Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2011

Vol.10, No.
2, 2011
ISSN 1648-3898
Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2011
Editorial Board ISSN 1648–3898
Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp Estonian Chemistry Teachers Association, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Dr. Bulent Cavas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Jānis Gedrovics Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, Lithuania
Dr. Todar Lakhvich Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim
Tank, Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Dr. Raffaele Pisano European Society for the History of Science, Italy
Dr. Pavol Prokop Institute of Zoology, Bratislava, Slovakia
Dr. Miia Rannikmäe Tartu University, Estonia
Dr. Alona Rauckienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Dr. Kurt Riquarts Kiel University, Germany
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Valery P. Solomin Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Dumlupinar University, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania, emphasizes theoretical, ex-
perimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international academic
journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all contributions re-
ceived are submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The
decision of the Editor on the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into
on reasons for rejection of a submitted contribution.
Published since 2002
The journal is published four times per year in March, June, September and December.
Address:
Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”
Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: mail.jbse@gmail.com
Phone: +370 687 95668
Home page: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt
© Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

ISSN 1648–3898 The Associated Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society,
European Society for the History of Science (ESHS) and ICASE
The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index
(http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/bei.htm), Copernicus Index (http://journals.indexcopernicus.com), The Asian
Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/sciences_index.php), EBSCO: Academic Search
70 Premier (http://search.ebscohost.com), Social Scisearch (Thomson Reuters) , SCOPUS (http://www.scopus.com/home.url),
(http://science.thomsonreuters.com/index.html) and Journal Citation Reports / Social Sciences Edition
(Thomson Reuters) (http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/scientific/Journal_Citation_Reports)
ISSN 1648–3898 Contents
Contents
Editorial

THE USE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
Bulent Cavas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Articles
INVESTIGATION THE ALIGNMENT BETWEEN SCHOOL LEARNING

AND ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS THROUGH ITEM ANALYSIS
Yilmaz Kara, Salih Cepni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
EFFECTS OF HANDS-ON ACTIVITY ENRICHED INSTRUCTION

ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCIENCE
Özlem Sadi, Jale Cakiroglu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
PRESENTATION OF LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR SCIENCE SUBJECTS

IN SLOVENIAN UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Andrej Šorgo, Slavko Kocijančič . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
DESIGNING LEARNING OBJECTS: A GENRE-BASED APPROACH

George Vorvilas, Thanassis Karalis, Konstantinos Ravanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
IMPACT ON STUDENT CHANGE IN SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY

AND SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC REASONING SKILLS FROM TEACHER COLLABORATION
AND GAINS FROM PROFESSIONAL IN-SERVICE
Anne Laius, Miia Rannikmäe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

IN NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION – 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
71
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The Use of Information and Communication Technologies in

Science Education
Dear Readers!
The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in science education has become
widespread and been developed increasingly by many science educators in our digital time. Students’
and teachers’ use of new technologies both in the classrooms and out of school have enhanced sci-
ence learning more meaningful and permanent. In recent years, new technologies such as scientific
visualizations, statistical modeling, real time data collection, dynamic modeling software, and collabora-
tive group work environments has been used widely in science education. However, many researches
have showed that the success and effect of these technologies use in the classroom highly depend on
teachers’ knowledge, skills and experiences in this area. It is apparent that, in the innovative classroom
environments that are designed with ICT tools, the expenditures will be in vain if science teachers have
no enough knowledge, skills and experiences in these technologies.
Another important dimension of this discussion is how to guide students to use digital learning
environments enhanced with simulations, virtual experiments, and online chatting among their class-
mates and teachers. These are intended to follow after school time for the sustained understanding of
science concepts. In specific, the development of Web 2.0 technologies or social networking technolo-
gies provides students with their self driven science learning. These technologies also support to share
the visual materials such as photograph, videos, graphics and simulations for a clear understanding of
issues that the students may concern. Today’s science teachers on the social networking environments
do not only discuss with their students science-related issues, but also build and develop social com-
munication skills of their students.
As a result, it should not be thought that ICT tools alone can resolve all the problems of science
education. It also should not be assumed that the ICT tools are versatile remedies for students who
suffer from understanding of school science. No doubt that a science teacher’s eye contact and social
interaction have positive impact on students’ achievement and attitudes in science more than the many
technologies developed so far. In the light, science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge to use ICT
tools in their science curriculum and the suitable methods to use these tools in classroom atmosphere
should be researched in more advanced levels.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bulent Cavas

Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey,
Member of the Editorial Board of JBSE
72
INVESTIGATION THE
ALIGNMENT BETWEEN
SCHOOL LEARNING AND
ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS
THROUGH ITEM ANALYSIS
Yilmaz Kara Abstract. This study presents findings col-

Salih Cepni lected from an analysis of Turkish Biology
Curriculum Guidelines and of their align-
ment with the curricular outcomes and
the Student Selection Examination (SSE)
for higher education. The analysis was
Introduction performed in multiple dimensions: content
areas, learning outcomes in terms of
The right to acquire a qualified higher education that can scientific research and process skills (SRPS),
enhance chance for employment or realize carrier hopes requires science-technology-society-environment
being intellectually elite proven by strong competitive effort in (STSE), communication competencies, atti-
college and university entrance exams because of the limited tudes and values (CCAV) and cognitive ob-
quota of the higher education programs (IHEP, 1998; Porter, 2002). jectives. Webb’s (2007) alignment criteria
Colleges and universities all around the world use a variety of clas- were used to investigate the relationship
sification indicators of pre-collegiate academic success to decide between curriculum standards and assess-
which applicants should be accepted to university-level programs ment frameworks. In this process, the biol-
(OECD, 2007; IAU, 2009). Standardised admission test scores, such ogy questions asked in the 2010 SSE were
as the SAT, ACT, Math and SAT Verbal scores, measures high school examined in detail by 10 biology teachers
academic performance (e.g., high school grade point average ‘GPA’ who have been teaching biology courses
or percentile rank), matriculation or exit exam scores, student es- at secondary schools. Although alignment
says, letters of recommendations, initial letters, formal interviews, consistency was high according to the
foreign language proficiency scores for instance TOEFL, IELTS scores, depth-of-knowledge (DOK) consistency
and subject-specific test scores (e.g., Advanced Placement ‘AP’ and categorical concurrence criteria, the
tests in chemistry, biology, languages, etc.) have been used alone SSE questions and curriculum outcomes
or combined with each other to create a selection index in which were not fully aligned considering the low
higher scores relate to higher levels of academic preparation and consistency of range of knowledge and
a greater likelihood of admittance (Culpepper & Davenport, 2009; balance of representation criteria.
Hambleton et al., 2009; Jang, & Roussos, 2007; Koys, 2010; Liang & Key words: assessment framework, cur-
Yuan, 2008; Luisa & Canado, 2010; Sohn & Ju, 2010; Zwick & Green, riculum alignment, large-scale examina-
2007). In Turkey, the combination of the Student Selection Exami- tion; standard-based curriculum.
nation (SSE) (which corresponds to a standardised test score) and
the Secondary Education Weighted Achievement Point (SEWAP)
(which corresponds to GPA scores) have been used to decide which
students are eligible for certain high school programs through a
system called the Student Selection and Placement System (SSPS) Yilmaz Kara, Salih Cepni
(SSPC, 2009a). Indeed, these and indicators reflect the degree of Karadeniz Technical University,
student achievement described in national educational curricular Trabzon, Turkey
documents.
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EXAMINATIONS THROUGH ITEM ANALYSIS
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(P. 73-86)
During the last decade, the realisation of the precollege education reform movement has occupied
the top place in Turkey’s educational agenda, including the development of secondary school biology
education curricula and associated instructional materials (MoNE, 2009). The efforts for nationwide expan-
sion and implementation were contemplated after a small-scale piloting of new instructional resources
and are currently underway. To date, new national textbooks and other curricular materials have been
developed for the elementary grades (between the age of 8 and 15). The development of textbooks and
associated materials for the high school level is in the last phase of planning and/or development. Along
with the revision of the curricula, the structure of central examinations are also expected to be modified
to align with the assessment frameworks defined in the curriculum, which describe what students are
expected to know or be able to do (Liu & Fulmer, 2008; Nasstrom & Henriksson, 2008; Sahin-Pekmez &
Taskin-Can, 2007; Topcu & Sahin-Pekmez, 2009; Vos & Bos, 2005). The aim of this study was to investigate
the relationship between assessment frameworks and curriculum standards.
After nearly every curricular reform movement, a large number of research studies have examined
the alignment of curriculum and assessment policies (e.g., Anderson, 2002; Brown, & Conley, 2007; Fulmer,
2010; Liu & Fulmer, 2008; McDonald & Van Der Horst, 2007; Osta, 2007; Saderholm & Tretter, 2008; Sireci
et al., 2009; Yan & Erduran, 2009). Among these studies, research on the curricular alignment of large-
scale examinations comprises a much smaller body of literature (e.g., D’Agostino & Bonner, 2009; Liang
& Yuan, 2008; Liu, & Fulmer, 2008; Vos & Bos, 2005). Because the context of these studies is specific to the
country under discussion, Turkey’s educational, social, and cultural variability necessitates research that
regards the educational reflections of this diversity. Thus, these peculiar features make central educational
assessment procedures not only indispensible but also influential and deeply affective.
Secondary education in Turkey is somewhat distinctive. There are two main categories of high
schools. General high schools aim to prepare students for university education, while vocational and
technical high schools aim to equip students with job skills and place a lower emphasis on general
education than do general high schools. Even within some types of schools, grade 10 students choose
to enrol in different streams, which each place more emphasis on one subject than on another (e.g.,
science versus literature) (MoNE, 2009). However school types differ, the Ministry of National Education
(MoNE) determines the curriculum and sets standards for all elementary and secondary schools part
of the centralised education system. The MoNE is responsible for all educational services including
policy decisions, curricula, the approval of textbooks and other instructional materials, governance
and inspection of schools, hiring teachers, paying salaries and the maintenance of elementary and
secondary schools. Student assessment is largely influenced by the curriculum guidelines produced
by the Presidency of Teaching and Training Board (PTTB), and the textbooks used are published by the
MoNE. The MoNE controls what is taught in schools by specifying the curriculum and approving the
textbooks that can be used in the classrooms. As a consequence, student populations, levels of interest
and attitudes toward science, and the rigours of science requirements and expectations are remarkably
varied in the different types of high schools (OECD, 2007; Yildirim, 2004).
Therefore, the unique cultural and educational contexts in Turkey, coupled with the enormous
weight placed on large-scale examinations in relation to the development of new curricular materials for
high school students, warrant an investigation of the alignment between large-scale examinations and
the student learning at school. However, large scale examinations have examined only in unpublished,
small-scale, Master’s-level theses in Turkey (Azar, 2010; Cetinkaya, 2009; Güzel, 2006; Coban, Aktas &
Sulun, 2006; Kadayifci, 2007; Sesli, 2007; Uygun, 2008).
In general, this study aims to analyse the content areas of the specified behaviours of curriculum
for the 9th–12th grade (between the age of 16 and 19) and to investigate alignments of the SSE questions
with the content and standards of the curriculum. For the purposes of this study, biology questions
posed in the 2010 SSE booklets were analysed with respect to the standards of 2008 biology teaching
program for 9th–12th graders, which covered cognitive objectives and SRPS, STSE, and CCAV behaviours.
The questions that guided the study were: (a) what are the specified outcomes of the biology curriculum
as cognitive objectives and SRPS, STSE, CCAV behaviours with respect to the content areas? (b) What is
the distribution of the SSE biology questions according to the chapters and learning areas of the curricu-
lum? (c) What are the in-service biology teachers’ judgments about the alignment between curriculum
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(P. 73-86)
standards and the biology questions of SSE according to the Webb’s (2007) alignment criteria?
The 2008 Secondary Education 9th-12th Grade Biology Lesson Teaching Program
The vision of the program is to create biology literate students with the assumption that every-
one can be successful at biology and enjoy learning. The program is composed of units that comprise
the objectives directed to concept, principle and theory as well as objectives directed to competence,
comprehension, attitude and value. The fundamental concepts in units related to ‘Cell, Organism and
Metabolism’, ‘Biological Diversity, Genetics and Evolution, and ‘Environment and Humans’ in 9th through
12th grades are reflective of the subject content moving in parallel with learning concepts. All of the
cognitive objectives are written with accompanying SRPS, STSE or CCAV behaviours in the biology
teaching program. For example, the outcome of an assignment for 10th graders is described in the
program as follows: ‘Students show the basic parts of a seed-bearing plant on a diagram (STSE 15; SRPS
26)’ (PTTB, 2008).
Student Selection Examination for Higher Education
Every year approximately 1.5 million applicants (3% of the total population) take the entrance
examinations to identify whether they are eligible for college or university programs in Turkey. The
first stage of the SSE (SSE-1) is defined as ‘tests related to common subjects’ (SSPC, 2009b). In Turkey,
beginning from the second year of high school (10th grade), students select fields of study rendered as
science-mathematics, Turkish-mathematics, and Turkish-social. In the 9th grade, all of the students are
given identical types of courses to the above-mentioned as common subjects. With respect to these
subjects, SSE-1 consists of four different tests: Turkish (Tur), Social Sciences (Soc-1), Mathematics (Math-1)
and Science (Sci-1). All of the candidates were expected to answer SSE-1 questions.
Unlike in the first stage, there are ‘tests related to field subjects’ in the second stage of the SSE (SSE-2)
that cover the whole secondary school curricula (SSPC, 2009b). SSE-2 is made up of four different tests:
Literature-Social Sciences (Lit-Soc), Social Sciences-2 (Soc-2), Mathematics-2 (Math-2) and Science-2
(Sci-2). Candidates who would answer SSE-2 questions chose which tests were appropriate for them
according to their school type, fields of study and the higher education programs to which they wanted
to apply. All of the questions in the exam booklet were multiple choice questions that presented five
alternatives. The total time allowed to complete the test is three hours and fifteen minutes for all.
Methodology of Research
Design of Research
A document analysis method was used to analyse the process of the behaviours in the Biology
Teaching Program (PTTB, 2008). To address the first research question of this study, the outcomes of
the program were examined in detail regarding content areas. Numbers of listed outcomes under the
standards of each chapter were determined to calculate the total numbers and percentages of cognitive
objectives and SRPS, STSE, CCAV behaviours. Correspondingly, the SSE biology questions were examined
in order to identify the alignment with the curriculum standards.
Sample of Research
Biology questions were reviewed by in-service biology teachers to investigate the conformity
between standards and questions. The reviews were conducted with 10 biology teachers (60% female)
working at secondary schools in the central part of the Trabzon province in Turkey. All of the reviewers
were university graduates with a major degree in biological science, and most were experienced biology
teachers with around 10 years of teaching experience.
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Procedure
The reviewers were provided with multiple choice SSE biology questions and biology curriculum
objectives and recommended to complete the following four steps: relate class, unit, standard and
objective with each question; identify the degree of convenience as compatible, partially compatible
and weakly compatible between each biology question and the related objective along with the indi-
cated STSE, SRSP, and CCAV if they are provided; explain what sort of content, skills and objectives are
necessary to solve the biology questions; identify the relationship between the biology question and
one of the related objective(s) under the standard. The reviewers followed the steps one by one for each
of the SSE biology questions. The reviews lasted between 45–60 minutes.
Data Analysis
The collected data were analysed according to the criteria of the accepted alignment analysis
model. Explanation of the model and the complete procedure of the study to fulfil the requirements
for each criterion are summarised below.
1. Categorical Concurrence Criterion: This criterion provides general information about whether
the items included in the assessment measure the content regarding each standard. Normally, items
placed in a test are expected to cover all of the standards. The SSE questions were analysed to deter-
mine whether the items measured the content from each standard. In this process, hits from each re-
viewer (provided by directly linking each biology question with its objectives) were coded to represent
whether a match was found between the question and the objective(s) of the new biology program.
The acceptable agreement coefficient was identified at least 0.63 by using a procedure developed by
Subkoviak (1988).
2. Depth-of-Knowledge (DOK) Consistency Criterion: DOK consistency criterion enables re-
searchers to indicate cognitively what is elicited from students during the assessment processes and
what they are expected to know or do as stated in the standards. The meaning of DOK consistency for
the biology curriculum represents the degree of compatibility between the SSE questions and cognitive
objectives and SRPS, STSE, CCAV behaviours listed under the standards (Webb, 2007). The reviewers
compared all of the objectives under the standards with the SSE questions according to the cognitive
process dimensions. The minimal acceptable level adopted as 50% among the questions coded to the
standard below, at, or above the DOK level (Webb, 2007).
3. Range of Knowledge Correspondence Criterion: This criterion mainly allows a concentrated
comparison between appropriate breadth of coverage for a standard and the knowledge span of the
standard(s) that students are required to answer correctly for the assessment items. The corresponding
assessment items are expected to have at least 50% knowledge of correspondence for a minimal accept-
able breadth of coverage (Webb, 2007). Therefore, ‘full compliance’ represents 50% or above, ‘partially
compliance’ represents from 40% to 49% and ‘incompliance’ represents less than 40%. Judgments of the
reviewers were examined concerning the depth and range of knowledge given in the objectives and
whether these were adequate to the depth of knowledge required for students to answer the questions
correctly. Moreover, the reviewers’ interpretations about what is required to solve the questions were
analysed to enrich the quantitative data with qualitative findings in detail.
4. Balance of Representation Criterion: Although the first three criteria enable us to judge the
alignments of curriculum standards and assessments from many dimensions, they do not have any
implication on how the questions are distributed among the objectives. The balance of representation
criterion is used to indicate the degree to which an objective is given more emphasis on the assessment
than another. An index is used to evaluate the distribution of items for each standard (Webb, 20007). To
fulfil this criterion, the reviewers’ comparisons were coded for the index to decide which SSE question
belonged to which objective(s) under the standard for all chapters of the new biology curriculum. In
this index, ‘inacceptable’ indicates an index value below 0.60; ‘partially acceptable’ indicated an index
value of 0.60 to 0.69 and ‘acceptable’ indicated an index value more than 0.70. Balance index formula
and meanings of the symbols placed in the formula identified as,
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Where O = Total number of objectives hit for the standard,

I (k) = Number of items hit corresponding to objective (k),
H = Total number of items hit for the standard.
Results of Research
In the first part of the study, the objectives listed below the standards belonging to new Biology Cur-
riculum Programs were categorised as cognitive objectives and SRPS, STSE, CCAV behaviours and given
below. In the second part of the study, data obtained from the alignment studies are given in detail.
Findings Related to the Biology Curriculum Programs (9th–12th)
At the beginning, the researchers analysed the curriculum regarding outcomes (cognitive, SRPS,
STSE and CCAV) chapter based for each grade (9th–12th) from the curriculum guidelines.
Table 1. Distribution of the objective in biology curriculum.
Grades-Chapters Cognitive SRPS STSE CCAV
9.1. Cell, organism, and metabolism 8 7 11 -

