Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2017

Vol.16, No.
4, 2017
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2017
Editorial Board
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/
Editor-in-Chief ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Miia Rannikmäe University of Tartu, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Boris Aberšek University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Agnaldo Arroio University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Dr. Paolo Bussotti University of Udine, Italy
Prof., Dr. Bulent Cavas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. André du Plessis Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
Prof., Dr. Peter Heering University of Flensburg, Germany
Prof., Dr. Jack Holbrook University of Tartu, Estonia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Milan Kubiatko University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dr. Todar Lakhvich Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Prof., Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Prof., Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Prof., Dr. Raffaele Pisano Lille 3 University, France
Dr. Pavol Prokop Trnava University, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Konstantinos Ravanis University of Patras, Greece
Dr. Alona Rauckienė-Michaelsson Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Hae-Ae Seo Pusan National University, Korea
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Science and Medical Education Research Center, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica in cooperation with Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, empha-
sizes theoretical, experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international academ-
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for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The decision of the Editor on the acceptance
of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into on reasons for rejection of a submitted contribution.
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ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Editorial
EFFECT OF ACTIVE LEARNING ON PERCEPTION OF AND PERFORMANCE IN SCIENCE SUBJECTS

Milan Kubiatko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

Articles
CHANGING NEGATIVE PERCEPTIONS OF ANIMALS THROUGH TEACHING PRACTICE: A RESEARCH

IN PRIMARY EDUCATION
António Almeida, Beatriz García Fernández, Teresa Silva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
PROMOTING PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING ABOUT BOILING

BY DIALOGIC TEACHING
Mehmet Demirbağ, Sevgi Kingir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
EXAMINATION OF CHEMICAL REPRESENTATIONS IN TURKISH HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY

TEXTBOOKS
Betül Demirdöğen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ABOUT DIFFERENT ANIMALS

Gordana Miscevic Kadijevic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
ADOPTION OF ICT INNOVATIONS BY SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AND PRE-SERVICE

TEACHERS WITHIN CHEMISTRY EDUCATION
Martin Rusek, Dagmar Stárková, Vlastimil Chytrý, Martin Bílek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
DIRECT LEARNING ABOUT NATURE IN 6-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN LIVING IN URBAN AND RURAL
ENVIRONMENTS AND THE LEVEL OF THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Stanisława Katarzyna Nazaruk, Anna Klim-Klimaszewska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
CONSENSUS-BASED EDUCATION: ITS EFFECT ON COLLEGE STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN

BIOENERGETICS AS MODERATED BY GENDER AND LEARNING STYLES
Eddie G. Fetalvero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VIRTUAL SCIENCE TEACHING MODEL (VS-TM) TO IMPROVE STUDENT’S

SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY AND CONCEPT MASTERY ON SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL PHYSICS SUBJECT
Iwan Wicaksono, Wasis, Madlazim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
REVISITING STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF RESEARCH SCIENTISTS – OUTCOMES OF AN INDIRECT

DRAW-A-SCIENTIST TEST (INDAST)
Paweł Bernard, Karol Dudek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
DETERMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A DESIGN–BASED, CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME FOR SCIENCE TEACHERS
Ana Valdmann, Jack Holbrook, Miia Rannikmae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF AN INSTRUMENT MEASURING ANXIETY TOWARD PHYSICS

LABORATORY CLASSES AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Namudar İzzet Kurbanoğlu, Mithat Takunyaci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
MODELLING THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED AFFECTIVE FACTORS ON LEARNING STRATEGIES AND

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
Mustafa Akilli, Murat Genç . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
MUCH MORE THAN OLD WINE IN NEW SKINS: STUDENTS’ AND ADULTS’ KNOWLEDGE ON
GRAPEVINE AND VINEYARDS AS A STARTING POINT FOR NEW TOPICS IN SCHOOL
Astrid von Albedyll, Lisa Vogt, Daniel Dreesmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
443

EFFECT OF ACTIVE LEARNING ON PERCEPTION OF AND PERFORMANCE IN

SCIENCE SUBJECTS
Milan Kubiatko
University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dear readers, I would like to thank the editor of the journal for the space to write some words about including
a new technique (active learning) into the learning process. I try to introduce the topic of active learning and sketch
some points, which is not applicable in the schools. This problem is typical for the countries of middle Europe, but
it is possible to find it in other countries as well.
Active learning is a form of learning in which teaching strives to involve students in the learning process more
directly than in other methods. This term has got many synonyms like learning through play, technology based
learning, activity based learning, group work, project method, etc. the underlying factor behind these are some
significant qualities and characteristics of active learning. The term “active learning” was introduced by the English
scholar R. W. Revans. The definition was developing through time. In more detail, in active learning, students must
do more than just listen: They must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems. It relates to the three
learning domains referred to as knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA). In particular, students must engage in such
higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Active learning engages students in two aspects
– doing things and thinking about the things they are doing (Renkl et al., 2002). Active learning should transform
students from passive listeners to active participants, helps the student understand the subject through inquiry,
gathering and analyzing data to solving higher order cognitive problems. There is intensive use of scientific and
quantitative literacy across the curriculum, and technology based learning is also in high demand in concern with
active learning.
It is possible to show some active learning exercises suggested learners work collaboratively, discuss materi-
als while role-playing, debate, engage in case study, take part in cooperative learning, or produce short written
exercises, etc. The argument is “when active learning exercises should be used during instruction?”. Numerous
studies have shown that introducing active learning activities (such as simulations, games, contrasting cases, labs...)
before, rather than after lectures or readings, results in deeper learning, understanding, and transfer. The degree of
instructor guidance students need while being “active” may vary according to the task and its place in a teaching
unit. In an active learning environment learners are immersed in experiences within which they engage in meaning-
making inquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction, hypothesizing and personal reflection (Cranton 2012).
It seems, that active learning has got “open door” to be successfully implemented in the learning process in
all subjects. However, the situation is not so optimal as we can imagine. In many universities, lecture still looks
like to be a centerpiece of instruction, where students passively listen and absorb kinds of information and then
regurgitate it in response to periodic multiple-choice exams. And, maybe it is the place, where the mistake is oc-
curring. If future teachers are preparing for their future work using this style of teaching, there is a big chance that
they will teach in a similar way. This fact is mentioned in the study of Marton & Saljo (1976), teaching assistants
444
are in many cases forced to use only passive form of presentation in seminars. Discussion sections or any other
communication methods are missing in the seminars and they are used very rarely. This situation does not mean
good expectations to the applications of new and non-traditional methods of teaching in the elementary and high
schools. If future teachers do not try in the lectures and seminars of science subjects didactics new form of learning
(in our case active learning), it is hard to wait, that they will applicate in their lessons of science subjects. And active
learning techniques yield many benefits – they are student-centered; they maximize participation; they are highly
motivational; and they give life and immediacy to the subject matter by encouraging students to move beyond a
superficial, fact-based approach to the material. There are also examples from practice about the utility of active
learning. McCarthy & Anderson (2000) mentioned an experiment about direct controlled comparison between the
standard lecture format and the cooperative learning format in an introductory college-level biology course. They
reported that students taking the cooperative format option indicated significantly higher levels of satisfaction with
the course than those taking the traditional format option. Similarly, Ambruster et al. (2009) compared responses
of students on traditional lectures and non-traditional lectures. Students answered, that traditional course evalua-
tions indicated that students were not satisfied with the course and did not recognize the importance of the course
content to their education as biologists. For example, students often commented on course evaluations that the
lectures and/or course materials were “boring.”
So, it is obvious and it is possible to find more articles, where there are advantages of active learning and
its form is mentioned and described. So the question is, why it is not implemented in the schools? Below, it is
described, that there is a problem in universities, which are preparing future teachers of science subjects. And it is
truth, because if teachers have not got examples of non-traditional techniques, the implementation of them is not
possible. Maybe, it is caused by curriculum and duties of college employees, that they should teach according any
plans, where non-traditional methods are not mentioned. Generally, it is relatively a big problem to incorporate
new techniques in the learning process, this process is very slow, but all people, not only teachers, who are fans
of new techniques, which can improve the interest of pupils and students about science subjects know, that one
time the situation will be better.
References
Ambruster, P., Patel, M., Johnson, E., & Weiss, M. (2009). Active learning and student-centered pedagogy improve student attitudes
and performance in introductory biology. CBE – Life Sciences Education, 8 (3), 203-213.
Cranton, P. (2012). Planning instruction for adult learners (3rd Ed.). Toronto: Wall & Emerson.
Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning: I ̶ outcomes and process. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 46 (1), 4-11.
McCarthy, J. P., & Anderson, L. (2000). Active learning techniques versus traditional teaching styles: Two experiments from history
and political science. Innovative Higher Education, 24 (4), 279-294.
Renkl, A., Atkinson, R. K., Maier, U. H., & Staley, R. (2002). From example study to problem solving: Smooth transitions help learn-
ing. Journal of Experimental Education, 70 (4), 293-315.
Received: August 12, 2016 Accepted: August 23, 2017
Milan Kubiatko PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Pedagogical Studies,

Faculty of Humanities, University of Zilina, Slovakia.
E-mail: mkubiatko@gmail.com
Website: http://www.kubiatko.eu
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CHANGING NEGATIVE
PERCEPTIONS OF ANIMALS
THROUGH TEACHING PRACTICE:
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
A RESEARCH IN PRIMARY
EDUCATION
Abstract. This research focused on

whether teaching practice could improve
António Almeida,
children’s perceptions of animals with a Beatriz García Fernández,
bad image. For this purpose, children from Teresa Silva
the 5th year of schooling approached the
topic “diversity of animals” differently. The
experimental group, 50 children from three
classes (25 boys and 25 girls) aged 10 to 13,
adopted an approach more focused on the Introduction
role of the ecosystem and benefits of the
animals for humans. The control group, 53 All humans have different perceptions of animals and a varied range
pupils from another three classes (27 boys of feelings towards them. For Joy (2010), these different forms of looking at
and 26 girls) within the same age range, animals depend on a psychological framework schema, a kind of structure
adopted a more descriptive approach that organizes and interprets incoming information. For instance, it is this
based on the morphology, physiology schema that allows us to classify an animal as edible or not, as prey or preda-
and behaviours of the different animals. A tor, or as friendly or not.
pre-test and a post-test were administered The consumption of animals as food is an excellent example of the way
to identify children’s empathy with ten this schema works. Dogs are considered as pets but cows are to be eaten, since
animals with a bad image and to assess we have a different perception of these two animals. Yet, biologically, dogs
both their attractiveness and dangerous- and cows are quite similar in their complexity, having feelings, preferences,
ness. The experimental group signifi- and consciousness (Joy, 2010). However, in another culture, the schema may
cantly increased their empathy with the ten be the opposite; dogs can be seen as food and cows as animals that it would
animals and only the assessment of their be unthinkable to include in our diet. That is why Joy (2010) states, that “how
dangerousness was less conclusive. Even so, we feel about an animal and how we treat it, it turns out, has much less to do
the dangerousness of the shark and of the with what kind of animal it is than about what our perception of it is” (p. 6).
mouse decreased significantly in this group. These perceptions are strongly influenced by culture, traditions and
The research seems to be important as an beliefs rooted in every society, but they are not immutable and do not
aid to the design of didactic approaches necessarily occur in every member of a particular culture. Events in human
related to the present issue both in continu- history were sometimes responsible for some of the changes in the percep-
ous and pre-service training courses for tion of a particular animal. For instance, as Marvin (2012) claims, with the
primary teachers. domestication of sheep and goats, the wolf came to be seen as a worthy
Keywords: perceptions of animals, pri- rival, an unwanted animal that is responsible for damaging human affairs.
mary school, teaching practice. This negative perception persisted for centuries and, even recently, Kellert
(1985), in a survey involving more than three thousand Americans from 48
António Almeida states, concluded that the wolf was one of the least liked animals due to its
Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon, Portugal predatory nature, damage to property, especially cattle, and cultural and
Beatriz García Fernández historical negative image. But as Midgley (1995) points out, studies of animal
University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Teresa Silva behaviour have shown that the wolf is an animal with great affection and
Lisbon Higher School of Education, loyalty towards its parents, great courage in adversity and a predator that kills
Portugal only what it needs to survive. This scientific knowledge has had a positive im-
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RESEARCH IN PRIMARY EDUCATION
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 446-458)
pact on perceptions of the animal, revealing features that humans would like to be able to achieve, and the subject
of texts in which wolves become an inspiration for humans’ lives (see, for instance, Rowlands, 2008; Towery, 2009).
Other examples could be given related to other animals, such as the shift in the perception of primates dur-
ing the twentieth century from strange creatures to animals with a complex cognitive capacity and social abilities
(Arluke & Sanders, 1996).
However, the perception of a particular animal does not always acquire a universal character, as previous
stated. For instance, in a research project by Prokop, Usak & Erdogan (2011) involving children from Slovakia and
Turkey showed that the Turkish children had a more positive perception of wolves, manifested less fear of these
animals and a greater understanding of their condition as predators. These differences may be related to cultural
matters: wolves had a positive role in a legend related to the identity of the Turkish nation. But perhaps one of the
best-known cultural discrepancies is highlighted by Passariello (1999) and related to cows, since in Hindu groups
in India and by the Maasai, in East Africa, they are revered animals while in western countries they are regarded in
a merely instrumental way. Indeed, India is a country where worship of certain animals has existed for centuries.
Besides the cow, other animals like the monkey, the tiger, the rat, the elephant, or the snake are considered sacred
(Kala & Sharma, 2010). This worship may have developed for religious reasons, related with the idea of humans’
reincarnation in a certain animal in future lives, but it can also be caused by the need to sustain natural resources
or even to achieve ecological balance. For instance, snakes can eat rodents that destroy crops.
Finally, perceptions also vary within the same culture. Factors such as age, gender and academic qualifica-
tions are determinant in this variation. Ecological literacy, especially, is also an important factor that can attenuate
adverse attitudes and behaviours towards animals (Almeida, Vasconcelos & Strecht-Ribeiro, 2014).
Children, during their formal education, reflect the perceptions of animals which are normally most frequent
in their culture. Some of these negative perceptions are in part akin to misconceptions, since they are resistant to
change by conventional teaching strategies (Prokop, Fančovičová, & Kubiatko, 2009), and often come into conflict
with aspects of a scientific nature. Misinterpretations of the behaviour of animals are frequent, as in the case of
the considered “dirty” mud baths of pigs and boars, a way used by these animals to protect their skin from the
sun, to remove parasites or to regulate body temperature. That is why scientific literacy can contribute to a better
understanding of animal behaviours, helping to rebuild ingrained negative cultural perceptions. This literacy can
even help children by raising awareness of the decline of biodiversity, contributing to the preservation of different
species and habitats on earth.
Research Focus
This research started with the following question: Can teaching practice help to develop in learners from the
5th year of schooling more positive perceptions of animals with a bad image?
In attempting to answer this question, the following research objectives were set:
a) to identify the level of children’s empathy with the following ten vertebrates: the wolf, the vulture, the
bear, the bat, the fox, the shark, the crocodile, the boar, the snake and the mouse.
b) to assess the attractive and the dangerous aspects of the above-listed animals.
c) to assess eventual changes in children’s perceptions of the animals listed after studying the topic “di-
versity of animals” from two different didactic approaches.
Several studies have tried to identify the perception of humans of different cultures and ages of different
animal species. Kellert (1989) was a pioneer in this line of research. In one of his first studies, with a sample of 3000
American adults, he found that the favourite animals were two domestic animals, the dog and the horse, and the
two most under-appreciated ones were insects, the cockroach and the mosquito. Other animals, such as the wolf,
the vulture, the bat or the shark were also seen negatively but also obtained a strong standard deviation in terms
of the empathy they generated in the respondents.
Since then, other studies have been carried out in countries as diverse as Australia, Italy, Norway, Slovakia
and Switzerland with samples ranging from kindergarten children to adults (see, for instance, Driscoll, 1995; Bjerke
& Ostdahl, 2004; Prokop & Tunnicliffe, 2008; Schlegel & Rupf, 2010; Borgi & Cirulli, 2015). In general, the results of
these studies show the same tendencies. Normally, the respondents prefer mammals and birds, especially pets
or domestic animals; reptiles, amphibians and invertebrate animals are almost always negatively perceived. The
reasons for the negative or positive perceptions of animals tend to be very simplistic and can be organized in two
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CHANGING NEGATIVE PERCEPTIONS OF ANIMALS THROUGH TEACHING PRACTICE: A
(P. 446-458) ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
groups: the “good” and the “bad” animals (Arluke & Sanders, 1996). But other studies report more specific reasons
as size, aesthetics, intelligence and phylogenetic relatedness to humans (Knight, Nunkoosing, Wrij & Cherryman,
2003; Herzog 2010; Borgi & Cirulli, 2015), morphological and behavior aspects (Hillman 1991), emotion of disgust
(Prokop et al., 2016), danger to humans (Curtis, Aunger & Rabie, 2004; Löe & Röskaft, 2004), or predatory tendencies
related to danger to humans and ability to cause damage (Schlegel & Rupf, 2010), just to mention a few.
More recently, in Portugal, this issue has also been approached (see Almeida, et al., 2014; Almeida, Lança, &
Gonçalves, 2014; Ceríaco & Marques, 2013). The first of these studies was carried out with 210 urban children, aged
8 to 10, and had two main objectives: a) to identify the perceptions of primary school children of 25 animals; b) to
determine the relationship between that perception and the desire to save the animals if they were threatened
with extinction. The five animals most appreciated by the children were the horse, the dog, the turtle, the butterfly
and the swan, and the least appreciated, the cockroach, the mosquito, the rat, the snake and the bee. Their justi-
fications were essentially: a) the aesthetics of the animals; b) their positive interaction with humans and absence
of dangerousness; c) aspects of their morphology, locomotion and behaviour; d) the fact that they were domestic
animals or pets. The economic value of the animals and their symbolic and ecosystemic value were also mentioned
by the children, but less often. In this study, a positive correlation was also found between empathy with an animal
and the willingness to save it in from extinction. Even so, almost 20% of the children would save an animal even
without liking it, since they revealed recognition of its intrinsic or ecosystemic value.
The second study was similar to the one already presented, but it tried to compare the children’s perception
of the same 25 animals with the ones of primary school pre-service teachers. To this end, the same questionnaire
was administered to both samples and the results were very similar in relation to the most and least liked animals
and also to the ones with a higher standard deviation. Domestic animals were the most liked animals and reptiles
and insects the least.
Finally, the third study by Ceríaco & Marques (2013), who investigated myths about geckos and human behav-
iour towards them, was particularly important, since it contained a plan of action. This study was implemented in
the south of Portugal and sought to identify the perceptions of children, aged between 4 and 8 years, of geckos.
Before the plan, most of the children considered geckos as “poisonous” and “dangerous”, responsible for skin dis-
eases, and without utility or beauty. This perception, according to the authors, reflects the image of the people of
the south of Portugal of these animals, an image that is also common in Arabic countries such as Morocco, Egypt
and Pakistan, suggesting a perception that had its origin through folklore.
Medina and Atran (2004) state that folklore can manifest itself through legends, songs, oral stories, proverbs,
beliefs and habits, which reveal the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. All these forms of diffusion promote
the transmission of these ideas from person to person and from generation to generation, through oral tradition
or by behaviour imitation. In this case, these ideas regarding geckos have been responsible for the death of many
animals, due to the fact that they live in close proximity to humans, since they climb house walls and other build-
ings, searching for insects, their main food.
But this study also included, as has already been mentioned, a plan of action with several sessions in order
to change the negative perceptions of children of these animals. The resources used for this purpose were: a) a
children’s story about geckos, b) slideshows with cartoons and real images of the two most important species
of gecko in Portugal, the Mediterranean gecko and the common gecko, to better explain their differences in
morphological, ecological and biological terms. The results demonstrate that these resources, focused on the
bio-ecological aspects of geckos, were effective in considerably improving children’s positive perceptions of these
animals (Ceríaco & Marques, 2013).
Methodology of Research
General Background
As already mentioned, the main focus of the present research was to identify the perceptions of ten animals in
primary school children and to determine whether formal education could bring about a change in these percep-
tions. To this end, the methodological approach had a quasi-experimental design, implemented to compare the
results of the experimental group with the ones from the control group. Despite the quantitative approach of the
research, qualitative techniques were used to treat certain data. The research was implemented in two different
academic years: 2014/2015 and 2016/2017.
448
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The initial research, in 2014/2015, was part of the “teaching practice project” of one of the members of the
research team, a curricular unit that is included on a master´s course qualifying students to be teachers in the first
two cycles of schooling in Portugal (the first 6 years, children’s age between 6 and 12). Since the initial sample was
too small, with only two classes, the intervention was repeated in four more classes in 2016/2017. But, as Pole &
Lampard (2002) maintain, independently of the size of the sample, this kind of research is particularly useful for
assessing the impact of a specific form of intervention, and can help the design of other teachers’ activities related
to the same subject.
Research Sample
The experimental group consisted of a group of 50 learners from 3 classes (25 boys and 25 girls), aged between
10 and 12. The control group was composed of 53 pupils from another three classes (27 boys and 26 girls), in the
same age range. The children from all the classes involved attended the 5th year of schooling at a primary school
in a suburban area of Lisbon, Portugal. Both groups, the experimental and the control group, shared some similar
features. The children lived in the proximity of the school and exhibited considerable cultural diversity. Some families
were from Portuguese-speaking countries in Africa, especially Cape Verde and Angola. The socioeconomic level of
the families was medium / low, with low academic qualifications. The six classes involved in the research consisted
of 111 learners but only 103 were present in all phases of the research plan. The school belongs to a large group
of schools included in the Educational Territories for Priority Intervention Programme, a programme designed to
help economically and socially disadvantaged territories, characterized by poverty and social exclusion, where
violence, indiscipline, dropout and under-achievement are most prevalent. Schools in this programme always have
classes of no more than 20 learners and enjoy extra educational resources (for instance, tutorial support in Mother
Tongue Language and Maths). In the latest assessment made by the Ministry of Education during 2016, the school
obtained results comparable with those of similar schools included in the Programme, a reason to consider the
present school representative of this kind of territory.
Instrument and Procedures
The Science syllabus in the 5th year of schooling is focused on the living world in relation to the topic “diver-
sity of animals”. It has the following objectives: a) to interpret the characteristics of organisms according to their
environments; b) to understand the diversity of animals’ diets considering the habitat where they live; c) to un-
derstand the diversity of the reproductive processes of animals; d) to understand the influence of abiotic factors
on morphological and behavioural adaptations of animals; e) to understand the importance of protecting animal
biodiversity (Ministério da Educação e Ciência, 2013). Due to these aims, it was considered the year of schooling
most relevant to the implementation of the present research.
The pre-test and post-test consisted of the same questionnaire, which included two independent parts and
started by asking the children’s gender, age and school class. In the first part, the children were invited to evaluate
and justify their empathy of ten animals, using a scale from 1 to 5, 1 being the lowest level of empathy and 5 the
highest. The ten animals included in the questionnaire were selected from among those with a bad image in the
results of the studies of Kellert (1989) and Almeida et al. (2014), already quoted. However, since their number was
more than ten, the final selection was made according to the animals that figured most in the children’s textbook.
The animals selected were: the wolf, the vulture, the bear, the bat, the fox, the shark, the crocodile, the boar, the
snake and the mouse. In the second part, each learner was asked to assess the attractiveness and dangerousness of
each animal. To this end, they had to choose between the following pairs of characteristics: attraction / repulsion;
not dangerous / dangerous. Since the second part of the questionnaire might give the children ideas as to how
justify their empathy with a certain animal, each part of the questionnaire was administered separately.
The children’s reaction during the administration was very good and they showed that they were focused
on the task. They only expressed some difficulties in justifying their empathy with a particular animal. But in these
cases the children were strongly encouraged to look for a reason.
After the administration of the pre-test in the first intervention, the results showed that the three animals with
the worst ranking in the experimental group were the mouse, the vulture and the shark. Therefore, the intervention
was centred on these animals. This intervention was carried out in four non-sequential periods and started with
a general presentation concerning the importance of biodiversity and the explanation of what is meant by the
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extinction of species. The following steps dealt with each animal separately, but always including the following
points: (a) main characteristics of the animal, (b) ecosystem role, (c) benefits for humans, (d) inspiration for humans,
and (e) interesting points.
In each session, a slide presentation was shown. These presentations paid special attention to the quality of
the images of the animals presented, since a visual approach seems to help increase children’s willingness to protect
them (Štefaniková & Prokop, 2013). Furthermore, scientific information was included as well as several discussion
questions. It was followed by the discussion of texts and short films from YouTube. Both resources sought to un-
derline the relevance of each animal in the ecosystems and also its importance for humans. The selection of the
resources also sought to increase the learners’ empathy with the animals and their attractiveness, and to relativize
their dangerousness by stressing, in the case of dangerousness, that animals normally only attack humans when
they feel threatened or when their habitat is invaded. The texts were written based on information from various
internet sources. They were firstly discussed in pairs and then the discussion was extended to the whole class.
It should be noted that the control group also experienced the syllabus contents through slide presentations
and textbook activities. However, it was not put through a teaching / learning process directly related to the attempt
to improve the perception of certain animals with a bad image. But the resources used with both groups tried to
contribute to the achievement of the learning aims as defined by the Minister of Education.
The steps of the study are summarized in Table 1. Each one lasted on average 45 minutes and the whole process
took place from December 2014 to March 2015, in the case of the first intervention, and from January 2017 to April
2017, in the case of the second intervention due to the need to extend the initial sample, a situation already explained.
Table 1. The various steps of the present research study involving the Experimental Group (EG) and the
Control Group (CG).
Steps of the research EG CG
Pre-test X X
Extinction of animals (Slide presentation) X
The mouse X
-Slide presentation with a number of mouse features;
-Discussion of the texts: “Trained rats detect tuberculosis”; “Rats in the environment”.
The shark X
-Slide presentation with a number of shark features;
-Discussion of the text “Why defend sharks?”;
-Presentation of the Youtube film “Shark Finning Cruelty”.
The vulture X
-Slide presentation with a number of vulture features;
-Discussion of the text “European vultures face a huge and recent threat”;
-Presentation of the Youtube film “Deadly Danger for Europe´s Vultures”.
Post-test X X
Data Analysis
Inferential statistics using SPSS programme was used to compare the qualitative data obtained from the two
groups, with a level of significance of p <0.05. For each group of participants, each animal obtained an average
based on a 1 - 5 rating assigned by each participant. After that, an average for the 10 animals included in the ques-
tionnaire, and an average for the three that were the object of treatment, were calculated. All these averages were
statistically compared between the experimental group and the control group, applying the Mann–Whitney U test
for independent samples to test the homogeneity of the two groups in the pre-test. For comparing the results of
each group at the pre-test and post-test stages, the Wilcoxon test for dependent samples was used. The choice of
these tests took place after a prior application of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to determine the normal distribution
of data, since the sample had more than 50 participants. To check the attractiveness and the dangerousness of the
ten animals, the two groups were also compared at the first stage (pre-test) and at the second stage (post-test).
A chi-square test was then used due to the dichotomous nature of the variables.
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The categorization of the reasons given by the children for disliking the vulture, the shark and the mouse was
done a posteriori based on the main focus of their answers. The categories that were found were the following:
aesthetics; morphological, physiological and behavioural aspects of the animals; danger to humans; media image;
inflicting property damage; experiences and personal feelings; myths and beliefs.
Validity and Reliability
The questionnaire was validated by two experts from the field of science education based on the following
criteria: i) the main aims of the present study; ii) awareness of the reasons for the inclusion of the ten animals
chosen; iii) awareness of other questionnaires from similar studies. The questionnaire was piloted with ten children
from the same year of schooling and with the same social features and school performance. Special attention was
paid to the difficulties related with the syntax of the sentences included, due to the fact that the children from this
school show a low performance in the Mother Tongue.
This prior administration was also important to check the time necessary to complete the task. During the
administration of the sample, only questions related to the understanding of the questionnaire were answered.
Oral comments and the exchange of ideas between pairs were discouraged. The codification of the reasons for
disliking the three animals that were the object of intervention was done by the three authors separately and
then compared. The categories found were similar to those of other studies already quoted. The children did not
elaborate on their justifications, and the reasons were always a short statement or an adjective. This fact also helped
the categorization mentioned before.
The experimental group showed a huge receptiveness to the activities set, even considering the difficulties
in understanding the main ideas from the texts. They expressed a great interest in the discussion activities, which
was considered an indicator of the suitability of the resources designed. Even so, it was impossible to explore in
greater depth the didactic resources specially designed for the intervention due to limitations of time related to
the necessity to approach other topics of the syllabus.
Results of Research
The results related to the preferences of the pupils from both groups of the ten animals present in the ques-
tionnaire, including the three that were object of intervention in the pre-test, are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The level of empathy (average and standard deviations) obtained by each animal in the Experimental
Group (EG) and Control Group (CG) in the pre-test. The names of the animals chosen for intervention
in the EG appear in bold.
EG CG
Mann –
Animal M SD M SD p
Withney U
Wolf 3.48 1.199 3.13 1.271 1114.0 .153

