematics (Borich, 1996;
Clark, 1997). One common feature of Leif’s teaching is the tremendous effort he puts into sup-
porting each student’s feelings for mathematics in order to develop their confidence in their own
ability. Another aspect that appears in his teaching is the feedback given to students that may be
significant in relation to the students’ confidence in their own ability. Leif runs through each les-
son and test individually with each student (cf. Brophy, 1996; Borich, 1996). The above testifies
how Leif exercises teachership by individualizing (Murray, 2001; Murphy, Delli & Edwards,
2004; Kutnick & Jules, 1993) his mathematics teaching.
Managing Structures, Procedures and Rules
Leif shows skilled leadership by being in control in the classroom (Kutnick & Jules,
1993) and being clear about what applies in the classroom. He writes on the board what to do
and how long the work should take, and sets the framework for the lesson. A general rule that

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
648 creates peace and quiet in his classroom is the focus on mathematics. Such a rule gives a clear
orientation for the students about what to do. It is also the basis for a fair system that protects
and respects students (Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006 Brophy, 1988; 2006; Wubbels, 2011).
Leif works patiently to establish these structures, and disruptive behaviour rarely or never oc-
curred in the classroom. Students simply did not have time to interfere because they were
involved in Leif’s mathematics education (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash & Weaver, 2008).
Rules and procedures helped Leif to create standards and thus became a tool for learning and
effective leadership (Doyle, 2006). In this case, we could talk about socio-mathematical norms,
or in other words the fact that Leif is clear about what is considered appropriate mathematical
solutions and justifications. He always started with the student’s prior knowledge and followed
up by arriving at the most appropriate method based on a specific criterion.
Table 1. Classroom management as a construct of leadership and teachership.
Establishing
Classroom Establishing a Establishing structures, Having clear expectations
respectful rela-
management social system procedures and rules and motivating students
tionships
Express how
students are Show concern Establish and maintain a Use interesting tasks, and
Leadership expected to for each stu- small number of rules and offer students support so that
behave in the dent’s situations. procedures. they can be successful.
classroom.
Establish a culture where Use multiple representations

Express how Show interest in
all solutions are important to motivate students.
students are each student’s
Teachership in the teaching process. Use supportive expressions
expected to learn mathematical
Direct attention to math- that they are able to learn
mathematics. thinking.
ematics. mathematics.
The table above summarizes Leif´s classroom management. It shows how a proficient
maths’ teacher teaches his subject and thereby exerts effective leadership in the classroom.
Conclusions
A proficient teacher such as Leif carries his teachership in and about the mathematics
that students should learn. He wants to understand how students understand the content, so he
can meet them and support them in their quest to acquire mathematical knowledge. He directs
attention to their needs and, based on the knowledge he has acquired through education and
experience, he chooses appropriate strategies as a proficient classroom manager to help indi-
vidual students in the best way. He creates opportunities that give him the chance to discover
how students think, and he optimizes his ability to see where each student is in their thinking.
At the same time, he is reminded that there are things that are obvious to him but problematic
for students. Working in the previously presented venues has probably helped Leif to acquire
unique skills, skills that make him a successful teacher, perhaps without thinking about it. This
research illustrates how a skilled mathematics teacher works, focusing on teaching and learning
mathematics and thereby benefiting from his leadership. The researchers in the introduction
argue that a not entirely unusual position among teachers is that a teacher must first establish
a quiet classroom before he or she can begin to teach the subject. The research shows different
patterns that occur when a mathematics teacher exerts proficient leadership in the classroom
just by teaching his subject.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
References 649
Barth, F. (1994). Manifestasjon og prosess [Manifestation and process]. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