9.2. Classification of living things and biological diversity 16 7 10 -
9.3. Conscious person – Livable environment 7 6 12 11
9th grade total 31 10 23 11
10.1. Energy conversion in living things 14 4 6 -
10.2. Cell division and reproduction 12 3 14 -
10.3. Ecology of ecosystem 8 3 10 -
10th grade total 34 5 23 -
11.1. Plant biology 27 4 3 -
11.2. Genetic, genetic engineering, and biotechnology 20 4 19 -
11.3. Community and population ecology 10 7 10 -
12.1. Animal biology and human 47 4 5 -
12.2. Origin of life and evolution 5 5 11 -
12.3. Protection of environment and rehabilitation 8 1 7 -
Findings from the percentage distribution of the cognitive objectives and SRPS, STSE, CCAV be-
haviours in the curriculum guidelines were showed that CCAV behaviours remain limited only in one
chapter at the 9th grade level. The cognitive objectives mainly dominate the entire curriculum in an
increasing manner from 9th grade through 12th grade. SRPS and STSE behaviours cover the rest of the
curriculum objectives. Although the percentages of STSE behaviours are higher than the percentages
of SRPS behaviours, both percentages decrease from 9th grade through 12th grade with a fluctuation at
the 10th grade level.
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Analysis of SSE Biology Questions
Findings regarding the analysis of 2010 SSE biology questions are given in this section. There were
10 questions asked in each of the Sci-1 and Sci-2 sections (see Appendix). The dispersion of these ques-
tions according to the chapters and learning areas are given in the following table.
Table 2. The dispersion of the 2010 SEE questions according to learning areas and chapters.
Sci-1 Sci-2
Learning Areas Grades-Chapters
N % N %
Cell, organism, and 9.1. Cell, organism, and metabolism 3 30 - -

metabolism
10.1. Energy conversion in living things - - 1 10
11.1. Plant biology 2 20 1 10
12.1. Animal biology and human - - 3 30
Biologic Diversity, Genetic, 9.2. Classification of living things and biological diversity 2 20 - -
and Evolution
10.2. Cell division and reproduction 1 10 - -
11.2. Genetic, genetic engineering, and biotechnology 1 10 2 20
12.2. Origin of life and evolution - - 1 10
Environment and Human 9.3. Conscious person – Livable environment - - - -
10.3. Ecology of ecosystem - - - -
11.3. Community and population ecology 1 10 2 20
12.3. Protection and rehabilitation of environment - - - -
Total 10 100 10 100
When the biology questions examined according to learning areas at the Biology curriculum pro-
gram, half of the questions were asked from the ‘Cell, Organism, and Metabolism’ learning area, 35% of
the questions were asked from the ‘Biological Diversity, Genetics, and Evolution’ learning area, and 15%
of the questions were asked from the ‘Environment and Humans’ learning area.
The Sci-1 test was expected to cover common subject areas – in other words, the 9th grade level.
However, only half of the biology questions were asked at this level. The rest of the Sci-1 biology questions
were taken from the 11th grade level (40%) and the 10th grade level (10%). The Sci-2 test was expected to
cover field subject areas – in other words, the 10th, 11th and 12th grade level. According to our examina-
tion, 50% of the questions were taken from the 11th grade level, 10% of the questions were taken from
the 10th grade level and 40% of the questions were taken from the 12th grade level. Finally, none of the
questions were taken from the ‘Conscious person – liveable environment’ chapter at the 9th grade level
that the Sci-1 test was expected to cover; none from the chapters of ‘Cell division and reproduction’
and ‘Ecology of ecosystem’ at the 10th grade level and none from the ‘Protection and rehabilitation of
environment’ chapter at the 12th grade level that the Sci-2 test was expected to cover.
Analysis of the 2010 SSE Biology Questions
In this section, alignment studies that search for the relationship between the 2010 SSE biology
questions and the objectives of the biology teaching program were performed by the 10 reviewers
according to the four alignment criteria.
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Criterion 1: Question Analysis for Categorical Concurrence
Ten questions were asked about the ‘Cell, Organism, and Metabolism’ learning area. This learning
area is constructed over four chapters for each grade 9th through 12th. Each chapter has a different number
of standards and objectives: the 9th grade ‘Cell, organism, and metabolism’ chapter has two standards
and eight objectives; the 10th grade ‘Energy conversion in living things’ chapter has two standards and
14 objectives; the 11th grade ‘Plant biology’ chapter has six standard and 27 objectives; and the 12th
grade ‘Animal biology and human’ chapter has eight standard and 47 objectives. For this criterion, the
reviewers firstly examined the questions and then specifically concentrated on the objectives of each
standard that directly related to the SSE biology questions.
Table 3. Categorical concurrence of the SSE biology questions and the standards.
Questions Grade, Chapter, Standard, Objective Hits Concurrence
Sci-1-21 9.1.1.2. Students define the organic and inorganic compounds that make the 0.9 concurrent
structure of living things.
Sci-1-22 9.1.1.2. Students define the organic and inorganic compounds that make the 0.9 concurrent
structure of living things.
Sci-1-23 9.1.1.4. Students explain structure of the cell and function of these structures 0.5 non-concurrent
over cell model.
Sci-1-24 11.1.2.1. Students explain the mechanisms that enable to take water from 0.7 concurrent
ground and transport through the stem in plants (SRPS 26).
11.1.2.2. Students explain how the transport of photosynthesis products occurs
in plants.
Sci-1-25 11.1.5.2. Students explain pollination over a flower figure (STSE 15; SRPS 26). 0.8 concurrent
Sci-2-21 10.1.1.6. Students compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration. 0.7 concurrent
Sci-2-22 11.1.5.3. Students explain fertilization in seed plants (STSE 15; SRPS 26). 0.8 concurrent
Sci-2-24 12.1.6.7. Students explain arrival, transport, and response of the stimuli in sense 0.8 concurrent
organs with examples (SRPS 7, 25; STSE 7, 15).
Sci-2-25 12.1.6.11. Students explain the role of investigatory and regulatory system to 0.4 non-concurrent
provide homeostasis with examples (SRPS 7).
Sci-2-26 12.1.6.10. Students explain negative and positive feedback mechanism for 0.9 concurrent
hormone secretion with examples (SRPS 7, 25; STSE 15).
All reviewers provided hits for all of the questions as seen in Table 3. Standard 1 in the 9th grade
related to three questions, standard 5 in the 11th grade related to three questions and standard 6 in
the 12th grade related to two questions hit by the reviewers. On the other hand, a question hit both
standard 1 and standard 2 in the 10th grade. As a result, a total of six different standards appeared in 10
biology questions among the 18 standards placed in the ‘Cell, Organism, and Metabolism’ learning area.
One standard in 9th grade, four standards in 11th grade, and seven standards in 12th grade, totalling 12
standards, did not take any hit. There was not an acceptable level of categorical concurrence not only
between standard 1 at the 9th grade level and question sci-1-23 but also between standard 6 at the 12th
grade level and sci-2-25.
Detailed investigations revealed that the sci-2-25 slightly reflects the objectives sorted along with
standard 2, which related to transporting gases, and standard 3, which related to the circulatory system,
at the 12th grade level. For example, objective 4 sorted along with standard 2 required students to be
able to explain the transportation of gases from alveolus to tissues or from tissues to alveolus (STSE 7, 15;
SRPS 7, 25). Indeed, sci-2-25 examines whether students are able to explain the role of the investigatory
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and regulatory system to provide homeostasis, not whether they could explanation the transportation
procedures of respiratory gases in the body. From the results, it can be concluded that the content of
the examined SSE questions mostly were met with a high agreement coefficient only for the related
objectives sorted along with the standards, but because of the limited number of biology questions
asked in SSE, the test remains far from covering all of the standards.
Criterion 2: Question Analysis for DOK Consistency
The objectives sorted with the standards for the ‘Cell, Organism, and Metabolism’ learning area
were compared with the SSE questions on the basis of the complexity of knowledge required by each
part to fulfil this criterion. At first, distribution of the SSE biology questions were realised according to
their compatibility with the objectives along with standards, units and grade levels as cognitive objec-
tives and SRPS, STSE, CCAV behaviours. Then the DOK consistency of the SSE biology questions for the
biology teaching program objectives in terms of cognitive dimension was materialised.
Table 4. Consistency of the SSE questions according to the curriculum outcomes.
Chapter Objective Question Under At Above Consistency
Cell, organism, and metabolism 9.1.1.2. Sci-1-21 0.2 0.3 0.5 inconsistent
9.1.1.2. Sci-1-22 0.5 0.5 inconsistent
9.1.1.4. Sci-1-23 0.9 1.0 consistent
Energy conversion in living things 10.1.1.6. Sci-2-21 0.1 0.7 0.2 consistent
Plant biology 11.1.2.1. Sci-1-24 1.0 consistent
11.1.5.2. Sci-1-25 0.5 0.5 consistent
11.1.5.3. Sci-2-22 0.2 0.6 0.2 consistent
Animal biology and human 12.1.6.7. Sci-2-24 0.2 0.6 0.2 consistent
12.1.6.11. Sci-2-25 0.3 0.2 0.5 inconsistent
12.1.6.10. Sci-2-26 0.2 0.8 consistent
From Table 4, there are seven questions within the 10 questions belonging to the ‘Cell, Organism,
and Metabolism’ learning area that are compatible with the corresponding CCAV, STSE, SRPS and Cog-
nitive domains of the objectives along with the standards. From these findings, it could be said that,
on the basis of the complexity of knowledge demanded cognitively by the objectives along with the
standards, the SSE questions were close to each other. Therefore, DOK Consistency of the seven ques-
tions was hit as ‘consistent’.
Criterion 3: Question Analysis for Range of Knowledge Correspondence
In this process, each reviewer examined the SSE biology questions and wrote down what types of
knowledge or abilities students needed to know to solve these questions and what kind of objective(s)
along with the standard can be given to the students. From the Table 5, it can be seen that within the
10 questions belonging to the ‘Cell, Organism, and Metabolism’ learning area, only four questions had
acceptable knowledge correspondence about related objectives along with the standards. Reviewer
explanations about objectives and questions provided rich qualitative data in the area of knowledge
correspondence. Moreover, reviewers evaluated the degree of compliance for each question to support
their explanations. Acceptable knowledge correspondences were observed in only for four questions as
a full compliance. From these findings, it could be said that a comparable span of knowledge expected
of students by the objectives along with the standards for the teaching program is not the same or cor-
respondent to the span of knowledge that students need to correctly answer the SSE questions.
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Table 5. Comparison of objectives and SSE questions according to range of knowledge.
Objective Question Comparison of Knowledge Requirement and Objective % Correspondence
9.1.1.2. Sci-1-21 Objective mainly focused on organic and inorganic compounds in the body 10 incompliance
of biological organism. Without understanding the anabolic and catabolic
reaction mechanisms in other words chemical conversions of organic and
inorganic compounds it is not possible to solve the problem.
9.1.1.2. Sci-1-22 Solution of the problem requires comprehensive knowledge about 20 incompliance
enzymes. Question try to investigate enzyme concept, structure, and
reaction mechanism understood with its results by students. Objective
was remained too shallow for the question.
9.1.1.4. Sci-1-23 Question investigates structures and functions of organelles over a 40 partly
sample that foresight gaining tree dimension, becoming ready for ac- compliance
tion, and transport to the area of usage in a cell stages of a polypeptide
chain to secretion instead of a cell model. Although question constructed
over an abstract sample that occurs in a cell, knowing protein synthesis
mechanism is clearly facilitate the solution.
11.1.2.1. Sci-1-24 Question was probing water transport in plants through radioactively 70 full compliance
11.1.2.2. signed hydrogen atom included to water sample and transport of photo-
synthesis products. Given stress on photosynthesis limited with knowledge
of reactants (water) and products (sucrose) of the reaction more than the
knowledge on hydrogen atoms in structure of sucrose as a product of
photosynthesis reaction derived from water’s hydrogen atoms.
11.1.5.2. Sci-1-25 Samples of reproduction adaptations in entomophilies listed at the answer 60 full compliance
choices by giving focus on pollination in flowering plants. There is a
slight mention on adaptation concept in addition to pollination. Question
neither requires any figure or model impression nor verbal or written
summarization.
10.1.1.6. Sci-2-21 Students was enabled to compare ways of energy production in living 80 full compliance
organisms over muscle cells that can make oxidative phosphorylation like
other somatic cells in case of oxygen existence and lactic acid fermenta-
tion in case of oxygen debt, and facultative anaerobe bacteria that can
live in either the presence and absence of oxygen.
11.1.5.3. Sci-2-22 Cases occurring in flowering plants randomly enumerated starting from 70 full compliance
arrival of pollen to the stigma until formation of endosperm tissue at the
choices of this question. Students can easily find true answer if they
achieve to recall basic knowledge about fertilization in flowering plants.
12.1.6.7. Sci-2-24 Cognitive objective mainly focused on stimuli acceptance and transport 40 partly
procedures in sense organ. But, question investigates awareness of a compliance
specific feature of these organs. Given real life situations direct students
to notice contribution to biology for understand life.
12.1.6.11. Sci-2-25 The question was asked to investigate the regulatory system’s supervision 10 incompliance
on respiratory system. Students expected to make comparisons among
real life situations listed at the choices of this question. But given samples
also required to know function and structure of circulatory, respiratory
and neural system.
12.1.6.10. Sci-2-26 Whether the students explain the regulation of hormone secretion through 40 partly
positive and negative feedback was aimed to investigate by asking this compliance
question. From this point of view question and cognitive objective seems
to be convenient. But students also need to know factors that can affect
blood pressure.
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Criterion 4: Question Analysis for Balance of Representation
To find how the questions asked were distributed among the objectives listed below the same
standards, a balance index calculation for each question was utilised.
Table 6. Balance Index of SSE Biology Questions.
Chapter Question O H I BI Balance Level
Cell, organism, and metabolism Sci-1-21 3 5 I2,3,4= 9,1,1 0.4 unacceptable

Sci-1-22 2 5 I2,4= 10,1 0.4 unacceptable
Sci-1-23 2 5 I1,4= 3,9 0.3 unacceptable
Plant biology Sci-1-24 2 3 I1,2= 8,5 0.67 partially
Sci-1-25 4 7 I1,2,3,7= 1,6,1,2 0.79 acceptable
Energy conversion in living things Sci-2-21 5 6 I2,3,5,6,8= 5,1,8,4,2 0.2 unacceptable
Plant biology Sci-2-22 3 7 I1,2,3= 1,3,7 0.71 acceptable
Animal biology and human Sci-2-24 2 11 I6,7= 8,10 0.68 partially
Sci-2-25 3 11 I2,3,4= 10,4,6 0.59 unacceptable
Sci-2-26 4 11 I8,9,10,11= 2,10,4,1 0.73 acceptable
From Table 6, only three questions could be classified into the acceptable category for balance of repre-
sentation criterion. This criterion shows that the SSE questions were not distributed equally within objectives
listed below the standards. It means that some objectives were given more emphasis on the SSE questions
than others. Therefore, many standards were ignored and acceptable balances were not established.
Discussions and Implications
According to the outcome analysis results of the biology teaching program, cognitive objectives are
prominently emphasised. When the weight of outcomes was examined from the 9th grade level to 12th grade
level, the ratio of cognitive objectives did increase from 40% to 70% (Table 1). In a teaching program, cognitive
objectives provide a means to account for the subject knowledge that students acquire by the end of the
learning process., Merely emphasising the cognitive objectives in this curriculum simply means that students
have to continue to acquire the tremendous knowledge load As in the curricula that have previously failed
(Ayas, Cepni & Akdeniz, 1993; Cepni & Cil, 2009) while all around the world education trends are rapidly
changing in response to studies about induction of curriculum; active student participation opportunities;
student-centred approaches in classrooms; the development of STSE, SPRS, and CCAV behaviours.
Further, SSE questions were analysed by means of only biology questions that are prepared and con-
ducted by the SSPC. Whereas questions related to the 9th grade level common subject field were supposed to
be placed in the Sci-1 test, only 50% of the biology questions on the test represented this level. On the other
hand, the test did not include biology questions related to the ‘Conscious person – Liveable environment’
chapter at the 9th grade level, which was regarded as part of the common subject field for all students. This
disparity between preparation and test may account for the lowness of the average correct response to biol-
ogy questions placed in the Sci-1 test. Expecting students who did not have biology courses after 9th grade
level to solve questions related to the biology subject field and then deciding eligibility for higher education
programs according to the scores obtained through these questions harms the validity of the measurement.
Straying from the principles identified in the published examination guide by the SSPC also deeply affects
the psychology of the candidates (Tansel & Bircan, 2006).
Through the analysis of the balance between the questions and the new biology program, positive
significant results were obtained regarding Categorical Concurrence Criterion. However, these results do
not resemble Saderholm and Tretter (2008)’s study results for analysing similarities and differences between
the assessment structures for physics and the Benchmarks for Science Literacy (Benchmarks), National Sci-
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ence Education Standards (NSES), National Assessment Governing Board (NAEP) and Trends in International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS), which give direction to science curricula all around the world.
Increasing the number of questions would barely enable the exam to cover more subjects at the same time,
and also one question can cover more than one standard (Table 2). Therefore, SSPC needs to pay attention
to preparing questions that relate to all program standards.
The DOK consistency analyses were revealed the coherence between the mental complexities of the
SSE exam and the cognitive level of the related objective because of understand and knowledge level cogni-
tive requirements. Liu and Fulmer (2008) stated that tests in China and Singapore require a higher level of
thinking ability according to the standards, while there is a level of compliance between the examination and
standards cognitive level in the United States. In this context, Turkey is similar to the US with regard to the SSE
examination and its compatibility with preparation programs. However, both outcomes and questions that
include low cognitive competencies negatively affect the measurement. In PISA the required evaluation skills
were classified as induction, deduction, logical thinking, system-based thinking and critical thinking, which
are fundamental cognitive skills (Fensham, 2009; Hatzinikita, 2008; Nentwig et al., 2009). It can be seen as a
positive point that the SSE exam contains very few knowledge-level questions. Consequently, questions that
assess competence at the level of analysis, evaluation, and creative cognition should be given more space
in the SSE examinations.
The analyses of the Range of Knowledge Criterion correspondences were indicated that only four of 10
questions could be answered with the knowledge gained through the outcomes of the analysed learning
area. In many situations, questions required more in-depth information from the acquisition expressed in the
program. In this respect, the depth of knowledge stated in the standards is insufficient for students to solve
the questions. These results strengthen the inclination of students to the tutors and become alienated from
the school atmosphere because they feel that schools are not able to help them crack the SSE and achieve
their higher education goals. As Riffert (2005) suggests, examinations have to be adapted to schools rather
than adapting schools according to examinations.
Although the questions in the SSE were prepared to include standards, the balance of representation
criterion was not mostly neglected among the outcomes of a particular standard. Only three of 10 examined
questions investigated in this study covered a large number of outcomes. In other words, a large number of
outcomes that students are expected to achieve are left out of the scope of assessment in the examination.
It is believed that a coherency between curriculum and central examinations shows the importance of the
curriculum and it shows how successfully students acquire the outcomes (Kjellström & Pettersson, 2005).
Finally, having common characteristics between the SSE and the curriculum will contribute to the assessment
and the improvement of the curriculum.
Conclusion
Superficial assessment results obtained through the analysis for the SSE questions during this study
indicated that the outcomes of the teaching program had a consistency with the SSE questions. Based on these
results, all decision and policy makers argue that the current SSE is valid and reliable and at the same time it
reflects the nature of the current curriculum (Cepni & Cil, 2009). However, when the SSE were analysed using
four alignment criteria, it was found that the questions is not fulfilling the range of knowledge and balance
of representation criterions which are the measure for alignment between the curriculum and assessment.
In this case, there is a strong need for the reassessment of all the SSE questions, including all subjects and
tests, to reach for stronger conclusions.
Finally, it could be concluded that validity and reliability of the examination for higher education eli-
gibility needs to be improved regarding the findings and discussions. To meet this need, the policy makers
should first analyse the contents and the nature of questions asked in the central examinations. Additionally,
to become successful at preparing students for international examination, all educators and researchers
should be aware of the fact that the new biology teaching program should include concepts of scientific
literacy, nature of science, basic science concepts, the relationships between science, technology, society and
environment and the reflections of fundamental behaviours of SRPS, STSE and CCAV in practice. If students
grasp all these requirements, they will be very successful at the central examinations in addition to using
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the knowledge in solving daily life problems. Theoretically, this might sound possible, but how all of these
advanced ideas and attainments can be put into practice will remain the main problem that must be dealt
with in the near future.
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Appendix
Sample Biology Questions in 2010 Student Selection Examination
2010 - SSE / Sci-1
29. Which of the below characteristic do not seen in reptiles that is one of the vertebrate animal
group?
a) Internal fertilisation
b) Dirty and clear blood mixed circulation
c) Pulmonary respiration
d) Egg laying
e) Constant body temperature
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24. When a hydrogen atoms’ marked water given plant grow up, marked hydrogen is encoun-
tered at sucrose in fruit.
Until this marked water molecules arrive to the fruit, passed through from structure
I. xylem,
II. root hair,
III. phloem,
IV. leave mesophyll,
in which row?
a) I – II – III – IV
b) II – I – IV – III
c) II – III – IV – I
d) III – I – II – IV
e) III – IV – II – I
2010 - SSE / Sci-2
22. In flowering plants, which of the below occasions occurs after fertilisation?
a) Pollen germination
b) Endosperm formation
c) Pollen transfer to stigma
d) Antipode cell formation
e) Reach of pollen tube to embryo sac
27. In a research, it is determined that each phloem cells taken from carrot plant root grow up
to the whole plant in culture environment.
According to this research, about the ob-
tained whole plant,
I. Cells lost some genes when they dif-
ferentiated and specialised.
II. All the cells have same genes in their
nucleus.
III. Plants are same with the original
plants
decisions of which is/are true?
a) Only I
b) Only II
c) Only III
d) I and III
e) II and III
Received: March 09, 2011 Accepted: May 30, 2011
Yilmaz Kara Ph.D., Researcher, Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Education