Fox 2.90 1.474 2.88 1.254 1092.0 .113
Bear 3.66 1.153 3.33 1.208 1117.5 .151
Bat 2.90 1.474 2.88 1.368 1323,0 .989
Boar 2.76 1.221 2.81 1.193 1296.0 .844
Crocodile 2.42 1.263 2.18 1.316 1147.0 .221
Snake 2.20 1.340 2.03 1.285 1233.0 .520
Shark 2.32 1.376 2.15 1.419 1204.5 .402
Vulture 1.92 0.944 2.39 1.182 1027.0 .040
Mouse 2.30 1.446 2.20 1.276 1319.5 .970
Total-3 6.54 2.620 6.71 2.514 1265.5 .692
Total-10 27.58 7.842 26.39 7.445 1184.5 .353
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Before the intervention, the two groups were comparable concerning their empathy with the ten animals.
The differences between the averages for the ten animals taken together and for the three which were the object
of intervention were not statistically significant. In the analysis for each animal, the two groups were only statisti-
cally different in the case of the vulture. Even so, the average for this animal in both groups was very low, but not
so low in the control group. The highest values of standard deviation were observed in the experimental group
towards the fox, the bat and the mouse.
The comparison of the results for the two groups after the different didactic approach concerning the topic
“diversity of animals” is included in Table 3.
Table 3. Comparison of the empathy level (average and standard deviations) obtained by the different ani-
mals in the Experimental Group (EG) and in the Control Group (CG) in the pre-test (Stage 1-S1) and
in the post-test (Stage 2-S2) after the different didactic approach to the topic “diversity of animals”.
Experimental Group (EG) Control Group (CG)
Animal S1 SD S2 SD Z p S1 SD S2 SD z p
Wolf 3.48 1.199 3.90 1.092 -2.058 .040 3.13 1.271 2.98 1.393 -0.756 .450
Fox 2.90 1.474 4.22 0.840 -2.466 .014 2.88 1.254 3.32 1.326 -0.530 .596
Bear 3.66 1.153 3.90 0.886 -0.815 .415 3.33 1.208 3.41 1.231 -0.561 .575
Bat 2.90 1.474 3.62 1.243 -2.663 .008 2.88 1.368 2.67 1.516 -1.028 .304
Boar 2.76 1.221 3.24 1.407 -2.012 .044 2.81 1.193 2.73 1.195 -0.759 .448
Crocodile 2.42 1.263 2.90 1.501 -2.297 .022 2.18 1.316 2.26 1.258 -0.341 .733
Snake 2.20 1.340 2.86 1.414 -2.676 .007 2.03 1.285 2.18 1.345 -0.947 .344
Shark 2.32 1.376 3.52 1.281 -3.919 .001 2.15 1.419 2.39 1.548 -1.245 .213
Vulture 1.92 0.944 3.32 1.252 -4.986 .001 2.39 1.182 2.15 1.150 -1.485 .138
Mouse 2.30 1.446 3.64 1.410 -4.433 .001 2.20 1.276 2.13 1.330 -0.676 .499
Total-3 6.54 2.620 10.48 3.150 -5.420 .001 6.71 2.514 6.67 2.998 -0.387 .699
Total-10 27.58 7.842 35.12 8.072 -4.971 .001 26.39 7.445 26.26 9.251 -0.139 .890
In the experimental group all the average differences are statistically significant between the two stages,
with the exception of the bear. But this exception cannot be seen as a bad result considering that this animal
scored in the two stages one of the highest rankings in both groups. These differences arouse from the increase
in the average obtained by each animal in the post-test by the experimental group. But a very interesting result
was the fact that the increase in these averages did not happen only with the three animals that were object of
intervention, but also occurred with all the animals. In this same group the standard deviations for each animal
decreased in the majority of the cases but in two of the three animals that were the object of intervention, they
remain with similar values.
In the control group, the differences in the averages obtained between the two stages were not statistically
significant. Some increased but others decreased, without showing any consistent trend. The average calculated
for the three animals and for the ten animals all together revealed the same tendency. In this same group the
standard deviations for each animal increased slightly in the majority of cases.
The reasons for disliking the three animals chosen for intervention are included in Table 4. The negative
arguments about the animals were classed in the several categories already introduced in the methodology
section. Aesthetics, danger to humans and morphological, physiological and behavioural aspects of the animals
are those that include the majority of the reasons mentioned by the learners. However, these negative reasons
also decreased substantially in the experimental groups at the second stage.
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Table 4. Reasons given by the children of both groups for disliking the animals chosen for intervention in
the pre-test (Stage 1 – SI) and in the post-test (Stage 2- S2).
Vulture Shark Mouse
EG CG EG CG EG CG
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
Aesthetic 17 7 13 7 - 3 - - 2 2 9 6
-Ugly 17 7 13 7 - 3 - - 2 2 9 6
Morphological, Physiological and 10 1 13 21 4 - 10 7 4 - 1 -
Behavioural aspects
-It is (too) small - - - - - - - - 2 - 1 -
-It is big /It has a big neck - - 2 4 - - 2 1 - - - -
-It jumps a lot - - - - - - - - 2 - - -
-I do not like birds - - 1 1 - - - - - - - -
-It eats dead bodies 9 1 10 16 - - - - - - - -
-It eats/kills other animals - - - - 2 - 2 1 - - - -
- It has a lot of sharp teeth - - - - - - 5 2 - - - -
- It is aggressive 1 - - - 2 - 1 3 - - - -
Danger to humans 4 1 2 2 26 7 27 26 6 1 8 13
-It can attack/kill us 4 - 2 2 26 7 27 26 - - - -
-It can transmit diseases - 1 - - - - - - 6 1 8 13
Media image - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - -
-It is evil in the movies - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - -
Inflicting property damage - - - - - - - - 11 2 2 2
-It invades houses - - - - - - - - 10 2 2 1
-It gnaws everything - - - - - - - - 1 - - 1
Experiences and personal feelings 7 3 5 8 5 3 5 7 7 5 20 15
-It provokes fear - - 2 1 3 3 3 6 - - 4 1
-It is disgusting 6 2 2 - - - - - 7 5 12 14
-It bites me - - - - - - - - - - 1 -
-It is evil 1 1 1 7 2 - 2 1 - - 3 -
Myths and beliefs 2 - - - - - - - - - - -
-It eats dead people 2 - - - - - - - - - - -
I do not like it 3 1 3 2 - 1 - - - 2 - 4
Total 43 13 36 40 36 14 42 40 31 12 40 40
Even knowing that the children do not really elaborate on their reasons for disliking the animals, they are clear
enough to get an idea of the causes that lead to a negative perception of a particular animal. The incidence of nega-
tive reasons decreased in the experimental group in the post-test. The reasons were mainly from four categories:
aesthetics of the animal, morphological, physiological and behavioural aspects, danger to humans and experiences
and personal feelings. The shark was seen as particularly dangerous and the vulture was seen negatively due to its
habit of eating ‘dead bodies’, a reason that persisted in the control group in the post-test.
In relation to the attractiveness and the dangerousness of each animal, the two groups were firstly compared
in the pre-test (Table 5).
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Table 5. Frequencies obtained by each animal concerning their attractiveness and dangerousness in the
Experimental Group (EG) and in the Control Group (CG) in the pre-test. A chi-square test (χ2) was
used to verify the homogeneity between groups before the intervention.
First moment (pre-test)
Attraction (A) / Repulsion (R) Not Dangerous (ND) / Dangerous (D)
EG CG EG CG
χ2 p χ2 p
(A/R) (A/R) (ND/D) (ND/D)
Wolf 38/12 27/26 6.938 .008 10/40 40/43 0.021 .885

Vulture 10/40 19/34 3.195 .074 14/36 28/25 6.568 .010
Bear 37/13 36/17 0.460 .498 13/37 15/38 0.069 .793
Bat 23/27 24/29 0.005 .942 31/19 29/24 0.561 .454
Fox 41/9 35/18 3.389 .066 24/26 30/23 0.764 .382
Shark 14/36 11/42 0.735 .391 2/48 5/48 1.199 .438
Crocodile 12/38 9/44 0.781 .377 5/45 2/51 1.557 .261
Boar 20/30 25/28 0.538 .463 20/30 20/33 0.056 .814
Snake 11/39 12/41 0.006 .938 3/47 5/48 0.424 .716
Mouse 19/31 16/37 0.700 .403 37/13 37/16 0.223 .637
In the assessment of the dangerousness and attractiveness of the animals in the 1st stage, the two groups did
not reveal statistically significant differences with the exception of the wolf, an animal that was seen by the experi-
mental group as more attractive, and of the vulture, which was also seen by the control group as less dangerous.
The comparison of the results of the two groups concerning the attractiveness and the dangerousness of the
animals in the post-test is included in Table 6.
Table 6. Frequencies obtained by each animal concerning their attractiveness and dangerousness in the
Experimental Group (EG) and in the Control Group (CG) in the post-test. A chi-square test (χ2) was
used to verify the homogeneity between groups after the intervention.
Second moment (post-test)
Attraction (A) / Repulsion (R) Not Dangerous (ND) / Dangerous (D)
EG CG EG CG
χ2 p χ2 p
(A/R) (A/R) (ND/D) (ND/D)
Wolf 44/6 27/26 16.497 .001 24/26 13/40 6.158 .013

Vulture 30/20 14/39 11.860 .001 28/22 24/29 1.182 .277
Bear 44/6 36/17 5.979 .014 19/31 16/37 0.700 .403
Bat 27/23 21/32 2.137 .144 36/14 31/22 2.065 .151
Fox 44/6 33/20 9.030 .003 36/14 34/19 0.728 .394
Shark 33/17 9/44 25.599 .001 18/32 3/50 14.591 .001
Crocodile 20/30 7/46 9.548 .002 9/41 2/51 5.459 .019
Boar 29/21 21/32 3.479 .062 28/22 24/29 1.182 .277
Snake 20/30 12/41 3.620 .057 12/38 6/47 2.868 .090
Mouse 33/17 16/37 13.229 .001 44/6 28/25 15.126 .001
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In the experimental group, not only the three animals chosen for intervention were considered much more
attractive, but also all the others included on the questionnaire (compare also the results presented in Tables
5 and 6). The results of the control group were very similar in both stages, even decreasing a little for several
animals in the post-test. Statistically, the differences between the two groups were significant for seven of the
ten animals, with more two near the level of significance.
Turning now to the assessment of the dangerousness of the ten animals, the experimental group decreased
its negative perception for all the animals, especially in the case of the shark and the vulture, which had had
very high scores in the pre-test. The mouse was considered from the first stage as a harmless animal, a quality
that was maintained at the second stage. In the control group, only the mouse decreased this negative percep-
tion. Statistically, the differences between the two were significant only for the following animals: the shark,
the crocodile, the mouse and the wolf.
Discussion
The results of this research are in line with other studies, confirming the bad image of certain animals.
In fact, only the bear, the fox and the wolf obtained the best initial rankings, in the first stage of the research,
thus confirming a higher empathy to certain mammals, some of them increasing their popularity in recent
decades. This is the case of the wolf discussed in the introduction section, especially in urban populations.
The results also show that teaching practice can have a role in changing, at least in part, the negative
perceptions of animals with a bad image, as was highlighted in other studies (see, for instance, Lindemann-
Mattthies, 2005; Prokop & Tunnicliffe, 2008; Prokop, Tolarovicová, Camerik, & Peterková, 2010). However, it only
partially reinforces Kellert’s (1996) belief that education can be the most powerful force in shaping percep-
tions of nature, since this shaping seems more dependent on the didactic approaches selected by teachers.
Globally, the image of the three animals chosen for intervention improved significantly, but also the
image of all the animals included in the questionnaire. This effect of transference is a very relevant result,
since children start to look at all animals in a more positive way, maybe because they now consider that all of
them must have a role in nature or a usefulness for us, even without knowing precisely what that usefulness
is in each case. A similar transference involving children from the same age range as the present research was
found by Prokop & Fančovičová (2017), who concluded that the use of snails in hands-on activities reduced
children’s disgust with these animals but also with other “disgusting” animals like earthworms, mice and snakes.
For this change, it seems not enough just to approach the main features of animals related to their
morphology, physiology or adaptive behaviour in the ecosystems, as occurred in the control group. In
fact, Tomazic (2011), in one of his studies, came to a similar result involving future teachers’ perceptions
of snakes: “Although pre-service teachers were more knowledgeable about snakes, their willingness to act
pro-environmentally and the negativistic attitudinal dimension did not significantly differ from the ratings
of primary school pupils” (p. 168).
Consequently, it seems necessary to discuss the importance of each animal’s role in the ecosystem, and,
when possible, its direct or indirect importance to humans. Through this approach, it is possible to highlight
how life is intrinsically interconnected, also showing the reason for the behaviours of certain animals fre-
quently misinterpreted as being dangerous or disgusting, as is the case of the vulture necrophagous. Due
to the success of the intervention related to the shark, it also seems that children’s awareness of situations
in which an animal is badly treated by humans can also develop an empathy to that animal, as was the case
with the presentation of the Youtube film “Shark Finning Cruelty”.
The present intervention, which stresses the usefulness of animals to humans, can be considered con-
troversial, since it seems to accentuate an anthropocentric vision of nature linking preservation with the
instrumental value of each life form. Wilson (1993), for instance, is a great advocate of this approach, since he
considered that instead of appealing for the innate rights of species, it would be more effective to highlight
how diversity of life is so important to our own survival in several dimensions: utilitarian, emotional, spiritual
and cognitive integrity. But for Batt (2009), anthropocentrism is responsible for the way animals of different
species are valued, with consequences in terms of their conservation, research, public interest and even ef-
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forts to guarantee their own rights or welfare. Based on these different opinions, a balance in using a wider
range of arguments was achieved, stressing the value of each species in the ecosystem and also highlighting
violent acts performed by humans on other animals.
The only result that was less conclusive was the global perception of the dangerousness of the differ-
ent animals. In fact, as quoted by Davey et al. (1998), several animals may attack us thus inspiring fear as in
the case of sharks. Even so, Seraphin (2010) points out how a shark attack is normally exaggerated, since its
probability is lower than the risk of death caused by a bee sting or a car accident. But other kinds of fears are
much less rational and exaggerated, since the actual presence of dangerous animals (poisonous or otherwise),
in most European countries, quite rare. Also, the idea that animals can attack humans for no reason is still
very ingrained in children. And a way to a better assessment of animals’ dangerousness may be achieved by
showing that, in the majority of cases, animals are reacting to human invasion or destruction of their habitats,
ideas that were present during the intervention but that should be further developed.
Thus, future interventions with the same purpose of the present research should pay more attention to
the dangerousness of the animals and seek more clearer-cut strategies to deal with this issue. Perhaps the use
of practical work with some of the animals that inspire fear and disgust, a strategy used with success in other
studies (see, for instance, Randler, Hummel & Prokop, 2012; Prokop & Fančovičová, 2017), or the implementation
of outdoor activities to develop greater empathy with less popular animals, like trials promoted by non-formal
associations to observe vultures, might be successful aids. Even so, the recognition of the dangerousness of
certain animals did not affect the other factors under analysis, which is an important finding.
Finally, it is important to point out that all the children’s changes were checked fifteen days after the
intervention. Indeed, it will be important to assess the stability of these changes and to identify conditions
that might better promote that stability, aspects that need further research.
Conclusions and Implications
The didactic intervention focused on three animals with bad image addressing its ecosystem role and
benefits and inspiration for humans, had an impact not only improving the perception of children of these
three animals, but also of other seven that were not specifically addressed. The results of the present research
are important for reflection on the best educational strategies to highlight the importance of biodiversity
and enhance the relevance of the different species, including those that generate less empathy in humans.
The present research may also trigger future interventions related to other groups of animals with a
bad image, for instance, invertebrates, amphibians and reptiles since it is essential to develop in children a
broader empathy to other species, regardless of their complexity and their evolutionary proximity to humans.
To these aims it is essential that teachers do not replicate dominant negative perceptions of certain
animals during their teaching practice, thus enabling the change effect that the educational process can
promote. Therefore, some work on pre-service and continuous teacher training courses related to the pres-
ent issue is also necessary.
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Received: November 20, 2016 Accepted: May 30, 2017
António Almeida PhD, Coordinator Professor, Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon /

Interdisciplinary Center of Educational Studies / Research Centre
“Didactics and Technology in Education of Trainers” – University
of Aveiro.
Campus de Benfica do IPL, 1549-003 Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: eselx@eselx.ipl.pt
ORCID 0000-0002-3594-1324
Beatriz García Fernández PhD. Professor. University of Castilla-La Mancha, Department of
(Corresponding author) Pedagogy, Science Education, Faculty of Education of Ciudad
Real, Ronda de Calatrava, 3, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain.
E-mail: Beatriz.Garcia@uclm.es
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3541-1718
Teresa Silva Master in Education, Primary School Teacher. Interdisciplinary
Center of Educational Studies, Lisbon Higher School of Education
Campus de Benfica do IPL, 1549-003 Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: teresansilva@sapo.pt
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TEACHING
Mehmet Demirbağ,
Sevgi Kingir
Introduction Abstract. In order to reach students who

can efficiently use intended scientific
Conceptual Difficulties in Chemistry understandings, it is important to have
science teachers without conceptual
One of the goals of education is to move students away from rote difficulties. The aim of present research is
learning to meaningful learning. Meaningful learning requires making con- to enhance pre-service science teachers’
nections between newly introduced conceptions (naïve mental structures conceptual understanding about boiling
that represent natural phenomena and processes) and prior knowledge by dialogic teaching. The sample consisted
(diSessa & Sherin, 1998; Novak, 1993). It is highly difficult or even impossible of forty-three pre-service science teach-
to understand conceptions without establishing meaningful relationships ers in their first year of teacher education.
between concepts because (a) meaning emerges from such relationships, Dialog-based instructional activities were
(b) no concept exists in isolation, and (c) concepts are organized in the con- conducted in a chemistry laboratory
ceptual ecology that controls and modifies the conceptual change process course. Audio recordings of classroom dis-
(Strike & Posner, 1992). course and written texts were used for data
To create semantically meaningful relationships among conceptions, collection. Pre-service science teachers’
each conception should first be built on a logical framework (Lemke, 1990). conceptions about boiling identified before
Failure to construct conceptions on a logical framework and to make links and after dialogic teaching were ana-
among relevant conceptions often result in conceptions that are not consis- lyzed using content analysis. The findings
tent with scientific ideas (Zoller, 1996), that is, misconceptions or alternative showed that dialogic teaching efficiently
conceptions (Dykstra, Boyle, & Monorach, 1992; Nakhleh, 1992). One softer supported pre-service science teachers’
version of these conceptions is superficial understandings. In this version, understanding about boiling.
there are (acceptable) limited explanations without thorough understanding Keywords: dialogic teaching, conceptual
(Calık, 2008). These difficulties influence observations and interpretations in change, boiling topic, pre-service science
class activities and hinder further learning. teachers.
Chemistry is one of the scientific branches where students have diffi-
culties in understanding basic scientific mechanisms and relationships. The
scholars consider that four common sources are responsible for these diffi-
culties: the nature of chemistry, everyday language, teachers and textbooks.
Regarding first, chemistry learning requires connection among macroscopic,
microscopic and symbolic levels of representation (Johnstone, cited in Gar-
nett, Garnett, & Hackling, 1995). Macroscopic level includes phenomena
that are perceived by the senses, such as changes of color of a solution.
Mehmet Demirbağ
Microscopic level refers to explanations on the basis of properties, shape, Uludag University, Turkey
movement and interaction of particles such as atoms and molecules, which Sevgi Kingir
are real but not perceived by the senses. The symbolic level of representations Hacettepe University, Turkey
includes formulae and equations. Students’ failure to connect macroscopic
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and symbolic levels with microscopic level of representation may result in alternative conceptions (Unal, Calik,
Ayas, & Coll, 2006). Everyday language may also cause alternative conceptions. For example, there is a confusion
in the use of ‘energy’ term which has a specific meaning in chemistry but different meanings in everyday life (e.g.,
Bond making requires input of energy and bond breaking releases energy) (Boo, 1998). Teachers are one another
source of conceptual difficulties (Fisher, 1985). A teacher, for example, can explain his/her understanding of the
water molecule by stating that water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. The student who does not have adequate
prior knowledge may misinterpret water as a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen (Andersson, 1986). The final source
is the textbooks used in the chemistry classes. De Posada (1999), for example, showed that nearly half of the text-
books superficially defined the metallic bonding model and the relationships among the model. In addition, these
models were metaphorical in nature and they were open to misinterpretations.
Conceptual Difficulties about Boiling
Boiling is a natural phenomenon that occurs in our daily life. It is included in many countries’ science curricula
as well as the general chemistry courses within pre-service science teacher education programs. It is important for
science teachers to have a strong, accurate understanding of basic concepts about boiling because they provide
a basis for understanding various chemistry topics including conservation of matter, particulate nature of matter,
phase diagrams, and colligative properties of a solution such as boiling point elevation. In addition, to achieve a
proper understanding about boiling, one needs to relate it to issues of heat and temperature, heat transfer, pres-
sure, kinetic theory, and the particulate nature of matter. Perhaps because of these multiple relationships, existing
literature revealed that boiling was one of the chemistry topics about which many students have conceptual difficul-
ties (e.g., Canpolat, 2006; Canpolat, Pınarbaşı, & Sözbilir; 2006; Chang, 1999; Costu, 2008; Costu, Ayas, & Niaz, 2010;
Coştu, Ayas, Niaz, Ünal, & Çalık, 2007; Çalık, 2008; Goodwin, 2003; Johnson, 1998; Kirbulut & Beeth, 2013; Osborne
& Cosgrove, 1983; Ozmen, 2011; Paik, 2015; Papageorgiou, Johnson, & Fotiades, 2008; Papageorgiou, Stamovlasis,
& Johnson, 2010; Schmidt, Kaufmann, & Treagust, 2009; Şenocak, 2009; Varelas, Pappas, & Rife, 2006). Some of the
alternative conceptions identified in these previous studies are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Alternative conceptions identified in previous studies.

Boiling events occur only because of heat (Paik, 2015).
Vaporization occurs with boiling (Costu, et al., 2010).
Atmospheric pressure has no influence on boiling events (Costu et al., 2007).
Vaporization does not occur without boiling (Canpolat et al., 2006).
Vapor pressure increases and boiling occurs (Çalık, 2008).
Failure to recognize that the amount of vapor in a closed system diminishes with the effect of cooling and its pressure on the liquid thus decreases
(Costu et al., 2007).
Various alternative conceptions about internal pressure, external pressure, and vapor pressure (Çalık, 2008).
Conceptual Change Activities in Chemistry and for Boiling Topic
Conceptual change includes learning pathways from students’ pre- and post-instructional conceptions to
the intended scientific conceptions (Kilinc et al., 2013) Chemistry educators have focused on changing students’
alternative conceptions with scientifically accepted ones using various instructional methods and strategies
including case study (Ayyıldız & Tarhan, 2013; Yalçınkaya & Boz, 2015), four-step constructivist instruction (Çalık,
2008), inquiry-based learning (Roehrig & Garrow, 2007), multimodal representations (Adadan, Irving, & Trundle,
2009), predict–observe–explain activities (Costu, Ayas, & Niaz, 2012), computer support learning (Papageorgiou
et al., 2008), and analogy (Şendur, Toprak, & Pekmez, 2008). In the case of boiling, Çalık (2008), for example, used
four-step, constructivism-based teaching to eliminate pre-service science teachers’ alternative conceptions about
the boiling point. Similarly, Costu et al. (2007) applied a conceptual change approach to address pre-service science
teachers’ alternative conceptions of boiling.
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Dialogic Teaching and Conceptual Change in Science Education
Students’ construction of science concepts cannot be considered as separate from linguistic processes (Lemke,
1990). Students are constantly in interaction with activities, books, gestures, conversations, and mathematical
symbols while learning concepts (Airey & Linder, 2008). Language acts as a tool in meaning-making processes.
Students use language to think about their own and peers’ ideas and to talk about and discuss science concepts.
In other words, students construct scientific knowledge using various forms of language. Hence, some research-
ers (e.g., Scott, Mortimer, & Aguiar, 2006) have offered suggestions about the use of language in the scientific
knowledge-construction process. This use can take on the form of either a monolog or a dialog. In a monolog, the
teacher is dominant and knowledge is transmitted from the teacher to students, resulting in rote memorization.
In a dialogic environment, authority is shared between the teacher and students, and both teacher–student and
student–student interactions result in the construction of meaning (Alexander, 2008; Reznitskaya, 2012).
The scholars consider that students’ explanations about chemistry phenomena can be transformed into
scientific explanations via small-group and whole-class discourse (e.g., Varelas et al., 2006). In such dialogic envi-
ronments, students can benefit from argumentative virtues and structures (claims, justifications, rebuttals, etc.) in
order to collaboratively build scientific meanings (Erduran & Jimenez-Aleixandre, 2008; Kilinc et al., in press). The
trade-offs of justifications among the students and between the teacher and students have the potential to ease
conceptual change because such interactions are a natural part of construction of meanings about everyday life
(Tytler & Peterson, 2000).
Purpose and Research Questions
The aim of this research is to promote pre-service science teachers’ understandings about boiling by dialogic
teaching. The research aims to answer the following research questions:
1. What are the conceptual difficulties of pre-service science teachers about boiling?
2. Do dialogic interventions lead to conceptual change about boiling?
General Background
The research was conducted in the second semester of 2015-2016 academic term. Case study design was
used in this research. ‘Case study is used in many situations, to contribute our knowledge of individual, group,
organizational, social, political, and related phenomena’ (Yin, 2014, p. 4). In addition, a case can be an event or an
entity; a community’s decision and specific event can be included in a case study. However, boundaries should
be definite in order to consider something as a case. In this sense, the whole class, in which dialogic intervention
was conducted, was selected as the case. Another important point following the boundaries in case study is the
identification of units of analysis within cases such as topics, programs, and specific events (Yin, 2014). To this end,
the students’ explanations in the class where dialogic intervention was conducted were selected as the unit of
analysis. Because the context is unique and there is a single unit of analysis in this study, type of case study design
is a holistic single case study (Yin, 2014).
Context, Teacher and Participants
The research was conducted in a Turkish context with pre-service science teachers (PSTs). Looking at Turkish
context, those who want to become a science teacher need to apply to Faculties of Education at many universi-
ties and complete four-year education covering subject-matter courses (e.g., Physics), pedagogy courses (e.g.,
Educational Psychology) and subject-matter education courses (e.g., Science Teaching Methods). They complete
a two-step national examination and Turkish Higher Education Council (THEC) (2010) appoint them into the uni-
versities according to their examination scores. In addition, even though there is no any structured centralized
system for the content of university courses in Turkey, THEC (2010) has ascertained basic components of teacher
education courses in order to match this education with state school programs. However, teacher educators are
free to organize their own programs and course plans.
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A teacher education course was first selected in which a dialogic intervention can be applied on boiling topic.
The course ‘The Laboratory of Fundamentals of Chemistry (LFC)’ that was offered in the first year of all science
teacher education programs and that covered the unit of pressure and boiling was selected. This course is offered
in two classroom hours (1 classroom hour is 45 minutes) each week at one semester and used for helping PSTs to
better understand fundamental mechanisms and conceptions presented in one another course ‘The Fundamentals
of Chemistry (FC)’.
The convenience sampling that is one of the types of purposeful sampling was used in the present study (Cre-
swell, 2012). After designing the dialogic intervention by a structured course plan, the possible sample alternatives
within the researchers’ universities were considered. Even though both of the universities (Uludag and Hacettepe)
possessed similar infra structures and syllabuses, it was decided to select the sample from Uludag University
because first researcher was the teacher of the selected course and because he has taught same course for four
years. In addition, both Uludag (8th) and Hacettepe (7th) were in top 10 selected universities for the candidates of
teacher education.
Looking at the nature of science teacher education at Uludag University, consistent with constructivist ap-
proaches that were suggested by the THEC and adopted by the Turkish Ministry of Education, particularly science
teacher educators organize their courses based on conceptual development of PSTs and dialogic interactions among
them. At this point, first researcher is a research assistant who is about to complete his Ph D. His Ph D focuses on
science teachers’ belief systems regarding technology integration and he uses teachers’ classroom discourse as
the main data. In addition, first researcher participated in a nation-wide project focusing on the development of
argumentation skills of teachers and students. He applied many dialogic interventions in the course of LFC before
present study because he believed that dialogic interactions were crucial channels where conceptual problems could
be determined and corrected. In addition, the course covered the topics such as ‘Laboratory safety’, ‘Techniques in
Chemistry Lab.’, ‘Separation of Homogeneous Mixtures’, ‘Crystallization’, ‘Determination of a solution’s concentration’,
‘Heat relations’, ‘Melting Point’, ‘Boiling Point’, ‘Dissolution’‘Resolution’, ‘Acids and Bases’. The course was conducted
in the Chemistry Laboratory, where there were eight experiment desks surrounded by eight chairs in each.
The participants included 43 first-year PSTs (35 males and 8 females, aged 18 to 21 years) attending the course
of LFC organized by first researcher. The intervention was conducted in the topic ‘Boiling Point’ that was offered in
the seventh and eighth weeks of the semester (covering 14 weeks). Before beginning the intervention, the nature
of research and purpose was clearly explained and volunteer participation was emphasized. It was also stressed
that unless any participant wanted to join the study, it was considered to group them in one another laboratory
and continue routine teaching program with the help of one another research assistant. All of the participants
attending the course signed ethical approval documents and were willing to join the study.
Regarding the relationships between first researcher and the participants through the semester, first researcher
considered that he had good relations with PSTs. He tried to produce an interactive environment, where PSTs could
ask their questions at any time they wanted and they could interact with the others. Consistent with the records of
our intervention, first researcher also did not possess an authoritative identity and tried to ask open-ended ques-
tions that were not closely related to course content so the PSTs experienced cognitive conflicts and used their
critical thinking abilities. First researcher was also supporter of constructivist teaching because he believed that
these methodologies eased PSTs to connect their daily-life experiences with scientific mechanisms. In addition,
first researcher argued that he tried to uncover PSTs’ prior conceptions about any topic he taught and used these
conceptions as starting points for his further dialogic interactions.
Procedures
This research was carried out during regular classroom hours over a 2-week period. The classroom instruction
included two 45-min periods per week. A Prediction-Observation-Explanation activity, which has frequently been
used in previous conceptual change studies focusing on boiling topic (Costu, Ayas, & Niaz, 2012), was designed
using a dialogic teaching approach. Prior to the instruction, the instructor asked pre-service teachers to form their
own small groups. There were seven groups and six or seven individuals per group. For the first laboratory class,
the instructor chose a demonstration activity (Köseoğlu, Tümay, & Kavak, 2002) concerning the effect of pressure
on the boiling point of a liquid. Consistent with conceptual change theory (Strike & Posner, 1992), the purpose of
this open-ended activity was to elicit the PSTs’ prior conceptions about boiling through prediction and observa-
tion. The teacher also used these prior conceptions for the starting points of the whole class discussion. A flask of
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water is heated until it boils (Figure 1a). After it reaches its boiling point, the flask is stoppered and removed from
the heat source. The water vapor is trapped in the flask. When an ice pack is applied to the flask, the water boils
(Figure 1b). The cooling effect decreases the frequency of collision of gaseous molecules in the water; therefore,
the vapor pressure required to induce boiling is reduced and the water boils.
In the first two classroom hours, the aim was to elicit pre-service science teachers’ alternative conceptions
regarding boiling through prediction and observation phases of the demonstration activity. The procedure fol-
lowed in these phases was explained below.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Demonstration activity: (a) heating, (b) cooling.
1. Prediction Phase
The lecturer informed the class about the basic details of demonstration activity. Next, he completed the
first half of the demonstration (Figure 1a) described earlier. The lecturer then asked participants to predict what
would happen if an ice pack was applied to the flask. Pre-service science teachers discussed the demonstration in
their small groups and wrote out their predictions individually. This phase identified their existing conceptions (or
alternative conceptions) about boiling.
2. Observation Phase
To test their predictions, each group performed entire demonstration activity with the help of the instruc-
tor, repeating the first half of the procedure and then applying an ice pack to the flask. The students observed
the changes in the flask. They were surprised when the water inside the flask boiled again perhaps because most
of them believed that boiling does not occur without heat. Boiling events are usually related to the heating of a
substance. However, in this activity, the water inside the flask begins to boil without the aid of additional heat.
They then discussed what they had observed in their small groups. The instructor circulated through the groups,
monitored their discussions, and facilitated their thinking through questioning. At this stage, the instructor strived
to make participants aware of their conceptions and uncover what they already knew about boiling. In addition,
pre-service science teachers wrote their observations with explanations individually.
3. Explanation Phase
Upon the completion of observations, the instructor asked pre-service science teachers write their ideas on
the board and he then summarized what had been observed in the classroom. At the end of the class session,
the instructor listed and categorized the pre-service science teachers’ alternative conceptions about boiling into
four groups: pressure, heat and temperature, exothermic reaction, and formation and movement of bubbles. The
instructor verified these categories with the participants and then sought to create dialogic learning environments
that are specific to these conceptions during the next class hour.
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Based on Resnitskaya’s (2012) dialogic inquiry model, the students shared major responsibilities for the pro-
cess of discussions and the instructor shared his authority with them. He dialogically interacted with the students
regarding their explanations and conceptual categories so that they can reach intended scientific explanations. In
addition, the lecturer began with an open-ended questions to engage pre-service science teachers in talking about
what they understood and avoided asking questions that could be answered only as “yes” or “no.” After asking a
high-level question (e.g., Why does the water boil when ice is rubbed on the flask?), for example, he gave participants
time to deeply think. When it comes to feedbacks, he consistently played with the students’ answers in order to
inspire further explorations. He spontaneously assessed their claims and justifications and then continued asking
challenging questions to refute the alternative conceptions expressed. The instructor used different “moving on”
strategies such as restating, rephrasing, and redirecting questions for different purposes.
The lecturer used many argumentative structures such as claims, evidence, justifications and rebuttals and
turned them to question forms (what do you think?, how do you support what you have said? Do you have any
evidence? Is there anyone considering a limitation in this evidence?, etc.) so the students build strong explana-
tions and arguments. In addition, for connecting students’ ideas and construction of ideas, the instructor redirected
pre-service science teachers’ answers back to the class, asking “Is there any different idea?” or “Do you agree with
your classmate”? When the students failed to answer a high-level question or could not agree each other after a
period of discussion, the instructor did not reveal the answer but instead offered hints to push the dialogic learning
process forward until a consensus was attained. Upon the completion of the dialogic intervention, participants
were asked to write down their final explanations.
Data Collection
The data consisted of both written texts and audio recordings. Pre-service science teachers’ written texts were
obtained from their prediction, observation and explanation phases of the demonstration activity. These texts
were used for determination of conceptual difficulties and for pursuing the possible changes after the interven-
tions. In addition, audio recordings of the dialogic interventions were used to better understand the influence of
dialogic interventions.
Data Analysis
The pre-service science teachers’ written texts were interpreted by content analysis using grounded theory
procedures (Patton, 2002). Open, axial and selective codes were used in this analysis (Patton, 2002). The conceptual
difficulties that were uncovered were grouped into two categories: superficial understanding (SU) and alternative
conception (AC) (Calik, 2008; Zoller, 1996). In addition, we uncovered intended scientific understandings (ISU) in
the texts (Ozbas & Kilinc, 2015). Coding categories were both drawn from the related literature deductively (e.g.,
Asterhan & Schwartz, 2009a; Calık, 2008) and inductively developed by the authors. In addition, because the
language is crucial in dialogic interventions and conceptual analyses, we first analyzed PTs’ dialogic exchanges
and conceptions in Turkish and we then translated our main findings to English. It was also benefited from the
suggestions of a bilingual science educator in terms of translation issues.
Trustworthiness
To ensure the trustworthiness of the present research, triangulation and interrater reliability were used (Lin-
coln & Guba, 1985).
1. Triangulation
Categories were formed using pre-service science teachers’ written texts and transcripts of audio recordings.
Data from the written texts were mainly used to identify categories while audio recordings were used to confirm
the categories. For instance, four categories were identified based on written texts. Using the audio recordings, a
review was conducted to reveal whether there was an opinion that was mentioned during the process but was
not written. Categorizations were finalized after they were confirmed by the audio recordings.
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2. Interrater reliability
Pre-service science teachers’ predictions, observations, and explanations were evaluated by two independent
researchers in the form of raw data. The researchers assigned independent categories in relation to predictions,
observations, and explanations. The overall agreement attained by the researchers was over 90% after coding. The
researchers iteratively discussed discrepancies in these categories until they reached consensus.
Results of Research
Pre-service science teachers’ conceptual difficulties about boiling were determined in the phases of predic-
tion and observation. Table 2 shows that participants possessed a range of ACs and SUs about pressure, heat and
temperature, exothermic reactions, or the formation and movement of bubbles. In addition, there was not any
expected ISU at these stages.
Table 2. Conceptual difficulties about boiling.
Category Pre-service Teacher
Alternative Conceptions (AC)