Beaman, R., & Wheldall, K. (2000). Teachers’ use of approval and disapproval in the classroom.
Educational Psychology, 20 (4), 431-446. https://doi.org/10.1080/713663753.
Beishuizen, J. J., Hof, E., van Putten, C. M., Bouwmeester, S., & Asscher, J. J. (2001). Students’ and
teachers’ cognitions about good teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71 (2), 185-
201. DOI: 10.1348/000709901158451.
Borich, G. (1996). Effective teaching methods (Third Edition). New York: Macmillan.
Brophy, J. (1988). Educating teachers about managing classrooms and students. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 4 (1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(88)90020-0.
Brophy, J. (1999). Teaching. (Educational Practices Series – 1). The International Bureau of Education.
UNESCO: Paris.
Brophy, J. (2006). History of Research on Classroom Management. In: C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein
(Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice and contemporary issues (pp.
17-43). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Clark, D. M. (1997). The changing role of the mathematics teacher. Journal for Research in Mathematics
Education, 28 (3), 278-308.
CODEX (2012-04-01). Regler och riktlinjer för forskning [Rules and guidelines for research]. Retrieved
from the Swedish Research Council’s website: http://www.codex.vr.se/forskninghumsam.shtml.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (2005). (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What
teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Delamont, S. (2004). Ethnography and Participant Observation. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. F. Gubrium & D.
Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative research practice (pp. 205-217). London: Sage.
Doyle, W. (2006). Ecological approaches to classroom management. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein
(Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice and contemporary issues (pp.
97-126). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology,
with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36 (2), 103-112. https://doi.
org/10.1207/S15326985EP3602_5.
Emmer, E. T., & Sabornie, E. J. (2014). Handbook of classroom management (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Epstein, M., Atkins, M., Cullinan, D., Kutash, K., & Weaver, R. (2008). Reducing behaviour problems
in the elementary school classroom: A practice guide. Washington DC: National Center for
Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance.
Evertson, C. M. (1989). Classroom Management. In H. J. Wahlberg & G. D. Haertel (Eds.), Psychology
and educational practice (pp. 251-273). Berkley: McCutchan.
Evertson, C. M., & Weinstein, C. S. (2006). (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research,
practice and contemporary issues. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Garofalo, J., & Lester, F.K. (1985). Metacognition, cognitive monitoring, and mathematical performance.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 16 (3), 163-176. DOI: 10.2307/748391.
Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books.
Granström, K. (1998). Classroom management in Sweden: Swedish classroom rhetoric and practice. In
N. Shimahara (Ed.), Politics of classroom life: Classroom management in international perspec-
tive (pp. 136–162). New York: Garland.
Granström, K. (2006). Group phenomena and classroom management in Sweden. In C.M. Evertson &
C.S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice and contempo-
rary issues (pp. 1141-1160). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
650 Granström, K. (2007). Ledarskap i klassrummet. In K. Granström (Ed.), Forskning om lärares arbete i
klassrummet (pp. 13-32). [Research about teachers’ classroom work]. Stockholm: Myndigheten
för skolutveckling.
Hammersley, M. (2006), Ethnography: Problems and prospects. Ethnography and Education, 1 (1), 3-14.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17457820500512697.
Hannerz, U. (2001). Introduktion: När fältet blir translokalt. In U. Hannerz, (Ed.), Flera fält i ett:
Socialantropologer om translokala fältstudier. (pp. 7-35). [Multiple fields in one: Social
anthropologists on translocal field studies]. Stockholm: Carlssons bokförlag.
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional
competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79
(1), 491-525. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693.
Kutnick, P., & Jules, V. (1993). Pupils’ perception of a good teacher: A developmental perspective from
Trinidad and Tobago. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63 (3), 400-413.
Kvale, S. (1997). Den kvalitativa forskningsintervjun [The qualitative research interview]. Studentlitteratur:
Lund.
Lewis, R., Romi, S., Qui. X., & Katz, J. (2005). Teachers’ classroom discipline and student misbehaviour
in Australia, China and Israel. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21 (6), 729-741. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tate.2005.05.008.
Lewis, R., Romi, S., Katz, Y., & Qui, X. (2008). Students’ reactions to classroom discipline in Australia,
Israel and China. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24 (3), 715-724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tate.2007.05.003.
Lewis, R., Romi, S., & Roache, J. (2012). Excluding students from classroom: Teacher techniques that
promote student responsibility. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28 (6), 870-878. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.03.009.
Läänemets, U., Kalamees-Ruubel, K., & Sepp, A. (2012). What makes a good teacher? Voices of Estonian
students. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, fall, 79 (1), 27-31.
Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts in the Western Pacific. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Montuoro, p., & Lewis, R. (2014). Student perceptions of misbehaviour and classroom management.
In E. T., Emmer, & E. J. Sabornie (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (pp. 344-362).
Routledge: New York.
Murphy, K. P., Delli, L. A. M., & Edwards, M. N. (2004). The good teacher and the good teaching:
Comparing beliefs of second-grade students, preservice teachers and inservice teachers. The
Journal of Experimental Education, 72 (2), 69-92. doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.72.2.
Murray, S. (2001). Secondary students’ descriptions of “good” mathematics teachers. Australian
Mathematic Teachers, 67 (4), 14-21.
Nordenbo, S E., Søgaard Larsen, M., Tiftikçi, N., Wendt, R. E., & Østergaard, S. (2008). Lœrerkompetanser
og elevers lœring i førskole og skole [Teacher competence and pupils learning in preschool and
school]. Copenhagen: Dansk Clearinghouse for Uddanelseforskning.
Roache, J. E., & Lewis, R. (2011). The carrot, the stick, or the relationship: What are the effective
disciplinary strategies? European Journal of Teacher Education, 34 (2), 233-248. https://doi.org/
10.1080/02619768.2010.542586.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of a new reform. Harvard Educational
Review, 57 (1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411.
Thames, M. H., & Ball, D. L. (2010). What mathematical knowledge does teaching require? Knowing
mathematics in and for teaching. Teaching Children Mathematics, 17 (4), 220-225.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Weinstein, C. S. (2006). Student and teacher perspective on classroom management. 651
In: C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research,
practice and contemporary issues (pp. 181-219). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wubbels, T. (2011). An international perspective on classroom management: What should prospective
teachers learn? Teaching Education, 22 (2), 113-131. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2011.56
7838.
Wulff, H. (2002). “Yo-yo Fieldwork: Mobility and time in a multi-local study of dance in Ireland”.
Anthropological Journal of European Cultures, 11 (1), 117-136.
Ziehe, T. (2000). Engagement and abstention: Youth and the school in the second modernization.
European Education, 31 (4), 6–21.
Ziehe, T. (2010). ‘Normal learning problems’ in youth: In the context of underlying cultural convictions.
In K. Illeris (Ed.), Contemporary theories of learning: Learning theorists... in their own words (s.
184–199). London: Routledge.
Ziehe, T. (2012). Tidstypiska menings- och handlingskriser hos ungdomar [Contemporary crises of
meaning and how to act among young people]. Venue. Retrieved from http://www.liu.se/uv/
lararrummet/venue/tidstypiska-menings-och-handlingskriser-hos-ungdomar?l=sv.
Received: October 23, 2017 Accepted: December 19, 2017
Marcus Samuelsson PhD, Associate Professor, Linköping University, Department of Behavioural