Faculty, P.O. Box 61335, Trabzon, Turkey.
E-mail: yilmazkankara@yahoo.com
Salih Cepni Prof. Dr., Chair of Primary Education, Karadeniz Technical University,
Fatih Education Faculty, P.O. Box 61335, Trabzon, Turkey.
E-mail: cepnisalih@yahoo.com
86
EFFECTS OF HANDS-
ON ACTIVITY ENRICHED
INSTRUCTION ON
STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT
AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS
SCIENCE
Özlem Sadi Abstract. This study aimed to investigate

the effectiveness of hands-on activity en-
Jale Cakiroglu
riched instruction on sixth grade students’
achievement and attitudes toward science.
In this study, Science Achievement Test and
Science Attitude Scale were used to assess
students’ achievement on sense organs
and students’ attitudes toward science
respectively. Two teachers with four classes
Introduction
and total of 140 sixth grade students were
participated in this study. One class of each
Over the years there has been a continuing reform effort
teacher was assigned as experimental
for improvement in the quality of science education in different
group and treated with hands-on activity
countries. It is suggested that quality science instruction requires
enriched instruction and other class was
the active participation of learner. In 1980, Dewey highlighted
assigned as control group and treated
the proposals about activity-based learning and child-centered
with traditional instruction. The Science
instruction and after that science curriculum studies has been em-
Achievement Test and the Science Attitude
phasizing and giving importance to science learning with hands-
Scale were administered twice as pre-test
on activities (Hodson, 1990). Recently, educational researchers
and after three week treatment period as a
have been showing the factors affecting students’ achievement
post-test to both experimental and control
and attitudes toward science and they have been conducting
groups to measure students’ achievement
many studies to improve students’ science achievement (Randler
and attitudes. Multivariate Analyses of
& Hulde, 2007; Taraban, Box, Myers, Pollard & Bowen, 2007; McCa-
Covariance (MANCOVA) results revealed
rthy, 2005; Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; Bristow, 2000; Salend, 1998)
that hands-on activity enriched instruc-
and also attitudes (Ornstein, 2006; Osborne, 2003; Hofstein, Mooz
tion were more effective than traditional
& Rishpon, 1990) by using hands-on and inquiry based programs.
instruction. However, the statistical results
For example, the study of Randler and Hulde (2007) was related
failed to show a significant difference
with the effect of hands-on programme on student’s achievement
between the experimental and control
about soil ecology. A total of 123 fifth and sixth grade students
groups’ attitudes toward science.
contributed in the study. Result indicated that students in the
Key words: attitudes toward science,
hands-on group demonstrated higher achievement than student
hands-on activities, science achievement,
in traditional textbook based programs. Similarly, Taraban et al.
sense organs.
(2007) studied with 408 students from six high schools to inves-
tigate the effect of a hands-on inquiry laboratory programme
on students’ biology achievement. The results revealed that use
of hands-on inquiry laboratory gave an advantage to students
Özlem Sadi
to become more active learner, to enhance content knowledge
Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University,
and to develop science process skills.
Karaman, Turkey
Various interpretations of what is meant by “hands-on
Jale Cakiroglu
learning” has been proposed so far and the most common and
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
accepted definition was that hands-on learning is learning by
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doing. It involves enabling the child’s ability to think critically in a total learning experience. On the
contrary to traditional beliefs, learning by hands-on activities does not mean just managing or modi-
fying the materials, but involving profundity of investigation using ideas, objects and materials as
well as drawing the depth of investigations with objects, materials and phenomena. It entails using
ideas and implicating the meaning and understanding from the experiences that students perform
(Haury & Rillero, 1994).
Hands-on science has also been defined as any science laboratory activity which allows the
students to handle, observe and manipulate a scientific process (Lumpe & Oliver, 1991). It can be dif-
ferentiated from conventional lectures and demonstrations in that, students interact with materials
to make observations and it involves many activities. Furthermore, laboratory or class experiments
differ from hands on activities in two aspects. Firstly, especially in primary and secondary school,
students cannot do laboratory but perform hands-on science activities in their regular classroom, and
secondly, students can carry out hands-on activities that are not actual experiments as observations
or measurements (Ruby, 2001). Besides, hands-on activities do not need some special materials and
learning context.
Hands-on science is important to enhance learners’ success because students actively involve
the learning process by manipulating objects or materials to gain knowledge; so that they can con-
struct their own understanding of scientific concepts. By working with materials or objects, students
become more motivated and excited to join the lesson. It enables them to become critical thinkers,
active learner, and researcher. Hands-on activities also enhance students’ interest and curiosity to
follow and understand environmental problems or scientific phenomena in real life (Poude, Vincent,
Anzalone, Huner, Wollard, Clement, DeRamus & Blakewood, 2005).
Additionally, the results from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) re-
vealed that in Turkey, students’ science achievement significantly lower than the average of OECD
countries (OECD, 2004, 2010). So, recent educational reform efforts in Turkey are intended to over-
come this problem and to increase the quality of an education system. One of main objectives of
this educational reform is to move from a teacher-centered didactic model to a student-centered
constructivist model (Akşit, 2007). Considering the fact that fundamental reforms in the new teaching
strategies advocate and support the hands-on learning in science, the present study examined the
effectiveness of hands-on activity enriched instruction on the sixth grade students’ science achieve-
ment attitudes toward science. There have been many studies about hands-on learning focusing on
different biology topics as earth and space science concepts, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, DNA
structure and function, protein synthesis, and natural selection, biotechnology, cellulose enzyme,
water, and gene technology (e.g. Scharfenberg & Bogner, 2010; Randler & Hulde, 2007; Paris, Yambor
& Packard, 1998). However, effect of hands-on instruction related with the topic of sense organ has
not been investigated in biology education. This topic is an important part of science curriculum in
Turkey. Moreover, concepts related to sense organs are important for learning of another concept of
nervous system. For these reasons sense organs were chosen as a topic in this study.
The results of this study provide some valuable feedback to science teachers and science educa-
tors in Turkish educational system for several reasons. Although relevant studies have recommended
science instruction based on inquiry, rather than textbook implementation, by allowing the students
to carry out scientific research on their own understanding (Gerstner & Bogner, 2010), student-
centered experiments and hands-on activities are still rare in regular classroom instruction (Bohl,
2001). Similarly, in Turkey, today’s science instruction in the classroom depends on mostly reading or
listening of scientific facts and taking notes and memorizing. Therefore, this study gives information
about the hands-on instruction which ensure the idea that away from memorization. Secondly, sci-
ence teachers and researchers can get benefits about how to implement hands-on activities enriched
instruction in science, and how hands-on activities affect students’ science achievement and attitude
toward science in the topic of sense organs. By this way teachers will have an opportunity to use of
hands-on activities with simple and low-cost daily life materials in their classrooms to attract students’
attention and to make science lesson fun. Besides, students can make connections between science
concepts when they carry out different hands-on activities for different subjects of the science. Finally,
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this study can assist curriculum developers when they evaluate their science programs to increase
student science achievement.
In this study, the aim is to investigate the effects of hands-on activity enriched instruction on
sixth grade students’ science achievement and attitudes toward science. This study compared the
effectiveness of the hands-on activity enriched instruction related to sense organs with traditionally
designed science instruction on sixth grade students’ achievement and attitudes toward science.
Purpose of the Study
In the light of the findings in the literature, this study aimed to find out answers to the following
questions:
1. What are the effects of hands-on activity enriched instruction and traditional instruction on
6th grade students’ science achievement when students’ previous science course grades and
previous cumulative grade point average are controlled?
2. What are the effects of hands-on activity enriched instruction and traditional instruction on 6th
grade students’ attitude toward science when students’ previous science course grade, previ-
ous cumulative grade point average and science attitude pretest scores are controlled?
Experimental research as a research methodology was used in this study since it is the best way to
establish cause and affect relationships between variables. At the beginning of the study, the teachers
were trained by the researchers. A teacher handout including necessary information about hands-on
activities was prepared. By this way, teachers could know how to teach sense organs in both experimental
group and control group. Moreover, the teachers allowed researchers to observe their classes.
Instruments
Three measuring tools were used in this study named as the Science Achievement Test (SAT), the
Science Attitude Scale (SAS) and observation checklist.
Science Achievement Test (SAT)
The SAT developed by the researchers was used to assess students’ achievement about sense organs.
It covers the science content present in the sixth grade science curriculum. It consists of 25 multiple
choice questions related with all of five sense organs; eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin. Possible SAT scores
range from 0 to 25, with higher scores showing greater achievement in sense organs topic.
The SAT was administered as a pretest and posttest to both control and experimental groups to
assess students’ science achievement about sense organs. The researchers preferred to use multiple
choice questions as a test questions due to ease of application and objectivity. Reliability of science
achievement test was found to be 0.68.
Science Attitude Scale (SAS)
The SAS developed by Geban, Ertepınar, Yılmaz, Atlan and Sahpaz (1994) was used to assess students’
attitudes toward science. This scale consists of 15 items and designed to be rated on a 5-point Likert type
response format (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree). SAS was administered
as a pretest and posttest to both control and experimental groups. Possible SAS scores range from 24 to
120, with higher scores demonstrating positive attitude toward science and lower scores demonstrating
negative attitudes toward science. For present study, reliability of SAS was found to be 0.82.
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Observation Checklist
During the treatment, both the control and the experimental groups were observed to identify
whether the teachers follow the treatment rules. The observer used the checklist consisted of 12 items,
two of which were negative form for the hands-on activity criteria. First 10 items rated on five-point
response format that indicate how frequently some actions were done in the classroom. In addition,
one item indicates whether the activities were done alone, in pairs or in groups of three and other item
shows how much time the students spend on doing hands-on activities, were designed to be rated on
four-point response format. Each item conclude with “no activity” option to check whether the control
group done any activity or not. Two researchers observed both experimental and control group classes
during the study and filled the observation checklist for both groups.
Treatment
Experimental research as a research methodology was favored since it is the best way to establish
cause and affect relationships between variables. A quasi-experimental study design was preferred as
an experimental model in view of the fact that it does not include random assignment.
Both hands-on activity enriched instruction and traditional instruction lasted about three weeks
of second semester of school. The science course consisted of three 40-min lessons per week. At the
beginning of the study, the teachers were trained by the researchers and they were given a handout
indicating what they should do during the hands-on activities. By this way, teachers could know how
to teach sense organs in both experimental group and control group.
Two measuring tools were used in this study. The one; SAT, was used to assess students’ achieve-
ment about sense organs and the other; SAS, was used to assess students’ attitudes toward science. SAT
and SAS were applied to both groups as a pretest one week before the treatment. In addition, some
background information was collected from the students such as their age, gender, mother education,
and father education. Test application took approximately one class hour for pre-test and post-test
separately.
The students in the control groups and the experimental groups treated with different methods of
teaching. In control group, traditional method was used. That is; teacher-centered instruction was ap-
plied and students were generally taught with note-taking strategy. The teacher gave some important
concepts about sense organs and the students wrote the teachers’ explanations in their notebook. The
teacher did not use any demonstrations or activities. On the other hand, in experimental group, hands-on
activity enriched instruction was employed. In this type of instruction, student-centered instruction was
applied and students got the information by doing hands-on activities individually or in groups. These
activities were not only hands-on but also minds-on keeping students as active problem solvers and
decision makers. Activity sheets helped them to perform the eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin activities
(Table 1). Students followed the procedures of the activity and then answered the questions about this
activity using handouts about the subject. However, these activities did not tend to be much directed,
“cookbook” in nature.
During the treatment, teachers act as a guide for students’ learning in the experimental groups.
After that, all students discussed each questions of activity in the classroom before performing the next
one. Finally, the teachers explained some important scientific terminology related to the activity and the
subjects. They also gave information about critical points of sense organs at the end of each activity. For
example, in the topic of eye, students tried to answer questions of “how the light affects our eyes?”, “Why
do we have two eyes?”, “How do we understand the different colors?”, “What is color blindness?”, “What
is the meaning of blind spot?” Students completed hands-on activities that help them use pre-existing
knowledge to explore new concepts or explore questions and design/conduct a preliminary investiga-
tion. Therefore, students performed hands-on activities by group work which fosters a deeper and more
active learning process in all activities. In addition to exposing students to different approaches and
ways of thinking, working with other students in groups also gives them the opportunity to learn from
each other. Thus, this group work provides an opportunity to obtain conceptual understanding.
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Table 1. Hands-on activities about sense organs.
Topic Name of activities
Eye 1. The structure of the eye

2. The effects of the light
3. Why do we have two eyes?
4. How do we understand the different colors?
5. Color blindness
6. Finding of blind spot
Ear 1. What is vibration?
2. Vibration in the ear dice
Nose 1. Different smells
2. Spread of the smells
Tongue 1. Sweet, salty and bitter
2. Smell and taste
Skin 1. Heat or cold?
2. Do we feel materials same in all part of skin?
Observation checklist was used for both groups during the study to confirm proper treatment
implementation. The checklist showed the degree to which the course was taught with hands-on
activities. Finally, SAT and SAS were applied as a posttest after three weeks treatment for control and
experimental groups. Test scoring was done and computed.
Participants
The sample of the study consisted of 140 (71 girls, 69 boys) 6th-grade students who were 12 year
of age attending four whole classes in one public elementary schools in Ankara, Turkey. The present
study involved a total of two experimental groups (n =72; 31 boys, 41 girls) and two control groups (n
= 68; 38 boys, 30 girls). Student’s socio-economic status and their family income can be assumed as
near to each other.
In Turkish elementary schools, science lessons are compulsory for all students. Duration of science
lessons is four 40-min periods per week, and teachers generally use traditional instruction to teach
science concepts. Textbooks are the main source of science instruction. The teaching strategies, thus,
generally rely on teacher explanation and extensive use of textbooks.
There were 72 students in experimental group which was taught with hands-on activity enriched
instruction and 68 students in control group taught by traditional instruction.
Results of Research
Table 2 shows descriptive statistics for the science achievement scores and science attitude scores.
As presented in the Table 2, experimental group showed mean increase ranging from 6.64 to 15.25 in
their level of science achievement from the pretest to posttest. However, the control group showed
a mean increase ranging from 7.32 to 11.57 in their level of science achievement from the pretest to
posttest. Therefore, experimental group shows a mean increase of 8.61 whereas the change of control
group is 4.25 points on the SAT which indicates that the students in the hands-on group performed
overwhelmingly better score than the control group students.
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Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the science achievement scores and science attitude scores.
Experimental Group Control Group
Scores on Science Achievement Test Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest

N 72 72 68 68
Mean 6.64 15.25 7.32 11.57
Standard Deviation 2.53 3.39 2.57 3.87
Skewness 0.147 -0.506 -0.101 0.647
Kurtosis -0.441 -0.583 -0.374 0.114
Range 11 14 11 17
Minimum 1 7 2 5
Maximum 12 21 13 22
Scores on Science Attitude Test Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest
N 72 72 68 68
Mean 56.57 58.69 57.94 58.80
Standard Deviation 8.92 8.64 7.95 8.24
Skewness 0.283 -0.208 -0.306 -0.379
Kurtosis 1.78 -0.71 0.59 -0.453
Range 56 36 36 38
Minimum 33 36 39 37
Maximum 89 75 82 85
Table 2 also showed the pretest and posttest attitude scores towards science of all students who
participated in the study according to experimental and control group. Higher attitude scores mean
more positive attitude towards science and lower attitude scores mean negative attitude towards sci-
ence. Although the experimental groups’ scores showed mean increase of about 2.12 points in their
science attitude scores from pretest to posttest, the control groups’ scores showed mean increase of
about 0.86 points from pretest to posttest scores.
Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) model was used to test the hypothesis of this study
and assumptions of MANCOVA- normality, homogeneity of regression, equality of variances, multicol-
linearity and independency of observations- were also verified (data not shown).
The variables of the students’ previous science course grade (PSG), students’ previous cumulative
grade point average (GPA) and students’ science attitude pre-test scores (PSAS) were pre-determined
as potential extraneous factors of the present study. Therefore, these variables were used as covari-
ates to statistically equalize the differences between experimental and control groups. All these pre-
determined independent variables have been correlated with the two dependent variables (students’
science achievement posttest scores (PSTACH) and science attitude posttest scores (PSTATT)). The results
of these correlations are presented in Table 3. As shown in the table, all independent variables have
significant correlation with one of the dependent variables.
Table 3. Significance test of correlations between dependent variables and covariates.
Variables Correlation Coefficient
PSTACH PSTATT
PSG 0.369* 0.395
GPA 0.460* 0.233
PSAS 0.138 0.572*
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

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As seen in Table 4, correlations among independent variables are less than 0.8. Therefore, PSG,
GPA and PSAS can be used as covariates for the inferential statistics.
Table 4. Significance test of correlations among the covariates.
Variables PSG GPA PSAS
PSG 0.60* 0.384*

GPA 0.237*
* Correlation is significant at least 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Table 5 indicates the results of multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) which was conducted
to determine the effect of methods of teaching on the PSTACH and PSTATT when previous science course
grades, previous cumulative grade point average, science attitude pretest scores were controlled. The
dependent variables of this study were the posttest scores of the PSTACH and PSTATT. The variables
of the PSG, GPA and PSAS were covariates of the study. Table 5 indicates the results of MANCOVA. As
seen from the table, methods of teaching (MOT) explain 25.0 % variance of model for the collection
dependent variables of the PSTACH and PSTATT.
Table 5. MANCOVA test results.
Wilks’ Hypothesis Error Eta Observed

Effect F Sig.
Lambda df df Squared Power
Intercept 0.758 6.39 2.0 134 0.000 0.080 0.923

PSG 0.918 5.96 2.0 134 0.003 0.082 0.873
GPA 0.960 2.781 2.0 134 0.002 0.040 0.540
PSAS 0.759 21.242 2.0 134 0.000 0.241 1.000
MOT 0.750 10.336 2.0 134 0.000 0.250 0.968
* p<0.05
An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was also conducted to determine the effect of independent
variables of the methods of teaching on each dependent variable of PSTACH and PSTATT. Result of the
statistical analysis of ANCOVA indicates that the students instructed by hands-on activities enriched
instruction gained more science achievement about sense organs than the students instructed by
traditional method (Table 6).
Table 6. Test of between subjects effect.
TypeIII Sumof Mean Eta Observed

Source DV df F Sig.
Squares Square Squared Power
MOT PSTACH 439.507 1 439.507 23.444 0.000 0.243 1.000

PSTATT 51.583 1 51.583 1.133 0.289 0.008 0.600
Error PSTACH 1365.733 135 10.117
PSTATT 6146.079 135 45.527
Total PSTACH 27675.000 140
PSTATT 486987.00 140