Related to pressure
•• Amount of water vapor increases and water boils p6, p31
•• When the heat increases, the volume of the water increases and pressure decreases p19, p21, p22, p23
•• The water boils when the external pressure increases with the cooling effect p2, p3, p4, p6, p17, p18, p29, p30
Related to heat and temperature
•• The water boils because of vaporization p27, p28, p37
•• When the vaporized air encounters cold water, it condenses, turns back to water and the p12, p13
water boils
•• Boiling does not occur because heat is required for boiling p14, p15
•• Boiling does not occur; the condensed water particles turn back to the surface of the water p1, p5, p7, p11
as it rains
Related to exothermic reaction
•• As water vapor condenses, exothermic reaction takes place and water boils because of the p36, p38
released heat
Related to formation and movement of bubbles
•• In fact, boiling does not occur. Gas molecules condense with cold water and water bubbles p33, p35
in the flask move upward because of an empty space above the liquid
Superficial Understanding(SU)
Related to pressure
•• Water boils when internal and external pressures are equal. p8, p16, p24, p26, p32
•• The water boils when the water vapor pressure gets equal to external pressure. p39, p40, p41, p42, p43
Note: Four participants (p9, p10, p20, p34) did not write anything.
The Impacts of Dialogic Interventions on Conceptual Difficulties
Table 3 displays that most of the conceptual difficulties were treated by dialogic interventions conducted by
the instructor. In other words, most of the participants experienced conceptual change from ACs and SUs through
ISUs. The percentage for ACs, for example, decreased from 66 % to 7 %. Similarly the percentage for SUs decreased
from 24 % to 3 %.
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Table 3. The descriptive changes in PSTs’ conceptions before and after dialogic intervention.
Before Dialogic Intervention After Dialogic Intervention

Categories
N % N %
AC 28 66 3 7
SU 10 24 1 3
ISU - - 38 90
NA 4 10 - -
TP 42 100 42 100
* AC: Alternative Conception, SU: Superficial Understanding, ISU: Intended Scientific Understanding, NA: No Answer, TP: Total Popula-
tion
As shown in Table 4, even though this type of dialogic interventions was successful in correcting most of the
conceptual difficulties, there were several ACs that could not easily be fixed.
Table 4. The changes about conceptual difficulties after dialogic intervention.
Conceptions Before Dialogic Int. Conceptions After Dialogic Int.
Related to Pressure
AC. Amount of water vapor pressure increases AC. I think that boiling point is related to heat and pressure. The pressure is inversely proportional to
and water boils (p6, p31) the temperature. When the internal and external pressures are equal and the temperature is reduced, a
boiling event occurs (P6).
AC. When the heat increases, the volume of
ISU. I thought that boiling was related only to pressure. But, boiling is also related to temperature.
the water increases and pressure decreases
When the glass flask was exposed to the cold water, the pressure of water vapor decreased and the
(p19, p21, p22, p23)
water boiled (P31).
AC. The water boils when the external pres- SU. A difference in pressure (water vapor) takes place by heating water, and (we see that water is con-
sure increases with the cooling effect (p2, p3, densed by reducing the pressure under cold water). We only have confusion about what the pressure is.
p4, p17, p18, p29, p30) I confirmed the theoretical part of the experiment (P9).
ISU. When the glass flask was exposed to the cold water, heat transfer took place. Boiling occurs at
the lower temperature because the number of moving particles in the glass flask is reduced. That is,
the number of particles impacting the glass flask is reduced). Thus, the pressure decreases and boiling
takes place (P2, p3, p30
P4, p18).
ISU. I thought that boiling was related only to pressure. But, boiling is also related to temperature. when
the glass flask was exposed to the cold water, the pressure of water vapor decreased and the water
boiled (P17,p29, p19, p20, p21, p22, p23)
Related to heat and temperature
AC. The water boils because of vaporization ISU. When the glass flask was exposed to the cold water, heat transfer took place. Boiling
(p27, p28, p37) occurs at the lower temperature because the number of moving particles in the glass flask is
reduced. That is, the number of particles impacting the glass flask is reduced. Thus, the pressure
AC. When the vaporized air encounters cold decreases, boiling takes place (p27, p15, p1).
water, it condenses, turns back to water and the
water boils (p12, p13)
ISU. Pressure effects boiling as well as temperature. As pressure decreases boiling point
decreases.(p11, p12, p13, p14,p28,p37)
AC. Boiling does not occur because heat is
required for boiling (p14, p15)
AC. I think that boiling point is related to heat and pressure. The pressure is inversely proportional
AC. Boiling does not occur; the condensed, to the temperature). When the internal and external pressures are equal and the temperature is
water particles turn back to the surface of the reduced, a boiling event occurs (P5, p7).
water as it rains (p1, p5, p7, p11)
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Related to exothermic reaction

AC. As water vapor condenses, exothermic ISU. When the glass flask was exposed to the cold water, heat transfer took place. Boiling
reaction takes place and water boils because of occurs at the lower temperature because the number of moving particles in the glass flask is
the released heat (p36, p38) reduced. That is, the number of particles impacting the glass flask is reduced). Thus, the pressure
decreases and boiling takes place (P36, p25).
ISU. My argument is refuted. Because water vapor is trapped inside the glass flask when we put
a stopper on the end of it. Cooling effect causes water vapor to condense. However, heat released
from condensation cannot boil water inside the glass flask because heat can be transferred both
into and outside of the glass flask.
Related to formation and movement of bubbles

AC. In fact, boiling does not occur. Gas ISU. I recognized that temperature is not sole effect on boiling. When we put a stopper on the
molecules condense with cold water and water end of the glass flask, water vapor pressure occurs inside the flask. When we applied an ice pack
bubbles in the flask move upward because of to the flask, both temperature and pressure decreased. Water boiled again due to decrease in
an empty space above the liquid (p33, p35) pressure. In conclusion, water can boil at a lower temperature at lower pressures.
Related to pressure
SU. Water boils when internal and external ISU. When the glass flask was exposed to the cold water, heat transfer took place. Boiling
pressures are equal (p8, p16, p24, p26, p32) occurs at the lower temperature because the number of moving particles in the glass flask is
reduced. That is, the number of particles impacting the glass flask is reduced). Thus, the pressure
SU. Water boils so that the water vapor pres- decreases and boiling takes place (p8, p24, p32, p26, p34, p16, p39, p40, p41, p42, p43).
sure increases with external pressure (p39, p40,
p41, p42, p43)
Note: One participant p10 did not write anything.
Because all dialogic interventions that the instructor conducted had a similar nature, an example excerpt was
presented in Figure 2 displaying conceptual change for an AC after dialogic intervention. The nature of the impact
of dialogic intervention on conceptual change was discussed in the next section.
Before Dialogic Intervention Dialogic Intervention After Dialogic Intervention
Figure 2: An excerpt of the dialogical intervention aiming to treat alternative conceptions about boiling in
relation to pressure.
L = lecturer, P = pre-service teacher, Class: A great majority of the participants reached a consensus.
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Discussion
Consistent with existent literature (Costu, 2008; Çalık, 2008; Paik, 2015), the present study showed that pre-
service science teachers possessed a range of ACs and SUs about boiling. Looking at ACs that are particularly related
to macro level (i.e., sensual changes) (Unal, Calik, Ayas, & Coll, 2006), we can argue that most of the participants
could easily envisage joint existence of water vapor, heat and boiling and condensing vaporized air when it en-
counters cold water. Perhaps some hands-on experience at home, school and the nature fosters this conceptual
ecology. However, these seemingly correct networks seem to be main sources of certain ACs such as ‘amount of
water vapor increases and water boils’, ‘the water boils because of vaporization’, ‘boiling does not occur because
heat is required for boiling’, ‘boiling does not occur; the condensed water particles turn back to the surface of the
water as it rains’ and ‘boiling does not occur. Gas molecules condense with cold water and water bubbles in the
flask move upward because of an empty space above the liquid’. In addition, some participants combined these
macro-level images with certain correct reasoning that were learned in classroom environments. The ACs ‘As water
vapor condenses, exothermic reaction takes place and water boils because of released heat’ exemplified this type
of combination. Even though they correctly know that exothermic reaction resulted in heat, they benefitted from
this reasoning in incorrect place. In addition, we believe that symbolic level interpretations (Unal, Calik, Ayas, &
Coll, 2006) may be responsible for certain incorrect conceptual relationships. Ideal gas equation (P.V= n.R.T.) seems
to be incorrectly used by some participants. The AC ‘when the heat increases, the volume of the water increases
and pressure decreases’, for example, showed that some participants confused the causation between the com-
ponents in both sides of the equation.
Some participants had SUs about boiling point and pressure. They stated such ideas as “water boils when
internal and external pressures are equal” and “the water boils when the water vapor pressure gets equal to external
pressure”. These participants did not explain what they meant by internal and external pressure or the relation-
ship between pressure and boiling point. Although they were approaching to the desired answer, they still could
not completely grasp the concept (Canpolat & Pınarbaşı, 2012). This finding may imply that these students might
mechanically memorize these statements or try to use them as they were included in textbooks (De Posada, 1999)
and that they could not transit these conceptual networks to specific cases.
The Impacts of Dialogic Interventions on Conceptual Difficulties
Present study showed that most of the conceptual difficulties were treated by dialogic interventions. This result
is consistent with many previous findings (e.g., Asterhan & Schwarz, 2009a, 2009b; Cardetti & Orgnero, 2013; Calık,
2008; Dillon, 2008). For moving this body of knowledge one step further, we took a closer look at the impacts of
dialogic interventions on the conceptual difficulties. Figure 2 displays that the pre-service science teachers had an
AC (water boils because of an increase in water vapor pressure) due to a wrongly structured justification. When the
teacher asked the pre-service science teachers to elicit their justifications, he noticed that some were not aware of
the relationships between pressure and boiling point. Therefore, he waited for having a pressure-related answer.
He then asked further questions to get a clear description about pressure because he was willing to use it as first
justification component (A force exerted on a surface per unit area). After that, he was willing to connect this
component molecules’ behaviors and asked further questions to get second justification component (Molecules
collide once pressure increases). He then hunted for the third component which was the relationship between
collision and heat by new questions. After that, he turned back the case (What happens once we heat the flask?) so
that pre-service teachers could build a conclusion based on previous three components. He was also willing to use
this (fourth) component for the following step. Once pre-service teachers correctly answered the question about
the relationship between heat and molecule movements in the flask, he asked them to conclude (or produce an
ISU) what happened once heat was transferred between cold water and flask, using previous four components.
Looking at ISU emerged from same pre-service science teacher’s written text after dialogic teaching, it was clearly
seen that the participants used the justification components that were emerged during classroom discussion.
Table 4 shows that dialogic interventions were successful in fixing most of the conceptual difficulties; how-
ever, several ACs were resistant to change. Looking at these ACs (Amount of water vapor increases and water
boils; Boiling does not occur, the condensed water particles turn back to the surface of the water as it rains) and
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follow up AC (I think that boiling point is related to heat and pressure. The pressure is inversely proportional to the
temperature…) after dialogic intervention (please see Figure 2), we can argue that these pre-service teachers were
struggled to understand the relationship between heat and pressure. When we listened to the dialogic interventions
after getting this result, we noticed that these sections (or justification component building moments) included
limited trade-offs between students and were realized at the end of the course. Perhaps certain pre-service sci-
ence teachers could not have an opportunity to express these conceptual understandings because the instructor
interacted with the whole class at the end.
Conclusions and Implications
The present research showed that dialogic interventions promoted pre-service science teachers’ conceptual
understandings about boiling point. There are two important implications that present study could suggest. First,
dialogic teaching interventions can be a part of science educators’ (academics and science teachers) routine teach-
ing because they can ease the conceptual change procedures even in highly misunderstood topics such as boiling.
The nature of dialog and dialogic inquiry is crucial at this point. When the teacher is aware of argument structures
(justification components and conclusions/claims) and associates these structures with the subject matter, he/
she has huge potential to get positive results. Therefore, we suggest program developers and teacher educators
to incorporate dialogic teaching procedures into their teacher education programs so that future teachers may
have the chance to correct conceptual difficulties of students. Dialogic inquiry components (authority, questions,
feedback, connection among students’ answers, explanation and collaboration), argument structures (claim, justifi-
cation, evidence, etc.), speaking moves and discussion culture can be a part of such programs. Second, the dialogic
interventions need to be efficiently planned, considering each section of the classroom course. Even though they
seem to be successful, the teachers need to be persistent on speaking moves through the whole classroom session.
Limitations and Future Research
Present research included two limitations. First, it is related to generalization of our interpretations based on
present findings. Even though the main goal was to contribute to theoretical components (Yin, 2014) regarding
the impacts of dialogic intervention on conceptual change process, further studies covering bigger samples with
quantitative methodologies may enhance the body of knowledge produced here. Second, the conceptual difficul-
ties before and after the dialogic intervention were compared and it was found a considerable development. The
impact of dialogic exchanges on conceptual development was also investigated via a micro-analytic approach.
Such research particularly focusing on the conceptual development during dialogic interactions can be repeated
in order to enhance the reliability of our interpretations.
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Received: April 20, 2017 Accepted: July 02, 2017
Mehmet Demirbağ Uludag University, Faculty of Education, Department of Science

Education, Bursa, Turkey
E-mail: mtdemirbag@uludag.edu.tr
Sevgi Kıngır Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary
Education, Ankara, Turkey.
E-mail: ksevgi@hacettepe.edu.tr
471
EXAMINATION OF CHEMICAL
REPRESENTATIONS IN TURKISH
HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY
TEXTBOOKS
Abstract. The aim of this research was to Betül Demirdöğen