Sciences and Learning, SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden.
E-mail: marcus.samuelsson@liu.se
Website: https://liu.se/en/employee/marsa06
Joakim Samuelsson PhD, Professor, Linköping University Department of Behavioural Sciences and
Learning, Sweden.
E-mail: joakim.samuelsson@liu.se
Website: https://liu.se/en/employee/joasa80

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
652 SCIENTIFIC METHODICAL CENTRE

„SCIENTIA EDUCOLOGICA”
/The associated member ofLithuanian Scientific Society
and International Council of Association for Science
Education /ICASE/
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/Problems_of_Education.htm
E-mail: problemsofeducation@gmail.com
General Information
The publication language is English and Russian. All authors must take care of the language
revision on their own. The language must be clear and accurate. The work should be written
in an impersonal style. The editor reserves the right to send the manuscript to be reviewed. If
English is a second language for the author, please consider having the manuscript proof read
and edited before submitting.
Format of Manuscripts
Abstract
The first page of the manuscript must begin with the title of the paper and an abstract which
should be about 150-250 words. For the papers reporting original research, state in brief: the
primary objective (the research questions addressed or any hypothesis tested); the research
design; the methods and procedures employed; the number of subjects; the main outcomes
and results; the conclusions drawn from these data and results, including their implications for
further research or application/practice.
Key words
Please provide 3 to 5 key words or short phrases in alphabetical order.
The structure of the manuscript (recommended)
The body of the text of the manuscript must generally have the following parts:
• abstract + key words;
• introduction;
• methodology of research;
• results of research;
• discussion;
• conclusions;
• acknowledgements (if any);
• references;
• summary (only for manuscripts which main text is in Russian),
• appendix (if any).
P.S. The structure can be different if the paper is only theoretical ąualitative research.
The length of the manuscript
The manuscript should be not shorter than 5 pages (including references, tables and figures).
Manuscripts should be typed on A4, in Times New Roman 12-point font size, single-spaced, 2.5
cm with all the margins, word-document (Word 6.0 or later) format.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Titles 653
The title of the paper 14-point, bold with capital letters, align left; titles in the text (chapters)
12-point bold, not numbered; sub-titles (subchapters) 12-point, italic, not numbered. There
must be 1 empty line before and after a title or a subtitle. The text chapters must be separated by
1 empty row. The title should be concise and informative. Avoid abbreviations.
Author names and affiliations
Full names/surnames should be provided. Please indicate affiliations of the author (s). All the
e-mails should be indicated below.
Acronyms
Acronyms should be defined the first time they appear.
Tables and Figures
Tables and figures should be valuable, relevant, and visually attractive. Tables (made in Word
or another software) and figures must be referred to in the text and numbered in the order of
their appearance. Each table and figure should have a complete, descriptive title; and each table
column an appropriate heading. The texts in tables and figures should be 11-point (in some
cases 10) and their width should be 12 cm at maximum. The figures should be in form of jpg
(unless done in Word or Excel); resolution 1200 dpi. Figures, tables (black and white colour,
without ground-colour) and captions should be inserted within the manuscript at their appropri-
ate locations. All the graphics (figures) must be editable. The font size should be Times New
Roman for all figures and tables. Figures should be carefully explained in the text and cited in
numerical order.
It is the author’s responsibility to obtain permission to reproduce illustrations, tables, etc. from
other publications.
References
The title „References” must be used. APA style for writing references in the text and in the
reference list must be used. References in the text should be presented in parentheses (Knox,
1988; Martin, 1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin, 1995, p.48). The list of
references should be presented after the text.
The author should make sure that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the names
and years in the text and those on the list. All the references should be listed in alphabetical
order by author’s name.
Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APA style will be returned without re-
view.
Note 2: References to online sources should include the type of medium (such as “serial online”
or “monograph online”), the date of that specific reference (if applicable), the uniform resource
locator (URL), and the date that the source was accessed. A source accessed online should al-
ways be referenced accordingly, even if it is also published in printed form.
Note 3: All papers must meet the criteria of originality and scientific ąuality. Obviously, they
must also comply with style and format reąuirements. The paper will not be subject to further
review, if the manuscript is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF
LANGUAGE (all manuscripts must be written in clear and grammatical English or Russian).

Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
English language proofreader Ilona Ratkevičienė
22 December 2017. Publishing in Quires 9,75. Edition 200.
Publisher Scientia Socialis Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: gu@gu.puslapiai.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm

Printing Joint-stock company „Šiaulių spaustuvė“

9A P. Lukšio Street
LT-76207 Šiauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 41 500 333.
Fax: +370 41 500 336
E-mail: info@dailu.lt

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 75, No. 6, 2017

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 75, No.

Scientia Socialis, Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 87.04 (2015)

Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd. © Scientia Socialis Ltd., 2017

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION: SOME ASPECTS CONNECTED TO ITS CONTENT

ASSESSMENTS FOR LEARNING IN GRADES 1-9 IN A SPECIAL SCHOOL

VIEWS OF A GROUP OF PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS ON THE USE

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SKILLS: AN ANTIDOTE

PREDICTING A FAST-TRACK MARITIME CAREER: CHARACTERISTICS OF

CAREER IN THE LIGHT OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

ADULT EDUCATION IN MOZAMBIQUE: BETWEEN EXPECTATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES

EXPLORING OF MULTI MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION CAPABILITY IN

SCHOOL FACTORS AFFECTING ESTONIAN STUDENTS’ SUBJECTIVE

IMPLEMENTING THE COMPUTER-BASED NATIONAL EXAMINATION

PROFICIENT CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT THROUGH FOCUSED

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 652

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION: SOME 503

ASPECTS CONNECTED TO ITS CONTENT

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Received: December 05, 2017 Accepted: December 10, 2017

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Learning and Assessment for Learning

Research on formative assessment in special schools for students with intellectual

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

An assessment activity can help learning if it provides information that teachers

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Compulsory Schools for Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Sweden

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Situated Learning and Collaboration 511

Aim and Research Questions

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

512 Research Questions

1. What was learned by the teachers and paraprofessionals?

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Table 1. Teams, students, subjects, subject areas and used methods.

Video feedback and

Templates and video feed-

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Reflections from discussions can be summarized as follows: The teachers and

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Reflections and Lessons Learned by Four Teams

New Way of Thinking about Learning

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

516 Learning and Teaching are Connected to Each Other

It is important to have the opportunity to [conduct] regular comprehensive discussions

The Students’ Effect on Teachers

Working with formative assessment in a systematic way complements the work of

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Acting More Passive in Relation to Students

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

We have developed listening [skills], giving the students’ greater opportunities to

Important Aspects Expressed by Four Teams when Assessing Learning

Changing the Focus from Caring to Learning

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Strategies in the Classrooms Involving the Students in Their Own Learning

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Concluding Remarks and Implications