Corrected PSTACH 2294.821 139
Total
PSTATT 9858.936 139
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However, statistical results do not provide the same result between the hands-on activities enriched
instruction and students’ attitude towards science. The hands-on activities enriched instruction did not
increase the students’ positive attitudes toward science more than the traditional method did.
Discussion
The results of this study revealed that hands-on activity enriched instruction increased students’
achievement in science more than the traditional instruction did. This result is not surprising considering
the fact that many studies indicated hands-on instruction, if regularly incorporated classroom instruc-
tion, can enhance students’ cognitive achievement (Scharfenberg and Bogner, 2010; Thompson and
Soyibo, 2002; Turpin, 2000; Bristow, 2000; Stohr-Hunt, 1996; Freedman, 1997). The study of Stohr-Hunt
(1996) investigated effect of frequency of hands-on activities (daily, once a week and once a month) on
student’s science achievement and they found that students who performed hands-on activities had
significant higher scores of science achievement than the students who performed hands-on science
infrequently. A similar result was reported by Turpin (2000) who studied with seventh grade students
to investigate the effect of an activity-based science curriculum program on science achievement,
science process skills and attitude toward science. In this quasi-experimental design, findings showed
that science achievement and science process skills of students involved in activity-based program had
significantly higher scores as compared with science achievement and science process skills of students
who involved the traditional program. Likely, Bristow (2000) reported that science concepts should be
learned better when using hands-on teaching methods versus a traditional method. Another important
point is stated by researchers that students’ alternative conceptions or scientific misconceptions are
not eliminated by traditional methods involving primarily lecture (Marinopoulos & Stavridou, 2002;
Weaver, 1998), and hands-on activities are an effective way for students to meaningful learning and
acquire knowledge (Costa, 2003). According to Cetin (2003), students can be more active learner when
they are instructed by hands-on activities in science classrooms, especially if they can apply what they
learn in school to their daily life situations. Similar result was reported by McConnell, Steer, and Owens
(2003). They reported that collaborative hands-on inquiry activities to be more effective in clarifying
conceptual understanding in a comparison of traditional and inquiry based earth science classes. In
general, conducting hands-on activities in science classes; for example, in field or laboratory settings,
is widely recommended by educational authorities like the National Research Council (2000).
Our second research question focused on the effects of hands-on activities enriched instruction
and traditional instruction on students’ attitude toward science. The result of present study revealed that
there were no significant differences between the experimental and control groups’ attitudes toward
science. Although some studies have indicated no significant effect of hands-on approach on students’
attitudes toward science (e.g., Hardal, 2003; Freedman, 1997; Rowland, 1990), others have reported sig-
nificant effect of hands-on approach on students’ attitudes toward science (e.g., Holstermann, Grube &
Bögeholz, 2010; Ornstein, 2006; Thompson and Soyibo, 2002; Gardner & Gauld, 1990; Shymansky, Hedges
and Woodworth, 1990). The study carried out by Hardal (2003) indicated that there was no statistically
significant difference between students’ attitude toward physics in hands-on group and traditional group.
Likely, Freedman (1997) investigated the effect of hands-on laboratory instruction on students’ attitudes
toward science. Students who received a hands-on laboratory experience one period each week for 36
weeks and other ones received no hands-on laboratory experiences. Results showed that there was no
significantly difference between the experimental and control groups’ attitude toward science. On the
other hand, Ornstein (2006) demonstrated that students showed more positive attitudes toward science
in hands-on classrooms. Similarly, Thompson and Soyibo (2002) showed that students who instructed
with hands-on activities showed more positive attitudes toward chemistry than students who instructed
with teacher demonstrations. Another study conducted by Holstermann, Grube and Bögeholz (2010)
revealed that students with hands-on experience were likely to report higher interest in the hands-on
activities than students without experience. By contrast, the present study was not found similar sig-
nificant difference between students’ attitude toward science in experimental and control group. It is
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taken into consideration that there are many factors influence student attitudes, such as school and
home environments, age, teacher (personality), peers, past experiences and media messages, personal
observations etc. (Ornstein, 2006). Moreover, one possible explanation of such a result is that the unit of
the study, sense organs, was given to students in three weeks, which may not have been a long enough
time period to show a difference in attitude of students between the two teaching methods. To show
the ideals of one teaching method over the other, a longer time period may be needed.
In this study, another result was obtained about confounding variables that, gender difference
did not have significant effect on both students’ science achievement and attitude toward science.
The subject of the studies can cause such result. It is known that some subjects of science attract only
male student’s attention or only female student’s attention. Therefore, gender differences could be
obtained. However, sense organs of this study have not such property. Both male and female students
were interested with the subject. So that gender differences was not significant on dependent variables
of this study.
Conclusion and Implications
Active participation of students and guidance of instructors in science lessons have been empha-
sized in various theories in education, such as constructivism. The results of the present study suggest
that hands-on instruction may enhance a better learning success compared to traditional instruction.
Students in hands-on group learned sense organs by both hands-on and minds-on. They were actively
engaged and had direct experiences in their learning. Their teachers guide them during their investiga-
tions. They performed all hands-on activities and discussed all critical questions to get the important
points of the subject at the end of activities. For that reason, they might remember important concepts
after years. Besides, these activities make science lessons funny, more enjoyable and efficient for the
students. Nevertheless, the students who instructed with traditional method learned sense organs only
by listening their teacher and taking notes. They did not observe and feel what happen in our body
during hearing, tasting, smelling, touching and seeing mechanisms. Based upon observation checklist
results, these students got bored during instruction.
One important implication of this study is that teachers need to realize the significance of hands-on
instruction on science learning. Since learning environment should include creative and self-motivated
teachers to give instruction by hands-on (Harvey, Sirna, & Houlihan, 1998), it is believed that exposing
teachers to current scientific issues will encourage them to introduce new, motivational approaches
for understanding scientific concepts in their classrooms. They should understand that they do not
always need any special laboratory equipment to teach science effectively. Teachers might be able
to design practical science lessons to attract students’ interest by hands-on activities (Holstermann,
Grube & Bögeholz, 2010). In addition, teachers should be aware of how to prepare hands-on activities
since these activities should not be as cookbook style. These activities should be both hands-on and
minds-on. For this reason, both in-service and pre-service teachers should be informed about what is
the meaning and importance of hands-on activities, and how they can be used in science classrooms
effectively. Moreover, curriculum developers should prepare and integrate some hands-on activities in
science curricula.
As a conclusion, hands-on learning was a good idea to engage students actively in their learning.
Furthermore, hands-on activities are inexpensive by using easily obtainable and simple life materials,
straight forward and practical to perform in class, adaptable for most of the lessons and science sub-
jects. On the other hand, this study was limited to 140 six grade students in four intact classrooms. For
further study, similar researches can be constructed for different science topics, and different grade
levels with larger sample size.
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Received: November 08, 2010 Accepted: May 30, 2011
Özlem Sadi Assist. Prof. Dr., Educational Sciences, Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey

University, Karaman, Turkey.
Phone: + 90 338 226 20 00/2480.
E-mail: ozlemsadi@kmu.edu.tr
Website: http://www.kmu.edu.tr/english/akademiktakvim.aspx
Jale Cakiroglu Associate Prof. Dr., Middle East Technical University, Faculty of
Education, Department of Elementary Education, 06531, Ankara, Turkey
Phone: +90 312 210 4051
E-mail: jaleus@metu.edu.tr
Website: http://www.metu.edu.tr/
97
PRESENTATION OF
LABORATORY SESSIONS
FOR SCIENCE SUBJECTS
IN SLOVENIAN UPPER
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Abstract. Among Slovenian upper Andrej Šorgo

secondary school science teachers a study
was conducted about the implementation
Slavko Kocijančič
of laboratory work in Science teaching.
One of the specific goals was to acquire
preliminary data about the status of labo-
ratory exercises in teaching Biology, Chem-
istry and Physics. Answers were received
from 64 Biology teachers, 64 Chemistry Introduction
teachers and 63 Physics teachers (about
40% of Slovene secondary school Science Recently two opposite processes concerning Science in
teachers). human society have been witnessed. Knowledge and technol-
The differences in attitudes towards and
ogy based on research in science and technology have grown
performance of laboratory work among
progressively, but interest among students in such disciplines
teachers of different Science subjects are
has declined (Osborne et al., 2003, Baram-Tsabari & Yarden, 2009;
small. It can be concluded that teachers of
Lamanauskas & Augiene, 2009). Slovenia is no exception to this
all three subjects have generally positive
rule; in fact, attitudes towards Science are even more negative
attitudes towards laboratory work. The
than in other parts of the world (Gabršček et al., 2005) and are
differences occur in the way laboratory
worsening (Svetlik et al., 2008). Schools cannot be blamed as the
work is performed. Not so positive are the
sole reason for this decline but have to take their share of responsi-
findings that many of the exercises are
bility, which can lie both in the topics covered by the syllabus and
presented to the students as demonstra-
in the way these are taught (Duggan & Gott, 2002; Hodson, 2003;
tions, and an expository style is preferred.
Jenkins, 2003; Tranter, 2004; DiCarlo, 2009; Lamanauskas, 2009).
In the future, efforts should be made to
From the science teachers’ viewpoint, this should mean that if they
transform expository labs into inquiry- and
want to stop the decline in student interest in science, they have
problem-based laboratory work.
to prepare lessons in such a way as to confirm students’ interests
and preferences (Chang et al., 2009; Bilek, 2010; Kubiatko et al.,
Key words: laboratory work, science edu-
2010). On the other hand, a change in teaching strategies towards
cation, upper secondary schools, teachers’
popularity should not result in a lower quality of knowledge being
attitudes.
achieved with such methods (Chalkiadaki, 2009). On the contrary,
the highest educational standards should lead learners towards
the development of competences for lifelong learning and solving
problems unknown at the time of their education (Dean & Kuhn,
Andrej Šorgo 2006; Illeris, 2008).
University of Maribor, Slovenia One can hardly claim that Slovenian science teaching is ori-
Slavko Kocijančič ented towards problem solving or applicability of learned content.
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia From the results of international studies like TIMMS and PISA and a
review of Slovenian studies (Glažar & Devetak, 2010; Strgar, 2010),
98
ISSN 1648–3898 PRESENTATION OF LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR SCIENCE SUBJECTS IN
SLOVENIAN UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
(P. 98-113)
it can be concluded that ��

the knowledge gained by Slovenian students is more academic than practi-
cal, that they are good at reciting facts but find it difficult to apply these in new settings or to transfer
knowledge between subjects or to out-of school situations. Recognized reasons for the unpopularity
of science subjects and underachievement of higher educational goals include the following: topics
covered in the syllabus are highly academic and fragmented among different subjects; lectures form
the dominant method of school instruction, are barely connected to students’ everyday experiences or
interests and greatly influenced by the demands of the Matura examinations (Ivanu Grmek & Javornik
Krečič, 2004, Bajd & Artač 2002, Šorgo & Kocijančič 2006, Šorgo et al., 2007, Šorgo et al., 2011).
If it is accepted that direct instruction or adding new content cannot change trends towards better
achievement in making science popular, then contemporary teaching practices need to be changed.
From this perspective, laboratory and experimental work should be considered as one of the cornerstones
in teaching Science, because through such work it is simultaneously possible to achieve the highest
cognitive levels of knowledge and to acquire many skills unlikely to be achieved with other methods (e.
g., manipulative skills); moreover, students generally have positive attitudes towards laboratory work
(Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; Michael, 2001, 2006; Šorgo, 2007; Šorgo et al, 2008; Tomažič, 2008; Šorgo &
Špernjak, 2009; Abrahams, 2009; Strgulc Krajšek & Vilhar, 2010).
The impetus behind the study was to survey the state of performance of laboratory work in Biology,
Chemistry and Physics, and the attitudes of teachers towards such work. The results and possible dif-
ferences between teachers of science subjects are planned for use in pre-service and in-service teacher
training. The research questions were as follows:
1. What are the main sources of teachers’ manuals used in the school laboratory?
2. Which style of laboratory work prevails?
3. How often do teachers include laboratory work in their teaching practice?
4. What are teacher’s attitudes towards laboratory work?
5. Can teachers of Biology, Chemistry and Physics be recognized as part of a single teaching
culture (Shuell 1992)?
Science Education in Slovenian Schools
In Slovenian 9-year compulsory basic school (two 3-year primary cycles and one 3-year lower sec-
ondary cycle), Science topics are integrated into various subjects until the 6th and 7th year of schooling,
where they are taught as a subject called Science. In the last two years of lower secondary schooling,
Biology, Physics, and Chemistry are taught as separate subjects. In upper secondary schools the destiny
of Science subjects largely depends on the type of school. In the general upper secondary programme
(a 4–year academic programme), Biology, Physics, and Chemistry are compulsory, each occupying 210-
academic hours in the first three years for all students. If a student chooses such a subject as one of their
Matura subjects, then they have to take an additional 140-hour course. In technical (4-year programmes)
and vocational schools (3-year programmes), the diversity (both in topics and number of academic hours)
in Science teaching is greater. In some schools the topics are again integrated into various Science and
Technology subjects, but in some schools (nursery, biotechnology or food science, machinery, etc.)
these are taught as Biology, Physics or Chemistry with differing numbers of lesson hours. More detailed
information about the school system of Slovenia is available online (Education in Slovenia).
Sample Selection
The community of Slovenian upper secondary school science teachers is rather small (about 500
teachers), with about 150 teachers teaching each of the major science subjects (Biology, Chemistry,
Physics). Questionnaires were addressed to all Slovenian secondary schools, and 207 respondents an-
swered: 64 Biology teachers; 64 Chemistry teachers, 63 Physics teachers, and 16 from teachers of other
subjects, teaching assistants, or ICT support staff (Šorgo et. al. 2007). Owing to its heterogeneity, the
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PRESENTATION OF LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR SCIENCE SUBJECTS IN
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last group was omitted from further analysis. Exact numbers are not available, so the estimation is that
questionnaires were collected from about 40% of Slovenian upper secondary school science teachers.
The teachers from the sample taught in general secondary schools (107; 56%), technical schools (72;
37.7%), and vocational schools (12; 6.3%). The type of school was later not used as a dividing criterion
for the statisical analyses because there was an insufficient number of respondents from each subject
falling into each category to allow appropriate statistical analysis.
Statistically significant differences among teachers of different subjects were not found by age,
or number of working years in school, although gender was an exception (χ2 = 53.37, df = 2, p = 0.000)
(Table 1).
Table 1. Gender structure of the sample.

Subject
Biology Chemistry Physics Total
Male 6 8 39 53
Gender
Female 57 54 24 135
Total 63 62 63 188
On average, the teachers had 17 years of teaching experience, and were 44 years old. About 90 %
of Biology and 87 % of Chemistry teachers in our sample are women, and it seems that Physics is the
last general high school Science subject where women are outnumbered by men (61 %) (Table 1).
Instrument and Procedures
In order to establish secondary school Science teachers’ perspectives on and attitudes towards
laboratory work in Biology, Chemistry and Physics, a questionnaire was constructed. The questionnaire
was divided into four parts and was completed anonymously.
The first part of the instrument was based on the assumption that teachers in Slovenia are not
autonomous in choosing teaching content but are autonomous in choosing the methods and sources
of information to achieve the intended curricular goals. The intention of this part was to discover the
dominant sources for manuals used in the school laboratory; it consisted of a single question: ‘How
often do you use different sources of manuals for laboratory exercises?’, followed by the 7 items listed
in Table 2. Teachers were asked to answer using a six-point scale (1 – do not use; 2– rarely; 3 – up
to a quarter; 4 – between one quarter and a half; 5 – between a half and three quarters; 6 – more
than three quarters). The six-point scale was constructed to allow quantification of results and make
comparison easier between teachers of different subjects using means and standard deviations to
show a tendency.
The second part of the instrument was about instructional styles of laboratory work. The intention
was to identify the dominant instructional styles used in laboratory practice because achievement, espe-
cially in the higher cognitive domains (Krahtwohl, 2001), can depend on the style used. The categories
employed were as follows (Table 3):
1. Step-by-step manuals with defined goals, lists of materials, pictures of the apparatus, and
defined forms (tables, graphs, etc.) for presentation and analysis of results.
2. Step-by-step manuals with defined goals, lists of materials, pictures of the apparatus, without
defined forms (tables, graphs, etc.) for presentation and analysis of results.
3. Short manuals with defined goals and a list of materials.
4. Problem-based laboratory work, where students are involved in planning the experiment.
5. As a demonstration. Students get information about the experiment; the experiment is dem-
onstrated by a teacher. Students are obliged to write down results and make an analysis.
Teachers were asked to answer using a similar six-point scale (1 – do not use; 2– rarely; 3 – up to a
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quarter; 4 – between one quarter and a half; 5 – between a half and three quarters; 6 – more than three
quarters) as used in the first part of the instrument.
In the third part of the instrument, interest lay in establishing the share of laboratory exercises
among all lessons performed by teachers. Slovenian teachers are autonomous in choosing methods,
and the titles of laboratory exercises are more often suggested than prescribed by their syllabi, with a
lower limit of 30 % of lessons to be performed as laboratory work. To allow comparison between differ-
ent subjects, a relative seven-point scale was constructed (Table 4), and teachers answered by circling
one option. The options were as follows:
1. More exercises are performed than prescribed by the syllabus.
2. All prescribed exercises are performed.
3. More than three-quarters of prescribed exercises are performed.
4. Between three-quarters and half of the prescribed exercises are performed.
5. Between half and a quarter of prescribed exercises are performed.
6. Less than a quarter of the prescribed exercises are performed.
7. I do not perform laboratory exercises.
The fourth part of the instrument was a twenty-item (Table 5) closed questionnaire using a five-point
Likert scale (5 – strongly agree, 4 – agree, 3 – neutral, 2 – disagree, 1 –strongly disagree). The intention
of the questionnaire was to measure attitudes towards laboratory activities and compare differences
between Biology, Chemistry and Physics teachers. The questionnaire has a reliability of 0.806 measured
as Cronbach’s alpha. The questionnaire was assembled in such a way that disagreement with the state-
ment reflects a positive attitude towards it. To prevent automatism, four statements (marked with an
asterisk in Table 5) were posted and later coded in the opposite direction.
Data Analysis
The data analysis was carried out with the statistical software SPSS® 17.0. The Mann-Whitney and
Kruskall-Wallis non-parametric tests were used to identify differences in frequencies of answers. To
make parallel comparisons of the differences in means among different groups of teachers, the F –test
was performed, showing generally the same pattern as the nonparametric tests. Data were tested for
normal distribution with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and showed that all the variables did not follow
normal distribution at the level of p<0.01. Owing to the distribution of data, only means and outcomes
of the non-parametric test are reported in the tables. Correlations between groups of teachers are
reported as Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Exploratory factor analysis was performed using Principal
Component Analysis as the extraction method and Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation as the rotation
method (Lavonen et al.2003). Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the questionnaire.
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO = 0.798) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity
(Sig = 0.000) were performed to test the adequacy of the data for factor analysis. From the calculated
means and the highly correlated answers concerning attitudes, it was concluded that teachers of all
three subjects can be treated as single group.
Results of Research
Source of Manuals for Laboratory Exercises
The intention was to establish the level of usage of manuals from different sources in laboratory
work. Seven items were offered to the teachers, and they answered on a six-point scale (Table 2).
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Table 2. Source of manuals for laboratory exercises.
Stand.
Source of manuals Subject N Mean Mean Rank Chi-Square p
Dev.
Biology 61 4.3 1.6 118.47

Chemistry 63 3.2 1.7 88.77
From recent textbooks 48.123 0.000
Physics 52 2.0 1.2 53.02
Total 176 3.2 1.8
Biology 60 2.9 1.5 106.53
Chemistry 62 2.2 1.0 84.98
From old textbooks 14.847 0.001
Physics 54 2.0 1.0 72.50
Total 176 2.4 1.3
Biology 60 1.7 1.0 78.48
Chemistry 57 2.0 1.8 93.54
From the Internet 3.163 0.206
Physics 54 1.8 1.0 86.40
Total 171 1.8 1.0
Biology 60 1.9 1.0 87.80
From textbooks written in Chemistry 61 2.0 0.9 95.69
4.216 0.121
foreign languages Physics 53 1.7 0.8 77.74
Total 174 1.9 0.9
Biology 61 2.0 0.9 82.13
From teacher-to-teacher Chemistry 61 2.1 0.9 92.68
1.631 0.443
study groups Physics 53 2.2 1.2 89.37
Total 175 2.1 1.0
Biology 59 2.1 1.1 62.01
Chemistry 59 3 1.5 93.53
I prepare them myself 25.487 0.000
Physics 55 3.6 1.7 106.81
Total 173 2.9 1.5
From Table 2, it can be recognized that differences are statistically significant in three of seven items.
The most important source of laboratory manuals for Biology and Chemistry teachers comprises recent
and old textbooks, while Physics teachers prefer to prepare their own manuals.
Instructional Style of Laboratory Work
The aim was to discover the instructional style of laboratory work that dominates in science teach-
ing. Five items were offered to the teachers, and they answered on a six-point scale (Table 3).
Table 3. Instructional styles of laboratory work.
Stand.
Instructional style Subject N Mean Mean Rank Chi-Square p
Dev.
Biology 59 4.4 1.7 99.79
Detailed manuals with forms for Chemistry 63 4.3 1.8 98.41

15.943 0.000
data analysis Physics 55 3.2 1.8 66.65
Total 177 4.0 1.8
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Stand.
Instructional style Subject N Mean Mean Rank Chi-Square p
Dev.
Biology 58 2.6 1.4 79.83
Detailed manuals without forms Chemistry 58 2.4 1.4 73.22