examine the chemical representations that
are present in Turkish high school chemistry
textbooks. Content analysis was the meth-
od of analysis. Four chemistry textbooks,
which were commonly used in Turkey, for
each grade (i.e., from 9th to 12th), were Introduction
selected. When evaluating the representa-
tions, a rubric including five main criteria In many high school chemistry courses, chemistry textbooks often lead
was used: (1) type of representation, (2) teachers when they decide what chemical concepts they teach and the order
interpretation of representations’ surface of teaching these concepts (Justi & Gilbert, 2002; Drechsler & Schmidt, 2005).
features, (3) representations’ relatedness Relying on textbooks’ influence on teaching, textbooks are written assuming
to text, (4) properties of representations’ that most students (Chiang-Soong & Yager, 1993) and teachers can com-
caption, and (5) degree of correlation be- prehend them. On the contrary, researchers have shown that use of vague
tween subordinates comprising a multiple language in textbooks can cause student misconceptions in chemistry (e.g.,
representation. The results of the research for electrochemistry see Sanger & Greenbowe, 1999; for chemical equilibrium
revealed that the chemical representations see Pedrosa & Dias, 2000; for chemical bonding see Bergqvist, Drechsler, De
used in the textbooks are mainly macro- Jong, & Rundgren, 2013). In addition to language used, how the information
scopic, symbolic, and hybrid. Majority of is presented is of crucial importance in students’ learning. When information
the representations had explicit surface is presented with text only, students have difficulties in remembering (Mayer,
features and appropriate captions. Moreo- 2002) and comprehending the material (Carney & Levin, 2002).
ver, they were completely related to the text. Chemistry as a discipline of science is both abstract and multi-rep-
Most of the multiple representations had resentational (i.e., macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic) in nature
sufficient links between their subordinates. (Johnstone, 2000a, 2000b; Talanquer, 2011; Taber, 2013). However, multi-
Recommendations for textbook writers and representational nature of chemistry compensates the limitations of its ab-
future research are provided. stract nature. Research evidences have clearly indicated that using multiple
Keywords: chemistry textbooks, chemi- representations when presenting information increases conceptual under-
cal representations, generic qualitative standing (Ainsworth, 2006), comprehension, and remembering (Carney &
research, content analysis. Levin, 2002). Representations also have become ‘‘…one of the most pervasive
and visible elements of the modern-day science textbook’’ (Lee, 2010, p. 1099)
and chemistry textbooks (Gkitzia, Salta, & Tzougraki, 2011). More importantly,
well-designed textbooks in terms of visuals are beneficial for students to
understand the difficult concepts as well as to avoid misconceptions (Khine,
2013). However, representations have potential to create confusion (Stern &
Roseman, 2004) and might limit students’ learning when excessively used
(Woodward, 1993). Therefore, representations should be used in caution.
Bearing these issues in mind, the aim of this research was to investigate the
Betül Demirdöğen types and characteristics of representations (i.e., interpretation of surface
Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey features, relation to the text, the properties of captions, and degree of cor-
relation between representations) in high school chemistry textbooks (i.e.,
from 9th to 12th) in Turkey.
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TEXTBOOKS
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 472-499)
Theoretical Framework
Representations in Chemistry
Chemistry is abstract in nature (Taber, 2013) and “understanding chemistry relies on making sense of the
invisible and the untouchable” (Kozma & Russell, 1997, p. 949). By the use of representations, “…chemists are able
to visualize, discuss, and understand the molecules and chemical processes that account for the more perceivable
reagents and phenomena they observe…” (Kozma & Russel, 2005, p. 130). Although termed differently, macroscopic,
submicroscopic, and symbolic representations have been pointed out as major levels in chemistry (Johnstone, 1993,
2000a, 2000b; Gabel, 1999; Gilbert & Treagust, 2009; Justi & Gilbert, 2003; Liu & Taber, 2016; Taber, 2013; Talanquer,
2011). Johnstone (2000a) explicitly argued that these three forms of representation could be thought as corners of
a triangle. He elaborated his argument by advocating that any form is not superior to another rather each comple-
ments the other forms. Even though it might seem that chemists and chemistry educators agreed upon the levels
to represent chemical knowledge, all components have been subject to different interpretations (Talanquer, 2011).
Macroscopic level is the level of chemistry, which can be observed and studied (Gabel, 1999). It is also de-
fined as the form of subject, which is tangible: what can be seen, touched, and smelt (Johnstone, 2000b). That is,
macroscopic level is accessible to human sense and chemistry is experiential at this level. Gilbert and Treagust’s
(2009) definition also points out “experience” and “sense” properties for macroscopic representations. For example,
the disappearance of solid sodium chloride in water is an example of macroscopic level for dissolving (Tan, Goh,
Chia, & Treagust, 2009). Some differentiated macroscopic level from other levels by defining macroscopic as real
and visible in terms of perception (Davidowitz & Chittleborough, 2009). They defined submicroscopic as real but
too small to be seen with the naked eye. While Davidowitz and Chittleborough (2009) described macroscopic and
submicroscopic as real, they defined symbolic as representation instead of real. In terms of perception, submicro-
scopic and symbolic levels are perceived via mental images and models. Different than those, others described
macroscopic representations as the observable bulk properties of matter such as heat energy, pH and colour changes,
and the formation of gases and precipitates (Treagust & Chandrasegaran, 2009). There has been a definition for
macroscopic representations combining the aforementioned descriptions (i.e., observable and bulk properties).
They advocated that macroscopic level includes both the actual phenomena and the concepts used to describe
them (Dori & Hameiri, 2003; Hinton & Nakhleh, 1999).
Submicroscopic is defined as the level of representation where the behaviour of substances is interpreted in
terms of the unseen and molecular (Johnstone, 2000a, 2000b). For example, using models of sodium ions, chloride
ions, and water molecules to represent how water molecules hydrate these ions refers to submicroscopic level
of dissolving. Atoms, molecules, ions, and structures are given as examples although structures are not explicitly
defined. Differently, Treagust and Chandrasegaran (2009) emphasized the explanatory nature of submicroscopic
representations at particulate level where matter is described as being composed of atoms, molecules, and ions.
Taber (2013) also highlighted this by advocating that learners can give meaning to macroscopic concepts through
submicroscopic theoretical models. Gilbert and Treagust (2009) stressed that submicroscopic representations seek
to support a qualitative explanation for the phenomena experienced with senses, which refers to macroscopic
(Gilbert & Treagust, 2009). Although Bucat and Mocerino (2009) agreed with others on what submicroscopic repre-
sentations include (e.g., atoms, ions, and molecules), they focused on its imaginative nature similar to Taber (2013)
who used the term “submicroscopic theoretical entities”. On the contrary, Davidowitz and Chittleborough (2009)
defined submicroscopic as real, similar to macroscopic level, but too small to be seen. Also, Wu and Shah (2004)
advocated that submicroscopic representations portray the structure and movement of the real particles of matter
(e.g., atoms, molecules, ions, and electrons), which are too tiny to be observed. Examples of models representing
particles at submicroscopic level are given as ball and stick-, the space filling- and the stick-structures (Gkitzia
et al., 2011). However, stick structures especially the ones representing molecular geometry have also symbolic
representations in nature, which will be explained in the next paragraph.
Johnstone (1993, 2000a, 2000b) gave examples of symbolic representations as symbols, formula, equations,
molarity stoichiometry, mathematical manipulation, and graphs. Gilbert (2005) elaborated mathematical expres-
sions as mathematical equations such as the universal gas law and the reaction rate laws. Gilbert and Tragust
(2009) defined symbolic level as seeking to support a quantitative explanation of macroscopic phenomena. Gabel
(1999) gave only chemical symbols, chemical formulas, and chemical equations as examples of symbolic level rep-
resentations without mentioning mathematical ones. Some scholars have also examined symbolic system in two
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levels, which are chemical and algebraic (Nakhleh & Krajcik, 1994). At chemical level, substances and processes are
symbolized using chemical language and drawings. Relationships between the properties of matter are expressed
using formulas and graphs in algebraic level. Different than the aforementioned scholars giving popular examples
of symbolic representations (e.g., element symbols [Fe] and chemical formulas [H2O]), Taber (2009) gave specific
examples of symbolic representations in chemistry (e.g., reaction mechanisms, Lewis structures, the letters used
for atomic number (A), and constants such as Ksp). Although signs are used to symbolize chemical substances
and processes in some occasions, the signs have both symbolic and iconic nature (Hoffmann & Laszlo, 1991). For
instance, structural formulas are utilized to represent molecular geometry. These formulas include the types of
atoms and bonds represented as symbols. However, the drawing of structural formulas gives an iconic impression
as it purposes to portray the three-dimensional structure of the molecule. Consequently, Talanquer (2011) defined
these kinds of representations as hybrid since they have both semi-symbolic and semi-iconic nature.
Literature Review
Studies about High School Chemistry Textbooks in Turkey
Research studies conducted about high school chemistry textbooks in Turkey could be examined under
two headings: (1) teachers’ use of textbooks and (2) content analysis of textbooks with respect to several aspects.
Researchers in the first category mostly used scales and interviews to examine how chemistry teachers use
textbooks (Akkuş, Üner, & Kazak, 2014; Aydın, 2010; Eroğlu, Akarsu, & Bektaş, 2015; Nakiboğlu, 2009). Major findings
of these studies revealed that chemistry teachers utilize textbooks when they plan their instruction and choose
experiments and activities. However, experienced teachers prefer to use textbooks less because of the state-
wide examinations for university entrance (Nakiboğlu, 2009). In terms of their opinion, chemistry teachers find
the number and quality of representations not satisfactory (Akkuş et al., 2014; Eroğlu et al., 2015). Nevertheless,
chemistry teachers expressed that they use visuals and representations in chemistry textbooks during instruction
(Eroğlu et al., 2015).
Scientific process skills (Koray, Bağçe-Bahadır, & Geçgin, 2006; Şen & Nakiboğlu, 2014), nature of science
(NOS) (Aydın & Tortumlu, 2015), inscriptions in chemical reactions (Aydın, Sinha, izci, & Volkmann, 2014), nature
of questions in gas laws (Nakiboğlu & Yıldırır, 2011), and semantic mistakes in the amount of substance (Pekdağ
& Azizoğlu, 2013) were the aspects that have been taken into consideration during content analysis of chemistry
textbooks. In terms of scientific process skills, activities and experiments in chemistry textbooks engage students
in basic skills such as observation and measurement (Koray et al., 2006; Şen & Nakiboğlu, 2014). A recent research,
which investigated the inclusion of NOS in chemistry textbooks, indicated that the number of NOS aspects men-
tioned decreased from ninth to twelfth grade (Aydın & Tortumlu, 2015). Chemistry textbooks mostly focused on
the tentativeness, the empirical-based, and the difference between observation and inference. When focusing
on these aspects, chemistry textbooks employed the implicit approach to teach NOS. Another research investi-
gating high school chemistry textbook questions in gas laws chapter revealed that most of the questions were
algorithmic (63%) and there were lower number of conceptual questions (33%) than algorithmic (Nakiboğlu &
Yıldırır, 2011). Conceptual questions did not include representations in submicroscopic level, whereas laboratory
and demonstration questions were more prevalent in textbooks. There have been only two studies considering
representations in high school chemistry textbooks in the topic of chemical reactions (Aydın et al., 2014) and
amount of substance (Pekdağ & Azizoğlu, 2013). In the amount of substance, researchers found that chemistry
textbooks included concepts that are missed at some levels of chemistry and used representations mistakenly. In
the chemical reactions (Aydın et al., 2014), chemistry textbooks included symbolic representations the most (47%).
Percentages for macroscopic (35%) and multiple representations were lower (12%) than symbolic. Although there
have been attempts to investigate representations in chemistry textbooks, they are limited to certain topics. With
these considerations, the importance of this research lies in the scope since it examines representations utilized
in commonly used high school chemistry textbooks in all grade levels (i.e., from ninth to twelfth).
Studies about Representations in Chemistry Textbooks
This literature review focuses on the ones investigating representations in chemistry textbooks either in high
school or college level. When the studies in the literature from this perspective were reviewed, three categories
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emerged under which these studies could be grouped: (1) representations used in chemistry textbooks, (2) repre-
sentations used in some chemistry topics, and (3) representations used in questions.
Studies in the first category focused on analysing representations either in high school (Chiappetta, Sethna, &
Fillman, 1991; Gkitzia et al., 2011; Harrison, 2001; Shehab & BouJaoude, 2016) or in college chemistry textbooks (Kumi,
Olimpo, Bartlett, & Dixon, 2013; Nyachwaya & Gillaspie, 2016; Nyachwaya & Wood, 2014). Chiappetta et al. (2011)
were interested in number of pictures/diagrams in seven high school chemistry textbooks. Analysis results showed
that average number of pictures/diagrams per chapter ranged between 10 and 25. Harrison (2001) investigated
models used in Australian high school chemistry textbooks and found that iconic and symbolic models were used
mostly. Two of the studies in high school chemistry category were interested in the same features of representa-
tions (e.g., type of representation and representations’ relation to the text) and used same rubric including criteria
for evaluation (Gkitzia et al., 2011; Shehab & BouJaoude, 2016). Gkitzia el al. (2011) analysed tenth grade Greek
chemistry textbooks and found that macroscopic, submicroscopic, symbolic, and multiple representations were
frequently used. In the research conducted by Shehab and BouJaoude (2016) with the tenth, the eleventh, and the
twelfth grade Lebanese high school chemistry textbooks, it was revealed that Lebanese chemistry textbooks were
focused on macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic levels. In terms of other features analysed, both studies found
similar results. Nearly two thirds of the representations were problematic since interpretation of surface features
were left to the readers and one third of them had explicitly mentioned surface features. In terms of relation to the
text, majority of the representations were completely related to the text. Also, most of the representations were
appropriately captioned. With respect to a degree of correlation, more than half of the multiple representations did
not indicate the equivalence between subordinate representations. Nyachwaya and Wood (2014) also evaluated
representations in physical chemistry textbooks in college level by utilizing the same rubric developed by Gkitzia
et al. (2011). Symbolic representations were used the most and it was followed by submicroscopic representations
in physical chemistry textbooks. Moreover, the use of macroscopic representations were the least while mixed and
hybrid representations did not exist. Vast majority of all representations had explicit surface features and were
completely related to the text. Captions of all representations were appropriate for students to comprehend. In a
recent research, Nyachwaya and Gillaspie (2016) examined representations in general chemistry textbooks with
regard to number of representation, physical integration to the text, figure indexing, extended captions, labelling,
representation function, and conceptual integration. Majority of the representations were representational, which
presents the information in a new way. Also, 80% of representations in all textbooks were directly integrated and
had captions. In terms of indexing, high proportion of representations were either indexed on a different page or
not indexed at all. Another research in college level used a self-designed rubric to evaluate whether Newman (NPs)
and Fischer Projections (FPs) are accurately introduced, constructed, and represented in seven frequently used
organic chemistry textbooks (Kumi et al., 2013). Findings indicated introduction of both NPs and FPs were average.
Construction of diagrams for NPs was better than it was for FPs. Success of representation of NPs throughout the
text was mediocre while FPs were more successively represented.
Researchers investigating representations in some chemistry topics mostly focused on whether representa-
tions cause misconception (Bergqvist et al., 2013; Pedrosa & Dias, 2000; Sanger & Greenbowe, 1999). They were
interested in type of representations in the topic less (Aydın et al., 2014; Pekdağ & Azizoğlu, 2013). Sanger and
Greenbowe (1999) analysed the language and representations used in electrochemistry and oxidation-reduction
chapters in college chemistry textbooks. Their findings revealed that macroscopic and symbolic representations
might lead students to have misconceptions in electrochemistry. For instance, macroscopic drawing of cells and
cell notation depicted by symbols imply that the anode and cathode depend on the physical placement of the
half-cells. Another research focusing on chemical equilibrium advocated that high school and university chemistry
textbooks’ approaches to chemical equilibrium have potential to prevent students to reach conceptual understand-
ing since they reduce it to a world of symbols and equations (Pedrosa & Dias, 2000). Similarly, representations of
chemical bonding models might cause students to have alternative conceptions and difficulties in understanding
chemical bonding (Bergqvist et al., 2013). For instance, for ionic and covalent bonding, upper secondary school
chemistry textbooks use representations showing interactions between discrete atoms while the reactants actually
are composed of molecules or lattice structure.
Studies in the third category were either interested in the use of representations in questions of a particular
chemistry topic (Gillette & Sanger, 2014; Nakiboğlu & Yıldırır, 2011) or end of the chapter questions in all topics
(Davila & Talanquer, 2010). Gillette and Sanger (2014) examined the distribution of representations used in ques-
tions in gas law chapters of four high school and four college chemistry textbooks. They found that quantitative
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questions (N=1573) only used symbolic representations, whereas distribution of qualitative questions (N=740)
in these textbooks was not significantly different based on representation types used in these questions. The
percentage for the use of macroscopic representation was 37, whereas it was 33 and 30 for submicroscopic and
symbolic representations respectively. Different than this research, Davila and Talanquer (2010) investigated types
of questions at the end of chapter in three most used general chemistry textbooks in America. A total of 19.844
questions were analysed. Questions that require students to translate between representations or to represent and
interpret information in graphical or symbolic form were few (i.e., percentages of these kind of questions ranged
between .4 and 1.3).
The Present Research
“In discussing chemical education, the analysis of textbooks is of pivotal importance because they are the
most widely and frequently used teaching aid at all educational levels” (Justi & Gilbert, 2003, p. 57). Teachers utilize
textbooks as a principal reference when they think about the content and choose activities (Sánchez & Valcárcel,
1999). Moreover, textbooks may act as an alternative source of information when the teacher is unavailable (Har-
rison, 2001) and students perceive textbooks as a very important part of their science education (Tulip & Cook,
1993). Hence, it is important to analyze textbooks to see the degree to which they can act as an alternative source.
Based on the available data suggesting that textbooks are important for both teachers and students, authors
write textbooks assuming that most students at a given grade level can comprehend them (Chiang-Soon & Yager,
1993). Even though textbooks including various types of representations are an important source for both learners
(Devetak & Vogrinc, 2013) and teachers (Carvalho & Clement, 2007), the reading of these representations is not
at all trivial for students (Stylianidou, 2002). Moreover, students may have misconceptions if they are left with the
task of interpreting representations (Chittleborough & Treagust, 2008). Consistently, it is suggested that teachers
need to put effort explaining the meaning of the representations to students (Stylianidou, 2002) since the mean-
ing of a representation is not rooted in the representation itself instead is ascribed to the use of representation
in practice (Kozma & Russel, 2005). For increasing the contribution of textbooks to the use of representation in
practice, research suggested that linked referential connections should be made visible and information should be
made explicit for decreasing students’ cognitive load (Wu & Shah, 2004). With these considerations, this research
attempted to analyze the quality of captions, relation to the text, interpretation of surface features, and degree of
correlation between subordinate representations to see the degree to which they ease students’ cognitive load.
Finally, there have been some efforts in analyzing representations in high school chemistry textbooks with
respect to some chemistry topics (e.g., chemical reactions, Aydın et al., 2014; amount of substance Pekdağ & Azizoğlu,
2013) and questions in a particular topic (i.e., gas laws, Nakiboğlu & Yıldırır, 2011) in Turkey. This research fulfills the
lack of studies investigating representations used in Turkish high school chemistry textbooks. Moreover, this research
focuses on the analysis of four chemistry textbooks (i.e., one chemistry textbook for each grade; from 9th to 12th)
assigned by the National Ministry of Education (NME) as the primary textbook in all high schools. In other words,
millions of students use these four textbooks as the primary source of nearly all information about chemistry. Also,
analyzed chemistry textbooks include all chemistry topics that students are expected to learn during their high
school education. Therefore, this research provides information about how Turkish chemistry textbooks including
chapters about all topics contribute to Turkish students’ learning through the use of representations. By doing so,
it tried to respond Han and Roth’s call (2006) that was “because of possible contextual factors, more research is
therefore required focusing on science textbook inscriptions in different cultures and subject matters” (p. 176).
There are possible limitations inherent in this research. First, this research was interested in representations
present in four Turkish chemistry textbooks (i.e., one textbook from each grade), used throughout 2015-2016 school
semester. However, chemistry textbooks are distributed to schools by NME and utilized across the Turkey. That
is, millions of students utilize these four textbooks as the main source of almost all information about chemistry.
Hence, the conclusions drawn from this research are beneficial to all students and chemistry teachers. Nevertheless,
it would be valuable to analyze chemistry textbooks of other Turkish textbook publishers to reach conclusions that
have a high generalizability degree. One can think this research is a first attempt for this kind of research. Second,
representations were analyzed from chemical education researchers’ perspective on representations. Both the
way teachers used and the way students see these representations are important factors influencing pedagogical
contribution of these representations to chemistry teaching. As a next step, investigating students’ and teachers’
perspective would be worthwhile to provide a bigger picture.
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Problem of Research
This research aimed to examine chemical representations used in high school chemistry textbooks (i.e., from
9th to 12th) in Turkey. This aim was addressed through the following research questions:
1. What types of representations are included in commonly used high school chemistry textbooks?
2. What is the degree of interpretation of surface features in commonly used high school chemistry textbooks?
3. About the representations commonly used in high school chemistry textbooks, what is the degree of
relatedness to text (i.e., existence and clarity of any statement in the textbook for direct students to the
representations)?
4. What are the properties of captions in commonly used high school chemistry textbooks?
5. What is the degree of correlation between representations in multiple ones commonly used high school
chemistry textbooks?
Research Design
This research is qualitative in nature (Marshall & Rossman, 2011) and specifically recognized as “basic or ge-
neric qualitative research” (Merriam, 1998). Basic or generic qualitative studies have the essential characteristics
of qualitative research (e.g., eliciting meaning, researcher as data collection and analysis instrument, and rich
description). However, this type of research “simply seek to discover and understand a phenomenon, a process, or
the perspectives and worldviews of the people involved” (Merriam 1998, p. 11). Accordingly, this research aimed
to elicit the meaning of representations and understand the type and characteristics of chemical representations
in Turkish high school chemistry textbooks. This research could be categorized as a descriptive generic qualitative
research (Caelli, Ray, & Mill, 2003). Objective of this research was to obtain descriptive information about represen-
tations. For getting descriptive information, content analysis of high school chemistry textbooks with regard to
representations was conducted. During content analysis, written content of human communications (e.g., textbooks,
essays, and pictures) is studied. Content analysis also includes quantitative aspects. Types and characteristics of
representations were interpreted through the use of frequencies and the percentages, which is a common way to
interpret content analysis data (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006).
Sample of Research
Developing a sampling plan and specifying the units of analysis are important for content analysis (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 2006). Among various sampling techniques, purposive sampling was implemented to select four high school
chemistry textbooks. Each of four textbooks was used by students in different grades (i.e., ninth to twelfth) across
Turkey (see references for the selected books). Two main criteria were determined for judging whether the sample
of chemistry textbooks is representative. First, NME must approve high school chemistry textbooks. Second, the
textbooks must be widely and currently used in high schools. In Turkey, NME distributes the approved textbooks
to schools for teachers to use during the semester, which in turn ensures wide usage of the books. By considering
those, an approved and distributed chemistry textbook for each grade level in 2015-2016 school year was selected.
Before analyzing the data, the unit of analysis was specified (e.g., word, sentence, and painting) (Fraenkel & Wallen,
2006). All the images labelled as “figure or picture” and images shown in frames in activity, teaching, and assess-
ment parts of the textbooks were selected as visuals, which formed the unit of analysis in this research. Symbols
are used extensively in teaching and learning chemistry (Taber, 2009) to avoid painstaking of writing. Therefore,
symbolic visuals (e.g., element symbol, compound formulae, and letter for measurable quantities such as “P” for
pressure), which imperatively appear in the course of assessment, activity, and teaching parts, were excluded from
data analysis. Data analysis was conducted during 2016-2017 fall semester.
After identification of facet of the content to be investigated (i.e., visuals identified as unit of analysis in this
research), an existing rubric was utilized (Gkitzia et al., 2011) during formulating categories that are relevant to
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the examination of representations (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). The rubric includes criteria for analysis of repre-
sentations in school textbooks. Moreover, there has been evidence for the applicability of this rubric in evaluat-
ing the chemical representations in science (Kapıcı & Savaşçı-Akalın, 2015), chemistry (Gkitzia et al., 2011), and
physical chemistry textbooks (Nyachwaya & Wood, 2014). The rubric aims to evaluate chemical representations
with respect to several aspects, which are type of representation, interpretation of surface features, relatedness
to the text, properties of caption, and degree of correlation between representations in multiple ones.
1st criterion (C1) - Type of representation: This criterion examines the type of each representation and catego-
rizes them as macroscopic, submicroscopic, symbolic, multiple, hybrid, and mixed (see Appendix for examples).
Macroscopic representations portray phenomena directly accessible to human visual sense. Visuals repre-
senting tangible, observable, and touchable objects and concepts are macroscopic in their type. On the contrary,
submicroscopic representations depict the structure and movement of atoms and their derivatives such as
ions, molecules, electrons, protons, neutrons, orbitals, and etc. (Bucat & Mocerino, 2009). These constitute the
unobservable world, which is only accessible with imagination. Submicroscopic representations may emerge
as molecular models (i.e., the space filling and ball and stick), pictures, and computer animations. Symbolic
representations are the mediators between macroscopic and submicroscopic representations (Taber, 2009).
They refer to letters, numbers, signs, and symbols that are used to symbolize atoms, molecules, ions, substances,
measurable quantities, units for measurements, constants, and oxidation states in systematic compound names
(Gkitzia et al., 2011; Taber, 2009). The chemical symbols (e.g., H), the chemical formulas (e.g., NaCl), reaction
mechanisms, Lewis structures, graphs, the letters of A and Z for atomic number and mass respectively, letters
standing for various measurable quantities (e.g., V for volume), units (e.g., mol, kg, and mol dm3), constants (e.g.,
Ka), letters indicating mathematical relations (e.g., pH), letters pointing structural features of crystals, (e.g., f.c.c.),
and numbers showing oxidation states in systematic compound names (e.g., iron (II) chloride) are examples
of symbolic representations. Multiple representations include two or three levels of representations to depict
chemical phenomena and hence each representation complements one another. Hybrid representations also
include coexistence of two or three levels of chemical representations in order to form one representation. The
basic difference between multiple and hybrid representation lies in the number of representations used to depict
the phenomena. Multiple representations show the phenomenon at two or three levels by combining two or
three levels of representations while hybrid representations combine the characteristics of two or three levels
to form one representation (Gkitzia et al., 2011).
Chemical substances and processes are represented by both icons and symbols, which comprise the visual
language of chemistry (Talanquer, 2011). Moreover, the signs used in chemistry combine both symbolic and
iconic values (Hoffmann & Laszlo, 1991) in many cases. Structural formula representing molecular geometry is a
typical example for these kinds of cases. The types of atoms and bonds are represented using symbols while the
drawing has an iconic value since it aims to depict the three-dimensional structure of the modelled molecule.
Therefore, “[t]he semi-symbolic, semi-iconic nature of many visual representations in chemistry gives them a
hybrid status between signs and models…” (Talanquer, 2011, p. 184). Thinking them as mere signs may result
in classifying them as symbolic representations, whereas thinking them as models which has descriptive, ex-
planatory, and predictive power may lead someone to classify them as part of the explanatory (submicroscopic)
level. With these considerations in mind, structural formulas as hybrid representations in addition to those are
defined by Gkitzia et al. (2011). The last type of representation proposed by Gkitzia et al. (2011) is mixed, which
includes coexistence of a chemistry level (i.e., macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic) and another type of
depiction (e.g., analogy). During analysis two new categories were added, which are “scientist” and “microscopic”.
Scientist was used to categorize photo or picture of a scientist (e.g., picture of Robert Boyle). Microscopic was
utilized for some visuals including microscopic views of substances or processes (see Appendix for examples of
scientist and microscopic categories).
2nd criterion (C2) - Interpretation of surface features: This criterion is related to what degree students un-
derstand the correct meaning of representation (Gkitzia et al., 2011). It examines whether the meaning of a
representation is clear, and specifically to what extent surface features are clearly labelled. Clarity of surface
features is important since students have difficulties in interpreting the correct meaning of representations
(de Vos & Verdonk, 1996). More importantly, students try to understand the textbook pictures when they know
the codes to interpret them (Pinto & Ametller, 2002). To enhance learning, textbook authors should point out
the important features of a representation to both teachers and students (Gkitzia et al., 2011). Explicit, implicit,
and ambiguous were used as labels when coding interpretation of surface features. If the interpretation and
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meaning of surface features are clearly mentioned either in the text or in the caption including internal ones, it
is coded as explicit. A representation is coded as implicit when the meaning of some surface features is clearly
mentioned. When there is no indication for the meaning of any surface feature it is coded as ambiguous (see
Appendix for examples).
3rd criterion (C3) – Relatedness to the text: This criterion examines not only to what degree a representation is
coherently related to the text but also the existence of the direct link from the text to the representation. There
has been empirical evidence indicating that students have difficulty in connecting representations with the cor-
responding text (Garnett, Garnett, & Hackling, 1995). If students are expected to make sense of the phenomenon
depicted in the visual, related concepts and information with appropriate reference to representation should be
mentioned in the text (Pozzer & Roth, 2003). Completely related and linked, completely related and unlinked,
partially related and linked, partially related and unlinked, and unrelated were used as labels while coding the
relatedness of visuals to the text. If a representation depicts the text content exactly, it is called completely
related. In other words, if a representation depicts the text content exactly, that representation together with
the text has the potential to contribute to build the concepts and to foster the learning. The representation
becomes partially related if it depicts some of the text content or familiar subject to the text instead of the
exact one. If a representation is irrelevant to the text, then it is coded as unrelated. When analyzing the link of
representation to the text, the phrases like “as shown in the figure or picture” and “the following model”, and
explicit reference to the visual in brackets were examined. If those existed, the representation is linked to the
text (see Appendix for examples).
4th criterion (C4) – Existence and properties of a caption: This criterion is related to the existence and appro-
priateness of caption. The caption is essential since it guides the reader what to look and how to understand
(Pozzer & Roth, 2003). Moreover, captions have potential to make both the content and message of representa-
tions clear (Ardac & Akaygun, 2005). Captions were labelled as appropriate, problematic, and no caption when
examining the properties of the caption. An appropriate caption should be explicit, brief, and comprehensive so
that it can provide autonomy to representation. Also, an appropriate caption should explain the exact content of
the visual. Problematic captions do not provide an accurate description of the visual. They are also implicit and
long so that a reader cannot comprehend the representation. Visual is coded as no caption when there is none.
5th criterion (C5) – Degree of correlation between the components (subordinate representations) comprising
a multiple representation: This criterion examines the degree to which correlation between subordinate repre-
sentations forming multiple one is clearly indicated. That is, it investigates the sufficient and clear link between
macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations so that students can understand the three levels.
Transforming representations into one another and correlating three levels of chemistry are challenging tasks
for students (Chittleborough & Treagust, 2008). Although challenging, the ones who can transform are able to
reach conceptual understanding (Treagust, Chittleborough, & Mamiala, 2003). Therefore, examining the links
between representations is important. Sufficiently linked, insufficiently linked, and unlinked were used to cat-
egorize the multiple representations with regard to the links between subordinates. A multiple representation
is coded as sufficiently linked when links between different levels and equivalence of subordinates are clearly
indicated. Use of arrows or signs that link different levels of representations provides sufficiency to the links. A
multiple representation is coded as insufficiently linked when equivalence of subordinates and links between
different levels are implicit and not explicitly indicated by a sign or arrow. Unlinked multiple representations
include subordinates as placed next to one another and no indication of equivalence of them (see Appendix
for examples).
Data Analysis

For ensuring reliability, 100 visuals were randomly selected and coded by two independent coders. Also,
coders consulted the opinions of three experts, who had masters or PhD degree in chemistry education, during
coding when there is a disagreement between coders. The discrepancies between the coders were discussed and
resolved. Based on this consensus, the remaining data were analyzed by the researcher. The inter-coder reliability
was 82% in the type of representations, 76% in the interpretation of surface features, 78% in the relatedness to
the text, 90% in the properties of caption, and 75% in the degree of correlation between subordinates comprising
multiple representations. These reliability values indicate substantial and perfect agreement (Cohen, Manion, &
Morrison, 2000) and were considered as acceptable (Gwet, 2014) since they are above 75%
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Results of Research
Results revealed that high school chemistry textbooks (i.e., from 9th to 12th) include 1701 visual representa-
tions in total.
Types of Representations Included in Commonly Used High School Chemistry Textbooks
The eleventh grade chemistry textbook had the highest number of representations (30%; 513 representa-
tions). Frequencies of representations in the tenth and twelfth grade chemistry textbooks were almost the same
(25%; 420 representations and 25%; 426 representations respectively). The number of representations in the ninth
grade chemistry textbook was the lowest (20%; 342 representations). Distribution of representations across differ-
ent units in all chemistry textbooks (see Appendix) indicated that “Modern atom theory” (i.e., a unit in the eleventh
grade) included the frequent number of representations (10%; 170 representations), whereas the lowest number of
representations was used in “Calculations with chemical formulas and equations” (i.e., a unit in the eleventh grade)
(1%, 17 representations). A closer look to how representations placed in different parts of the textbooks (i.e., as-
sessment, activity, and teaching) revealed that the vast majority of the representations took place in the teaching
part (85%; 1436 representations). Activity part included 175 representations (10%), whereas 90 representations
(5%) were used in the assessment part of the textbooks.
With regard to the type of representations, most common type of representation in high school chemistry
textbooks was macroscopic (34.4%; 585 representations). It was followed by symbolic and hybrid representa-
tions, which have almost the same frequency of use (23.3%; 396 representations and 23.2%; 395 representations
respectively). A closer analysis of symbolic representations indicated that some of symbolic representations (236)
were used to symbolize to lab safety (57.6%; 136 representations), graph (30.1%; 71 representations), hazardous
chemicals (8.9%; 21 representations), and recycling (3.4%; 8 representations). Multiple representations were the
third in the order of frequency (10.4%, 177 representations). There were 107 submicroscopic representations
(6.3%) following multiple ones. The lowest number of representations belonged to the mixed ones (1.2%; 20 rep-
resentations) according to Gkitzia et al.’s (2011) typology. The frequencies for researcher created categories, which
are microscopic and related to scientists, were lower than the mixed representations. There were 16 visuals (.9%)
related to scientists and 5 visuals (.3%) depicting microscopic level.
Distribution of different type of representations in chemistry textbooks across grade levels is shown in Figure
1. The number of macroscopic representations was almost the same for both tenth and twelfth grade chemistry
textbooks (45%; 187 representations and 46%; 196 representations respectively). The eleventh grade chemistry
textbook came after the tenth and twelfth grade books in the use of macroscopic representations (21%; 109 rep-
resentations). The least frequent use of macroscopic representations was observed in the ninth grade chemistry
textbook (27%; 93 representations). Nevertheless, ninth grade chemistry textbook included symbolic representa-
tions the most (38%; 130 representations). Tenth (22%; 92 representations) and eleventh (27%; 136 representations)
grade textbooks followed ninth grade textbook in the use of symbolic representations. Interestingly, twelfth grade
textbook utilized the least frequent number of symbolic representations (9%; 38 representations). With regard to
prevalence of hybrid representations across grade levels, the most frequent use was observed in the eleventh and
twelfth grade chemistry textbooks (26%; 133 representations and 28%; 117 representations respectively). It was
followed by tenth grade chemistry textbook, which had nearly the same frequency of inclusion (24%; 100 repre-
sentations). Ninth grade chemistry textbook utilized hybrid representations the least (13%; 45 representations).
Multiple representations were used mostly in the eleventh grade textbook (20%; 104 representations). Preference
for the utilization of multiple representations was nearly the same for ninth (8%; 28 representations), tenth (6%;
23 representations), and twelfth grade (5%; 22 representations) chemistry textbooks. The frequencies for the use
of submicroscopic representations were similar for ninth (9%; 31 representations) and twelfth (9%; 38 representa-
tions) grade textbooks, and it was higher than for their use in tenth (4%; 17 representations) and eleventh (4%;
21 representations) grade chemistry textbooks. Most frequent use of mixed representations was observed in the
ninth grade chemistry textbook (4%; 12 representations), whereas the frequencies were 6 (1%) and 2 (.4%) for the
twelfth and eleventh grade chemistry textbooks respectively.
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Figure 1: Distribution of representation types (in frequencies) in high school chemistry textbooks with respect
to grade levels.
How different types of representations were distributed to different parts of the textbooks was also identified
(Table 1). Vast majority of representations in each category was included in teaching part of the book. For instance,
there were 543 (93%) macroscopic representations in teaching part, whereas activity and assessment parts utilized
35 (6%) and seven (1%) macroscopic representations respectively. Activity parts did not include any submicroscopic
representation while there were only three (3%) submicroscopic representations in the assessment part. The use
of symbolic representations was prevalent in the activity part (128 out of 396) when compared to other types of
representations. Symbolic representations were also utilized in the assessment part (10%; 39 representations) of
which majority of them refers to questions about graphs. The use of hybrid representations was also high in the
assessment part (9%; 34 representations).
Table 1. Distribution of representation types in high school chemistry textbooks with respect to parts.
Part
Type of representation
Assessment Activity Teaching
Macroscopic 7 35 543
Submicroscopic 3 104
Symbolic 39 128 229
Multiple 7 10 160
Hybrid 34 1 360
Mixed 1 19
Scientist 16
Microscopic 5
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Degree of the Interpretation of Surface Features in Commonly Used High School Chemistry Textbooks
After excluding 16 visuals about scientist from the data (N=1701), analysis of 1685 representations indicated
that more than half of the representations had explicit surface features (63%; 1068 representations). Thirty-nine
percent of the representations had implicit surface features (520 representations). There were 97 representations
(6%) that were ambiguous for students to understand the meaning of representation.
Figure 2: Distribution of interpretation of representations’ surface features (in frequencies) in high school
chemistry textbooks with respect to grade levels.

Examining how interpretation of surface features changes (Figure 2) with regard to grade levels showed
that the percentage of representations with explicit surface features decreased from twelfth to ninth grade: for
twelfth (69%; 290 representations), for eleventh (67%; 340 representations), for tenth (61%; 255 representations),
and for ninth (54%; 183 representations). On the contrary, the percentage of representations with implicit surface
features diminished from ninth to twelfth grade: for ninth grade (41%; 140 representations), for tenth grade (34%;
141 representations), for eleventh grade (28%; 142 representations), and for twelfth (23%; 97 representations).
Ambiguous representations were almost homogenously distributed in ninth (5%; 16 representations), tenth (6%; 24
representations), eleventh (5%; 23 representations), and twelfth (8%; 34 representations) grade chemistry textbooks.
A closer look at how different type of representations were differed in terms of interpretation of surface
features (Table 2) revealed that majority of the symbolic (86%), microscopic (80%), mixed (75%), hybrid (62%),
and macroscopic (60%) representations mentioned surface features explicitly either in the text or in the caption.
However, percentages of multiple representations with explicit (57%) and implicit (42%) surface features did not
differ to a certain degree. When the percentage of ambiguous ones is considered (2%), nearly half of the time
multiple representations (i.e., implicit and ambiguous ones) left students alone when interpreting the meaning
of features of representation.
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Table 2. Frequencies of interpretation of surface features for different type of representations.
Interpretation of surface features

Explicit Implicit Ambiguous

Submicroscopic 13 49 45
Symbolic 340 56
Multiple 100 74 3
Hybrid 246 138 11
Mixed 15 5
Microscopic 4 1
Degree of Relatedness of Representations to Text in Commonly Used High School Chemistry Textbooks
After excluding 16 visuals about scientist from the data (N=1701), analysis of 1685 representations showed
that above half of the representations were completely related and linked to the text (64%; 1083 representations).
Although completely related, 17% (293) of representations were not linked to the text. The frequency for partially
related and linked representations was 200 (12%). Partially related and unlinked (4%; 66 representations) and
unrelated (3%; 43 representations) ones were the lowest characteristics that representations exhibit in terms of
their relation to the text.
Figure 3. Distribution of representations’ relatedness to the text (in frequencies) in high school chemistry
textbooks with respect to grade levels
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Majority of the representations in ninth (75%; 253 representations), tenth (61%; 256 representations), and
eleventh (74%; 373 representations) grade textbooks were completely related and linked to the text. However,
nearly half of the representations’ relation and link to the text was complete in twelfth grade textbook (48%; 201
representations). Although completely related, the most frequent unlinked representations were observed in
twelfth grade textbook (39%; 166 representations) when compared to ninth (2%; 8 representations), tenth (19%;
79 representations), and eleventh (8%; 40 representations) grade textbooks. Percentages of partially related and
linked representations decreased from ninth to twelfth grade textbooks: for ninth grade (21%; 70 representations),
for tenth grade (16%; 65 representations), for eleventh grade (12%; 60 representations), and for twelfth grade (1%; 5
representations). Although partially related the prevalence of unlinked representations in eleventh grade textbook
(6%; 30 representations) was higher than the ones in ninth (2%; 8 representations), tenth (3%; 14 representations),
and twelfth (3%; 14 representations) grade textbooks. Unrelated representations appeared mostly in twelfth grade
textbooks (8%; 35 representations). The frequencies for this type of representations were lower for both tenth (1%;
6 representations) and eleventh (.4%; 2 representations) grades.
Degree of relation and link to the text is important for students’ meaningful understanding of what the repre-
sentation depicts. Therefore, representations’ relation and link to the text was also examined (Table 3). Microscopic
(100%), and symbolic representations had the highest frequency (85%; 336 representations) with respect to their
complete relation and link to the text. Following this, multiple representations were the second most frequent
representation type (71%; 125 representations) that is completely related and linked to the text. Mixed representa-
tions were the third in the degree to which their complete relation and link to the text (65%; 13 representations).
Chemistry textbooks ensured students’ complete understanding of majority of the symbolic, multiple, and mixed
representations. However, nearly half of the submicroscopic (58%; 62 representations) and hybrid (57%; 223 rep-
resentations) representations are problematic for students to understand since either their relation is incomplete
or there is no link to the text.
Table 3. Frequencies of different type of representations’ relatedness to the text.
Relatedness to the text
Completely Partially
Type of representation Completely related and Partially related and
related and related and
linked linked Unrelated
unlinked unlinked
Macroscopic 319 135 61 32 38

Submicroscopic 62 11 21 9 4
Symbolic 336 29 23 8
Multiple 125 19 31 2
Hybrid 223 97 59 15 1
Mixed 13 2 5
Microscopic 5
The Properties of Captions in Commonly Used High School Chemistry Textbooks
When analyzing the existence and properties of caption, 378 representations were excluded from the data
(N=1685) since these representations are placed in the text and not caption applicable. Most of the representa-
tions’ captions (78%; 1019 representations) were appropriate in the sense that they were explicit, brief, and com-
prehensive. Twenty percent of representations (264 representations) had problematic captions, whereas very few
representations (2%; 24 representations) did not have a caption for students to understand what the visual depicts.
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Figure 4. Distribution of caption properties (in frequencies) in high school chemistry textbooks with respect
to grade levels
Representations in chemistry textbooks across all grades were similar in the sense that majority of them have
appropriate captions (Figure 4): for ninth grade (73%; 214 representations), for tenth grade (84%; 280 representa-
tions), for eleventh grade (71%; 252 representations), and for twelfth grade (84%; 273 representations). Percentages
of captions that are implicit or incomprehensive or lengthy ranged between 15% (49 representations in twelfth
grade) and 27% (78 representations in ninth grade). Prevalence of problematic captions was nearly the same for
both tenth (16%; 53 representations) and twelfth grade textbooks, and ninth and eleventh (24%; 84 representa-
tions) grades.
Table 4. Frequencies of different type of representations’ caption properties.
Existence and properties of caption

Appropriate Problematic No caption
Submicroscopic 60 32 1
Symbolic 269 23 17
Multiple 105 49
Hybrid 262 73 3
Mixed 12 5
Microscopic 4
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Existence of an appropriate caption for a representation, especially for the ones that students have prob-
lems to understand (e.g., submicroscopic and multiple), is important to ensure that students clearly receive the
message of representation. With this consideration, analysis of data revealed that most of the representations in
each type had an appropriate caption (Table 4). Representations with problematic captions ranged between 7%
and 34% whereas representations with no caption were merely encountered. Data revealed that representations
emerged either in teaching or in assessment or in activity parts. All the representations in assessment part, 86% of
the representations in activity part, and 77% of the representations in teaching part were captioned appropriately.
However, 262 representations in teaching part (23%) had problematic caption and 17 representations in activity
part (12%) had no caption.
Degree of Correlation between Representations in Multiple Ones in Commonly Used High School Chemistry Textbooks
Multiple and hybrid representations bring at least two types of representations together to make the content
understandable. There was total amount of 572 multiple and hybrid representations. Submicroscopic-symbolic
representations were the most frequent combination used in representations (52%; 299 representations). It was
followed by macroscopic-symbolic combination (37%; 209 representations). Macroscopic-submicroscopic combina-
tion was the third in order regarding frequency of use (.7%; 39 representations). Another type of binary combina-
tion that emerged in this research was macroscopic-microscopic and it was used four times in all textbooks. There
were 21 (4%) ternary (i.e., composed of three parts) representations that bring macroscopic, submicroscopic, and
symbolic representations together.
Table 5. Frequencies of different type of representation combination in each grade chemistry textbook.
Grade level
9th grade 10th grade 11th grade 12th grade
Macro-submicroscopic 21 12 6
Macro-symbolic 2 18 178 11
Submicroscopic-symbolic 41 87 49 122
Macro-micro 4
Macro-submicroscopic-symbolic 9 2 4 6
Table 5 shows how chemistry textbooks in different grade levels include different combinations of represen-
tations. Use of macroscopic-submicroscopic representations was not so prevalent across textbooks. However,
macroscopic-symbolic representations were used frequently in the eleventh grade chemistry textbook (75%).
Contrarily, twelfth (88%) and tenth (71%) grade textbooks included the submicroscopic-symbolic representations
the most. Ternary representations were seldom in their preference by all chemistry textbooks. A closer analysis
revealed how different type of representation combinations are distributed in different units (Figure 5). Some of the
salient features of this distribution were related to the use of a particular representation in some units than others.
For instance, macroscopic-submicroscopic representations were used in phases of matter (56%; 15 representations)
and mixtures (37%; 11 representations) more frequently than their use in other units. Ternary representations were
more encountered in chemistry as a science (25%), phases of matter (19%), and atom and periodic table units (12%).
Macroscopic-symbolic representations and submicroscopic-symbolic representations were used more often than
other representation combinations in most of the units.
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Figure 5: Distribution of different type of representation combination in high school chemistry textbooks
with respect to units in each grade.
According to Gkitzia et al.’s typology (2011), only multiple representations can be analyzed in terms of their
degree of correlation since different representations in hybrid ones already overlap. Chemistry textbooks analyzed
in this research included total 178 multiple presentations. Most of them had sufficient links between their subor-
dinates (68%; 121 representations). Twenty-nine percent (52 representations) of multiple representations lacked
of some sufficient links, which make them insufficient in terms of the links they should include. Very few multiple
representations (3%; 5 representations) did not include links between their subordinates.
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Figure 6: Distribution of degree of correlation between representations in multiple ones (in frequencies) in
high school chemistry textbooks with respect to grade levels.
Among all chemistry textbooks, eleventh grade had the most frequent (84%; 87 representations) number of
sufficiently linked multiple representations (Figure 6). Nearly half of the multiple representations in ninth (46%;
13 representations) and twelfth (55%; 12 representations) grade chemistry textbooks included sufficient links.
Tenth grade chemistry textbook had the lowest frequency of sufficiently linked multiple representations (38%;
9 representations). The number of insufficiently linked multiple representations was the same for ninth (46%; 13
representations), tenth (54%; 13 representations), and twelfth (10%; 46 representations) grade chemistry textbooks.
However, eleventh grade textbook included insufficiently linked multiple representations the least (15%; 16 repre-
sentations). There were just two unlinked multiple representations in ninth and tenth grade chemistry textbooks.

Discussion
This research examined types and characteristics of representations in high school chemistry textbooks in
Turkey. Findings of the research will be discussed under five sections using each criteria in Gkitzia et al.’s (2011)
rubric for evaluating representations: (1) types of representations, (2) interpretation of representations’ surface
features, (3) relatedness of representations to the text, (4) properties of representations’ captions, and (5) degree
of correlation between subordinates comprising multiple representations.
First, chemistry textbooks used in different grades were different from each other with regard to percentages
of visuals included. Eleventh grade had the highest frequency. It was followed by tenth and twelfth. Ninth grade
had the lowest number of visuals. To take a closer look, number of objectives in each grade’s curriculum was
examined considering the fact that high number of objectives requires students to learn more chemistry content
when compared to low number of objectives. Moreover, more chemistry content supports the use of high number
of representations with various kinds. It was revealed that eleventh grade curriculum had the highest number of
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objectives (N=42) and concurrently eleventh grade textbook had the frequent number of representations. Tenth
and twelfth grade curricula were second in order regarding number of objectives (N=39 and N=40 respectively).
Therefore, they were also second in order of frequency of representations. Ninth grade curriculum had the lowest
number of objectives of all (N=33) and it had the lowest frequency of representation. Among different chemistry
units in textbooks analysed, the highest number of representations were used in “Modern atom theory” whereas the
lowest number of representations was observed in “Calculations with chemical formulas and equations”. When the
nature of these topics is considered, it is expected. Representations of atom models in history, orbitals, and modern
atom were prevalent in the unit of “Modern atom theory”. However, the topic of chemical calculations is perceived
more algorithmic in nature and presented with more problems and calculations to students without using so many
visuals to teach the topic. Among different parts of the textbooks (i.e., assessment, activity, and teaching), the
vast majority of the representations took place in teaching part (85%). Although chemistry curricula in Turkey are
based on a learning environment where teachers are expected to utilize hands-on activities, chemistry textbooks
analysed in this research seem to achieve this task by using representations that make abstract concepts concrete.
Also, there has been no extra class hour for conducting laboratory experiments in chemistry classes. Therefore,
textbook authors may spend less time for activities and more time for teaching in their books. With regard to type
of representations, most common types of representation in high school chemistry textbooks were macroscopic,
symbolic, and hybrid representations. Although used, the number of multiple and submicroscopic representations
were low. Few representations were mixed in their type. These findings are similar for Greek and Lebanese che-
mistry textbooks in the sense that they included macroscopic and symbolic representations the most (Gkitzia et
al., 2011; Shehab & BouJaoude, 2016). It was different for hybrid representations. Hybrid representations were low
in their use for Greek and Lebanese textbooks, however it was one of the mostly used representations in Turkish
textbooks. Possible explanation might be related to differences of representations counted as hybrid. Different than
those studies (Gkitzia et al., 2011; Shehab & BouJaoude, 2016), I coded structural formulas representing molecular
geometry as hybrid. Distribution of different type of representations in chemistry textbooks across grade levels
revealed that macroscopic representations were mostly used in tenth and twelfth grade, symbolic representations
were observed mostly in ninth grade, hybrid representations were preferred by eleventh and twelfth grade the
most, and multiple representations were used mostly in eleventh grade. Nature of the topics in each grade might
explain the differences in the use of different representations in each grade. Ninth grade chemistry textbook includes
topics as “symbolic language of chemistry” and “atom and periodic system” and hence they are more appropriate
for the use of symbolic representations. Gases and modern atom theory in eleventh grade and organic chemistry
in twelfth grade are suitable for utilization of hybrid representations. Solutions, chemical equilibrium, and rate of
reaction topics are included in eleventh grade and therefore they support the use of multiple representations more.
All types of representations appeared in teaching part mostly. This finding is congruent with others indicating that
quantitative questions include symbolic representations and conceptual questions do not include submicroscopic
representations (Nakiboğlu & Yıldırır, 2011).
Second, majority of the representations had explicit surface features while 40% of them left the students
alone while interpreting what representation means. This characteristic of representations puts Turkish chemistry
textbooks in a better position than Greek (Gkitzia et al., 2011) and Lebanese textbooks (Shehab & BouJaoude,
2016) of which most of the representations are implicit and ambiguous. Although the differences between grades
are not considerable, the percentage of representations with explicit surface features decreased from twelfth to
ninth grade (i.e., from 69% to 54%). It would be more reasonable to expect a decrease from ninth to eleventh grade
considering students’ psychological development and learning level. This difference may stem from differences in
each grade’s textbook writers’ approach to representations. When each representation type considered, majority
of the representations except multiple ones were explicit in terms of their surface features. However, nearly half
of the time multiple representations left students alone when interpreting the meaning of features of representa-
tion. Differences between grades and representations were expected considering the finding that the structural
elements of representations differ both across the textbooks and within the same book (Pozzer & Roth, 2003). This
feature of chemistry textbooks is problematic in terms of contribution of multiple representations into students’
learning since students have difficulty in both understanding and transforming representational levels (Al-Balushi
& Al-Harthy, 2015; Chittleborough & Treagust, 2008).
Third, regarding representations’ relation to the text, data indicated that vast majority of the representations
were completely related to the text, which is similar to Greek (Gkitzia et al., 2011) and Lebanese textbooks (Shehab
& BouJaoude, 2016). However, the most problematic chemistry textbook was twelfth grade of which nearly half
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of the representations were incomplete and unlinked in their relation to the text. Although degree of relation is
important in students’ meaningful understanding of what the representation depicts, it would be more problema-
tic if ninth grade chemistry textbooks have this percentage of relation when students’ chemistry knowledge and
psychological development level are considered. In terms of representation type and relation to text, Turkish high
school chemistry textbooks assured students’ complete understanding of the majority of symbolic, multiple, and
mixed representations. Nevertheless, nearly half of the submicroscopic and hybrid representations are problematic
for students to understand since either their relation is incomplete or there is no link to the text. This feature of
submicroscopic and hybrid representations might increase students’ cognitive load (Wu & Shah, 2004) and lead
misconceptions in students’ understanding of the concepts (Kumi et al., 2013). Emergence of representations with
different surface features within the same grade is compatible with research revealing that the structural elements
of representations differ within the same book (Pozzer & Roth, 2003).
Fourth, high percentage (80%) of representations had appropriate captions while the remaining were pro-
blematic in nature (i.e., lengthy, implicit, not comprehensible, and absent). When compared with Greek (Gkitzia et
al., 2011) and Lebanese textbooks (Shehab & BouJoude, 2016), Turkish chemistry textbooks were better in making
the content and message of representations clear (Sanger & Greenbowe, 2000). With regard to examination of the
association between type of representation and property of caption, data revealed that most of the representations
in each type had an appropriate caption, which increases the clarity of representations (Sanger & Greenbowe, 2000).
Fifth, among various representation combinations, submicroscopic-symbolic and macroscopic-symbolic
were the most frequent combination used in representations, which is similar to Greek chemistry textbooks
(Gkitzia et al., 2011). Macroscopic-symbolic representations were used frequently in eleventh grade chemistry
textbook, whereas twelfth and tenth grade textbooks mostly included submicroscopic-symbolic representations.
This may be related to the chemistry topics covered in different grades. Gaseous state and thermodynamics topic
in eleventh grade are more inclined to use macroscopic-symbolic representations. However, organic chemistry
(i.e., a unit in twelfth grade), acids and bases, and mixtures (i.e., units in tenth grade) are more suitable for the
use of submicroscopic-symbolic representations. Of all the multiple representations, most of them had sufficient
links between their subordinates. This finding is compatible with the ones found for Lebanese textbooks (Shehab
& BouJaoude, 2016) and incompatible with the ones found for Greek chemistry textbooks (Gkitzia et al., 2011).
Across the grades, eleventh grade chemistry textbook had the most frequent number of multiple representations
of which their subordinates are sufficiently linked. Based on this features of chemistry textbooks, I can conclude
that multiple representations in Turkish chemistry textbooks have potential to increase students’ understanding
in the related concepts, as also supported by others (e.g., Hilton & Nichols, 2011; Yakmaci-Guzel & Adadan, 2012).
Also, students’ cognitive load decreases when interpreting multiple representations in Turkish chemistry textbook,
since their subordinates are sufficiently linked most of the time (Wu & Shah, 2004). Differences between grades in
terms of links between subordinates comprising multiple representations could be explained with the fact, that
the structural elements of representations differ across the textbooks (Pozzer & Roth, 2003).
Implications
This research has suggestions for chemistry educators, textbook writers, and teaching and learning of chemistry.
Chemistry educators should benefit from categorization used in this research for the analysis of representations but
in caution, since there have been some confusing issues regarding the definitions and examples of representations
as discussed in theoretical framework part of this research. For instance, researcher had some challenges during
categorization of structural formulas depicting molecular geometry. Since structural formulas also include symbols
to represent formula of the compound, one might think it as symbolic. These structural formulas have also iconic
in nature as they aim to represent the angles that atoms are bonded to each other in two dimensions. One is right
to claim that these kinds of representations have both iconic and symbolic nature. Based on these considerations
structural formulas were labelled as hybrid in this research. However, chemistry educators should conduct more
research on the levels, definitions, and examples of representations used in chemistry. Are macroscopic, submicro-
scopic, symbolic, multiple, and hybrid levels enough to define representation levels in chemistry? As this research
revealed the use of microscopic representation in chemistry textbooks, what is the appropriateness for the use of
microscopic level representations in chemistry? What are the specific definitions and examples for each represen-
tation level? For instance, are submicroscopic representations real or theoretical entities? Are structural formula
examples of submicroscopic or symbolic level? Could all of these representational levels be applicable when analyz-
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ing representations in different areas of chemistry (e.g., analytical chemistry and organic chemistry)? For instance,
are definitions of representation levels the same for both analytical and organic chemistry? This research has also
implications for science educators from other disciplines. What are the representation levels in other disciplines
(e.g., physics and biology)? Are there similarities between the representation levels, used in different disciplines?
Answers of these questions have potential to contribute both to our understanding about representations and use
of representations in teaching and learning of science to enhance students’ meaningful understanding.
In Turkey, NME evaluates the Turkish chemistry textbooks with respect to several criteria (e.g., number of visu-
als and scientific accuracy) and then approves them to be used in high schools throughout the country. Also, NME
selects a number of chemistry teachers and educators to evaluate these books considering the criteria determined.
However, textbook evaluators have not been specifically asked to take “representational levels in chemistry” into
consideration specifically when evaluating the books. Regulations prepared by NME only emphasize that visual
organization of the textbook should support students’ learning and consider students’ development level. There have
been no specific regulations regarding how representation levels in chemistry (e.g., macroscopic, submicroscopic,
and hybrid) should be used throughout the book. Therefore, differences exist between textbooks used in differ-
ent grades in terms of properties of representations. NME and policy makers in other countries should determine
criteria for textbooks about visuals and representations specifically for each discipline in science (e.g., chemistry
and biology) since their nature are different from each other. Also, structural properties of representations (e.g.,
caption and interpretation of surface features), which increase representations’ contribution to students’ meaning-
ful understanding, should be determined as a criterion. Since chemistry teachers are among the ones, who both
evaluate and use textbooks, NME and policy makers in other countries should develop in-service training programs
that increase teachers’ both understanding and pedagogically relevant use of representations. Chemistry teacher
educators should also integrate these issues in preservice chemistry teacher education programs.
Due to the fact that chemistry teachers have a crucial role in learning chemistry concepts, several suggestions
are offered for teaching and learning of chemistry. Chemistry teachers should both integrate different levels of
representations and explicitly emphasize those representations during chemistry teaching. For instance, chemistry
teachers might utilize macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic representations of a chemical reaction (e.g.,
precipitation reaction between potassium iodide and lead (II) nitrate) when teaching the types of reactions. Also,
they explicitly define and name those representations. Hence, students’ learning of the chemistry concept might
be enhanced. Chemistry teachers could utilize representations in chemistry textbooks, the internet, and textbooks
that they use as reference. For enabling students’ transformation of representational levels into each other and
use of representations to explain a chemical phenomenon, chemistry teachers might ask questions that require
students to utilize different kinds of representations for both summative and formative purposes.
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Appendix
Table. Distribution of representations in high school chemistry textbooks with respect to units in each
grade.
Grade Level Unit Frequency Percentage
Intermolecular forces 96 5.6

9th Phases of matter 91 5.3
grade Chemistry as a science 79 4.6
Atom and periodic table 76 4.5
Mixtures 135 7.9
10th Chemistry is everyday life 134 7.9
grade Energy in industry and living organisms 90 5.3
Acids, bases, and salts 61 3.6
Modern atom theory 170 10.0
The gaseous state 104 6.1
11th Liquid solutions 93 5.5
grade Rates of reaction and chemical equilibrium 82 4.8
Thermodynamics and equilibrium 47 2.8
Calculations with chemical formulas and equations 17 1.0
Classification of organic compounds 153 9.0
Chemistry of the main-group elements 147 8.6
12th Introduction to organic chemistry 82 4.8
grade
Organic reactions 44 2.6
Total 1701 100
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Examples of representations for criterion
1st criterion: Types of representation
An example for macroscopic representation taken

from 10th grade chemistry textbook. It was used to
depict neutralization reactions between hydrochloric
acid and ammonium hydroxide.
An example for submicroscopic representation taken

from 11th grade chemistry textbook. It was used to
portray an electron-cloud atom model.
An example for symbolic representation taken from

9th grade chemistry textbook
An example for multiple representation taken from

9th grade chemistry textbook. It portrays solid sodium
chloride on the left macroscopically and lattice
structure of sodium chloride on the right submicro-
scopically.
An example for hybrid representation taken from 11th

grade chemistry textbook. It was used to represent
lattice structure of sodium chloride.
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An example for mixed representation taken from 9th

grade chemistry textbook. The visual was used to ex-
plain Thomson’s atom model analogically. Cake part
represents the positively charged atom while raisins
represent negatively charged electrons dispersed all
over the atom.
An example for microscopic representation taken

from 12th grade chemistry textbook. It is the picture of
heterogeneous alloys taken with optical microscope.
An example for representation categorized as “scien-

tist” taken from 11th grade chemistry textbook. It is the
picture of John Dalton.
2st criterion: Interpretation of surface features
An example for a representation (taken from 9th grade

chemistry textbook) with explicit surface features. The
visual depicts the Bohr atom model. With the use of
internal captions it explicitly labels what elements in
the picture mean.
An example for a representation (taken from 11th

grade chemistry textbook) with implicit surface
features. The visual how cathode rays react when
confronted with charged plates. Although charged
plates are shown on the visual, other parts of cathode
ray tube are not indicated.
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An example for a representation (taken from 12th

grade chemistry textbook) with ambiguous surface
features. The visual depicts the lattice structures in
metals in submicroscopic level. However, there is no
information regarding the type of the metal and what
spheres represent.
3rd criterion: Relatedness to the text

chemistry textbook), which is completely related and
linked to the text. The beginning sentence of the text
states that lets take gold block as an example shown
in Figure 2.2. Therefore, it is completely linked. The
text above the visual explains that when we zoom in
the picture of gold block, picture loses its resolu-
tion and we see the pixels (on the left). It continues
explanation by adding that if we could enlarge the
gold block itself, we would have seen the atoms that
made up gold block (on the right). Therefore it is
completely related.
An example of a representation (taken from 10th

grade chemistry textbook), which is completely re-
lated but not linked. The visual is placed in an activity
and stands right next to the text that explains steps.
Right next to the visual it states that light a match and
hold it next to the edge of glass tube. However, there
is no link to the visual like “as shown in the figure”.
Therefore, it is unlinked.

grade chemistry textbook), which is partially related
and linked to the text. The text above the visual
states that under standard conditions, one mole of
gas (6.02x1023 particles) occupies 22.4 L. Com-
parison of amount of 22.4 L for different types of
game balls are given in Picture 3.2. Since the text
give reference to the number of the visual as “given
in Picture 3.2.” it is linked. However, there is no
explanation related to cube in the text. Also, there is
no explanation related to differences among the balls.
Therefore, it is partially related.
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grade chemistry textbook), which is partially related
and unlinked to the text. The text above the visual
states that cinnamon includes cinnamaldehyde and
almond includes benzaldehyde. There is no link
from the text to the visual like “as shown in following
visuals”. Also, visuals include both macroscopic and
symbolic representations. There is no explanation in
the text about those.

grade chemistry textbook), which is unrelated to the
text. The text next to visual explains that cleaning ma-
terials, fertilizers, foods, construction materials, and
drugs went through some processes before we use.
The visual includes stationary materials not the ones
mentioned in the text. Therefore, it is unrelated.
4th criterion: Existence and properties of captions

grade chemistry textbook), which has an appropriate
caption. The caption explains that PVC is used in the
construction of windows.

grade chemistry textbook), which has problematic
caption. The caption explains that basic nature of
equal amounts of K2O and CaO solutions can be
determined using universal pH indicators. However,
caption does not point which one of the solution is
K2O and which one is CaO. It is not explicit. Also,
there was no interpretation regarding the colour of pH
indicator when put into basic solution.
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chemistry textbook), which has no caption at all.
5th criterion: Degree of correlation between subordinates comprising multiple representations
An example for a multiple representation (taken from

9th grade chemistry textbook), which has sufficient
links between its subordinates. It indicates solid and
liquid metal both in macroscopic and submicroscopic
levels. Equivalence between representations are
indicated by lines.
An example for a multiple representation (taken from

11th grade chemistry textbook) that has insufficient
links between its subordinates. It depicts the reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen gas by using both
symbolic and submicroscopic representations. How-
ever, symbolic and submicroscopic representations
are placed in parallel so that students understand
their link.
An example of a multiple representation (taken from

10th grade chemistry textbook), which has no links
between its subordinates. The visual depicts cation-
changing process during deionization of hard water.
There is no link between the representations on the
right and left side of the visual.
Received: February 21, 2017 Accepted: June 04, 2017
Betül Demirdöğen PhD, Assistant Professor, Bülent Ecevit University, Ereğli College of Education,
Department of Mathematics and Science Education, 67300, Zonguldak,
Turkey.
E-mail: betuldemirdogen@gmail.com
499
MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF
PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ABOUT
DIFFERENT ANIMALS
Abstract. Adequate mental representa- Gordana Miscevic Kadijevic

tions of animals are important for children’s
personal development, because they result
in their appropriate treatment of such
animals, which would not, for example,
compromise either animals’ or children’s Introduction
safety. By using a convenient sample of 101
six- to seven-year old children, this research Adequate mental representations of animals are important for chil-
examined these representations regarding dren’s personal development (Geerdts, Van De Walle, & LoBue, 2016; LoBue,
animals’ names, feeding habits, body cover- Bloom Pickard, Sherman, Axford, & DeLoache, 2013; Kubiatko, 2012). This is
ings, and dangerousness. The representa- because these representations result in children’s appropriate treatment of
tions were assessed using a questionnaire such animals, which would not, for example, compromise either animals’ or
referring to 18 animals, and the research fo- children’s safety. Let us give some examples. Cat can be cuddled, but the
cused on the frequency of correct responses same act would hurt the butterfly. Dogs and bees may attack if they or their
and gender differences in these responses litters/hives are threatened in some way. If an animal is fed with the wrong
for each animal. It was found that whereas food, its life may be threatened, which may result in its unwanted (and pos-
the naming of animals was very success- sibly dangerous) behavior. Clearly, as Kubiatko (2012) underlines, improved
ful, the mental representations of animals’ perceptions of animals would make the borderline between “good” and “bad”
feeding habits and body coverings were less animals less strict.
mature, including some misconceptions not
found in previous studies. In addition, the Recent Findings
participants’ explanations about why ani-
mals are dangerous or harmless revealed With regard to the distinction between “bad” and “good” animals, there
that their mental representations about seems to be a globally recognized interest in considering the origins of the
different animals were correct to a moder- human fear of and attitude towards animals (e.g., Prokop, Ozel, & Usak, 2009;
ate degree. Finally, gender differences in Prokop, Usak, & Erdogan, 2011). This distinction seems to have its roots in
the mental representations were almost the process of evolution and natural selection because animals that survived
missing. Some implications for school or were those who managed to avoid or escape animals that might harm them.
kindergarten work with children are given Furthermore, research has shown that respondents aged between one and
(e.g., reducing misconceptions about and three years paid more attention to animals when their parents were close
fear of some animals). than when their parents were absent (LoBue et al, 2013).
Keywords: didactically modeled activi- Regarding attitudes towards animals, several studies reported gender
ties, mental representations of animals, differences. For example, boys may like wild and exotic animals, whereas
preschool children, preschool education. girls tend to prefer pets (Lindemann-Matthies, 2005). This general pattern is
in accord with Hummel et al. (2015), who found that boys express more posi-
tive attitudes towards less popular animals such as bats, rats, and predators,
whilst girls prefer squirrels, rabbits, and small birds. These differences may
Gordana Miscevic Kadijevic be explained by the fact that males have a tendency to take more risks than
University of Belgrade, Serbia females, in order to display their physical abilities to them (Tomažič, 2011).
The attitudes and beliefs of adults with whom children are in regular
contact have an impact on the formation of the attitudes and beliefs of
children, in addition to content available to them through different me-
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ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ABOUT DIFFERENT ANIMALS
(P. 500-509)
dia. During research of the types of causal explanatory information that commercial storybooks about animals
provide children with, an almost exclusive focus on social-emotional experiences was noticed, as opposed to
biological explanations. This may inadvertently encourage anthropocentric reasoning (Geerdts, Van De Walle,
& LoBue, 2016).
Research has rarely examined the mental representations of preschool children about different animals.
An exception is, for example, the research of Kubiatko (2012). He examined the perception of animals in 5- and
6-year old children and found that (1) children were able to distinguish between good and bad animals regarding
appearance and fear, and (2) the influence of age and gender on children’s answers was not found. His research
evidences that children are indeed prone to divide animals into those that are good and those that are bad, or
those that they are afraid of and those that they are not afraid of.
Theoretical Framework
Because studies on the mental representations of preschool children of different animals are quite rare,
it is not clear which theoretical frameworks may support such studies. As these mental representations often
reflect that animals’ characteristics are linked through associative complexes, it seems that Vygotsky’s (1962)
approach to concept development may be appropriate. This approach, among other things, assumes that these
complexes are building block for pseudo-concepts, which in turn support the development of genuine (scien-
tific) concepts. This approach may, to some extent, be recognized in research studies that make use of precursor
models, which are, in brief, cognitive entities with a limited number of elements and relationships compared
with relevant scientific models (e.g., Ntalakoura & Ravanis, 2014; Ravanis, Christidou, & Hatzinikita, 2013). This
comparison may remind the Reader of the distinction between mental models and conceptual models (Greca &
Moreira, 2000), which would become more similar through carefully designed modeling activities. However, the
approach that relies on the distinction between these and those models may not be appropriate for preschool
children because their mental representations are still developing in the direction of (pseudo-)concepts. Note
that the relevance of carefully designed modeling activities to conceptual change in general is also emphasized
in Jonassen (2006). For example, children may be encouraged to examine an ant, butterfly or bee in a closed
jar, or to learn about lions, snakes or penguins by using videos or computer animations, which would reduce
or eliminate possible misconceptions, such as the penguin eats ice and its body is covered by fur, the ant eats
soil, and butterflies have feathers.
Main Problem, Previous Findings, Possible Research Improvements, Research Questions
As the previous discussion evidenced, it is important to examine to what extent preschool children’s mental
representations of different animals are adequate, and whether there are some gender differences regarding these
representations. As already mentioned, Kubiatko (2012) found that although 5- and 6-year children were able to
distinguish between good and bad animals regarding look and fear, gender differences were not found.
To reduce the possible limitations of his research (a small sample and a small number of animals), this research
used a larger sample and more animals, hoping to find gender differences as well. Furthermore, to understand its
outcomes better, this research referred to Vygotsky’s (1962) approach to concept development.
Having in mind the research context presented above, this research addressed the following two questions:
(1) To what extent are preschool children’s mental representations about different animals correct? and (2) Are
there gender differences in these representations?
General Description
The representations studied in this research dealt with animals’ names, feeding habits, body coverings, and
dangerousness/harmlessness. These four issues were examined for each of eighteen animals included in the re-
search. In addition, for each of the four issues, gender differences were considered for each of these animals. The
research was done in the period of two months, between February and April 2016.
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Sample
This research used a convenient sample of 101 six- to seven-year old children: 55 girls and 46 boys. This sample
came from three different kindergartens in Belgrade and may represent preschoolers of that age in large urban
areas in Serbia. Regarding ethical issues, the author obtained relevant approvals for the implementation of this
research and the use of the planned test from the responsible personnel in these preschool institutions. Although
the questionnaire was administered through an interview with each participant, apart from recording the child’s
gender, other personal data were not collected.
Design and Variables
Because this research focused on correct responses and gender differences in these responses, it dealt with
the percentages of correct responses (a frequentative design), and comparing those percentages for two groups
(a factorial design).
This research used six binary variables: one independent and five dependent. The independent binary vari-
able was gender (with values 1-boy, and 2-girl).
For each animal examined, five dependent binary variables were:

•• naming (values: 1-correct, 0-incorrect or not known);
•• feeding (values: 1-correct, 0-incorrect or not known);
•• covering (values: 1-correct, 0-incorrect or not known);
•• dangerousness (values: 1-dangerous, 0-harmless);
•• explanation i.e. explanation of dangerousness/harmless (values: 1-correct, 0-incorrect or not provided).
Instrument and Procedure
To assess mental representations, this research used a questionnaire referring to 18 animals. These animals
were (in the order of appearance in the questionnaire): cat, dog, fish, bird, lion, bee, butterfly, ant, spider, snake,
bear, frog, goat, lizard, penguin, turtle, snail, and hedgehog. To be able to compare the results of this research with
those of other research, the selection of animals was made according to previous research.
Next to the picture of each of these animals, a star was given. Children had to color each star depending on
the animal’s dangerousness (red for dangerous, or green for harmless). Furthermore, for each animal, each child
had to answer questions regarding the animal’s name, feeding habits, body coverings, and why he or she perceived
the animal as dangerous or harmless. The administrator of this questionnaire was the author of this research, who,
for each animal, wrote down the children’s answers to these four questions.
The average duration of the interview with each child was 30 minutes, and appeared to be a quite demanding
task for participants. To combine intellectual and fine motor activities, they were asked to color the star next to the
picture of each animal while answering the questions asked by the researcher.
To enable children to concentrate enough and participate in this survey the best they could, the interviews
were conducted from 9:00 AM to 11:00 AM. The research was done in the period of two months, between Febru-
ary and April 2016.
Because the participants were preschoolers, the administrator valued all correct answers respecting the child’s
age. For example, for the picture of a cat, both a cat and a kitty were considered as the correct answer. Similarly, for
a dog, the administrator also accepted the answer “doggy” as correct. When the child stated the exact name of the
breed shown in the picture, the administrator also accepted this name as a correct answer (e.g., dog – Alsatian).
A random sample of the completed instruments was examined by a teaching assistant. Her scoring was almost
identical to that of the administrator.
Research Results
The five figures below summarize the outcomes regarding the percentages of correct responses for each animal
with respect to the five dependent variables name, feeding, covering, dangerousness, and explanation. For danger-
ousness, the relevant figure shows the percentage of children who indicated the animal in question to be dangerous.
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100
90
80
Percent
correct 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 1: Percent correct for variable name (naming the animal correctly).
When the naming of animals is in question, the participants’ mental representations about different animals
were correct to a considerable degree. Apart from dog and bee, the participants named the remaining animals
with a great success (at least 90% correctly). Gender differences were only found for dog (80.4%-boys, 94.5%-girls;
χ2 = 4.764, df = 1, p = .024). The effect size (phi φ) was 0.22, or 0.54, when, instead of 1, the maximum possible cor-
relation were used as the comparison standard as suggested by Breaugh (2003).
100
90
80
Percent
correct 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 2: Percent correct for variable feeding (stating the animal’s feeding habits correctly).
Regarding animals’ feeding habits, the participants’ mental representations about different animals were cor-
rect to a moderate degree (the mean percentage was 57%; the median percentage was 61%). Gender differences
were only found for bee (78.3%-boys, 60%-girls; χ2 = 3.859, df = 1, p = .049; φ = 0.20, φcorrected = 0.26), and lizard
(67.4%-boys, 41.8%-girls; χ2 = 6.584, df = 1, p = .010; φ = 0.26, φcorrected = 0.26).
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100
90
80
Percent
correct 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 3: Percent correct for variable covering (stating the animal’s body coverings correctly).
When an animal’s body covering is considered, the participants’ mental representations about different
animals were correct to a moderate degree (the mean percentage was 55%; the median percentage was 63%).
Gender differences were not found.
Percentage
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 4: From dangerous to harmless animals: the percentage of children who indicated that animal was
dangerous.
When animals’ dangerousness was in question, the participants’ mental representations about different
animals evidenced, on average, rather a low level of dangerousness (the mean percentage was 40%; the median
percentage was 23%). However, bee, spider, bear, snake, and lion were dangerous animals for more than two-third
of the participants. Gender differences were only found for lion (87%-boys, 98.2%-girls; χ2 = 4.893, df = 1, p = .027;
φ = 0.22, φcorrected = 0.74).
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100
90
80
Percent
correct 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5: From correct to wrong explanation: percent correct for variable explanation (giving a correct expla-
nation of the animal’s dangerousness or harmlessness).
Considering the participants’ explanations about why animals are dangerous or harmless, their mental repre-
sentations about different animals were correct to a moderate degree (the mean percentage was 58%; the median
percentage was 53%). Gender differences were only found for spider (69.6%-boys, 49.1%-girls; χ2 = 4.323, df = 1,
p = .038; φ = 0.21, φcorrected = 0.22).
Discussion
Naming Animals
As shown in Figure 1, several animals were named correctly by all children: cat, fish, lion, butterfly, frog, and
penguin. For spider, snake, bear, lizard, turtle, snail, and hedgehog, the percentage of correct answers was 98% or
99%. Why was the percentage lower for some animals, such as ant (95%), goat (92%), dog (88%), and bee (69%)?
The ant was imprecisely named by some children as “bug”, and the goat was mainly confused with a sheep. Such
responses could be attributed to the age of the respondents. Children were 6- to 7-years old and had not adopted
a precise terminology. The respondents were members of an urban population of children, most of whom had not
had the opportunity to see a goat or a sheep live. They also confused the two animals, because their color in the
picture books is white. What surprised us was the poor recognition of the dog, which, like the cat, was an animal
very close and well-known to them. Contrary to girls, a number of boys thought that the picture showed a wolf.
Because of that, there were gender differences for dog (80.4%–boys, 94.5%–girls). The most poorly named animal
was the bee, because a number of the respondents thought that a wasp was shown on the picture.
Despite a high percentage of correct answers, children’s mental representations supporting the naming of
animals were not fully developed. Due to their age, there was still no clear differentiation between a species and
its breed, i.e. between the basic concept/level (e.g., it’s a cat) and the subordinate concept/level (e.g., it’s Persian).
Because of that, we accepted as correct some answers referring to breeds instead of their species as expected.
[For example, when the picture of dog was shown, children usually gave the answer Alsatian instead of dog (or
doggy – also acceptable because of the respondents’ age). For the picture of a bird, many children said that it was
a parakeet, which indeed was the case.] Preschool children may prefer to label object at a particular level (subor-
dinate: “it’s Alsatian”), but, when suitable prompts are used, they may, as Waxman and Hatch (1992) found, label it
at other levels as well (basic: “it’s a dog”; superordinate: “it’s an animal”). Because of perceptual similarities, children
may spontaneously use one basic level instead of other (e.g., wasp instead of bee), or use a superordinate level
(e.g., bug instead of ant), which may, in Vygotsky’s terms (1962), be evidence of an associative complex, possibly
supporting a pseudo-concept rather than a concept.
As in this research, the naming of different animals by 5- and 6-old preschoolers was successful in the research of
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Kubiatko (2012), who also reported labeling animals at different taxonomic levels than intended (e.g., cobra instead
of snake). Possible reasons for this confusion, mentioned in the previous paragraph, may help us improve matters.
Animals’ Feeding Habits
As shown in Figure 2, two-third of children knew what a bear, penguin, lion, goat, snail, and bee eat.
Just 17% of children knew what a butterfly eats. It was a surprise to see that dogs and cats were placed in the
middle of the figure (their scores were 64%). Having in mind the measures of central tendency of percent correct
(the mean percentage was 57%; the median percentage was 61%), it was clear that the responses of around 40%
of the participants were incorrect. However, most of these responses, such as bee eats flowers, could not be clas-
sified as misconceptions.
Many children stated that a dog eats dog food, a cat eats cat food, or that these animals eat biscuits for dogs
and cats. These responses were not evaluated as correct, because we expected children to name a specific kind of
food, not focusing on cans or bags with food for pets. Interestingly, a similar situation occurred for bird and fish.
Many children replied “bird food”, and “fish food”, which was also evaluated as incorrect. (Such interesting answers,
probably not reported elsewhere, were obviously cased by a quite limited experience of children from urban areas.)
When children gave such answers, these were registered, and they were then encouraged to give a concrete answer
to what exactly cat / dog / bird / fish like to eat. If they then gave answers such as meat or mice, their answers were
finally accepted as correct. Regarding misconceptions, some children thought that ant eats soil (about 7% of the
participants), a penguin eats snow or ice (5%), an ant drinks people’s blood (3%), and a spider eats its cobweb (3%).
Although these misconceptions occurred rarely, they have not been, to the author’s knowledge, reported in the
literature so far. Regarding the misconception that ant drinks people’s blood, a similar, more frequent misconcep-
tion was found for older children elsewhere (e.g., bats’ food is blood; Kubiatko & Prokop, 2007).
Research has usually described misconceptions about animals, and indicated their frequencies for particular
groups of students. Little has been said, in general, about possible reasons for these misconceptions. Concerning
misconceptions in biology in general, the reasons may be more psychological than biological in nature, although,
when present, experience with live organisms may considerably affect children’s knowledge (Prokop, Kubiatko, &
Fančovičová, 2007). Because of a limited live experience with some organisms, the mental representations of some
children were only partially developed, possibly being comprised of many associative complexes.
Regarding gender differences, only two were found: for bee (78.3%-boys, 60%-girls), and lizard (67.4%-boys,
41.8%-girls). As noted in Hummel et al. (2015), boys may have more positive attitudes towards less popular animals
than girls. Because of that, an explanation for these differences could be that, when playing in nature, boys paid
more attention to bees and lizards, thereby recognizing the feeding habits of these animals.
Animals’ Body Coverings
The percentages represented on Figure 3 show that the participants knew best the body coverings of bear,
goat, dog, lion, cat, hedgehog, and turtle. For each of these animals, the percentage correct was greater than 80%.
The correct responses were low for fish (27%), and bee (21%), and very low for penguin (12%), spider (6%), butterfly
(5%), and ant (4%). Surprisingly, when not sure about answer, most of the participants did not even try to guess
at it, or offer an arbitrary answer.
The greatest number of mistaken answers was recorded for the body covering of penguins. Over a third of
the preschoolers included in this research (35.6%) thought that the body of penguins was covered with fur. Simi-
lar, more frequent misconceptions about penguins were observed among primary school pupils, when as many
as 75% of them, thought that instead of feathers, the body of penguins was covered with hair, or just bare skin
(Kubiatko & Prokop, 2007). Another research revealed that “only 25% of children knew that the penguin’s body is
covered by plumage, not by hair (32%) or uncovered skin (43%)” (Prokop, Kubiatko, & Fančovičová, 2007; p. 398).
The next frequent misconception of our preschoolers was that the body of a butterfly was covered with feathers.
Such a response was given by about 7% of participants. Other misconceptions about the butterfly were that its
body was covered with silk, fur, hairs, patterns, and stripes. Another typical misconception of our preschoolers
was that the body of the goat was covered with wool. Approximately 6% of children gave that answer. Being un-
able to formulate an answer to the question about this animal’s body covering, a number of the children tried to
provide a response in the form of specifying a concrete color, stripes, or patterns. Overall, the participants’ mental
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representations about animals’ body coverings were correct to a moderate degree. There was no animal for which
gender differences in correct responses were present. Gender differences were also not found in the research of
Prokop, Kubiatko, and Fančovičová (2007), who examined concepts about birds of children in grades 2–9.
Animal’s Dangerousness / Harmlessness and Reasons for It
As shown in Figure 4, the butterfly was considered to be the most harmless of the animals given. Only 6% of
our preschoolers considered it to be dangerous. On the other hand, a lion was considered to be the most danger-
ous of these animals. As many as 93% of our preschoolers thought that. A snake was the second most dangerous
animal (92%), which coincides with a research on the attitudes of students towards snakes in Slovakia and Turkey
(Prokop, Ozel, & Usak, 2009). Other more dangerous animals were the bear (83%), spider (77%), and bee (75%).
Similar findings emerged in international studies involving preschoolers: children were most afraid of sharks, bears,
snakes, and spiders (Kubiatko, 2012). In an earlier research on the fear of snakes, researchers found that human
infants associate snakes with fear (DeLoach & LoBue, 2009). Note that gender differences were only found for lion
(87%-boys, 98.2%-girls), meaning that boys were less afraid of this animal than girls; an expected outcome in the
light of previous studies (e.g., Hummel et al, 2015; Tomažič, 2011).
As Figure 5 shows, our preschoolers were most able to explain why they think the snake is a dangerous or
harmless animal (almost 90% of them). Their poorest verbalization and argumentation was found when explaining
why a penguin was considered to be a dangerous or harmless animal (just 40% of them did it successfully). Children
with a lower degree of information about individual animals, as well as less mature children usually explained that
an animal is not dangerous because it is good. A number of children believed that the animal is not dangerous
if it is small, and therefore ant, snail, and butterfly were marked as harmless animals. On the other hand, some
animals were marked as dangerous if they perceived them to be horrible, as is usually the case with spiders. Some
animals were also marked as harmless because the children felt that they were not close to them, and that these
animals therefore could not hurt them. Some answers of this kind were: “fish cannot hurt us because it is under
water, and we are on the surface”, or “a penguin cannot hurt us because it lives far away, at the South Pole”. Some
children suggested that a bee’s sting is dangerous, because it can cause an allergic reaction, and many respondents
mentioned possible risks with a frog, recalling the fact that “there are poisonous frogs, and they are dangerous,
and others are not”. The children mostly had some conception regarding the dangerousness or harmlessness of
an animal, but some of the respondents had a problem verbalizing the answer to this question. In such cases they
often mentioned that “the animal is not dangerous because it is a pet, it is good, it only crawls, swims, flies...” Note
that children’s responses revealed that many of them were aware that some animals become dangerous when
one touches them, because they defend themselves in that way. Overall, our preschoolers often interpreted the
dangerousness or harmlessness of an animal by considering its size, movements, and habitat (e.g. cage, water, other
continent). A similar augmentation, thought less diverse, can be found in Kubiatko (2012). In addition, regarding
the danger of spiders, snakes, and frogs, the preschoolers were aware that there are certain poisonous specimens
that pose a danger, whereas other, often-encountered specimens are harmless, and there is thus no need to fear
of them. Gender differences were only found for spider (69.6%-boys, 49.1%-girls), which may be a sign that boys
had more developed mental representations about spiders, probably because, as Hummel et al. (2015) suggested,
their attitudes towards spiders were more positive than those of girls.
Implications for Practice
Small children initially name tiny animals, frequently insects, with the word “bugs”. Based on their personal
experience, they later notice animals’ characteristics whereby they can call them bee, ladybird, ant, fly, spider. To
develop adequate mental representations about animals, it is first important to name animals correctly. To attain
this aim, children’s personal experience with animals, gained in a family environment (usually through television,
books, and the Internet; see Torkar & Mavrič 2016) should be coupled with didactically modeled activities in
kindergartens, such as studying some animals using a magnifying glass, examining enlarged images and photos
of animals, and making models of animals by using different materials. Secondly, these mental representations
have to capture basic knowledge about the appearance of animals and their feeding habits. To improve children’s
mental representations and correct possible misconceptions, the didactically modeled activities based upon group
discussions should start from individual children’s ideas (possibly incomplete or wrong in our view). “It is better if
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teachers have to guess what the children think than vice versa” (Haglund, Jeppsson, & Andersson, 2012; p. 754).
Furthermore, for a desired conceptual change, as Allen underlines (2015), some scientific ideas should be seeded at
the earliest years of formal education (e.g., during the last year in kindergartens in our case), focusing on the relation
between perceptual and conceptual issues, and modeling these issues in practical and formal terms (Gelman, 2004).
A fear of or feelings of disgust and discomfort toward certain animals is another factor that can interfere with
developing mental representations about different animals. It is thus important to discover the cause of children’s
fears. It is necessary to provide the relevant information about the animal, to explain and, if possible, personally
demonstrate which behavior towards it is appropriate and which behavior is not. We should bear in mind that chil-
dren often imitate their peers, and because of that, if we have in a kindergarten group a child who is, for example,
afraid and panics when s/he spots a bee, there is big chance that we will soon notice more peers with similar be-
havior. It is thus necessary to create activities that include closer observations of bees, or other animals perceived
in that way. It is appropriate, for example, to make parallels between the organization and group work of bees
and these of children in the kindergarten. Modeling bees with play dough and placing them on paper flowers, or
making and playing with a honeycomb made of cardboard would reduce child’s fear to some extent. Watching a
video on how bees gather nectar and pollen allows children to see the life of bees from a safe position. A teacher’s
explanation of the situations when a bee may sting a child and what should be done if this happens would result
in a more adequate relationship with this animal, unburdened by stress and fear. For didactically modeled activities
about spiders and other animals, see Tytler, Haslam, and Peterson (2015), for example. Teachers should not forget
that when unencumbered by fear, a child has better attention and can recognize more similarities and differences
between animals, and the main characteristics of particular species, as well as detect and adopt typical patterns
of adequate behavior with animals.
Conclusions
Apart from the very successful naming of animals, the participants’ mental representations about different
animals with respect to the animals’ feeding habits, body coverings, as well as the reasons why animals are dangerous
or harmless, were correct to a moderate degree, which is in line with other studies. However, because this research
used a larger sample, children’s misconceptions and the arguments for animal’s dangerousness or harmlessness
were more diverse, resulting in some responses that have not, to the author’s readings, been reported in the lit-
erature so far. For example, dog eats dog food, ant eats soil, and a goat’s body is covered with wool. Furthermore,
there were responses that described an animal’s dangerousness or harmlessness in terms of its size (e.g., “small
animals are less dangerous”), movements (e.g., “it only crawls”), and habitat (e.g., “it is under water, we are on the
surface”). Although some gender differences were found and their effect size was not small, apart from these for
lion (more dangerous for girls than boys), other differences may not be considered as general patterns. Note that
significant gender differences were found in just five of ninety 2 x 2 tables considered.
It is true that children have a direct knowledge of some animals (e.g., dog, cat), and an indirect knowledge of
other animals (e.g., penguin, lion). Because of that, it may be objected that on the basis of the children’s familiarity
with them, this research could divide animals examined into two groups and compare the participants’ responses.
This objection, which indicates a possible limitation of this research, is not relevant, however. As shown on the five
figures given in the Results section, familiar and unfamiliar animals are mixed (not grouped as may be expected),
which suggests that the distinction familiar/unfamiliar may not be of general nature.
As discussed above, preschoolers’ mental representations of animals are important for children’s personal
development, and they can be developed towards actual scientific models by using a range of didactically mod-
eled activities in kindergartens. Research may thus focus on designing and sequencing these activities. Because
possible reasons for children’s misconceptions are still largely unknown, research may focus on these reasons,
which would, when better known, promote more adequate didactically modeled activities.
Acknowledgement
The research is a part of the project of the Teacher Education Faculty in Belgrade: “Concepts and strategies
for ensuring quality basic education”, no. 179020, whose implementation is funded by the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (2011-2017).
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Received: March 31, 2017 Accepted: July 05, 2017
Gordana Miscevic Kadijevic PhD, Associate Professor, Teacher Education Faculty, University of
Belgrade, Kraljice Natalije 43, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
E-mail: gordana.miscevic@uf.bg.ac.rs
Website: http://www.uf.bg.ac.rs/wp-content/uploads/uf/03-
docenti/12_Gordana_Miscevic-Kadijevic.pdf
509
ADOPTION OF ICT INNOVATIONS
BY SECONDARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS AND PRE-SERVICE
TEACHERS WITHIN CHEMISTRY
EDUCATION
Abstract. This research is focused on sec- Martin Rusek, Dagmar Stárková,

ondary school chemistry teachers’ (N=276) Vlastimil Chytrý,
and chemistry pre-service teachers’ (N=159) Martin Bílek
attitudes towards the use of information
and communication technology (ICT) in
education. A questionnaire constructed

upon Rogers’ theory of diffusion of innova-
Introduction
tion was used. Based on the answers, the
respondents were grouped according to
With the huge boom in information and communication technology
their innovativeness – into types of innova-
(ICT) in the last two decades, the question of its use in education arose. Hand
tion adopters. Analysis of the participants’
in hand with this trend, research data about its impact are needed. The effec-
responses to the statements in the ques-
tiveness of ICT use in education as well as teachers and students’ beliefs are
tionnaire suggests that neither gender nor
the most discussed fields which naturally applies for science education too.
their teaching experience influence their
The Czech chemistry educator community lacks information about
innovativeness. The respondents mostly
the use of ICT in chemistry classes (a similar situation is addressed e.g. by
tend to hold a pragmatic view, accept the
Pietzner (2014)). There are several fields such as technology which could be
role of ICT in education. However, they
utilized in chemistry education (Chroustová, Machková & Hanzalová, 2016;
need proof to decide whether to adopt it in
Stárková & Rusek, 2014), technology-enhanced experiments (Kamtoom &
their teaching practice. As the respondents
Srisawasdl, 2014; Král & Řezníčková, 2013; Machková & Bílek, 2013, 2014;
could leave their contact information, it
Šorgo & Kocijančič, 2012) or implementing ICT in teaching/learning methods
is possible to further focus on particular
covered (Iancu et al., 2012; Pietzner, 2014; Stárková & Rusek, 2015b). Never-
groups of innovation adopters, to observe
theless, the current state of ICT use remains unclear. For this reason, more
their lessons, analyse their approach and
attention needs to be given to teachers’ (Vivian, Falkner, & Falkner, 2014), but
mainly influence and support those groups,
also pre-service teachers’ beliefs (Özsevgeç, 2011).
which maintain a “role model” position and
In their study, Yeh, Lin, Hsu, Wu, and Hwang (2015) distinguished three
trigger diffusion of innovations.
groups of teachers according to their proficiency level using ICT according
Keywords: chemistry education, ICT, dif- to the Technological and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) model
fusion of innovations, teachers’ attitudes, (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). The groups were: technology-infusive (TI), tech-
pre-service teachers’ attitudes. nology transitional (TR), and planning and design (PD). When asked about
the possible uses of technology in education, the TI teachers were more
student-centred, whereas the TR teachers were more teacher-centred. The
PD teachers were proficient in planning and designing but expressed lower
evenness in their answers than TI and TR. These groups of teachers can be
Martin Rusek, Dagmar Stárková compared to a simplified pentad of innovation adopters – Rogers (2003, p.
Charles University, Czech Republic 282-285) describes five groups of innovation adopters: innovators (compa-
Vlastimil Chytrý rable with PD-teachers), early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards
Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí
nad Labem, Czech Republic (comparable with TI-teachers). Compared to Yeh et al. (2015), Rogers’ descrip-
Martin Bílek tion (despite its universality) offers a more detailed description of a teacher’s
Charles University, Czech Republic attitudes and behaviour. Innovative teachers (mostly innovators and early
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adopters) bring the advantage of enhanced impact on the entire teacher population once larger cooperation is
established. Naturally, the impact of such teachers is minor when not supported. Lamanauskas and Vilkonis (2007),
in their paper, stress the lack of experts among teachers who would recommend and/or show their colleagues
suitable software. With reference to Perceptual Computer Theory (PCT) put forward by Powers (1973), Zhao and
Cziko (2001, p. 27) argue that teachers who consider ICT to be a tool for their higher-level goal attainment without
affecting their other higher-level goals, will change their ICT usage in practice more easily. However, they add an
important aspect – the teacher must believe that he or she has or will have the resources as well as the ability to
use technology (cp. Du Plessis, 2016). Naturally, this is much easier, when these teachers have an example in their
innovative colleague or have been educated (trained) in an ICT-rich environment.
As far as gender is concerned, there is a considerable amount of research evidence. Some researchers did not
prove a significant difference (Harris, Jankins & Glasser, 2006; Zounek & Sebera, 2005) between females’ and males’
attitude towards ICT. In others, the following differences were found:
Female
•• Tend to be less interested in computers, to have less positive views about the value of computing, and to
report more computer anxiety and less confidence in their computer abilities (Volman & van Eck, 2001).
•• Choose security to compensation over tournament, when there is a vision of a positive result they tend
to participate more (Dohmen & Falk, 2011; Dohmen, Falk, Huffman, Sunde, Schupp, & Wagner, 2011).
Male
$$ Perceive using ICT as easier (Teo, 2014).

$$ Boys start using computers earlier than girls (Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008), therefore their self-efficacy
in the use of ICT is expected to be higher hence they are presumed to be more innovative than
women.
Females are often behind in ICT use and ICT knowledge and skills. (Meelissen & Drent, 2008).
Despite ICT development, it is supposed that certain differences in terms of using ICT in the educational
process in separate regions of Europe exist (Lamanauskas & Vilkonis, 2007, p. 2). Local studies are therefore needed.
Diffusion of Innovations
In this research, Rogers’ theory of diffusion of innovations was used despite the fact it was not originally de-
signed for educational purposes. For its versatility, however, it has found its use in education, too (e.g. Bennett &
Bennett, 2003; Ogrezeanu & Ogrezeanu, 2014; Sahin, 2006; Seymour, 2002). In his work, Rogers (2003) deals with the
term opinion leaders. It “is the degree to which an individual is able to influence other individuals’ attitudes or overt
behaviour informally in a desired way with relative frequency” (Rogers, 2003, p. 27). It is earned by an individual’s
technical competence and social accessibility, and also by conforming to the system’s norms (Rogers, 2003). If we
think of the teacher community on a school, regional, state or international level (enhanced by technology and
social/professional networks), the theory enables a method of introducing innovation with more success than if it
was ordered by the school management or even ministry of education (curriculum). The theory is directly applied
to teachers in this text.
Rogers (2003, p. 26-28) further discusses both innovative opinion leaders and leaders who oppose change.
Some leading the promotion of new ideas and others leading active opposition. Therefore, they hold a unique
and influential position in the school environment structure and are at the centre of interpersonal communication
networks.
With this respect, the term change agent is also introduced.
Although Rogers (2003) uses the term innovation as a synonym to technology, it may be understood on a
more general level too. The theory of the leaders is further elaborated into five categories of innovation adopt-
ers: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. Innovators (venturesome), share their
enthusiasm with people of the same focus. Their domain is communication. They are not afraid of risks associated
with adopting innovations. They like to try new things and are not afraid of failure. They are usually not accepted
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by their environment, nonetheless their value in the system is in launching new ideas in the social system. Early
adopters (respectable) are more integrated in their environment. They have the greatest degree of opinion leader-
ship. Potential innovation adopters look to early adopters for information. The role of early adopters is in decreasing
uncertainty of the others about new ideas and adopt it. Early majority (deliberate) adopt innovations just before
the average members of the system. They are seldom leaders and deliberate before using innovation. Their posi-
tion is unique as they bridge the innovative members and members who are relatively late to adopt innovations
in the diffusion process. Late majority (sceptical) includes members who adopt innovations just after the average
members of society, usually out of necessity such as the pressure of the environment. They are sceptical and cau-
tious. Adopting an innovation needs to be favoured by the system norms and needs to be pressed by their peers.
Almost all their uncertainty must be removed before they feel safe to adopt. Laggards (traditional or conservative)
possess almost no opinion leadership. Their point of reference is the past. When they adopt an innovation, it may
already be out-of-date. They must be sure the adoption will not fail before they adopt (Rogers, 2003, p. 282-285).
Problem of Research
This text represents the initial step in the above mentioned complex study. The first step represents quantitative
research. Chemistry teachers will be divided into the above-mentioned Rogers’ categories of innovation adopters.
After that, trends within these categories will be evaluated.
As discussed by Du Plessis (2016, p. 2), referring to Albion & Ertmer’s text cited by Prestridge (2012), teachers’
beliefs and their ICT implementation mismatch. For this reason, the second step representing qualitative research
could follow. The teachers from particular groups will be interviewed, their enlistment into a Rogers’ category con-
firmed and their lessons observed with a focus on the use of ICT. The clarified chemistry teacher network created
in this way could be gradually completed in the future. The innovative teachers’ role in diffusion of experience with
ICT in education among others (cp. Lamanauskas & Vilkonis, 2007; Rogers, 2003) could be supported by teacher
trainers. Piloting and subsequent distribution of materials for ICT-in-education support created by academics could
also be directly targeted to the identified teachers who have influence on their colleagues.
With the length of any interference in education in mind, the research also covers pre-service teachers, as their
role is crucial for the sustainability of such an endeavour (cp. Özsevgeç, 2011). In this respect, attempts to assess
pre-service teachers as innovation adopters in the Czech Republic were made on pre-service teachers in general
(Černochová, Siňor & Kankaanrinta, 2001) and later on prospective secondary school teachers (Zounek & Sebera,
2005). Further, the same procedure was used to assess chemistry pre-service teachers (Stárková & Rusek, 2015a).
The following research questions were set:
1) What attitudes do secondary chemistry teachers and chemistry pre-service teachers assume towards
ICT in their (future) conception of education.
2) What is the distribution of secondary chemistry teachers and chemistry pre-service teachers according
to their innovativeness like?
General Background
The aim of the research is to find out what attitudes secondary school chemistry teachers and chemistry pre-
service teachers assume towards ICT in chemistry education. Further, to what extent are categories of innovation
adopters represented in the sample (cp. Zounek & Sebera, 2005).
In order to achieve this, a quantitative approach was chosen. The research represents a correlational analysis
based on a questionnaire. The scope of the research was to describe Czech chemistry teachers’ and pre-service
teachers’ attitudes towards the use of ICT in education. The research took place between March and April 2015.
The teachers’ and pre-service teachers’ distribution, in particular Rogers’ categories, was observed. Innovative-
ness is regarded with each respondents’ attitude towards innovation in their own chemistry-education practice.
Based on the literature, the authors of this research assume the expressed teachers’ attitudes not only influence the
way these teachers and student teachers think about ICT in education, but affect the way they use/are intending
to use ICT in their (future) practice.
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Research Sample
The research sample consists of in-service as well as pre-service chemistry teachers. With the scope of the
research in mind, only secondary schools where chemistry is taught in more depth were selected as it is possible
to expect ICT could be an important tool for abstract phenomena visualization. Since the curriculum reform in
2009, the nature of chemistry education has changed in the Czech Republic. The majority of secondary school
programmes (ISCED 3) contain chemistry only within general education disciplines (see e.g. Rusek, 2014). These
programmes were excluded from the sample. Therefore only grammar schools and science (chemistry)-oriented
vocational school teachers were addressed. As far as chemistry pre-service teachers were concerned, all depart-
ments educating prospective chemistry teachers from all universities in the Czech Republic were addressed.
Several responses were excluded based on an insufficient number of responses. In order to calculate respon-
dents’ results, at least three out of five items in a given cluster had to be filled in. The questionnaire was sufficiently
completed by 432 respondents, more details are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Information about respondents.
In-service teachers Pre-service teachers
Female Male Female Male