14.379 0.001
for data analysis Physics 55 3.6 1.7 105.98
Total 171 2.9 1.6
Biology 58 2.0 1.0 84.33
Chemistry 59 2.0 1.1 85.21
Short manuals 0.104 0.949
Physics 53 2.1 1.2 87.10
Total 170 2.0 1.1
Biology 59 1.6 0.6 90.26
Chemistry 58 1.6 0.7 86.47
Problem-based experiment 2.535 0.282
Physics 52 1.4 0.5 77.38
Total 169 1.6 0.6
Biology 57 2.1 0.8 80.40
Chemistry 58 2.7 1.2 102.72
Demonstration 21.565 0.000
Physics 50 1.8 0.9 63.09
Total 165 2.2 1.1
From Table 3, it can be recognized that differences are statistically significant in half the items. Biol-
ogy and Chemistry teachers prefer detailed manuals with forms for data analysis and Physics teachers
detailed manuals without forms for data analysis. Problem-based experiments are the least frequently
scheduled by teachers of all three subjects.
Share of Laboratory Exercises among Lessons
The aim was to establish the quantity of lessons performed as laboratory exercises. Teachers were
offered seven items, and they answered on a six-point scale (Table 4).
Table 4. Share of laboratory exercises among lessons.
Biology Chemistry Physics
N % N % N %
More exercises are performed than prescribed by the syllabus. 12 19.7 10 15.9 5 8.6
All prescribed exercises are performed. 24 39.3 38 60.3 27 46.6
More than three-quarters of the prescribed exercises are performed. 23 37.7 12 19.0 20 34.5
Between three-quarters and half of the prescribed exercises are performed. 1 1.6 2 3.2 4 6.9
Between half and a quarter of the prescribed exercises are performed. 2 3.4
Less than a quarter of the prescribed exercises are performed. 1 1.6
I do not perform laboratory exercises. 1 1.6
The differences between Biology, Chemistry and Physics teachers are not statistically significant
at the five percent level (χ2 = 19.9; df = 2, p = 0.07).
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Attitudes of Science Teachers towards Laboratory Activities
The instrument aimed to identify teachers’ attitudes towards laboratory work (Table 5, Table 6,
Appendices), and whether teachers of Biology, Chemistry and Physics can be recognized as part of a
single teaching culture (Shuell 1992).
Table 5. Statistics from the questionnaire about teachers’ attitudes towards laboratory work in
Biology, Chemistry and Physics.
Stand. Mean Chi-

Statement Subject N Mean p
Dev. Rank Square
Biology 62 3.1 1.0 91.44

V 1: Laboratory exercises should only be a Chemistry 61 3.1 0.8 91.79
Physics 56 3.0 1.1 86.46 0.423 0.809
supplement to instruction.
Total 179 3.1 1.0
Biology 62 4.2 0.5 95.54
V 2*: Skills gained through laboratory Chemistry 62 4.1 0.5 87.74
activities are not important for students’ 0.921 0.631
Physics 58 4.1 0.7 91.20
further work and study success.
Total 182 4.1 0.7
Biology 62 4.7 0.5 100.35
V 3: I do not like laboratory activities Chemistry 62 4.6 0.6 84.75
4.156 0.125
because of the danger of potential injury. Physics 60 4.7 0.6 92.40
Total 184 4.7 0.6
Biology 62 4.3 0.7 92.70
V 4: Laboratory exercises need a lot of Chemistry 63 4.4 0.6 99.17
precious time which could be used more 1.980 0.372
Physics 60 4.1 0.8 86.83
beneficially for other types of instruction.
Total 185 4.3 07
Biology 62 4.2 0.8 103.09
V 5: Knowledge gained through laboratory Chemistry 63 4.1 0.7 92.25
5.004 0.082
activities is not systematic. Physics 60 3.9 1.0 83.37
Total 185 4.1 0.8
V 6: All goals suggested in the syllabus to Biology 62 4.1 0.8 92.48

be achieved through laboratory activities Chemistry 63 4.2 0.6 92.19
0.076 0.963
can be achieved with other instructional Physics 60 4.1 0.8 94.39
methods. Total 185 4.1 0.8
Biology 61 3.5 1.1 95.42
V 7: The positive effects of the feedback Chemistry 61 3.5 1.0 92.,24
from correction of laboratory reports do not 0.908 0.635
Physics 60 3.3 1.0 86.77
justify the quantity of work.
Total 182 3.4 1.0
Biology 62 4.4 0.6 86.97
V 8: Money spent on laboratory equipment Chemistry 63 4.4 0.6 91.98
could be better used for other instructional 2.448 0.294
Physics 60 4.5 0.8 100.31
materials.
Total 185 4.4 0.7
Biology 62 3.6 0.9 104.55
V 9: Manuals for laboratory exercises Chemistry 63 2.8 0.9 7218
16.056 0.000
should be very detailed. Physics 60 3.4 0.9 102.93
Total 185 3.2 1.1
Biology 62 2.9 1.0 84.20
V 10: I would feel uncomfortable if I didn’t Chemistry 63 3.1 1.1 90.75
know the end results of the laboratory 4.848 0.089
Physics 60 3.4 1.2 104.45
activities.
Total 185 3.1 1.2
104
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Stand. Mean Chi-

Statement Subject N Mean p
Dev. Rank Square
Biology 62 3.0 0.9 82.44

V 11: Manuals for laboratory work should Chemistry 62 3.1 1.1 86.45
9.662 0.008
be prepared only by experts. Physics 60 3.6 0.9 109.14
Total 184 3.2 1.0
Biology 62 3.9 0.6 105.66
V 12*: There should be more problem- Chemistry 63 3.8 0.6 93.75
9.950 0.007
based laboratory activities. Physics 60 3.5 0.8 79.13
Total 185 3.7 0.7
Biology 62 3.7 0.9 84.92
V 13: There is no need for teachers to Chemistry 63 3.8 1.0 95.18
know how to handle a part of the equip- 2.534 0.282
Physics 60 3.9 1.0 99.06
ment, because (s) he has a lab assistant.
Total 185 3.8 1.0
V 14*: Knowledge achieved during Biology 62 3.8 0.8 104.79

laboratory activities in one subject can be Chemistry 63 3.5 0.7 88.92
5.608 0.061
later used in laboratory activities in other Physics 60 3.5 0.8 85.10
subjects. Total 185 3.6 0.8
Biology 62 3.2 1.0 91.17
V 15: During laboratory work, it is hard to Chemistry 61 3.2 1.0 92.95
0.040 0.980
control the students’ work. Physics 60 3.3 0.9 91.89
Total 183 3.2 1.0
Biology 62 4.2 0.6 95.78
V 16: Because of expense, I perform most Chemistry 63 4.1 0.7 86.95
1.604 0.449
of the laboratory work as demonstrations. Physics 60 4.2 0.8 96.48
Total 185 4.2 0.7
V 17: Through the teacher’s demonstration Biology 62 3.9 0.9 99.44

of the experiment, students can achieve Chemistry 63 3.7 0.7 81.97
4.569 0.102
the same level of knowledge as when the Physics 59 3.9 0.9 96.45
experiment is performed by the students. Total 184 3.8 0.8
Biology 62 4.1 0.7 107.85
V 18: When I have to decide, I prefer Chemistry 62 3.8 0.6 85.34
11.635 0.003
demonstration of an experiment. Physics 58 3.7 0.9 80.60
Total 182 3.9 0.8
Biology 62 3.5 0.7 109.04
V 19*: Students should participate in the Chemistry 63 3.1 0.8 86.86
11.224 0.004
planning of laboratory work. Physics 59 3.0 0.7 81.14
Total 184 3.2 0.8
V 20: Laboratory work is a waste of time Biology 62 4.3 0.7 92.80 0.422 0.810
because we must explain everything Chemistry 62 4.3 0.8 94.30
that was done once again through direct Physics 59 4.2 0.9 88.75
instruction. Total 183 4.3 0.8
The answers on the attitudes questionnaire (Table 5) among all three groups of teachers are highly
correlated at the significance level p < 0.01. The correlation between Biology and Chemistry teachers
is r (20) = 0.91, p < 0.01, followed by the correlation between Chemistry and Physics teachers r (20) =
0.90, p < 0.01. The lowest value relates to the correlation between Biology and Physics teachers r (20)
= 0.84, p < 0.01.
It can be recognized from the results in Table 5 that differences among teachers of all three sub-
jects are statistically significant at the p < 0.05 level for only a quarter of the answers (V 9, V 11, V 12, V
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18 and V 19), showing that Science teachers of all three subjects on average share essentially the same
opinions concerning laboratory work.
Among these variables, there are only two statements where the calculated means lie in the op-
posite direction. The first one is the statement that “Manuals for laboratory exercises should be very
detailed”, where Chemistry teachers mildly agree with this statement, while Biology and Physics teachers
disagree with it. The second statement is, “I would feel uncomfortable if I didn’t know the end results of
the laboratory activities”, where it seems that Biology teachers are less confident than teachers of the
other two subjects. For all other statements, the reported means are on the same side of the attitude
scale, and the differences lie only in the strength of the teachers’ opinions.
Nevertheless, a deeper insight into these differences emerges when differences in pairs of teachers
of different subjects were compared (Appendix 1). From the number of statistically significant differ-
ences, it was possible to recognize that the differences of Biology teachers as compared to Chemistry
(6 answers) and Physics teachers (7 answers) greatly outnumbered differences between Chemistry and
Physics teachers (1 answer). No statistically significant differences were found among teachers of dif-
ferent subjects in eight answers.
Exploratory factor analysis was performed, and six factors were extracted, explaining 60% of vari-
ance (Table 6).
Table 6. Total variance explained in the questionnaire about teachers’attitudes towards laboratory
work in Biology, Chemistry and Physics.
Initial Eigenvalues Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings

Component
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 5.092 25.458 25.458 3.761 18.803 18.803
2 1.733 8.666 34.124 1.881 9.406 28.209
3 1.549 7.746 41.870 1.733 8.665 36.874
4 1.486 7.432 49.302 1.725 8.627 45.501
5 1.139 5.694 54.996 1.507 7.535 53.036
6 1.081 5.407 60.402 1.473 7.366 60.402
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
The first factor (Appendix 2) was designated Perceived Importance. From the factor loadings, it
can be concluded that teachers value laboratory work highly and do not see it as a waste of time or as
something useless that can be replaced by other methods or forms of instruction.
The second factor was designated Control of the Environment. From the factor loadings, it can be
concluded that teachers do not fear potential injury and involvement of students in such work, nor did
they see demonstrations as a substitute for hands-on activities in the interest of preventing potential
damage.
The third factor was designated Importance of Hands-on Activities. From the factor loadings, it
can be concluded that teachers place a higher value on students’ hands-on activities than on demon-
strations.
The fourth factor was designated Transferability, and it can be concluded from the factor loadings
that teachers believe that skills and knowledge gained through laboratory work are important for both
transfer among subjects and to the situation beyond school.
The fifth factor was designated Involvement in Preparation. According to the means, it seems that
teachers are ambivalent concerning involvement of students in the preparation of laboratory manuals
or the idea of writing manuals by themselves. It seems that they are quite happy with manuals prepared
by others, and that concerning this item, differences within the group of teachers of one subject are
greater than differences among teachers of different subjects.
The sixth factor was designated Confidence, and here it can be recognized that teachers, as in the
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fifth factor, are separated into two groups. One group of teachers, regardless of subject, consisted of
those who prefer the well-established pathways of manuals prepared by experts, while there are others
who do not fear exposure when something unexpected arises during laboratory work.
Discussion
According to the results of the survey, it can be concluded that Slovenian teachers of Biology,
Chemistry and Physics value laboratory work highly, do not fear potential injury and involvement of
students in such work and value hands-on activities more than demonstrations. All these can be recog-
nized as positive factors for the introduction of such work into active teaching practice (Ingram et al.,
2001), where ‘active processing of information, not passive reception of information, leads to learning’
(Lujan & DiCarlo, 2005).
From the results presented in Table 4, it can be recognized that half the teachers perform all or
even more than the activities, suggested in their syllabi, and almost all teachers perform at least three-
quarters of such laboratory exercises, a level which can be recognized as satisfactory. Because not all
teachers perform all suggested laboratory activities caution is necessary. It has been well documented
by many scholarly studies (Abell & Lederman, 2007; Michael, 2006) that laboratory work is one of the
most promising methods in achieving higher order knowledge (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; Hofstein &
Mamlok-Naaman, 2007), but there is always a possibility that teachers will abandon it and replace it
with lectures, in order to transfer as much content as possible when syllabi are overloaded with con-
tent (Lujan & DiCarlo, 2005). The trend toward expending the content to be covered at the expense of
the suggested quantity of laboratory work in the Biology syllabus can already be observed in Slovenia
(Šorgo & Špernjak, in press).
Differences between teachers of the three subjects are not so great as to allow for recognition of
completely different teaching cultures (Shuell 1992) among subjects in the performance of laboratory
work; nevertheless, differences do exist. These differences can be recognized in the preferred method by
which laboratory work is performed. Physics teachers prefer more freedom in the preparation of manuals
by themselves, and chemistry teachers value demonstrations more highly than teachers of the other
two subjects. It is assumed that these differences are topic dependent. In Physics and Chemistry the end
results of the experiments, when following the manuals in school settings, are highly predictable; this is
not always the case in Biology, especially when dealing with living organisms. The other possible reason
involves the hazards and safety of experimental work. The risks are greatest in Chemistry, especially when
dealing with aggressive or toxic chemicals. Some of the differences are probably the result of their previ-
ous schooling at faculties (Supovitz & Turner, 2000) and of experience gained through laboratory work
during their studies. These finding can be recognized as important in efforts to enhance the transfer
of knowledge between subjects and the level of cooperation between teachers (e. g., Development of
Science Competences Project, 2009-2011); a lack of these is recognized as one of the most important
problems in general upper secondary school in Slovenia (Rutar Ilc, 2005).
From the results dealing with the source of manuals for laboratory exercises (Table 2), can conclude
that teachers of all three subjects combine manuals from different sources, but that there are differ-
ences between Biology, Chemistry and Physics teachers in their preference for one or another source.
The greatest differences are in the use of manuals from textbooks. Such manuals (from both new and
old textbooks) are the most important source for Biology teachers and the least important for Physics
teachers. In contrast, Physics teachers prefer to write their manuals themselves, a practice which is rarely
reported by Biology teachers. In both cases the values reported for Chemistry teachers lie between those
for teachers of the other two subjects but are closer to those for the Biology teachers. Knowing that
published manuals lack creativity, and are rarely written in an inquiry- and problem-based fashion, Phys-
ics teachers have a greater tendency to construct such manuals, which would lead to development of
creativity, as one of the highest goals of education (Dobrowolska, 2010; McWilliam & Dawson, 2008).
The least significant differences among teachers of all three subjects involves the sharing of manu-
als among teachers in study groups and using sources from the Internet. One interesting finding is that
the Internet is not an important source of information, even though it is known that all teachers from
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Slovenia have access to the web at least from the school library computers. The most probable reason
is that laboratory manuals in the Slovene language are rarely found on the Internet. So, for use in the
classroom, teachers can not simply download manuals; instead, they have at least to translate and edit
such material before implementation in the classroom.
From the results presented in Table 3, it is obvious that expository, step-by-step manuals, reported by
many as “cook-books”, are the dominant style among Biology, Chemistry and Physics teachers. The differ-
ence is only that Biology and Chemistry teachers prepare forms for students to report their results, while
Physics teachers offer students some freedom in the presentation of results. Problem based experiments
are rarely or never scheduled, a feature common to all three groups. Demonstrations are a more common
practice in Chemistry than in other subjects. The most probable explanation is that, for safety reasons,
some experiments cannot be recommended for students at the pre-university level; moreover, there is
the cost of the chemicals. These findings could be seen as alarming because it has been well documented
(Domin 1999, Hoffstein & Lunetta, 2004, Michael 2001, 2006) that the contribution of expository labora-
tory exercises to higher cognitive levels such as analysis, evaluation and creativity (Krathwohl 2002) is
minor in comparison to the knowledge gained through inquiry- and problem- based exercises. From
the perspective of teacher trainers, this should mean that more emphasis needs to be placed on such
teaching during both preservice and in-service training.
Conclusions
From the results of the study, it can be concluded that Slovenian upper secondary school science
teachers value laboratory work highly and that most of them performed all or more of the labs sug-
gested by the curricula. These findings can be regarded as positive and as a promising basis for students’
active teaching experiences and the transfer of knowledge among disciplines. The problem identified
here is that most laboratory work is being performed in a ‘cook-book’, expository fashion. Inquiry- and
problem- based laboratory exercises are offered rarely or never, so the added value of the labs is more
in confirmation of theoretical information and development of practical skills than in developing higher
order knowledge and problem solving strategies or enhancing creativity. In the future, more effort must
be given to in-service and pre-service teacher training to promote work which will foster the develop-
ment of competences and higher order knowledge and skills and perhaps halt the decline of or even
raise interest in science among students.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Marja Šteblaj for her valuable contribution to this work.
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Appendix 1: p-values of Mann-Whitney test. Tested pairs: Biology – Chemistry; Biology – Physics;
Chemistry – Physics.
Statement Subject Biology Chemistry Physics
Biology 0.601
V 1: Laboratory exercises should only be a supplement to Chemistry 0.985
instruction.
Physics 0.545
Biology 0.612
V 2*: Skills gained through laboratory activities are important for Chemistry 0.334
students’ further work and study success.
Physics 0.674
Biology 0.279
V 3: I do not like laboratory activities because of the danger of Chemistry 0.042
possible injury.
Physics 0.342
Biology 0.498
V 4: Laboratory exercises need a lot of precious time which could Chemistry 0.444
be used more beneficially for other types of instruction
Physics 0.166
Biology 0.033
V 5: Knowledge gained through laboratory activities is not Chemistry 0.181
systematic.
Physics 0.283
Biology 0.820
V 6: All goals suggested in the syllabus to be achieved through
laboratory activities can be achieved with other instructional Chemistry 0.964
methods. Physics 0.808
110
(P. 98-113)
Statement Subject Biology Chemistry Physics
Biology 0.347
V 7: The positive effects of the feedback from correction of labora- Chemistry 0.729
tory reports do not justify the quantity of work.
Physics 0.551
Biology 0.123
V 8: Money spent on laboratory equipment could be better used Chemistry 0.552
for other instructional materials.
Physics 0.328
Biology 0.827
V 9: Manuals for laboratory exercises should be very detailed. Chemistry 0.000
Physics 0.001
Biology 0.029
V 10: I would feel uncomfortable if I didn’t know the end results Chemistry 0.492
of the laboratory activities.
Physics 0.151
Biology 0.002
V 11: Manuals for laboratory work should be prepared only by Chemistry 0.767
experts.
Physics 0.021
Biology 0.003
V 12*: There should be more problem-based laboratory activi- Chemistry 0.108
ties.
Physics 0.078
Biology 0.121
V 13: There is no need for teachers to know how to handle a part Chemistry 0.261
of the equipment, because they have lab assistant.
Physics 0.681
Biology 0.033
V 14*: Knowledge achieved during laboratory activities in one sub- Chemistry 0.055
ject can be later used in laboratory activities in other subjects.
Physics 0.622
Biology 0.955
V 15: During laboratory work, it is hard to control the students’ Chemistry 0.823
work.
Physics 0.925
Biology 0.917
V 16: Because of expense, I perform most of the laboratory work Chemistry 0.964
as demonstrations.
Physics 0.273
Biology 0.758
V 17: Through the teacher’s demonstration of the experiment,
students can achieve the same level of knowledge as when the Chemistry 0.041
experiment is performed by the students. Physics 0.103
Biology 0.004
V 18: When I have to decide, I prefer demonstration of an Chemistry 0.003
experiment.
Physics 0.477
Biology 0.001
V 19*: Students should participate in the planning of laboratory Chemistry 0.013
work.
Physics 0.537
Biology 0.645
V 20: Laboratoy work is a waste of time because we must explain Chemistry 0.863
everything that was done once again through direct instruction.
Physics 0.531
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Appendix 2: Means, standard deviations and component loadings.
Component loadings
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
Factor 1: Perceived importance
V 8: Money spent on laboratory equipment could be 4.4 0.7 0.813
better used for other instructional materials.
V 4: Laboratory exercises need a lot of precious time 4.3 0.7 0.760
which could be used more beneficially for other types
of instruction
V 20: Laboratoy work is a waste of time because we 4.3 0.8 0.745 0.311
must explain everything that was done once again
through direct instruction.
V 6: All goals suggested in the syllabus to be achieved 4.1 0.8 0.727
through laboratory activities can be achieved with
other instructional methods.
V 5: Knowledge gained through laboratory activities 3.9 1.0 0.682 0.420
is not systematic.
V 7: The positive effects of the feedback from correc- 3.4 1.0 0.682
tion of laboratory reports do not justify the quantity
of work.
V 1: Laboratory exercises should only be a supple- 1.0 0.400 0.456
ment to instruction.
Factor 2: Control of the environment
V 3: I do not like laboratory activities because of the 4.7 0.6 0.696
danger of possible injury.
V 15: During laboratory work, it is hard to control the 3.2 1.0 0.626
students’ work.
V 12*: There should be more problem-based labora- 3.7 0.7 0.486 0.551
tory activities.
V 16: Because of expense, I perform most of the 4.2 0.7 0.468 0.535
laboratory work as demonstrations.
V 5: Knowledge gained through laboratory activities 3.9 1.0 0.682 0.420
is not systematic.
V 18: When I have to decide, I prefer demonstration 3.9 0.8 0.370 0.662
of an experiment.
Factor 3: Importance of hands-on activities
V 17: Through the teacher’s demonstration of the 3.8 0.8 0.750
experiment, students can achieve the same level of
knowledge as when the experiment is performed by
the students.
V 18: When I have to decide, I prefer demonstration 3.9 0.8 0.370 0.662
of an experiment.
V 16: Because of expense, I perform most of the 4.2 0.7 0.468 0.535
laboratory work as demonstrations.
V 9: Manuals for laboratory exercises should be 3.2 1.1 0.313 0.624 0.322
very detailed.
V 20: Laboratoy work is a waste of time because we 4.3 0.8 0.745 0.311
must explain everything that was done once again
through direct instruction.
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Component loadings
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
Factor 4: Transferability
V 14*: Knowledge achieved during laboratory activities 3.6 0.8 0.744
in one subject can be later used in laboratory activities
in other subjects.
V 2*: Skills gained through laboratory activities 4.1 0.7 0.635
are important for students’ further work and study
success.
V 12*: There should be more problem-based labora- 3.7 0.7 0.486 0.551
tory activities.
V 13: There is no need for teachers to know how to 3.8 1.0 -0.417 0.344
handle a part of the equipment, because they have
lab assistant.
Factor 5: Involvement in preparations
V 19*: Students should participate in the planning of 3.2 0.8 0.714
laboratory work.
very detailed.
V 1: Laboratory exercises should only be a supple- 3.1 1.0 0.400 0.456
ment to instruction.
V 11: Manuals for laboratory work should be prepared 3.2 1.0 0.300 0.655
only by experts.
Factor 6: Confidence
V 10: I would feel uncomfortable if I didn’t know the 3.1 1.2 0.800
end results of the laboratory activities.
V 11: Manuals for laboratory work should be prepared 3.2 1.0 0.300 0.655
only by experts.
V 13: There is no need for teachers to know how to 3.8 1.0 -0.417 0.344
handle a part of the equipment, because they have
lab assistant.
very detailed.
Received: August 19, 2010 Accepted: May 14, 2011
Andrej Šorgo Assistant Professor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural

Sciences and Mathematics, Department of Biology, Koro ka cesta
160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
Phone: +386 2 22 73 709.
E-mail: andrej.sorgo@uni-mb.si
Website: http://www.fnm.uni-mb.si/default.aspx
Slavko Kocijančič Associate Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education ,
Dept. of Physics and Technology, Section for Technology
Kardeljeva ploščad 16, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Phone: +386 1 5892 221.
E-mail: slavko.kocijancic@pef.uni-lj.si
Website: http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/index.php?id=12/
113
DESIGNING LEARNING
OBJECTS: A GENRE-BASED
APPROACH
Abstract. In the present paper, a genre- George Vorvilas

based conceptual framework for interpret- Thanassis Karalis
ing and designing content for learning Konstantinos Ravanis
objects is proposed. Learning objects are
considered here as multimodal macrogen-
res. These macrogenres are constituted of
content objects which are in fact types of
digital microgenres. The successful and Introduction
coherent information linking of these con-
tent objects inside a LO can be achieved There are several models for designing educational content
for learning objects (LOs). These models are based on the aggrega-
through particular rhetorical relations. The
tion of learning resources in rational wholes that serve concrete
knowledge of the several types of digital learning objectives. However, they are characterized by hetero-
microgenres as well as the rhetorical rela- geneous views with respect to the determination of the size and
the educational functions of LOs: should LOs serve one or more
tions between them, can equip an author/
learning objectives? Should they be defined as components of a
teacher with a repertoire of semiotic lesson or should they be equated with the lesson itself, perhaps
concepts, which make him capable of in- even with a course or seminar? The definitions of LOs provided
terpreting already made material, as well
by these models are also determined by the wider social and
educational purposes that particular communities state in terms
as creating new and coherent material, of their reuse. Respectively, the aggregation of LOs as well as their
in order to affect and motivate students reusability varies according to the educational expectations of the
in particular ways, through his intended organizations/institutions or the teachers who will use them.
Balatsoukas, Morris and O’ Brian (2008), have proposed the
communicative and educational purposes.
organization of object-oriented educational content, in three
Key words: learning objects, content general aggregation levels:
objects, multimodal macrogenres,
• At the first aggregation level they place digital re-
multimodal microgenres, logico-semantic
sources such as raw data (e.g., audio files, text files,
relations, rhetorical structure theory. video or image fragments etc) and information objects
(collections of data with an informative purpose).
• At the second aggregation level, learning objects are
created through the combination of raw data as well
George Vorvilas, Thanassis Karalis,
as information objects. At this level, according to some
Konstantinos Ravanis
designers, a learning object can serve more than one
University of Patras, Greece
learning objective, while others tend to equate it with
a lesson.
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(P. 114-126)
• Finally, at the third aggregation level, learning objects are aggregated in larger wholes and
are used for planning lessons, modules, and courses. Certain designers, however, tend to
believe that the term can be equated with a syllabus – or even with a course or a seminar.
Through this heterogeneous spectrum from which the concept of the LOs emerges, the co-depen-
dence between the reusability and educational context of LOs is clearly stated: the bigger the content
aggregation, the stronger its dependence on context. Thus, the possibilities for its reusability decrease.
The opposite situation appears when we descend to smaller aggregations of content (Wiley, 2002).
In the following paper, a framework for interpreting and designing learning content in the form
of LOs is proposed. Vorvilas, Karalis and Ravanis (2010) have outlined a general semiotic approach for
interpreting and creating LOs in respect of multimodal discourse analysis (MDA). For MDA, people use
particular meanings in order to communicate in specific social contexts. These meanings are created
through complex combinations of several modes of communication (e.g. through visual, verbal aural,
gestural, three-dimensional and other semiotic resources) (O’ Halloran, 2008). MDA examines the ways
these combined multimodal resources are integrated and interact in specific social contexts (e.g. class-
rooms) in order to achieve several communicative functions (see Unsworth, 2006). Vorvilas Karalis and
Ravanis (2010) have argued that LOs should be treated as multimodal representations whose content
elements generate particular types of meanings. The knowledge of the multimodal meanings that
several educational semiotic resources are able to create, can help a teacher to orient the choices of his
learning strategies towards a specific educational context (Pantidos, Valakas, Vitoratos & Ravanis, 2008;
Pantidos, Valakas, Vitoratos & Ravanis, 2010; Ravanis & Boilevin, 2009).
The following sections elaborate a genre-based theoretical framework in order to answer two
fundamental questions posited from a MDA perspective:
a) What types of multimodal digital resources can be detected in an e-learning material (in par-
ticular in LOs) and what kinds of communicational goals do they serve?
b) How these types of digital resources are linked or can be linked to each other in order to create a
coherent e-learning material and serve someone’s (author’s or teacher’s) communicative inten-
tions towards a target group of students?
In order to answer the first question, the authors of the present paper propose a genre-based
interpretation of the elements that constitute LOs. A brief review of contemporary genre theory, in
the third section, shows that digital microgenres are the main digital resources through which several
communicative goals are expressed in an e-learning material.
In order to answer the second question, the authors propose, in the forth section, a three-level
aggregation semiotic model for the information linking between the several resources that constitute
LOs. This information linking is interpreted under a theoretical framework adopted from Rhetorical
Structure Theory (RST). The latter is an adequate tool for outlining the intentions of an author towards
his audience and it is presented here under modifications made by the authors in order to adopt these
intentions to educational communicative contexts.
The two theoretical approaches that constitute the proposed conceptual framework (genre theory
and RST) are in turn combined in an attempt to illustrate it through an example of a LO borrowed from
the field of physics. This particular example was chosen because it offers exemplary combinations of
linguistic and pictorial microgenres that facilitate the framework’s explanation.
What can be gained from the development and implementation of this theoretical framework is
that an author/teacher can be equipped with an adequate vocabulary of concepts that will allow him
to interpret the content organization of already made LOs or to create meaningful and cohesive LOs,
adequate of being functionally used in specific educational contexts, according to his intended com-
municative and educational goals.
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Content Objects as Multimodal Micro-Genres
Concerning the aforementioned second level of object-oriented content aggregation, the mapping
of various information objects proposed by several models is of particular interest. Verbert and Duval
(2008) offer such a mapping for nine models of content aggregation (Table 1). They call these information
objects “Content Objects” (COs). Many COs result from the partial use of sources adopted from Horn (1998),
Ballstaedt (1997) and IEEE LOM (2003).
Without explicitly saying so, many of these content aggregation models make an attempt to organize
content for learning through specific generic patterns. Nevertheless, they lack a sufficient account of the
communicative goals of their COs as well as an adequate way to describe how these particular communica-
tive goals are coordinated through the content aggregation, in order to serve the LOs’ learning objectives.
From this perspective, the proposed genre-based approach can help someone (teacher or author/designer)
to interpret several content objects as genre types and find the communicative goals they accomplish.
Table 1. Mapping of Content Object types (ALOCOM Ontology).
Content Object Types
Next steps Outline Illustration

Analogy Definition Explanation:
Table Excursion Remark
Additional resources Objective Overview
Problem statement Scenario Summary
Glossary Principle statement Introduction
Demonstration Experiment Guidance
Motivation Literature Reference
Interactivity: Example
Simulation Importance
Questionnaire Non-example
Open question Paragraph
Exercise Prerequisites
Self-assessment Review
Models of reference: SCORM, NETg, Learnativity, NCOM, Cisco, New Economy, SLM, PaKMaS, dLCMS.
Genres are types of communicative events (e.g. written, spoken audiovisual, etc.) which serve concrete
communicatiove goals in various social circumstances. These communicative goals are recognized by the
members of the wider community in which genres appear and they are achieved through the particular
schematic structure of each genre (Swales, 1990). For example, the schematic structure of a market auction
is, in general, the following: auctioneer’s opening, investigation of object for sale, bidding, and conclusion.
More concretely, genres are staged, goal-oriented social processes (Martin, 1999) that allow the organiza-
tion of social life. These types of communicative events consist of obligatory and optional items that create
“beginning, middle, and end” structures. These structures in turn help people to serve their communicative
activities, functioning as “‘templates’ for doing communicative things” (van Leeuwen, 2005, p.128). In Table
2, some types of genres from the field of education are presented.
Many genres can be parts of a bigger collection of semiotic resources. This collection can serve wider
communicative goals in comparison with the specific goal which characterizes each one genre solely. In
this respect, we can speak of macrogenres constituted of several microgenres (Martin, 1994). For example,
a science textbook is a macrogenre constituted of microgenres such as: reports, procedures, explanations,
etc. The authors of the present paper argue that several elementary educational microgenres, like these
in Table 2, could be created by educational content designers and tagged with appropriate metadata.
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Thus, a teacher could be able to find and use these digital resources, according to their content and their
communicative goals, in order to create a particular LO. LOs here are considered as macrogenres, that is as
macrostructures constituted of objectives, reports, explanations, glossaries, assessments etc.
Considering the linguistic genres of table 2, in order to achieve their goals, they are usually developed
in a sequence of obligatory and optional stages. An argument, for example, can consist of the following
stages: Thesis^Argument1-n^ (Recommendation) (^=followed by, () =optional). Similarly, an experiment (a
subtype of procedure) has the following structure: Goal^Matterials^Method or Steps^ (Evaluation).
Table 2. Some educational microgenres.
Micro-genre Communicative goal
Stories To narrate, record or explain to the student events and circumstances of

the human life.
Arguments To argue for or against on one or more points of view regarding the learn-
ing content.
Explanations To explain to the student how or why a phenomenon happens.
Reports To classify and describe several types of entities and phenomena in the
learning content.
Procedures To tell the student how to do something.
Learning To prepare or orient the student towards the subject matter and to provide
Objectives him with criteria for successful learning.
Advance To link student’s prior knowledge to the new learning material.
organizers
Summaries To state to the student the basic points ant terms of the subject matter.
Glossaries To provide the student with brief explanations and definitions of main terms
in the subject matter.
Self- To enable the student to assess the learning process and subject matter
assessments understanding
Narrative To represent through image-text combinations several actions, processes
representations and changes.
Classificational To represent through image-text combinations several entities or phenom-
representations ena through class/ sub-class or co-class relations.
Analytical To represent through image-text combinations several entities in whole/
representations part relations.
Adopted from: Ballstaedt (1997), Kress & van Leeuwen (2006), Martin & Rose (2008).
Linguistic and pictorial microgenres can be combined in order to create multimodal microgenres or
multimodal macrogenres. For example, a procedure can be presented through a combination of text and
still images which clarify the steps someone has to take in order to successfully complete an operation or,
alternatively, through a video where a narrator explains these steps performed by a person on the screen.
In the context of the World Wide Web the terms “digital genres” or “cybergenres” are often used to refer
to digital artefacts that serve particular communicative purposes through the hypertextual affordances
and capabilities of the internet (Askehave & Nielsen, 2005, Shepherd & Watters, 1998). Digital genres can
express themselves through combinations of several semiotic modes (e.g., image, audio, video), thus they
are considered to be multimodal artefacts. Furthermore, digital genres in general, compared to traditional
printed genres, do not always have a sequential organization, that is, a predetermined staged-like structure
which could facilitate a concrete linear reading path someone has to follow. On the contrary, in most cases,
it rests with the user himself to create the reading path he wishes through the several components which
constitute these genres (Baldry & Thibault, 2006).
Considering the schematic structure of digital genres, it could be said that their genre schema, although
non-sequential, can be described in terms of its very typical components and their possible relations. For
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example, a web page’s genre schema could consist of components like a top banner, a left banner, a top bar,
a top centre-right panel, bottom bars, etc (Baldry & Thibault, 2006). These and several other components
of web pages (e.g., images, applets, animations, glossaries, application forms, product lists etc) can be also
regarded as microgenres, that is elements with specific content and social purposes that constitute larger
digital macrogenres (Kudelka, Snasel, Horak, & Abraham, 2009).
Despite the differences between printed and digital genres, a common – to some degree – framework
of analysis between them can be established, taking into account that many digital genres do not constitute
thoroughly novel artefacts but hybrids, which have adopted characteristics of their traditional predeces-
sors in new social circumstances and have been adapted to the contemporary technological/material basis
(Bateman, 2008). The digital macrogenre of homepage, for example, combines traditional elements from
promotional/introductory microgenres (e.g., prefaces, introductions, forewords) and newspaper front pages
in order to serve specific communicative purposes through the new medium of WWW (Askehave & Nielsen,
2005). In general, it should be more appropriate to discern cybergenres to extant and novel. The former
consist of artefacts based on genres existing in other media, such as paper or video, which have migrated
to the new medium of WWW, the latter consist of artefacts that have developed in this new medium and
have no real counterpart in another medium (Shepherd & Watters, 1998).
Furthermore, beyond preserving a linear/non-linear dichotomy, someone should bear in mind that
hypertext offers two basic modal shifts in the reading process: a “navigating mode” through which the user
creates his own reading path in a non-linear way (e.g., through hyperlinks to several sites) and a“reading mode”,
i.e. the traditional sequential reading process one follows while reading a text (Askehave & Nielsen, 2005).
The adoption of genre theory for the creation of educational content for LOs could contribute to
the formation of a conceptual framework for designing and using learning objects in terms of MDA. By
adopting this framework, an author/teacher would be equipped with a set of semiotic concepts that al-
low him to detect in digital repositories several multimodal microgenres, or create them according to his
particular educational intentions. For example, if author’s intention is to teach a natural phenomenon such
as the greenhouse effect, he can create or search for an explanation microgenre. He can link this linguistic
microgenre with a suitable token of the “narrative representation” microgenre (Table 2). Linking can be
achieved by implementing several logico-semantic relations between text and image (Vorvilas, Karalis &
Ravanis, 2010). This new multimodal CO can be combined in turn, through new logico-semantic relations,
with several other microgenres-COs, such as learning objectives or an assessment, in order to create a LO.
Thus, several educational microgenres could be used as building blocks of LOs content.
The Rhetorical Organization of LOs’ Content
After defining COs as digital microgenres, the question of how exactly they are linked to each other as
well as with other digital elements in order to create meaningful LOs, must be answered. For this purpose,
a three-level content aggregation for LOs’ is proposed below (Table 3). At the lower level (Level 1), several
semiotic resources called items, are placed. These items are phonic, musical, visual and linguistic semiotic
resources (Kok, 2004), such as push buttons, submit buttons, radio buttons, checkboxes, captions, bars, icons,
symbols, small images, sounds etc. These individual elements can stand alone or they can be combined to
each other in order to create COs. Items can be interpreted as communicative acts, that is, semiotic resources
that help as to do things. Such acts can be speech acts, image acts, sound acts, gestural acts etc, through
which people can offer, ask or demand information or goods and services (van Leeuwen, 2005).
COs are placed at the middle level of the scale (Level 2). A CO is an arrangement of communicative
acts which serves a particular communicative goal (Table 2). Furthermore, COs can communicate with each
other in order to serve a collective purpose inside the LO, for example to accomplish an activity.
Finally at the upper level (Level 3), the LO itself is placed, viewed as a coherent macrogenre consisting
of several COs. It could be said that LOs differ from COs in the following respect: while COs can have specific
communicative purposes, LOs aim to facilitate at least one learning objective (e.g., to teach a concept, a
process, a phenomenon, to accomplish a problem solving or an assessment task, etc). LOs can be several
educational macrogenres such as tutorials, simulations, drills and practises, case studies etc.
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Table 3. A three-level scale of interpreting LOs’ content aggregation.
Levels of Aggregation Elements Example
Level 3 Learning Objects (digital macrogenres) tutorials, simulations, drills and practices, lessons etc.
Level 2 Content Objects (digital microgenres) Objectives, assessments, reports, explanations, sum-
maries, representations etc
Level 1 Items (communicative acts) Buttons, symbols, captions, sounds, boxes, texts, lines
etc.
Items and COs can be linked to each other through the logico-semantic relations of elaborating,
extending and enhancing, which can be detected in multimodal texts in general (Lemke, 2002; van
Leeuwen, 2005; Djonov, 2006; Kong, 2006; Martin & Rose, 2008). In elaborating, one element (item or
microgenre) elaborates the meaning of another one, by describing it in detail, exemplifying it, clarify-
ing or restating it etc. In extending, one element extends the meaning of another one by adding new
information, giving an exception to it or offering an alternative. In enhancing, an element expands the
meaning of another one by enriching it with new information through circumstantial features of time,
place, purpose, cause, condition, manner, means, reason etc.
Complementarily to these relations, Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) is adopted (Mann and Thom-
son, 1988) in order to see how items and COs can be linked to each other through particular rhetorical
relationships. This theory outlines several rhetorical relationships which can describe the particular
intensions of an addresser/author towards an addressee/student, when the former develops learning
content (see Tables 3-4). Rhetorical relationships can also be interpreted as subtypes of elaborating,
extending and enhancing, as it can be seen in Figure. 1 (see also: Hovy, 1990; Kong, 2006; Matthiessen,
2006; Stuart-Smith, 2007).
Figure 1: Some rhetorical relations of LOs’ content organization (adopted from Matthiessen, 2006
and Stuart-Smith, 2007).
RST explicates the coherence of multimodal representations, the content of which is organized
through symmetric and asymmetric relations among several nuclei and satellite elements. The nucleus
is the element (e.g., item, micro-genre, web page etc.) with the most important information, while the
satellite is the element which depends on the nucleus. In symmetric relations, the connected elements
are of equal importance, functioning independently or complementarily to each other; both of them
are considered to be nuclei, thus call these relations are called multinuclear. In asymmetric relations,
the elements are of unequal importance: one element (the satellite) depends on another one of greater
importance. The asymmetric relations are also called nucleus/satellite relations (see Tables 4-5. Note:
The relations in tables 4 and 5 have been adopted and modified from the RST web page: http://www.
sfu.ca/rst/01intro/definitions.html).
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RST was initially used in the field of computational linguistics for text generation, text parsing and
mechanic translation (Taboada & Mann, 2006), but in turn it was extended to studies concerning the
generation and rhetorical organization of multimedia representations (e.g., André & Rist, 1996; Rocchi
& Zancanaro, 2003) and the analysis of multimodal documents (e.g., Bateman, 2008). In the case of
multimodal representations and hypertext in general, RST cannot always be applied in a strict manner
as it happens in the case of linear text. Nuclearity between several hypertextual elements is not always
clear (e.g. which one of them is the nucleus or the satellite) (Bateman, 2008). Additionally, more than
one relation between two elements can be detected, or one element can be in several relations with
three or more other elements etc. Consequently, the organization of the rhetorical relations in tables 4
and 5 according to the nuclearity principle should not be conceived as rigid as it might seem.
In order to illustrate the proposed conceptual model, an example adopted from the field of Physics
is analysed, in particular a LO named “Ohm’s Law” (Figures 2-3). This LO is one in a series of four objects
(the other three are: “Series and parallel”, Voltage divider”, “Light dimmer”). The series is also packaged as
a combined LO named “Resistors”. This object can be found in the Toolbox repository which is supported
by the Australian Flexible Learning Framework (AFLF, 2010) (Note: the LO can be found in the address:
http://tle.tafevc.com.au/toolbox/access/home.do, by typing “Resistors” in the search form).
Table 4. Some asymmetric rhetorical relations of content organization.
Author’s intention vis-à-vis the