193 78 126 32
Grammar school Vocational school Bachelor Master
163 110 82 77
∑ 273 ∑ 159
Research Tool
Attitudes are a widely observed phenomenon in education research. The research tool usually contains
statements the respondents express their position (attitude) to. A questionnaire created by Kankaanrinta (2000),
translated and piloted by Černochová et al. (2001) and further used by Zounek and Sebera (2005) was adopted
in this research. These authors focused on the respondents’ attitudes towards ICT use in education in general. For
the purposes of this research, it was clearly stated in the introductory information for the respondents that only
ICT in chemistry education was concerned.
The questionnaire consists of two parts. The first contains demographic items (gender, type of studies/type of
school, years of teaching practice etc.). The second part consists of 25 statements divided into 5 batteries (clusters).
Every cluster (pentad) is instrumental in one of the Rogers’ (2003) innovation adopter categories. The respondents
expressed their opinion on each statement on a 6-point scale (Agree, Rather agree, Do not have a pronounced opinion,
Rather disagree, Disagree and I do not know).
A respondent’s enlistment into a particular category was made based on their responses to the corresponding
cluster of statements. Each respondent’s enlistment into each of the categories was determined by the mean value
of their answers. In order to do so, a limit value of 0.8 (the value used by Zounek and Sebera (2005)) was used. The
questionnaire was distributed to teachers via e-mail. From the database available at www.skoly-online.cz/databa-
ze-skol/ of secondary schools in the Czech Republic, the above mentioned were selected. An e-mail message with
both an online form as well as attached MS Word version of the questionnaire was sent out to all the official contact
addresses at 629 secondary schools. It is not possible to calculate the response rate because several emails returned
due to an invalid e-mail address, several returned as unread, several were simply not answered. It is possible to
argue this approach to questionnaire distribution favours the teachers with a more positive attitude towards ICT.
In the case of pre-service teachers, an e-mail message, again with both versions of the questionnaire, was
sent out to teacher educators in respective departments (seven faculties of six universities in the Czech Republic).
They were asked to distribute it among students. Some of them submitted the questionnaire to their students in
paper in university lessons, some of them forwarded the e-mail with the online version.
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Data Analysis
Reliability and significance
In order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire scales and subscales, standard methods used in
pedagogical research were utilized. Cronbach α (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955; McGartland Rubio & Kimberly, 2005)
was calculated for the 5-point Likert scales (Likert, 1932). The reliability of the entire test is α = .80, which allows
the reliability to be considered sufficient. Sekaran (1992) set the minimum acceptable reliability coefficient level at
.60. As a general rule of thumb (Shoukri & Edge, 1996), a reliability coefficient (r) is considered excellent if r is larger
than .75, good - if r is between .40 and .75, and poor if r is less than .40. An α value between .7 and .95 is considered
sufficient according to Tavakol and Dennick (2011).
The authors find utilizing the same significance level (typically α= .05 or α = .01) without respect to the nature
of a problem doubtful. That is why a 10% significance level will also be taken into account.
The scale and statistical interpretation
The statements on the scale were assigned the following values: 2, 1, 0, –1, –2 and N – the last item was
recoded with a blank cell. Likert scales are usually considered ordinal. Nevertheless, some types of scales can be
also considered interval – under the condition that the distance between two of them is the same (see Chytrý &
Kroufek, in press). Based on a paper by Carifia & Perla (2007), it is not suited to analyse particular items but whole
scales/subscales. The scale used in this study is considered interval (e.g. Maurer & Pierce, 1998; Vickers, 1999).
Heeren & D’Agostino (1987), Meek et al. (2007) and Rasch et al. (2007) describe that parametric tests provide the
same results as non-parametric tests in cases of smaller groups. When performing the tests, the authors worked on
the presumption that either Mann-Whitney, or Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA can be used when a scale is at least ordinal.
The statistics used
Except for common statistics, both statistical significance and substantive significance were calculated for the
test (the authors are aware of the statistical constraints regarding the use of effect size for non-parametric data).
“Statistical significance examines whether a research result was reached by accident or by variability of the selective
data. Material significance deals with the application of the result in the real world.” (Kirk, 1996, p. 746). Based on
statistical significance, the results were generalized according to the p-level. In the case of material significance,
the influence of the observed effect was detected (effect size – further only ES). The two-step model by Robinson
and Levin (1997) will be used: first statistical significance is evaluated, if confirmed (statistically significant result),
material significance will be evaluated in the second step. Small sample sizes, normality tests have little power to
reject the null hypothesis. Almost all normality test methods perform poorly for small sample sizes (less than or
equal to 30-40). Since the statistics were only calculated for smaller groups in this research (except for the Innova-
tors and Early majority groups), the particular samples were analysed using both non-parametric and parametric
tests (see Heeren & D’Agostino, 1987; Meek, Ceyhun, Dunning, 2007; Rasch, Teuscher, Guiard, 2007). By doing so it
was proved that both approaches lead towards the same conclusions.
Respondent grouping
Respondents who scored .8 and higher in a particular cluster were entered in the Belonging group, respondents
who scored -0.8 and lower were entered in the Extrinsic group. Some respondents were enlisted in more than one
category that is why the sum of enlisted respondents does not equal the total sum of received questionnaires (432).
Results of the Research
First, responses to all the statements were compared. The statements the respondents agreed with the most
are from the third category (identifying the early majority), the least agreed with statements are from the fifth
(identifying laggards). The most and least agreed upon statements are listed in Table 2.
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Table 2. The four most and least agreed upon statements about chemistry education.
Statement M Mdn SD
4C Before I start using an application, I want to know if it is useful. 1.30 1 .81

The most positive
3D I consider carefully which ICT applications I will use. 1.06 1 .89

3A I hope I will be able to use the most useful and the most proved applications. 94 1 .91
3E I prefer successive to revolutionary development of ICT use in education. .87 1 .90
4D I will use the ICT applications only when the pressure of my colleagues is strong enough. -1.35 -2 .90
The most negative
5A I will use ICT applications only when I am forced. -1.43 -2 .89

5D I will be among the last who decide to use ICT. -1.56 -2 .84
5C I wish I never had to use ICT applications. -1.58 -2 .82
First, the responses to all the statements were compared. The statements the respondents agreed with the
most were from the third category (identifying the early majority), the least agreed with statements were from the
fifth (identifying laggards). The most and least agreed upon statements are listed in Table 2.
It is obvious that the respondents tend to keep a pragmatic attitude towards ICT in their responses. They pre-
ferred statements containing the words useful or careful. On the other hand, based on the least agreed with state-
ments, they seem to accept ICT as a part of contemporary life and the majority do not express negative attitudes.
Second, the respondents’ agreement with statements which identify a particular innovation adopter type
was analysed.
The overall number of respondents belonging and extrinsic to Rogers’ categories are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Numbers of respondents belonging or extrinsic to Rogers’ (2003) categories of innovation adopters.
Innovators Early adopters Early majority Late majority Laggards

Category
N % N % N % N % N %
Belonging 98 23 36 8 234 54 38 9 13 3
Extrinsic 99 23 94 22 12 3 111 16 343 79
Two basic factors (respondent type and gender) were tracked. Figure 1 shows the overall distribution of
innovation adopters according to the respondent type (G. – grammar school teacher, Voc. – vocational school
teacher, Stud. – pre-service teachers).
The largest group is the Early majority. The second largest for all three respondent types are Innovators. The
group of Laggards is the smallest in this research.
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Figure 1: Teachers’ and pre-service teachers’ distribution in Rogers’ categories.
Figure 2 shows the overall distribution per gender. Particular differences will be described in depth below.
Both the research questions are answered in more detail for the five groups of innovation adopters.
Figure 2: Female and male distribution in categories
Innovators
The respondent sample (N = 98) consists of 64% (63) females and 36% (35) males; 43% (42) grammar school
teachers, 29% (29) vocational school teachers and 28% (27) pre-service teachers. The overall response values are
shown in Table 4.
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Table 4. Summary of responses in the first cluster – Innovators.
Item 1A 1B IC 1D 1E Mean
Mean 1.29 1.16 0.90 1.57 1.20 1.23

Median 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00
Mode 2.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00
SD .87 .66 .88 .52 .79 .40
Based on the p-value of either of the tests used for both identifiers (gender and type of respondent), the zero
hypotheses of similar attitudes towards the statements in the first cluster among teachers (grammar and vocational
school) and pre-service teachers could not be rejected (pg = .3, pt = .6, pg - p-value of the test for gender difference,
pt - p-value of the test for respondent type).
When examining each of the items individually, the values of the non-parametric test allow the rejection of
the zero hypothesis only in case of the statement 1E - I dare to risk in testing (so far untried) ICT applications. - (pg =
.07) on the 10% significance level. Male respondents tend to rate the statement more positively than female re-
spondents (median 2 vs. median 1). Nevertheless the effect size (r = .171) suggests a small effect (cp. Cohen, 1992).
Early Adopters
The sample (N=36) is the closest to the innovation adopters distribution proposed by Rogers (2003, p. 281).
It consists of 69% (25) females and 31% (11) males; 25% (9) grammar school teachers, 39% (14) vocational school
teachers and 36% (13) pre-service teachers. The overall response values are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Summary of responses in the second cluster – Early adopters.
Item 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E Mean
Mean 1.89 1.31 .55 .91 1.28 1.38

Median 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mode 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
SD .78 .47 1.20 .69 .66 .61
The values of both tests for the difference between the respondent groups Kruskal-Wallis (pt = .41), ANOVA
(pt = .15) do not allow the zero hypothesis to be rejected. There is no statistically significant difference between
pre-service and in-service teachers’ answers in this category.
As far as gender is concerned, both the p-value of the Mann-Whitney test (pg = .08) and the p-value of the
t-test for independent groups (pg = .016) allow the hypothesis about the equality of median values of male and
female respondents’ answers on the 10% significance level to be rejected. The result suggests male respondents
express a stronger positive opinion on the statements in the second cluster. The difference has a medium effect
based on the effect size (r = .371).
When examining each of the items individually for male and female respondents’ answers, the values of para-
metric as well as the non-parametric tests allow the zero hypothesis for the statements 2D and 2E to be rejected.
In case both the parametric and non-parametric tests suggest a statistically-significant difference, the p-value of
non-parametric test is ordered before the p-value of the parametric test. In case of 2D – I am considered an author-
ity at our school. – (pg = .04 resp. .035) male respondents tend to answer more positively than female respondents
on the 10% significance level. The effect size (r= .391) suggests a medium effect. In case of the statement 2E – My
colleagues respect my opinions in the field of education – the p-value of the test (pg = .09 resp. .08) allows us to reject
the hypothesis about equal means given to the statement by male and female respondents on the 10% significance
level. Male respondents answer more positively. The effect size in this case is medium (r = .335).
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Early Majority
This group is the most numerous from the sample (N = 234). It consists of 78% (182) females and 22% (52)
males; 40% (94) grammar school teachers, 28% (66) vocational school teachers and 32% (74) pre-service teachers.
The overall response values are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Summary of responses in the third cluster – Early majority.
Mean 1.31 1.04 .98 1.38 1.14 1.17

Median 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mode 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
SD .63 .81 1.03 .63 .76 .33
Neither of the tests’ p-values (parametric and non-parametric) used for both identifiers (pg param.= .50, pg non-param
.64, pt param. = .1593, pt non-param. = .22) allow us to reject the hypotheses about the equal medians or means on either
5% or 10% significance level. The respondents’ attitudes towards the statements in the third cluster among teach-
ers (grammar and vocational school) and pre-service teachers are similar.
When examining each of the items individually for male and female respondents’ answers, the values of both
of the tests allow us to reject the zero hypothesis about the equal answers to the statement 3B – When I am encour-
aged to use ICT, I use them. – (pg param. = .03, pg non-param. .02). In this statement, female respondents tend to answer more
positively than male respondents at a 5% significance level. The effect size (r = .171) suggests only a small effect.
Late Majority
This group consists of 38 respondents, 89% (34) females and 11% (4) males; 29% (11) grammar school teach-
ers, 21% (8) vocational school teachers and 50% (19) pre-service teachers. The overall response values are shown
in Table 7.
Table 7. Summary of responses in the fourth cluster – Late majority.
Mean 1.26 0.67 1.74 .23 1.16 1.03

Median 1.00 1.00 2.00 .00 1.00 1.00
Mode 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 .80
SD .83 1.01 .45 1.09 .65 .27
Neither of the p-values of the tests used for gender identification (pg param. test = .63, pg non-param. test = .61) allow us
to reject the hypotheses about the equal medians or means at either a 5% or 10% significance level. The overall
respondents’ attitudes towards the statements in the fourth cluster between are equal.
When examining each of the five items individually for male and female respondents’ answers, the values of
both the tests allow the zero hypothesis about the equal answers to the statement 4B to be rejected – When all the
others start using ICT applications, I will follow. ‑ (pg param. = .051, pg non-param. = .053). This statement was slightly rejected
by the male respondents, whereas the female respondents tend to answer more positively. At a 10% significance
level the difference is significant. The effect size (r = .471) suggests a medium effect.
On the contrary to gender identification, the p-value of both the tests used for respondent type identifica-
tion (pt param. = .008, pt non-param. = .036) allows us to reject the hypotheses about the equal medians or means at a 5%
significance level. A statistically significant difference was found between the answers of grammar school teachers
and pre-service teachers. The effect size (r = .583) suggests a large effect – the largest from the calculated values.
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The pre-service teachers answered the statements more positively than the grammar school teachers who scored
only slightly (.05) above the group margin. From this result it is possible to conclude that grammar school teachers
do not tend to be part of the late majority group as strongly as the pre-service teachers.
Laggards
As mentioned above, the questionnaire distribution and/or the topic of the research itself may not have
favoured conservative respondents. The group of laggards consists of only 13 respondents 10 female and 3 male;
3 grammar school. 1 vocational school and 9 pre-service teachers. For such a small group it is unreasonable to run
any statistical tests. The overall response values are shown in Table 8.
Table 8. Summary of responses in the fifth cluster – Laggards.
Mean .85 1.38 0.92 1.00 1.31 1.09

Median 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mode 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
SD 1.21 .77 .76 .71 .48 .21
This group, however, is characterized by the highest portion of respondents who do not belong to this group.
The statements concerning compulsion, expression of ICT uselessness etc. were rejected by the respondents.
Discussion
The respondents assume positive attitudes towards ICT and the possibilities of their use in chemistry
education. They prefer succession and examples of good practice in implementing ICT in education. A positive
finding is in their acceptance of ICT as an integral part of education (cp. Teo, 2011; Venkatesh, Morris, Davis &
Davis, 2003) – they do not need to be forced to use ICT in their practice. These conclusions are derived from
the most agreed-on statements in the third category and the least agreed on statements in the fifth category.
Naturally, in case of the chemistry pre-service teachers the example of good practice is usually a mixture of
the teaching style their secondary school teachers applied (a memory which may not be accurate) and ideas
presented to them at university.
With a little bit of exaggeration it is possible to state that pre-service teachers tend to hold a slightly more
sceptical or conservative opinion compared to in-service teachers. Preliminary expectations about the younger
generation – students – having a more positive attitude towards ICT (cp. Hakkarainen et al., 2001) was not proved.
On the contrary, they hold a rather pragmatic view with a tendency to scepticism, which differs from findings
by Zounek & Sebera (2005) or Teo (2008, 2014). Compared to grammar school teachers, the pre-service teachers
statistically significantly belong more closely to the group of Late majority, which only stresses their sceptical at-
titude towards the use ICT in education. Teo’s (2014) findings offer a possible explanation: “… participants perceived
themselves to be in control of computers to a lesser degree than they thought the computer was useful and had
liked and intend to use the computer.” (Teo, 2008, p. 416). This could be considered an example of the environment
they studied in at secondary and university level. It is therefore possible to argue that promoting ICT in pre-service
teacher training needs to be supported.
The expected more positive attitude of male respondents was not proved in this research (cp. Meelissen &
Drent, 2008; Teo, 2008, 2014; Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008). From this point of view the sample seems more homogenous.
Only results in the early adopter category (second cluster) of this research are in accordance with the results by
Teo (2014) and Veikiri & Chronaki (2008). The share of male respondents in the group is significantly bigger than
the share of female. The men’s tendency to lead and show their skills can be seen in their more positive attitude
towards statements about their position among peers. They feel significantly more like authorities and feel more
respected by their peers than the female respondents (see Dohmen & Falk, 2011; Dohmen et al., 2011). Women,
on the contrary, perceive that they can be persuaded to use ICT by their colleagues significantly more easily than
men and are more likely adopt ICT when everyone is using it.
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To enhance ICT use in chemistry education, offering (prospective) teachers more examples of effective ICT use
in education seems vital. Also, teacher trainers could start their effort in diffusion of ICT by focusing on support-
ing early adopters as a group who accepts innovations willingly but critically, and which then acts like a natural
disseminator of this innovation. This process seems to be more effective than either global “top-down” changes
or attempts aimed at “anonymous” groups of teachers. The results can also be used by teacher trainers to encour-
age pre-service teachers to use ICT in their future professional life. Finally, researchers could use the findings to
further investigate the process of diffusion of the use of ICT in education. They could also track adoption types and
describe the effectiveness of their use of ICT in more depth.
The results could also inform policy makers who manage the rate and the extent of ICT adoption in education
(cp. Teo, 2014, p. 134).
Strong Points and Limitations of the Research
Adapting the research instrument also used by other researchers ensures the possibility of higher instrument
reliability, which was also confirmed by the acceptable value of Cronbach’s alpha. The uniqueness of this research for
the Czech Republic comes from the complexity of the research sample, where the results from random chemistry
teachers can be compared to the results of most chemistry pre-service teachers. Methodologically, by using more
in-depth data analysis to ensure measurement invariance, this research offers a broader view of factors influencing
the problematics compared to previous similar ones.
The results of this research are affected by several limitations. Although Rogers’ theory is well accepted and
the amount of research in various fields which build upon it is large, there is also criticism of this theory for its
lower complexity (Lyytinen, 2001). An innovatively thinking person may not act as described by Rogers in their
environment for other reasons not included in the questionnaire. As far as the sample structure is concerned, the
shift to the left – the larger number of innovative respondents – the method of the questionnaire’s dissemination
needs to be considered. It may have affected the sample structure since the portion of conservative respondents
(cp. 16%, see Rogers, 2003, p. 281) probably did not take part in the survey because they simply did not complete
the questionnaires, whereas the research sample of pre-service teachers represents almost the entire population.
Conclusions
Examining technology use and acceptance is one of the frequent research topics internationally. The findings
of this research broaden the present knowledge of a description of chemistry in-service and pre-service teachers’
attitudes towards the use of ICT in the educational process. In the field of chemistry, there has been no previous
research of this matter carried out in the Czech Republic focused on teachers or pre-service teachers.
The research results revealed that the respondents hold rather positive attitudes towards the use of ICT in
chemistry education. Innovators represent 23% of the respondents, which is considerably more than expected
based on Rogers’ theory. The most agreed-on statements in the questionnaire express the respondents’ acceptance
of ICT and their willingness to use it when a positive effect is proved. Promoting ICT in this field could therefore
be enhanced by providing teachers with evidence - examples of good practice. Only 3% of respondents are lag-
gards - the most traditional, conservative group. This offers an optimistic platform for future (in-service) teacher
training endeavours.
As far as gender is concerned, statistically significant differences between females’ and males’ responses were
found in four statements concerning willingness to risk or try new technologies. Men seem to be more courageous
and independent, willing to set an example to their colleagues, whereas women prefer following others and favour
being encouraged to use ICT.
Surprisingly, pre-service teachers expressed their conservative attitude towards correspondent statements
significantly more compared to in-service teachers. These students admitted their concern for the hazards asso-
ciated with the use of ICT in education. They are also more likely to use ICT only after being compelled to. Their
mostly careful approach towards the use of ICT in education enables the question of pre-service teacher training
with respect to technological and pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) to be reconsidered.
This research represents the first phase of a process of finding the ways and the extent that ICT is used in
chemistry education. Initially, teachers who hold a conservative or progressive opinion on ICT in education - i.e.
express positive or negative attitudes towards ICT - were identified. Further, interviews with selected respondents
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will be made to match their answers in the questionnaire to their more general views about ICT in chemistry edu-
cation. This will further clarify inaccuracies caused by the use of self-reported scales. In the following phase, these
teachers’ lessons could be observed in order to identify patterns in their use of ICT.
Acknowledgements
The research was supported by the Charles University in Prague, project GA UK No. 1488214 – Efficient Ways
to Support Teaching Chemistry through ICT from the Perspective of Chemistry Teachers and A Specific Research
– Student Grant Competition UJEP-SGS-172-03-01.
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Received: April 16, 2017 Accepted: July 08, 2017
Martin Rusek PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry and Chemistry

Education, Faculty of Education, Charles University, M. Rettigové 4, 116
39 Praha 1, Czech Republic.
E-mail: martin.rusek@pedf.cuni.cz
Dagmar Stárková MSc., PhD Student, Department of Teaching and Didactics of
Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 3, 128 43
Prague 2, Czech Republic.
E-mail: dagmar.starkova@pedf.cuni.cz
Vlastimil Chytrý PhD., Assistant Professor, Department of Preschool and Primary
Education, Faculty of Education, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University
in Ústí nad Labem, České Mládeže 8, 400 01, Ústí nad Labem, Czech
Republic.
E-mail: vlastimil.chytry@ujep.cz
Martin Bílek PhD, Professor, Department of Chemistry and Chemistry Education,
Faculty of Education, Charles University, M. Rettigové 4, 116 39 Praha 1,
Czech Republic.
E-mail: martin.bilek@pedf.cuni.cz
523
DIRECT LEARNING ABOUT
NATURE IN 6-YEAR-OLD
CHILDREN LIVING IN URBAN
AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS
AND THE LEVEL OF THEIR
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Abstract. The contemporary theory of