Relation Nucleus Satellite
student
Elaboration Basic information Detailed information with respect The student recognizes that S provides
to the basic information. a detailed content for the already posited
information in the N.
Enablement An action Information intended to aid the To increase the student’s potential ability
student in performing the action. to perform an action regarding N.
Motivation An action Information intended to increase To increase the student’s desire to perform
the student’s desire to perform an action regarding N.
the action.
Preparation Basic information to be Information which prepares the To prepare the student to expect and
presented student to expect and interpret interpret the information to be presented
the basic information to be pre- in N.
sented.
Solutionhood Information supporting A posited request, question, The student recognizes N as a solution
full or partial satisfac- problem. to the request, question, problem pre-
tion of a question, re- sented in S.
quest, problem.
Summary Basic information A short restatement of the basic The student recognizes S as a short
information. restatement of N.
Table 5. Some symmetric rhetorical relations of content organization.
Author’s intention vis-à-vis the

Relation Nucleus Nucleus
student
Disjunction One alternate information Other Alternate (inclusive or The student comprehends that S offers
exclusive) information. an alternative, inclusive or exclusive
information.
Joint One information Another information The student recognizes that none
relation is established between the
nuclei. They function independently of
each other.
Restatement Basic information A re-expression of the in- The student recognizes that one N is a
formation restatement of another N.
Sequence An information A next information The reader recognizes the temporal or
causal succession relationships between
the nuclei.
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At level 1 of content aggregation, “Ohm’s Law” consists of several items; some of them are marked
by black oval shapes in Figure 2. As previously mentioned, items can operate as communicative acts.
In the “Ohm’s Law” example, they are static or animated (e.g. The “switch on/off” item) and they offer
information (e.g. the buttons “what is current”, the caption “Resistance (R)” etc.) or they demand services
(e.g. the three sentences in the box on the right side of the page).
At Level 2, several combined items in “Ohm’s Law” create COs, that is microgenres. In Figure 2, the
three items-sentences in the box on the right side of the page constitute a procedure. In Figure 3, the
radio buttons, the text and the submit button (‘check’) on the same side, constitute a self assessment
microgenre. In both Figures, lines, letters and images constitute two more microgenres: an analytical
representation (the electric circuit) and a classificational representation (the table). More microgenres
inside the LO can be detected: when the student clicks on the “What’s current?” or “What’s voltage?”
buttons he opens two windows which contain two reports respectively. Tokens of the report microgenre
can also be found by clicking the “Circuit symbols” button. The microgenres inside the LO co-operate
in order to accomplish several activity sequences. For example, in Figure 2 the procedure guides the
student to manipulate elements on the animated analytical representation in order to take some nu-
merical results. This co-operation is achieved through particular rhetorical relations between COs, as it
will be seen in the following paragraphs.
Finally, at Level 3, the “Ohm’s Law” constitutes the final product of the previous two levels and it
functions as a section inside a larger combined LO (“Resistors”). It could be said that “Ohm’s Law”, con-
sidered as a macrogenre type, belongs to tutorials.
Considering in turn the rhetorical relations between the contents of the LO, these can be either
intra-page or inter-page. An inter-page preparation relation is realized between pages 1 and pages 2-21.
Page 1 prepares the student to expect and interpret the basic information to be presented through a
learning objective microgenre. Page 1 is the satellite content while pages 2-21 are the nucleus content
(Figure 4).
Figure 2: Items inside a LO.
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Figure 3: COs inside a LO.
An inter-page summary relation is realized between pages 22-23 and pages 2-21. In pages 22-23
a summary microgenre restates the subject matter which was deployed in pages 2-21. From this per-
spective, pages 22-23 constitute the satellite content while pages 2-21 constitute the nucleus content
(Figure 4).
Figure 4: An example of asymmetric relations.
Two inter-page elaboration relations can be detected by clicking on the items “What’s current?”
and “What’s voltage?” respectively. In each case, a new window opens which provides the student with
detailed information through two report micro-genres. The same type of relation is also activated when
the user clicks on the “Circuit symbols” button.
A restatement intra-page relation can be detected between the item “Electric circuit” and the animated
analytical representation of this circuit. Here the item and the pictorial microgenre function complemen-
tarily by expressing the same meaning through different semiotic modes (image and text).
An inter-page joint relation can be detected between the four sections-LOs which constitute “Re-
sistors” content. No relation is established between these sections, thus each one stands autonomous
and independent towards the other by offering new information with respect to the subject matter. The
sections are in a symmetric hierarchy which is schematically represented in Figure 5.
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Figure 5: An example of symmetric relations.
An intra page disjunction relation is realised through the alternate buttons “View symbols” and
“View components”. Two different analytical representations of the same circuit can be depicted when
the user clicks on these buttons: a hybrid representation, where the depicted components are close to
the photorealistic code of picturing (as in Figures 2-3), and a symbolic representation, where the com-
ponents are depicted through the symbols which have been adopted for them in the field of Physics
(Dimopoulos, Koulaidis & Sklaveniti, 2003). The two representations are alternative ways to represent
an electric circuit.
An intra page motivation relation between COs can be seen in Figure 2, where the procedural
microgenre on the right side of the page motivates the student through imperatives to interact with
the analytical representation and proceed to the next page. Here, the procedure is the satellite CO
while the animated image is the nucleus CO. Besides motivation, the relation between the two COs is
also an enablement relation: the procedure through its instructions aids the student to interact with
the animated representation.
A solutionhood relation is realised when the student presses the “check” button (Figure 3). Solution-
hood here has the potentiality to be realized partially, that is through the student’s repeated attempts
to access the right answer. Finally, a sequence relation between pages is realized by using the “Back”
and “Next” buttons throughout the “Ohm’s Law” section.
The above analysis does not exhaust all the rhetorical relations someone can find in the aforemen-
tioned example. Several other types of relation can be detected; nevertheless, the purpose here was to
make clear through an example the basic points of the proposed conceptual model for the meaningful
organization of educational material in the form of LOs.
Further Discussion
It should be mentioned that genres do not always display the same degree of consistency. For
example, the stages of linguistic microgenres, like these of Table 2, are not so fixed. Always trying to
fit a learning material into a “perfectly staged” discourse pattern may be a sterile exercise. Instead of
containing a fixed set of obligatory stages, genres rather select and shape their stages and components
from a common repertoire of rhetorical patterns (Askehave & Nielsen, 2005). Thus, many genres can
share similar components although they serve different communicative goals.
Genres’ “fluidity” can be explained in several ways. First of all, the categorizations and distinctions
people make between several genres and their subtypes are always dependent on their communicative
goals when communities share and use these categories. For example, genres can be categorized, ac-
cording to people’s interests, in terms of their content (e.g., articles, essays), their medium (e.g., written,
spoken or electronic), their operation (e.g., informative or persuasive) etc. Secondly, certain members
of a human community can recognize and approve the use of a restricted set of these categorizations
while others, outside of this particular community, may totally disagree with these categorizations.
Consequently, the genre categorizations people make are not always of equal status, they might differ
between several groups in a particular society.
Furthermore, even within a particular human community, each adopted genre category is not
as stable as it seems. The acceptance of several instances falling under it is not so rigid and may vary
considerably. Some of these instances are considered more important for the purposes they carry
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out, since they display the maximum number of their category’s representative attributes, in contrast
with other instances of the same category that share a minimum number of these attributes. Thus, the
representative instances operate as prototypes, as “good examples” of the category they belong to, in
contrast with other “bad examples” of the same category (Rosch, 1978).
From this point of view, instead of seeking the perfect definition for a genre category according to
certain sufficient and necessary attributes, someone could rather speak of “family resemblances” between
instances (Wittgenstein, 1999). This means that an instance of a genre category must not necessarily
have all the attributes of it in order to belong to it. Rather this instance can share with other instances
a maximum or a minimum number of the category’s attributes, which permit it to participate in the
category’s family. The sharable attributes of a genre family that determine the degree of prototypical-
ity for its instances are always dependent on the human community that enacts them and they can
change through time. Furthermore, zones of indiscernibility can be found often between genres. As a
consequence, an instance of a genre may participate in more than one genre families with respect to
the number of representative attributes which shares with them.
The concept of “family resemblances” could also be applied in the case of macrogenres such as LOs.
Instead of seeking the perfect definition of what would be a proper LO according to certain sufficient
and necessary attributes, someone could rather speaks of family resemblances between instances of
educational digital macrogenres that allow someone to recognize them as more or less representative
members of a LO’s family. In the present example, the “Ohm’s Law” belongs to the tutorials’ family. As
an instance of this family, the LO shares with other members-instances of it some of the representative
attributes which constitute the tutorial’s schematic structure (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Tutorial’s schematic structure (Alessi & Trollip, 2001, 90).
Nevertheless, this schematic structure should not be conceived as the ideal and perfect prototype
to which only imitative instances should be rigidly fall under. Rather the tutorial’s schematic structure
should be considered as a “diagram” (Deleuze & Guattari, 2000), that is, not as a static form which de-
notes or represents the LO, but as a dynamic and fluid form which produces it in a space of capabilities,
potential variations and material restrictions.
Conclusions
In this paper, an outline of a genre-based framework for interpreting as well as creating content
in the form of LOs was proposed. This framework suggests that LOs consist of items and COs. It also
suggests that COs can be considered as digital microgenres which serve particular communicative
goals inside a LO. Items and COs can be aggregated into meaningful wholes through specific rhetori-
cal relations, with respect to the communicative purposes and intentions someone has towards the
students-users. Such a framework could contribute to the creation of a coherent vocabulary which
would make an author/teacher of digital educational material aware of the meaning potential of the
e-learning materials he uses. In particular, this vocabulary could equip designers of LOs and teachers
with extra knowledge about the several types of digital microgenres and their communicative func-
tions, as well as the several types of rhetorical relations that can be detected between combinations
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of these microgenres. In this way, in order to make his learning strategies more effective, an author/
teacher could be able to create or choose appropriate educational material according to some ap-
plicable semiotic guidelines.
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Received: March 18, 2011 Accepted: May 16, 2011
George Vorvilas Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Educational Sciences and Early

Childhood Education, University of Patras, Campus GR-26504, Rio,
Achaia, Greece.
E-mail: vorvil@upatras.gr
Thanassis Karalis Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Sciences and Early
Childhood Education, University of Patras, Campus GR-26504, Rio,
Achaia, Greece.
E-mail: karalis@upatras.gr
Website: http://www.ecedu.upatras.gr/
Konstantinos Ravanis Professor, Department of Educational Sciences and Early
Childhood Education, University of Patras, Patras, Campus GR-
26504, Rio, Achaia, Greece.
E-mail: ravanis@upatras.gr
Website: http://www.ecedu.upatras.gr/
126
IMPACT ON STUDENT
CHANGE IN SCIENTIFIC
CREATIVITY AND SOCIO-
SCIENTIFIC REASONING
SKILLS FROM TEACHER
COLLABORATION
AND GAINS FROM
PROFESSIONAL IN-SERVICE
Anne Laius Abstract. This study examines the

impact on 9th grade students’ change in
Miia Rannikmäe socio-scientific reasoning and scientific
creativity skills as a result of their science
teachers’ professional change, as a result
of participating in longitudinal in-service
Introduction courses. Eight chemistry and four biology
teachers participated in two consecutive
intervention studies, each running for 8
According to the results of the international survey on science
months, both designed to guide teachers
education - PISA, Estonian 9th grade students are very good at ac- on promoting the level of scientific literacy
quiring factual and conceptual knowledge, but weaker at solving in their students. During the in-service
problems and making reasoned decisions. This is suggested to point courses, the teachers created teaching ma-
to a lack of meaningful use of scientific evidence in their reasoning terials for 4 integrative teaching modules
and argumentation (OECD, 2007). and taught their students using a designed
STL teaching approach. The students’
A relevant way for students to foster their reasoning, verbalised development was determined in terms
through argumentation, is found to be the use of socio-scientific of scientific creativity and socio-scientific
issues (Sadler et al, 2006), involving socially derived scientific situa- reasoning skills, as indicators of scientific
tions from everyday life. But developing such skills in students is very literacy gains, with an initial pre-test in the
demanding for teachers and their professionalism. As all countries fall of the school year and a post-test in the
spring after the STL intervention. The re-
in the developed world aspire to ever higher standards of educa-
sults of the study revealed that the degree
tion and training, developments along these lines clearly depend, of teachers’ professional level in promot-
at least in part, on having a sufficient supply of high-quality school ing problem solving and decision making
teachers (Brighouse, 2008). teaching and its impact on student gains,
An essential outcome, put forward in school science cur- as well as the number of teachers col-
ricula worldwide, is to enable students to use their understanding laborating together in the teaching within
a school, had a significant impact on their
of science to contribute to public debate and make informed and
students’ improvement in skills associ-
balanced decisions about socio-scientific issues that impact on ated with socio-scientific reasoning and
their lives. The rationale underpinning this important outcome is scientific creativity.
the notion of scientific literacy (Dawson, 2009). In contemporary Key words: in-service courses, role of sci-
knowledge societies, the production of scientific knowledge is ence teachers’ professional change, socio-
increasingly reflexive, interdisciplinary and rapidly developing and scientific reasoning and argumentation
skills, scientific creativity, STL teaching.
this puts a great demand on teachers’ professionalism to cope with
this demanding situation in school science (van Eijck, 2010). There
is a recognition today that the purpose of science education is to
Anne Laius, Miia Rannikmäe
produce a scientifically literate citizenry in a form that is appropriate
University of Tartu, Estonia
for describing and theorizing in the everyday world that we share
with others (as opposed to testing situations in classrooms and
laboratories) and, inherently therefore, science education takes on
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IMPACT ON STUDENT CHANGE IN SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY AND SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC
REASONING SKILLS FROM TEACHER COLLABORATION AND GAINS FROM
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a societal meaning (van Eijck & Roth, 2010). The socially driven teaching and learning of science is an im-
portant essence of STL philosophy that combines, in science lessons, the relevant motivational beginning
and identification of a socio-scientific problem, the teaching/learning of scientific concepts and processes,
the solving of the problem, the making of reasoned socio-scientific decision and the drawing of conclu-
sions (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2007).
The definition of STL highlights the need for developing the creativity of students. The term “creativity”
is used in the literature to refer to teaching and learning processes based on recognizing problems and
discrepancies in accepted content, looking at things in different ways, making unexpected links among
apparently discrepant elements of information and developing one’s own solutions to problems and similar
processes, rather than simply memorising prescribed content (Cropley & Cropley, 2008). Creativity is cur-
rently receiving increased attention in education; more and more school curricula now mention it, but the
increased interest in creativity has occurred without reference to any value framework (Craft, 2006). The
concept of creativity is hard to define as creativity is found in any domain of human activity (Clegg, 2008).
The creativity of students as future citizens is an important goal advanced as important by most educators
(Edwards & Blake, 2007; Shoshani & Hazi, 2007; Kaufman, 2006; Craft, 2006). Isaksen, Dorval, and Treffinger
(2000) noted that CPS (creative problem solving) is based on the following principles: (a) the potential for
creativity exists and can be expressed in every person at different levels and degrees; (b) creativity is related
to personal preferences, style, and interests; and (c) one’s level of creative functioning can be enhanced
(Bahr et al., 2006). The problem however, is how to get teachers prepared to improve students’ creativity
through their everyday work in the classroom and to assist their own development in this area.
As the conception of creativity is very broad, the focus for this research is narrowed to scientific cre-
ativity. The definition of “scientific creativity” can be conceptualized as an individual and social capacity
for solving complex scientific and technical problems in an innovative and productive way (Heller, 2007).
The measurement of creativity has caused much discussion, but since the 1950-s, the Torrance Test of
Creative Thinking (TTCT) has been accepted as a valid measure through 4 indexes (fluency, originality,
flexibility, and elaboration). The same scoring is used in Hu and Adey’s (2002) scientific creativity test ap-
plied in this study.
A further component of STL, as highlighted through the proposed definition, is the process of rea-
soning that is expressed in verbalized form as argumentation. Everyday communication includes argu-
mentation providing humans with a very powerful thinking tool, given that it allows individuals to deny,
criticise and justify concepts and facts, as well as find opposing views and generate a new perspective
in social interaction or in self-deliberation. In addition, argumentation is important because it prepares
individuals for scientific language. Thus, when learning science, students do not learn only from their
own perceptions, but also from the ways students describe, explain, justify and argue in this domain. In
conclusion, argumentation provides a rich terrain for research and inquiry, given its importance for solving
differences and reaching consensus, as well as its central role in thinking and scientific language (Venville
& Dawson, 2010).
The study by Topcu, Sadler and Ozgul (2010) has provided new evidence related to informal reason-
ing in the context of socio-scientific issues. At the sample level, this study provides an initial picture of
the reasoning practices of pre-service teachers as opposed to science learners. The results indicate that
teachers would benefit from learning experiences that support their own informal reasoning practices as
well as their ability to foster development of these practices among their students.
Background to the Research
This article reports on an evaluation of teacher changes through the impact of a longitudinal in-
service programme, and on interrelated students’ scientific literacy gains in terms of scientific creativity
and socio-scientific reasoning. For this study, a definition of scientific and technological literacy (STL) is
taken to be “STL, as the major goal of science education, is the need to develop the ability to utilise sound
science knowledge creatively in everyday life by solving problem and making reasoned decisions, involv-
ing value judgements and communication skills” (Rannikmäe et al., 2010).
In-service courses were planned on the basis of previous research which had revealed that the teach-
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ers lacked interdisciplinary knowledge (Rannnikmäe, 2008) and that better results in influencing students’
attitudes towards science learning, and accordingly their better achievement, were obtained by teachers’
collaborative team-work using a STL teaching approach (Laius & Rannikmäe, 2006). A further important
finding from previous research was that the only criterion for an effective STL in-service course was owner-
ship of created STL materials meeting specified requirements (Rannikmäe, 2005; Rannikmäe, 2001).
Taking into consideration these previous research findings and the theoretical background, a longitu-
dinal in-service programme for teachers was designed and the possibility of change of both teachers and
students, in the sense of STL teaching and learning, investigated. The effectiveness of two STL in-service
courses, on teachers’ possible readiness to change professionally, was determined and published as the
first part of this longitudinal study (Laius, Kask & Rannikmäe, 2009).
This article focuses on the impact of teachers’ professional change on their students’ socio-scientific
reasoning and scientific creativity skills, these being taken as measures of their scientific literacy. Bearing
in mind that one factor improving the effective role of teacher is ensuring teacher–teacher dialogue, this is
included as a component of the professional development (Penlington, 2008; Williams, 2008) and teacher
collaboration during the intervention is specifically encouraged. However this research focuses overall on
the outcomes from developments from science teachers’ in-service courses that support scientific literacy
as the major goal for teaching.
Considering the previous background and focus, the following research questions are put forward:
1. How does the professional level of science teachers and the induced change, within a STL in-
service provision, influence their students’ scientific literacy, measured through socio-scientific
reasoning and scientific creativity skills?
2. How does teachers’ integrative teamwork impact on their students’ socio-scientific reasoning
and scientific creativity skills?
This longitudinal study (2004 – 2008) included two consecutive school years of interdisciplinary
in-service training courses for chemistry and biology teachers: “The up-to-date trends in molecular and
medical biology” (30 teachers), followed by “The development of students’ creative and critical thinking
skills through real-life situations” (12 teachers from the previous in-service). Based on outcomes from these
in-service courses, an 8-week teaching programme using 4 teacher interdisciplinary socio-scientific modules
(Table 1) were created and the impact of the subsequent STL teaching on their student’s socio-scientific
reasoning and scientific creativity skills was measured using pre- and post-tests. The structure of the STL
teaching modules (each 3-4 lessons) included three stages: (1) motivational beginning and identifying
socio-scientific problem; (2) teaching/learning scientific concepts and processes and creative problem
solving; (3) the reasoned socio-scientific decision making and drawing conclusions to the problem, initi-
ated in the first lesson.
Table 1. Description of the developed socio-scientific teaching modules.
Scientific focus of the Student involvement in Student involvement in

Key conceptual aspects
Module socio-scientific reasoning scientific creativity
Senses Smelling, olfactory organs,

structure of skin, absorption
Metabolism Diets and food energy, diges- Developing sensitivity to sci- Creating research questions,
tion, nutrients ence and social problems, creative experimental ability
Introducing the structure of tasks, creating informative
argumentation, enhancing
Biotechnology GMOs and cloning, posters, identifying alterna-
divergent reasoning skills,
Ethics tive uses and choices,
problem-solving and decision- role playing activities.
making tasks.
Environmental issues Fossil fuels, oil contamination
of the Baltic sea, consequences
for nature
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Sample
The sample consisted of 248 9th grade students (one class in 8 schools, chosen against their 8 chem-
istry and 4 biology teachers, who had been participating in both in-service programmes). By requiring
students to undertake all pre- and post-tests, the number of students was reduced to 224 students
when forming the final sample for longitudinal analysis. This approximate 10% dropout was not taken
to change the representativeness of the sample
Instruments and Procedures
To analyse students’ socio-scientific reasoning skills before the study (measured in terms of qual-
ity of argumentation), a real-life situation was created including both scientific (absorption, smell and
olfactory organs, senses) and social (smoking as a risk behaviour and ethics) concepts. After engaging
students in the situation, in which two boys we suspected of entering the class after smoking, they were
asked why the teacher was able to detect different smells from the boys and whether the boys were
telling the truth. An additional task was to write their reasons for their statements (Laius et al., 2008).
The post-test was a socio-scientific situation, created on the cloning of a favourite puppy with the
title ’to clone or not to clone?’ Science teachers (14) validated both instruments during an initial first
in-service course. A total of 61 nine-grade students, in one randomly chosen secondary school, piloted
these instruments giving results which were not statistically different (the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks T-
test significance value was given by p=0.61). These tests were therefore taken to be comparable and
used respectively as pre- and post-test for measuring socio-scientific reasoning through the quality of
argumentation put forward.
To assess the students creative thinking skills, the scientific creativity test developed by Hu and
Adey (2002) was translated into Estonian, slightly modified (two items were dropped because of lack
of relevance to the Estonian curriculum and to students, as determined by the results of a pilot study).
The 5 test items were assessed by summing scores of fluency, flexibility, and originality considered by
Torrance (1990) as central features of creativity. The students’ overall scores from the scientific creativ-
ity test were grouped into five hierarchical levels, the first being the lowest and the fifth the highest
in order to standardise the test results to make them comparable with the argumentation test. The
scientific creativity test was validated by 7 expert teachers during a science teachers’ summer school
(Laius & Rannikmäe, 2006).
To score the students’ argumentation skills, a series of characteristics were identified after reading
all the student answers. These characteristics were utilised in finding patterns of students’ reasoning
skills. According to the quality of the arguments, the students were categorised into five levels, taking
into the consideration the components of argumentation and their logic in reasoning:
Level 1 – no argumentation, just description of the situation (1 point);
Level 2 – weak argumentation with logic mistakes (2 points);
Level 3 – argumentation only in the social part of the situation (3 points);
Level 4 – logical reasoning, using data from one area (social or scientific – either biology or
chemistry) (4 points);
Level 5 – sound and logical, interdisciplinary, reasoning and argumentation (5 points).
Data Analysis
The research data obtained as a result of standardisation or categorisation is ordinal in character and
to develop descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) as well as undertake non-parametric
tests, Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was used to analyse related samples and the Mann-Whitney U Test was
employed for independent samples. One-way ANOVA was utilised for comparing means of more than two
groups and specifically for comparing students of different groups and also non-parametric correlation
analysis. All data were analyzed and figures created using the SPSS 18.0 statistical analysis program.
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Results of Research
The effectiveness of the science teachers’ professional change resulting from the STL in-service
course, considering the impact on their 9th grade students, was considerable. In all participating schools,
the increase in students’ scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning skills was statistically signifi-
cant (Table 2).
Table 2. A comparison of the mean differences in scientific creativity and socio-scientific argumen-
tation test results by schools.
No. of students
No. of teachers
School No.
Scientific creativity Socio-scientific reasoning

Mean Mean
(SD) (SD)
Wilcoxon Signed Wilcoxon Signed

(max = 5 )
(max = 5)
(max = 5)
Post-test
Post-test
(max =5)
Pre-test
Pre-test
Change Ranks Test Change Ranks Test
Z p Z p
1.72 2.76 1.04 2.00 3.68 1.68
1 25 2 -4.25 0.000 -4.37 0.000
(0.74) (0.78) (0,61) (0.76) (0.56) (0.90)
2.03 2.77 0.74 1.48 3.10 1.62

2 31 2 -4.07 0.000 -4.89 0.000
(0.87) (0.67) (0.68) (0.63) (0.91) (0.72)
3.23 3.70 0.47 0.001 1.67 3.13 1.46

3 30 2 -3.30 -4.57 0.000
(0.97) (0.88) (0.57) (1.03) (0.68) (0.82)
2.64 3.24 0.60 2.21 3.42 1.21

4 33 2 -4.19 0.000 -4.78 0.000
(1.03) (1.00) (0.56) (1.05) (0.79) (0.74)
2.28 2.99 0.71 1.94 3.35 1.41

Average 2 -7.90 0.000 -9.23 0.000
(1.09) (0.97) (0.62) (0.96) (0.76) (0.81)
1.26 2.05 0.79 2.58 3.53 0.95

5 19 1 -3.64 0.000 -3.49 0.000
(0.45) (0.71) (0.54) (0.96) (0.61) (0.60)
2.10 2.41 0.31 2.38 3.45 1.07

6 29 1 -3.00 0.003 -4.66 0.000
(0.62) (0.57) (0.47) (0.49) (0.69) (0.65)
1.48 2.17 0.69 2.41 3.62 1.21

7 29 1 -4.47 0.000 -4.78 0.000
(0.57) (0.38) (0.47) (0.57) (0.56) (0.62)
2.46 2.93 0.47 2.50 3.32 0.82

8 28 1 -3.61 0.000 -4.07 0.000
(0.74) (0.60) (0.51) (0.58) (0.61) (0.67)
2.01 2.50 0.49 2.43 3.47 1.04

Average 1 -7.42 0.000 -8.52 0.000
(0.76) (0.61) (0.50) (0.54) (0.63) (0.66)
Difference between 1- and 2-teacher schools Difference between 1- and 2-teacher

-1.81 0.071 -4.88 0.000
(Mann-Whitney U Test) schools (Mann-Whitney U Test)
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the impact on students of the differences in teachers’ integrative and
interdisciplinary teamwork in the favour of two teachers working as a team. Figure 1 shows that the
number of students taught by two teachers is smaller in the case of zero change and bigger for two
changes of level, although the overall difference in the increase of students’ scientific creativity is not
statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U Test Z = -1.81; p = 0.071). Figure 2 illustrates change in stu-
dents’ socio-scientific reasoning skills (Mann-Whitney U Test Z = -4.88; p = 0.000). These results show
that two teachers induce the greater number of students’ change of level, both in scientific creativity
and socio-scientific reasoning skills.
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Figure 1: The percentage of students against number of changes of levels for scientific creativity
according to the number of teachers collaborating.
Figure 2: The percentage of students against number of changes of levels in socio-scientific reason-
ing skills, according to the number of teachers collaborating.
To relate student gains with teacher impact, either from two teachers collaborating in the same
school, or only from being involved in the in-service programmes, it is convenient to combine the
student change of levels from both scientific creativity (maximum change of levels = 2) and the levels
of change of socio-scientific reasoning (maximum change of levels = 3). This leads to a 6 point scale,
ranging from 0 change to a change of 5 levels.
Figure 3 shows the distribution of total change of levels in student’s socio-scientific reasoning and
scientific creativity skills, taught by one or by two teachers. The students taught by two teachers had the
larger number of changes (mostly 2 to 5) in their development of scientific creativity and socio-scientific
reasoning, whereas the students, taught by one teacher, stayed more on the same level of change (0
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change), or made 1 or 2 changes. With one teacher involved, no students increased their level by 5 steps
(Mann-Whitney U Test; Z = -5.47; p = 0.000).
Figure 3: Total number of students’ changes of socio-scientific reasoning and scientific creativity
skills in comparison of one and two teachers, using STL teaching approach.
Figure 4 illustrates the dependence of teachers’ acquired professional level, measured by four pro-
fessional levels of teachers, as described in Laius et al. (2009), on the students’ total number of changes
of scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning.
The teachers’ higher professional levels of STL teaching had a positive effect on their students
measured skills significantly, as indicated by one-way ANOVA analysis results between groups of dif-
ferent teacher professional levels (F = 8.33, df = 2, p = 0.000).
Figure 4: Comparing the levels of knowledge of Chemistry teachers after in-service (see Laius et
al., 2009) with the change of levels of students’ scientific creativity and socio-scientific
reasoning skills.
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Figure 5 illustrates the dependence of obtained professional level of teachers during the in-service
course, in combination with the number of teachers collaborating in the teaching, on the students’ total
number of changes of levels for scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning. Not surprisingly the
results show that the higher professional level attained by the teacher relates to greater changes of level
by some of their students (3–4), but most effective in inducing more students to achieve five changes in
levels is the collaboration of two teachers. Only in this case are some of their students able to go through
five changes related to increases in their scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning skills.
Table 3 illustrates the dependence of teachers’ professional level changes (measured by four cat-
egories of teachers, based on the four identified teaching characteristics: the quality of the constructed
teaching materials, teachers’ teamwork within the in-service groups and in school-based teams, the
evaluation and fostering of the students’ creative thinking skills, and the development and assessment
of the students’ reasoning skills) on the students’ total number of changes of levels for scientific creativ-
ity and socio-scientific reasoning. Where the teachers had increased their category of STL teaching by
at least one step, their students, at a class level, also improved their measured skills significantly more,
compared to the students of those teachers who had not raised their professional level. The one-way
ANOVA analysis of scientific creativity test results between groups (F = 8.23, df = 2, p = 0.000) and socio-
scientific reasoning test (F = 10.33, df = 2, p = 0.000) are significant as are the correlations between the
number of changes in teachers’ levels and students’ change in levels for scientific creativity and socio-
scientific reasoning skills (Spearman’s rho 0.242** and 0.289** respectively).
Figure 5: The impact of the number of teachers collaborating, related to the chemistry teachers’
obtained level of knowledge (during in-service), on change of levels by students in sci-
entific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning skills.
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Table 3. The impact of teachers’ change in STL teaching category, (resulting from in-service pro-
grammes), on students’change of level of scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning
skills.
Number of Change of Change of Percentage of total number of students’ changes of levels

students Chemistry Biology
School
(N) teacher’s teacher’s
category category 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 25 3⇒4 2⇒3 0 4 48 24 20 4
2 31 1⇒2 1⇒2 0 19 26 42 10 3
3 30 2⇒ 2 2⇒2 7 20 37 33 0 3
4 33 2⇒3 2⇒3 9 15 61 9 6 0
5 19 2⇒3 11 58 26 5 0 0
6 29 2⇒2 21 45 34 0 0 0
7 29 3⇒4 0 28 52 17 3 0
8 28 2⇒2 21 57 21 0 0 0
The overall outcomes show that only 5 students (2.2 %) who participated in this study were at the
highest level (5th) of scientific creativity, based on the pre-test and only 2 (0.9 %) students associated
with the fifth level of socio-scientific reasoning. However, after the 8-months teaching intervention,
10 students (4.5 %) illustrated the highest level of scientific creativity and 20 students (8.9 %) in socio-
scientific reasoning skills based on outcomes from the post-test.
Discussion
The integrative science teachers STL in-service model was seen to be effective, as determined by
statistically significant increases of students’ scientific literacy components (scientific creativity and
socio-scientific reasoning). Our research revealed also that Estonian students’ socio-scientific reasoning
(argumentation) skills and scientific creativity results were relatively low (the average of quality of argu-
ments according to the pre-test was 2.38 (SD=1.05) on the scale of 5), as these skills were not purposefully
fostered in Estonian science classes (agreeing with the PISA outcomes). Even though the general part
of the curriculum identified the need for developing students’ creativity, reasoning, problem-solving
and decision-making abilities, Estonian teachers faced the dilemma, just like their colleagues in other
countries, especially Post-Soviet, as whether to put their efforts into encouraging students to increase
these skills, or to put their major effort into raising the society-identified importance of external exami-
nation performance (Burnard & White, 2008; Nicholl & McLellan, 2008; Simmons & Thompson, 2008), the
external examination unfortunately paying scant attention to skills associated with creativity, reasoning,
problem solving and decision-making.
In the identified situation, it could be said that the intervention promoting STL teaching/learn-
ing approaches was effective in increasing students’ argumentation skills significantly (average results
of socio-scientific post-test). The latter skills enabled the students to solve problems and make well-
grounded socio-scientific decisions in their everyday lives. As reasoning skills and scientific creativity
were important premises for both problem solving (PS) and decision making (DM) abilities, according to
the earlier-mentioned definition of STL, the increase of students’ socio-scientific reasoning and scientific
creativity skills can be seen as resulting in higher scientific literacy levels.
The impact of the teachers’ change of professional level related to STL teaching on the students’
development of scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning skills illustrated the fact that both
students’ socio-scientific reasoning skills and scientific creativity skills can be developed; (only 19 stu-
dents (8.5 %) (in schools 3,4,5,6 and 8) were not sufficiently guided by their teacher(s) to undergo change
(neither in scientific creativity nor in socio-scientific reasoning skills). However the general trend was
135
ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 127-137)
that teacher’s change towards STL teaching related to change in their students’ scientific creativity and
socio-scientific reasoning ability, with greater change when two teachers collaborated compared with
one teacher working in isolation. The latter expands the outcomes from previous research (Rannikmäe,
2005) which indicated that the category of teacher ownership in creating teaching materials is important
in directing teachers to adopt change, recognises motivation to work as a team is an important contri-
bution to enhance in in-service programmes and that in turn is effective in developing their students’
scientific literacy, in terms of scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning.
Conclusions and Implications
The degree of teachers’ professional change towards STL teaching as a result of in-service training
had a positive impact on change of levels related to scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning
by their students who underwent an 8 month longitudinal STL intervention undertaken by their teach-
ers.
The development of students’ scientific creativity and socio-scientific reasoning skills was influenced
by whether one science teacher was involved in a school, or whether two science teachers collaborated
together in the same school, using the STL teaching approach in chemistry and biology lessons. The
gains were more strongly illustrated where two teachers were involved working collaboratively.
Limitations of Study
The study had limitations because of the comparatively small sample number of teachers, who
could not be taken as representative of Estonian teachers as a whole, and by the specific conditions
under which the teachers were involved in the STL in-service programmes.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Estonian Ministry of Science and Education grant TLOLO 0178A.
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Received: April 07, 2011 Accepted: June 26, 2011
Anne Laius MSc, Researcher, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46-228, 51014, Tartu,
Estonia.
E-mail: anne.laius@ut.ee
Miia Rannikmäe PhD, Professor, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46-228, 51014, Tartu,
Estonia.
E-mail: miia.rannikmae@ut.ee
Website: http://www.ut.ee/biodida/e/indexin.htm
137
ISSN 1648–3898
INFORMATION
FOR CONTRIBUTORS EDITORIAL POLICY
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The authors of the manuscripts are responsible for the scientific content and novelty of the research materials. Articles,
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As a publication that represents a variety of cross-disciplinary interests, both theoretical and practical, the JBSE invites manuscripts
on a wide range of topics, especially in the following areas:
• Didactics of natural sciences. • Philosophical, political, economical and social aspects
• Theory and practice in natural science teacher of natural science education.
education. • The supplementary natural science education.
• Integrated natural science education. • ICT in natural science education.
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• General and professional natural science education.
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Vol.10, No.

© Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

INVESTIGATION THE ALIGNMENT BETWEEN SCHOOL LEARNING

EFFECTS OF HANDS-ON ACTIVITY ENRICHED INSTRUCTION

PRESENTATION OF LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR SCIENCE SUBJECTS

DESIGNING LEARNING OBJECTS: A GENRE-BASED APPROACH

IMPACT ON STUDENT CHANGE IN SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

The Use of Information and Communication Technologies in

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bulent Cavas

Yilmaz Kara Abstract. This study presents findings col-

Student Selection Examination for Higher Education

Where O = Total number of objectives hit for the standard,

Findings Related to the Biology Curriculum Programs (9th–12th)

Table 1. Distribution of the objective in biology curriculum.

Grades-Chapters Cognitive SRPS STSE CCAV

9.1. Cell, organism, and metabolism 8 7 11 -

Analysis of SSE Biology Questions

Cell, organism, and 9.1. Cell, organism, and metabolism 3 30 - -

Analysis of the 2010 SSE Biology Questions

Criterion 1: Question Analysis for Categorical Concurrence

Questions Grade, Chapter, Standard, Objective Hits Concurrence

Criterion 2: Question Analysis for DOK Consistency

Table 4. Consistency of the SSE questions according to the curriculum outcomes.

Chapter Objective Question Under At Above Consistency

Criterion 3: Question Analysis for Range of Knowledge Correspondence

Table 5. Comparison of objectives and SSE questions according to range of knowledge.

Objective Question Comparison of Knowledge Requirement and Objective % Correspondence

Criterion 4: Question Analysis for Balance of Representation

Table 6. Balance Index of SSE Biology Questions.

Chapter Question O H I BI Balance Level

Cell, organism, and metabolism Sci-1-21 3 5 I2,3,4= 9,1,1 0.4 unacceptable

Discussions and Implications

countries in PISA 2006. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46 (8), 897-908.

Sample Biology Questions in 2010 Student Selection Examination

2010 - SSE / Sci-1

2010 - SSE / Sci-2

Received: March 09, 2011 Accepted: May 30, 2011

Yilmaz Kara Ph.D., Researcher, Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Education

Özlem Sadi Abstract. This study aimed to investigate

Purpose of the Study

Science Achievement Test (SAT)

Science Attitude Scale (SAS)

Table 1. Hands-on activities about sense organs.

Topic Name of activities

Eye 1. The structure of the eye

Experimental Group Control Group

Scores on Science Achievement Test Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest

Table 3. Significance test of correlations between dependent variables and covariates.

Variables Correlation Coefficient

Table 4. Significance test of correlations among the covariates.

Variables PSG GPA PSAS

PSG 0.60* 0.384*

Table 5. MANCOVA test results.

Wilks’ Hypothesis Error Eta Observed

Intercept 0.758 6.39 2.0 134 0.000 0.080 0.923

Table 6. Test of between subjects effect.

TypeIII Sumof Mean Eta Observed

MOT PSTACH 439.507 1 439.507 23.444 0.000 0.243 1.000

PSTATT 486987.00 140

Conclusion and Implications

Received: November 08, 2010 Accepted: May 30, 2011

Özlem Sadi Assist. Prof. Dr., Educational Sciences, Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey

Abstract. Among Slovenian upper Andrej Šorgo

it can be concluded that �����������������������������������������������������������������������������

Science Education in Slovenian Schools

it can be concluded that ��