learning treats pre-school instruction as
Stanisława Katarzyna Nazaruk,
the first level of early child education. The Anna Klim-Klimaszewska
pre-school age is seen as a very important
period of life. A pre-school child grasps
knowledge spontaneously, naturally, in
all circumstances, thus, direct learning
seems to be of particular importance. It Introduction
may therefore seem that children living
in the village have more stimuli for direct Children begin to learn about nature very early. It can even be said
learning about nature, developing their that they do it before they learn to walk. At the same time, learning about
knowledge and skills. However, children nature in a targeted and conscious way begins in kindergarten. The person
living in the city have more access to dif- who plays the most significant role in the process is the pre-school educa-
ferent amenities and financial resources tion teacher. S/he is responsible for organizing the didactic process and
to develop their talents and interests. The shaping positive attitudes by planning and implementing different forms
following studies have been conducted to of classes, learning methods, choosing the proper natural environments to
determine whether there is a difference in meet the age requirements as well as children’s intellectual predispositions
the knowledge and skills about nature in and age-specific interests.
6-year-old children regarding the place of Kindergarten can wield a multilateral influence on children’s develop-
residence. The research covered 50 children ment by organizing their time while staying there. However, the effects of
in the city and 40 children in the village. this work require considering the children’s developmental characteristics
The examination consisted of two stages: as being active subjects of the upbringing processes. Thus, kindergarten
the pre-test and post-test. There were used is obliged to boost and shape children’s progress properly. It is a teacher
age-appropriate flash cards. During 6 who supports children’s efforts and responds to their initiatives, assists
months, teachers systematically introduced whenever help is needed, stirs to action, provides explanations, teaches.
a direct learning project on nature in four While doing all these, the contents of games are diversified, there are
ecosystems: a meadow, a park, a forest, a introduced new types of them to shape social and moral attitudes and to
zoo. The analysis of the data gathered in enrich the children’s devices to create plastic art pictures. The specificity
the research showed that direct cognition of the upbringing processes in kindergarten makes the learning processes
has an impact on increasing children’s go simultaneously. The two processes are integrated to a great extent. The
knowledge and skills. learning content is not a separate unit but it is included in the upbringing
Key words: direct learning, children in process. Every situation connected with a child who spends time at the
6-year-old, urban and rural environments, given kindergarten, no matter if it is self-service, playing games, various
developing knowledge and skills. activities and forms of work, influences the child’s personality and has its
upbringing nature. There are included many learning contents which are
Stanisława Katarzyna Nazaruk connected with the whole system of work devoted to upbringing. Thus,
Pope John Paul II State School of Higher the learning process accompanies every situation connected with a child
Education, Poland in kindergarten. Learning can be distinguished in this process and it means
Anna Klim-Klimaszewska
University of Natural Sciences and gaining knowledge by children about the world, getting to know new
Humanities, Poland terms and abilities. Learning in kindergarten is interrelated with action.
During this period it is mainly associated with circumstantial and subcon-
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 524-532)
scious learning, unintended both by children and adults. In the process of upbringing children also learn with
the teacher’s guidance. The learning process covers practical abilities useful in everyday life, thanks to which
children gradually become unassisted, but it also covers learning contents included in the upbringing program
of the given kindergarten. Both the process of learning and the upbringing process are carried out thanks to
forms and methods accepted by the kindergarten pedagogy.
Methods acknowledged by the kindergarten pedagogy extend over both upbringing and learning processes
and take into consideration properties and progress stages of a child. While working with kindergarten children
there are used methods which are based on actions (active methods: the method of independent experiences,
the method of guiding a child’s own activity, the method of tasks directed to a child, the method of exercises),
methods based on observation (view methods: observation and demonstration, the personal example of a
teacher, making fine arts available) and methods based on words (verbal methods: conversations, short stories,
riddles, descriptions and instructions, ways of social communication, methods of the vivid word).
Specialists believe that the most effective way for a child to get to know nature is his/her direct contact
with the natural environment. Through direct contact with nature, s/he receives a multitude of stimuli that affect
the brain’s neurons. Further, the child experiences positive emotions such as joy, curiosity, surprise, which help
the learning process. By observing and experiencing nature directly, the child is more prone to ask numerous
questions and try to find answers to them. The presented approach of learning by observing nature is the basis
of new concepts such as self-directed learning and shaping natural-born abilities in pre-school children (Rob-
bins, 2009; Ntalakoura, Ravanis, 2016; Żuchelkowska, 2015).
Many specialists have drawn their attention to appropriate selection of learning methods in the learning
process meant for children aged 5 to 6 (Kampeza, Vellopoulou, Fragkiadaki & Ravanis, 2016; Gallegos-Cázares,
Flores-Camacho & Calderón-Canales, 2009, Żuchelkowska, 2015, Seker, 2008). They stressed the importance of
the holistic approach in the pre-school children’s education (those aged 3-6 years). As far as education about
nature is concerned, such an approach is fully justified as it concerns the curriculum, goals and learning meth-
ods as well as shaping positive attitudes (Fleer, 2002; Robbins, 2009; Sikder & Fleer, 2015). As for the children’s
attitudes, it was noticed that some of them, aged 5-6, show caring behavior towards animals (dogs, cats or fish)
and a desire to nurture plants.
The conducted research was aimed at exploring the connection between direct learning about nature by
six year-old children and their level of knowledge and skills. It took into account the children’s place of residence,
i.e. town or village. The place of residence indirectly implies the type of contact with nature and accessibility to
different ecosystems. Even the amount of time spent on observation and revision can have an impact on the
acquired knowledge and skills about nature. It should be noted that children living in the city will not have a
direct access to such ecosystems as meadows and forests. Although it is possible to arrange trips and explore
these sites, such a type of direct contact will be significantly different from the one experienced by children
from rural areas. On the other hand, children living in the village may have a limited access to such an amenity
as the zoo, for example, because it involves arranging trips to the city and involving parents. These examples
show that one’s environment can be significant in learning about nature although it is not the only and most
important factor. One should also point out the importance of intellectual predispositions.
Given the importance of the environmental education in children’s lives, not only in the pre-school age,
but also in the future, and considering the lack of research into this interesting subject, it should be assumed
that there is an important reason for conducting such research.
Thus, the main aim of the research was to examine the relationship between direct learning about nature
by six year-old children and their level of knowledge and skills.
To achieve the aim, four distinct goals have been identified:
1. Getting to know the level of knowledge and natural ability in 6 year-old children before they participate
in observing nature in the four selected ecosystems such as a meadow, park, forest and zoo.
2. Learning about the level of knowledge and natural ability in 6-year-old children after the conducted
observation of the selected natural ecosystems.
3. Identifying differences in the level of knowledge and skills in 6 year-old children living in the city and
the village before and after nature observation.
4. Developing guidelines for effective environmental education in pre-school practice.
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Methodology of the Research
General Characteristics of the Research
The conducted research is connected with the field of knowledge and skills about nature in children living in
different social environments. The research needs to be carried out in Poland, since no similar studies have been
done in the area so far. On the other hand, effectively-run environmental education in kindergarten might definitely
benefit the children in higher levels of education. Due to the objectives, the research was being conducted from
September 2015 to May 2016 in four kindergartens: two kindergartens located in cities (Siedlce and Biała Podlaska)
and two in villages (Kornica and Domanice).
During the research period teachers organized trips and strolls for children to let them observe the forest,
the park, the allotment garden, the meadow, the agritourism farm, animals at the zoo. After coming back to the
kindergarten children described what they could see and what was the most interesting in their opinion. Then,
they created environmental corners and plastic art pictures. Direct learning about nature was also possible thanks
to the research games which extended their interests, enriched their knowledge, catered to their cognitive needs
and developed their own activeness. Children examined: What is water and what are its properties? What is wind?
What does it mean ‘a healthy tree’? What are the plant growth processes? What are the properties of snow? More-
over, the direct contact with nature was achievable for children thanks to a number of their practical actions: the
baked potato holiday, cleaning up the world, gardening, preparing salads.
Procedure
The research was conducted in two stages. In September 2015, a pre-test was carried out. The diagnosis
concerning the level of children’s knowledge and natural skills, i.e. the so-called initial state. For this purpose, a
test was adapted to the child’s age (6 year-olds) and the core curriculum for pre-school education. A standard card
test consisting of 6 illustrated worksheet cards with tasks for children (Standard, 2009) was selected. The images
presented on individual cards included:
Card 1. − four seasons landscapes;
Card 2. − different types of fruit;
Card 3. − different types of vegetables;
Card 4. − various animal species living in the meadow;
Card 5. − various bird species;
Card 6. − farm animals and those living at home.
Teachers who conducted the classes in the kindergartens explained to the children the goals of the conducted
picture test step by step. Children’s performance was rated on a scale of 1 to 3.
1 point − nature skills have not been mastered /low level ability;
2 points − nature skills have been partially mastered / average level ability;
3 points − nature skills have been fully mastered / high level ability.
The child could get maximum 18 points for the correct performance on the test.
In May 2016, a post-test was conducted which was supposed to measure children’s knowledge and skills on
nature concerning the planned observations in the following ecosystems: a meadow, park, forest and zoo. The
kindergarten teachers learned about the details of the planned observations and their schedule. They showed
interest in carrying out the research, which ensured its high quality and an ethical approach. The post-test also
used a picture test that consisted of 10 illustrated cards. Each card presented a different image of nature elements
of the observed ecosystem to which 1 question was formulated. Children’s responses were evaluated and recorded
in the final follow-up sheet using a three-step scale, similar as the one in the pre-test. The maximum number of
points that could be obtained was 30.
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Participants
The research involved 90 children aged 6, including 50 urban children and 40 rural children. All of them were
6-year-olds attending a kindergarten, as there was only one group of 6-year-olds in each institution. The parents
agreed to allow their children to participate in the research project. Finally, it should be added that all children
taking part in research lived in the vicinity of their kindergartens to which they attended.
Data Analysis
The data analysis was based primarily on the evaluation of the pre- and post-test results. In order to correctly
execute each task, each child received max. 3 points, which indicated a fully mastered nature skill. If a child scored
2 points, it meant that he or she had mastered the skill partly, whereas 1 point indicated that the child did not
master the skill. In the second stage of the data interpretation, a summary of all the scores obtained by the chil-
dren in the tests was made. The results are recorded in two summery sheets. One recorded point was obtained by
the children from the city, and the other one by the children from the village. A statistical analysis was performed
using /in STATISTICA v. 10. The statistical non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test and Pearson Chi test were used to
compare the results of the study and demonstrate the differences between children in regard to the place of living
criterion. In all analyzed cases the significance level p = 0.05 was assumed.
Results of Research
Table 1 presents a summary of the pre-test scores obtained by the tested children.
Table 1. Pre-test scores obtained by children.
Place of residence
No. Scores City Village
N % N %
1. 8 2 4 0 0
2. 9 4 8 0 0
3. 10 2 4 4 10
4. 11 2 4 0 0
5. 13 10 20 4 10
6. 14 14 28 12 30
7. 15 0 0 6 15
8. 16 8 16 10 25
9. 17 8 16 4 10
Total 50 100 40 100
In order to determine the level of children’s results, the scores shown in Table 1 were ranked. According to the
didactic measurements developed by Bolesław Niemierko (2000) and applied in Poland, the scores were grouped
into three levels. The pre-test points and the corresponding levels are listed in Table 2.
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Table 2. Level of knowledge and skills achieved in pre-test nature test.
Place of residence
No. Level Scores City Village
N % N %
1. Low 0–9 6 12 0 0
2. Average 10 – 14 28 56 20 50
3. High 15 – 18 16 32 20 50
Total 50 100 40 100
The results shown in Table 2 show that 56% of the surveyed children in the city had an average level of knowl-
edge and skills in the pre-test. The second group, i.e. 32%, were children who achieved a high level while the low
level of knowledge and skills in nature ability was noted in 12% of the children.
In contrast, low levels of knowledge and skills were not recorded in rural children. Half of the surveyed chil-
dren − 50% achieved high scores and the same number of children obtained average ones.
While comparing the data obtained in the pre-test, one could notice that significantly higher scores were
recorded in children coming from rural pre-schools. A non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was used to make
comparisons and find statistically significant differences between the scores by children from rural and urban pre-
schools. Individual test scores were classified into one of three categories: low, average, high. The Pearson Chi test
was used to compare test results between pre-schools locations and sequent stages of the study. In all analyzed
cases, the significance level p = 0.05 was assumed. The mean test score obtained by the children from kindergar-
tens located in the countryside was 14.45 ± 1.93, whereas those from urban pre-schools was 13.68 ± 2.63. The data
concerning this aspect of the study are shown in Figure 1.
Value of the Mann-Whitney U test: U=205.00, Z=-1.04, p> .05
Figure 1: Pre-test scores of children in relation to the location of the kindergarten.
Despite higher achievements recorded in children coming from the rural environment than by those from
the city, the statistical analysis did not show a statistically significant difference of the nursery location on the pre-
test score (p = .3000).
After a six-month period, when teachers from urban and rural pre-schools conducted classes on the presented
above ecosystems that involved the direct learning about nature, during which a picture test was applied again.
The study was conducted at the end of May, 2016. The post-test scores are summarized in Table 3.
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Table 3. Post-test stores obtained by children.
Place of residence
No. Scores City Village
N % N %
1. 17 2 4 0 0
2. 18 0 0 2 5
3. 20 2 4 0 0
4. 21 10 20 0 0
5. 22 0 0 4 10
6. 23 2 4 4 10
7. 24 8 16 6 15
8. 25 4 8 4 10
9. 26 0 0 12 30
10. 27 8 16 4 10
11. 28 2 4 4 10
12. 29 10 20 0 0
13. 30 2 4 0 0
Total 50 100 40 100
The sums of the scores in Table 3 achieved by each child were broken down and assigned to the corresponding
levels, as in the pre-test sheet. The post-test points and corresponding levels are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Children’s level of knowledge and skills of nature in post-test.
Place of residence
No. Level Scores City Village
N % N %
1. Low 0 – 15 0 0 0 0
2. Average 16 – 23 14 28 8 20
3. High 24 – 30 36 72 32 80
Total 50 100 40 100
The results presented in Table 4 show that in the post-test, low level of knowledge and nature skills were re-
corded in none of the tested groups. As the children from the city, 72% reached a high level and 28% − an average
one. The same tendency was visible in children from the village. 80% of them achieved a high level of knowledge
and skills on nature, and 20% − an average one.
The obtained data may indicate that children from rural kindergartens achieved higher results than those from
urban kindergartens. In order to determine whether these differences are statistically significant, the same statisti-
cal tests were used as in the pre-test. The analysis of the post-test scores showed that children in urban pre-school
institutions had slightly better results (24.88 ± 3.57) than those in rural pre-schools (24.80 ± 2.40). Nevertheless,
the statistical analysis did not show a statistically significant difference of the nursery location on the outcome of
the post-test (p = .8093) (Figure 2).
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Value of the Mann-Whitney U test: U=239.00, Z=0.24, p> .05
Figure 2: Children’s post-test scores in relation to the location of the kindergarten.
The statistical analysis did not show a statistically significant effect of the nursery location on the children’s
test result, either in the pre-test (p = .4624) or in the post-test (p = .8794). It is worth noting that a high level of
knowledge in the pre-test was presented by 50% of the children in rural pre-schools and only 32% of those in
urban ones. As for the post-test, higher scores in regard to high levels of performance were reported both in urban
children (72%) and in the rural areas (80%). Figure 3 shows the comparison of children’s pre-test and post-test
results in relation to the location of the kindergarten.
Figure 3: Pre- and post-test scores in relation to the location of the kindergarten.
Comparing the scores obtained in the post-test, it should be noted that both groups of children have shown
an increase in the level of knowledge and skills compared to the pre-test performance. Nevertheless, statistical
analysis did not show a statistically significant difference in pre-test and post-test scores in children from urban
pre-schools (p = .5542) and those in rural pre-schools (p = .8220).
Discussion
The aim of the research was to find out differences in direct learning about nature by six-year old children living
in urban and rural environments as well as their level of knowledge and skills. This research was conducted in four
kindergartens located in town and countryside. Although kindergartens are located in different surroundings, they
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follow the same Early Child Education Program, through which the Polish Ministry of National Education records
the skills that a child should achieve at the age of 6 in the field of didactic and educational work. This document
does not recommend teachers to use any specific working methods for instructing children in kindergartens.
Such decisions are left at the disposal of teachers who themselves apply those forms and methods of working
with the youngest that take into account such factors as the individual development of the child, interests, family
and natural environment.
Two studies were conducted to determine the impact of direct learning about nature on children’s knowledge
and skills. The pre-test was used to diagnose children’s environmental knowledge before the planned observations
in the four selected ecosystems: a meadow, park, forest and zoo. The assessment of the pre-test results showed that
the children in the village reached an average score of 14.45 points, while those from the city − 13.68 points. Thus,
the results by children from the village were better in comparison with those from the city. This may be explained
by the fact that rural children have more contact with nature and more opportunities to be in the meadow, field,
garden or even in the forest. The positive effects of direct observation of nature and the experience of a pre-school
child on the acquisition of new concepts and skills were confirmed by Robbins (2009) and Ntalakoura & Ravanis
(2016). In Poland, studies on direct education related to the development of nature concepts in pre-school children
were conducted by Żuchelkowska (2015), which showed a positive influence of observation methods and sensory
methods on the effectiveness of learning about nature.
After the pre-test, the teachers from the surveyed kindergartens were supposed to conduct environmental
education classes in the four indicated ecosystems. The main assumption was that children learn about nature by
direct contact. To do that, teachers used nature observations, organized experiments and described causes and
effects of certain atmospheric phenomena. The report titled “Outdoor learning about nature”, developed by the
Institute of Educational Research in Warsaw, recommended implementing research and observation methods
while teaching about nature (Poziomek & Ostrowska, 2014). Taking the recommendations on the methods from
this report into account, it should be noted that direct exploration of nature by six-year-old children practically
reflects the report’s guidelines.
The effects of direct exploration of nature by six-year-old children were examined in the post-test. The results
of the study confirmed the assumption that children will achieve higher scores in the post-test than those in the
pre-test. It turned out that higher better were found in all children, regardless of the location of the kindergarten.
Children from the kindergarten received an average score of 24.88 points and those from the rural pre-schools
scored 24.80 points. The difference between the pre-and post-test scores was not statistically significant. However,
it is important to note an increase in the final results, which proves the rightness and effectiveness of the chosen
methods used by teachers working with children, i.e. methods based on the child’s direct contact with nature while
learning about it. The correlation of the teaching methods with the learning process in a child aged 6 is supported
by Kampeza, Vellopoulou, Fragkiadaki and Ravanis (2016), Gallegos-Cázares, Flores-Camacho and Calderón-Canales
(2009) and Seker (2008). With regard to the nature education of children at the age of 6, it has been confirmed that
the chosen methods were proper because of the good results achieved by children.
Conclusions
On the basis of the empirical evidence and its analysis, some conclusions were drawn which might help to
develop work plans in kindergartens in which the study on nature education was conducted. The results from the
post-test, compared to those in the pre-test, showed an increase in the knowledge and skills of nature in children
attending kindergartens both in the city and in the countryside. This might prove that the initial assumptions were
proper and that direct learning about nature has a positive impact on knowledge and skills about it. In the context
of planning the didactic and educational work in kindergartens in the field of nature education, it is necessary
to take into account the knowledge of some selected ecosystems, and apply those methods through which the
child has a direct contact with nature. It is also important to ensure that children not only observe nature but also
experience it, learn with all senses.
Through a direct contact with nature, children learn about its elements (structure), activate their senses and
minds. The research has shown that the environment in which a person lives has an impact on shaping one’s
nature skills. Staying in different environments and observing them affects one’s memory and knowledge due
to the repeatability of the whole process. This was shown in the pre-test results, where the children in the village
had higher scores than those from the city. Although the differences in the children’s tests were not statistically
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significant in relation to the location of the kindergarten, the obtained results showed an increase in the knowledge
of nature. The research also indicated that effective methods of learning about nature are those in which the child
has a direct contact with it. It should be noted that there is a further need to study the relationship of other factors
and how they relate to the process of learning about nature. For example, the socio-demographic and economic
factors that influence the development of the child might be considered here, which would undoubtedly inspire
further research in the field of education.
References
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychology, 28 (2), 117-148.
Fleer, M. (2002). Sociocultural theory: Rebuilding the theoretical foundations of early childhood education. Policy and Practice
in Education, 54 (1), 105-120.
Gallegos-Cázares, L., Flores-Camacho, F., & Calderón-Canales, E. (2009). Pre-school science learning: The construction of repre-
sentations and explanations about colour, shadows, light and images. Review of Science, Mathematics and ICT Education,
3 (1), 49-73.
Gardner, H. (2002). Inteligencje wielorakie. Teoria w praktyce [Manifold intelligences. Theory in practice.] Poznań: Media Rodzina.
Kampeza, M., Vellopoulou, A., Fragkiadaki, G., & Ravanis, K., (2016). The expansion Thermometer in preschoolers’ thinking. Journal
of Baltic Science Education, 15 (2), 185-193.
Niemierko, B. (2000). Pomiar wyników kształcenia [Measurement of learning outcomes.] Warszawa: WSiP.
Ntalakoura, V., & Ravanis, K. (2016). Changing pre-school children’s representations of light: A scratch based teaching approach.
Journal of Baltic Science Education, 13 (2), 191-200.
Poziomek, U., & Ostrowska, E. (2014). Przedmioty przyrodnicze poza szkołą. Poradnik dla nauczycieli [Natural subjects outside the
school. The hints for teachers.] Warszawa: IBE.
Robbins, J. (2009). Analyzing young children’s thinking about natural phenomena: A sociocultural/cultural historical perspective.
Review of Science, Mathematics and ICT Education, 3 (1), 75- 97.
Seker, H. (2008). Will the constructivist approach employed in science teaching change the ‘grammar’ of schooling? Journal of
Baltic Science Education, 7 (3), 175-184.
Sikder, S., & Fleer, M. (2015). Incremental science learning in toddler’s play. International Journal of Science Education – Part B, 2
(4), 1-21. DOI:10.1080/21548455.2015.1020457.
Żuchelkowska, K. (2015). Edukacja przyrodnicza w przedszkolu [Natural science education in kindergarten.] Bydgoszcz: UKW.
Received: May 30, 2017 Accepted: July 15, 2017
Stanisława Katarzyna Nazaruk PhD, Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in
Biala Podlaska, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Department of Education, ul. Sidorska 95/97, 21-500 Biała
Podlaska, Poland.
E-mail: stnazaruk@poczta.onet.pl, stnazaruk@poczta.onet.pl
Anna Professor, Head of the Department of Teacher Education,
Klim-Klimaszewska University of Natural Sciences and Humanities in Siedlce,
Faculty of Humanities, Institute of Education, ul. Żytnia 39, 08-
110 Siedlce, Poland.
E-mail: anna.klim-klimaszewska@uph.edu.pl, klimanius@
interia.pl
Website: http://www.kd.ip.uph.edu.pl
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CONSENSUS-BASED
EDUCATION: ITS EFFECT
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ACHIEVEMENT IN ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
BIOENERGETICS AS
MODERATED BY GENDER AND
LEARNING STYLES
Eddie G. Fetalvero Abstract. Involving students in making an

educational decision is claimed to produce
better outcomes. The effect of consensus-
based education (CBE) on achievement
in bioenergetics as moderated by gender
and learning styles was determined. Two
Introduction undergraduate biology classes were com-
pared employing the quasi-experimental
In the Philippines, improving students’ achievement is one of the primary design, one using CBE and the other taught
goals of science education. Several reports documented the disappointing the conventional way. The Biology Achieve-
performance of Filipino students in science during the last few decades ment Test (BAT) was the main data collec-
both in national achievement tests and international surveys (Gonzales et tion tool used, supplemented with ques-
al., 2004; DepEd-EFA, 2015). The problem even persists when these students tionnaires, learning style inventory, videos,
go to college. journal, and informal interviews. ANCOVA
One of the most important but often difficult subjects to teach and to tested the effect of educational approach
learn in an introductory college biology course is bioenergetics, which in- and the moderating effects of gender and
cludes the topics metabolism, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration. Aside learning styles while t-test compared the
from being abstract, many students have alternative conceptions about these BAT scores between the groups. Results
topics (Tanner & Allen, 2005; Tatar & Oktay, 2007; Kose, 2008; Keles & Kefeli, show that CBE can be a feasible alternative
2010; Parker et al., 2012; Svandova, 2014). These are implicated in hindering approach to teaching biology as it fairly
students’ learning thereby affecting their achievement in the course (Ozcan, addresses issues on gender and learning
2003; Tatar & Oktay, 2007). Students’ achievement in Biology, as with other styles. It has also helped students develop
disciplines, is an indicator of students’ learning as well as the effectiveness of their reasoning skills and improve their
educational interventions, and thus, becomes one of the main concerns in appreciation of democratic practices in the
science education (Osman & Kaur, 2014). A lot of factors have been reported classroom.
to affect student achievement in science (Yusuf & Afolabi, 2010) and over the Key words: educational decision-making,
years, science teachers have been searching for the best method of teaching. consensus-based education, learning
To this end, the claim that a learning environment that acknowledges the style effect, gender effect, achievement in
significance of student views to probably provide the most important foun- bioenergetics.
dation for thinking about ways of improving teaching, learning and schools,
merits further research (Macbeth et al., 2000; Phoenix, 2000; Cimer, 2012).
An emerging teaching approach, which traced its roots from the social
sciences, has been documented in the literature that is based on the concept
of consensus. Consensus is a decision-making model utilized by prehistoric Eddie G. Fetalvero
tribes and adopted by organizations, communities, and groups in coming Romblon State University, Philippines
to a unanimous decision, one that works for everyone (Schutt, 2011). In
literature, the term consensus is conceptualized as either a decision rule,
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a decision-process, or as both a decision rule and a process (Didcoct & DeLapa, 2000; Freeman, 2002; Hartnett,
2012; Christian, 2012; Cunningham, 2014). Hartnett (2012) suggested to use the term “consensus” when denoting
to a collaborative and agreement-seeking process, and the terms “unanimity” or “full consent” when referring to
the decision rule that requires full agreement in making decisions. Adapters of using consensus in making edu-
cational decisions premised their arguments on the core idea that students’ voices are often left out in their own
educational process as they are silenced by the authoritarian, top-down classroom models. They claim that these
undemocratic practices discourage optimal students’ engagement and block their innate desire to learn (Sartor &
Young Brown, 2004; Blinne, 2013).
Contrary to teacher-based educational decisions, the use of consensus in education is reported to promote
shared authority and responsibility in making decisions. It enhances students’ self-expression and encourages full
student participation, stimulates creative decision-making, nurtures the development of a conscious community,
shows that education can be a practice of freedom, and helps learners to form good self-concepts, heighten their
level of engagement, and improve their ability to apply learning in new contexts (Hooks, 1994; Freire, 1998; Wolk,
1998; Bruffee, 1999; Sartor & Young Brown, 2004; Mitchell et al., 2009; Blinne, 2013; MacDougall, 2013). This ap-
proach is reflective of a postmodern, constructivist, democratic and student-centered view of learning which are
consistent with the persistent call for a more dynamic, more democratic and more egalitarian learning environment
which are thought to produce better student outcomes (Hooks, 1994; Freire, 1998; Wolk, 1998; Shor & Pari, 2000;
Sartor & Young Brown, 2004; Hartnett, 2012).
Literature points to two models by which the consensus process has been applied by teachers in the context
of making educational decisions. First is the whole class consensus model where the students raise an issue, negoti-
ate or propose an alternative, engage in discussion, call for consensus decision, and adhere to the agreed process
(Sartor & Sutherland, 1999; Sartor & Young Brown, 2004; Mitchell et al., 2009; Blinne, 2013). The other model is
consensus within a group in the context of a lesson where the teacher asks an engaging focus question requiring
an individual or group-based problem solving, followed by student-to-student communication or whole class
discussion, and ends with a consensus answer to the focus question (Inoue, 2010; MacDougall, 2013).
While these models gave students the opportunity to negotiate and co-construct with teachers the edu-
cational plans and designs, very few however comprehensively described the method by which consensus was
generated in making those educational decisions. Most notably, findings of studies about the benefits and effects of
consensus and its variants were limited to the investigators’ self-contained classrooms. This setup could inevitably
cast reservations as to the generalizability of the reported benefits. Also, prior to this research, there was never a
structured and objective attempt to determine and test the effects of the consensus process using a comparison
group and there was no hard evidence whatsoever that linked the consensus process to students’ performance
on an achievement test. To address these gaps, the present research put together the two prominent consensus
models in classrooms and named it Consensus-Based Education (CBE). Its effectiveness was tested in improving
students’ achievement in bioenergetics against a comparison group taught using the conventional education (CE).
This research also tested the moderating effects of gender (Breakwell & Breadsell, 1992; Erickson & Erickson,
1984; Harding, 1983; Harvey & Edwards, 1980; Hendley et al., 1996; Johnson, 1987; Jovanovic & King, 1998; Kahle
& Lakes, 1983; Robertson, 1987; Smail & Kelly, 1984) and learning styles (Eide, Geiger & Schwartz, 2001; Coffield et
al., 2004; Pashler et al., 2008; Zhang, Sternberg & Fan, 2013; Wilkinson, Boohan & Stevenson, 2014; Khanal, Shah &
Koriala, 2014; Wu, 2014; Cakiroglu, 2014; Moayerri, 2015) on students’ achievement. Teacher’s pedagogical strate-
gies are advised to be examined for gender bias (SWE-AWE-CASEE, 2009) because males and females might react
differently to different approaches. Likewise, Pashler et al. (2008) argued that the effect of learning style on students’
performance has to be demonstrated by a crossover interaction through an experiment.

Research Design
The non-equivalent pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design was employed because the
participants were from two intact classes in a natural school setting where the random assignment was not pos-
sible, and the distraction of class structure was avoided to the minimum. This design is suggested to be the best
option for school-based research where classes are formed at the start of the year and it is neither practical nor
feasible to assign the students randomly to treatments, as discussed in the work of Ross and Morrison (2004). The
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scope of the research in terms of participants were the college students enrolled in college biological science class
which were limited to two classes only. The biology topic covered was biogenetics over a period of 12 teaching
sessions across six weeks.
Samples of Research
The participants in this research were the college students enrolled in two NatSci 102 (Biological Science)
classes, at the College of Business and Accountancy in a state university in the MIMAROPA region of the Philip-
pines. Their schedules were arranged such that when bioenergetics would already be the topic to be discussed, the
researcher would take over as the class instructor. The classes were chosen based on the following criteria: same
academic program, same classroom, a comparable size to achieve the 30 actual samples needed for comparative
analysis, and similar day yet comparable time schedule (CBE = 9-10 a.m.; CE = 2-3 p.m.). Between the two, the
class that employed consensus-based education was selected by drawing of lots. For the purpose of controlling
variance error due to inequality of sample size and other confounding factors, students from each group were
further screened during data analysis such that those with absences and incomplete data were excluded from the
sampling frame. Thirty students from each group were drawn using random numbers, except for the seven male
students from the CBE group who were all forced to become the representative samples for their group. Data from
these actual samples were used for comparative analysis. Table 1 summarizes the sample selection and the age
structure of the actual samples by group and gender.
Table 1. Summary of sample selection and age structure of the actual samples by educational group and
gender.
CBE Group CE Group
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Class size 7 47 54 19 45 64
Number of students with absences and
0 5 5 11 19 30
incomplete data
Number of qualified samples 7 42 49 8 26 34
Number of actual samples 7 23 30 7 23 30
Mean age (in years) of actual samples 17.57 16.96 17.10 17 17 17
Instruments
Learning Needs Analysis Protocol (LNAP). It is a self-administered protocol modified from Blinne (2013) which
was used in assessing students’ learning needs. These needs were used as inputs during the whole class and within
group consensus discussions. The list of questions was submitted for content validation by three experts: a teacher
with a Ph.D. in biology education, a campus director with a Ph.D. in educational psychology and a master’s in sci-
ence education, and an associate professor with a Ph.D. in educational management and also with a master’s in
science education. The instrument was revised as suggested.
Questionnaire on the Importance of Democratic Practices in the Classroom (QIDPC). This is a 10-item researcher-
made instrument administered for students in the CBE group which determined their perceptions about the
importance of democratic practices in the classroom across a four-point Likert-type scale, 1 as not important, 2 as
slightly important, 3 as important, and 4 as very important. This instrument was submitted to the same experts
who validated the LNAP whose suggestions were incorporated in the revised form. It was pilot tested in a biological
science class of 50 students in the same College as of the actual respondents, but this class was not chosen as a
sample. The data from the pilot test were used in computing for the internal consistency of the instrument, which
is to check if all items within the questionnaire are measuring the same thing. The Cronbach’s alpha value was
0.701 which means that the developed instrument is acceptable for use and thus, reliable (George & Mallery, 2000).
Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (CLSI). This is a 30-item instrument developed by Canfield and Knight
(1983), with four options in each item that assessed student’s preferences for learning over several affective learning
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domains: (1) conditions for learning, (2) area of interest, (3) mode of learning, and (4) expectation for course grade.
Twenty-four options were used to determine student’s preferred manner of obtaining new information, which was
the domain used in typifying the respondents’ learning styles in this research, such as listening, reading, iconic and
direct experience. This domain of the CLSI has a reported Cronbach’s alpha values of between 0.79 – 0.84.
Bioenergetics Achievement Test (BAT). This is a 35-item researcher-made test that assessed students’ learning
from the topic bioenergetics. It was developed by considering the unit plan contained in the course syllabus as
well as the students’ alternative conceptions about the topic. In the development of the test, alternative concep-
tions on metabolism, photosynthesis and cellular respiration were reviewed from literature and became the basis
of constructing the instrument. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Research (TIMSS) framework
for science cognitive domain was the model adopted in initially appraising the cognitive level measured by the
test items. This model categorizes science cognition into three domains: knowing, applying and reasoning. Each
domain has sublevels of cognitive skills (Table 2). The first draft was submitted to four biology content experts from
reputable universities in the country for content validation: an associate professor with a Ph.D. in biochemistry, a
professorial lecturer with a Ph.D. in zoology, a researcher with a Ph.D. in genetics, and an associate professor with a
Ph.D. in plant biology. They inspected the questions and circled those that were unclear and had some grammati-
cal issues, checked the consistency of the questions against the topics indicated in the course syllabus, and wrote
suggestions on improving the items. All these were incorporated in the revision of the achievement test. To check
the validity of the initial appraisal done on the cognitive levels measured by each item against the TIMSS-based
framework, the content-validated achievement test was further sent to two biology education specialists for evalu-
ation. Their comments and suggestions were incorporated in the finalization of the instrument. Then, the final form
of the achievement test was pilot-tested to 80 students who had just undertaken their biological science course
in the previous semester from the College of Education at the same university. From the results of the pilot test,
a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.719 was generated establishing the acceptability and reliability of the instrument.
Table 2. Table of specification for the Bioenergetics Achievement Test.
Science Cognitive Domain Topic/Item Placement

Total/
(TIMSS-based)
(%)
Metabolism Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration
Knowing 11
(31)
Recall/Recognize 6, 7, 9 12, 13, 14
Define 1
Describe 8 19, 29
Illustrate with examples 2
Demonstrate knowledge of scientific instru-
ments
Applying 14
(40)
Compare/Contrast/Classify/ Distinguish 10, 11, 18 20
Use models
Relate 4 27
Interpret information/diagram 3, 5 16, 17 26
Find solutions 30
Explain 28, 23
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Science Cognitive Domain Topic/Item Placement

Total/
(TIMSS-based)
(%)
Metabolism Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration
Reasoning 10
(29)
Analyze 31, 32, 33
Integrate/Synthesize
Hypothesize/Predict 22 34
Design 21
Draw conclusions 15 35
Generalize
Evaluate 24, 25
Justify
Total/ 6 13 16 35
(%) (17) (37) (46) (100)
Aside from these research instruments, quantitative data were supplemented by information from the video-
recorded class sessions, researcher’s journal and informal interviews with students.
The Teaching Intervention
Permission from the University President through the Vice President for Academic Affairs and Dean of the Col-
lege of Business and Accountancy was sought to introduce the proposed intervention and other research protocols
among the students enrolled in biological sciences in the said college. Schedules of the classes to be studied as
well as their subject teacher were arranged. Prior to the introduction of the intervention, CLSI was administered
by the subject teacher to the students both in the CBE and CE groups. Unfortunately, a typhoon devastated the
province the next day. Classes were canceled and preliminary data collection activities were aborted due also to
Christmas break. Data collection resumed when classes reopened. Both classes were already turned over by the
subject teacher to the researcher for the experimental research which covered the topic on bioenergetics. In the CBE
group, two more data gathering instruments were administered by the researcher: the QIDPC and LNAP. Four dry-
run sessions for the purpose of acclimatization to the recording device, orientation and familiarization were allotted
before the respondents were pretested for BAT. Thereafter, lessons about metabolism, photosynthesis and cellular
respiration were discussed to both groups, following the agreed process with consensus group activities in the CBE
group, and the prevailing method in the CE group. After 12 class-hour sessions (one hour more for the CBE group),
the QIDPC and BAT were administered as posttests to the CBE group while the CE group only answered the BAT.
In the group where CBE was implemented, authority and responsibility for making decisions about the learn-
ing plan (LP) were shared by the teacher with the whole class. In the context of this experiment, the approach
began by introducing the CBE process to the class using slide presentation. After which the LP was presented and
discussed. It was initially prepared by the teacher to save time but it was only meant as a template. Each student
was given a copy of the LP.
In CBE, consensus was practiced in two levels – whole class consensus and consensus within a group. In the
whole class consensus, students raised issues about items in the LP on bioenergetics that they could not work
with by negotiating and proposing an alternative. The class then engaged in what is called the “grand conversa-
tion” wherein students and teacher brainstormed, discussed and built upon each other’s ideas. Only then that a
consensus decision was made. Consensus in this context means, a unanimous agreement. So until everyone agrees
including the teacher, the class could not proceed. In the call for consensus, three hand gesture options were used:
raised open hand for yes; close-open hand for abstaining; and a closed fist for blocking. For those blocking and
abstaining, they were further asked by the teacher, “What one thing you would want to change in order for you to
clearly support the decision?” If consensus was achieved, the class would adhere to the agreed process, otherwise,
the grand conversation would continue. Change or modification to the general agreement would require another
round of consensus process.
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The second feature of CBE as executed in this experiment was the generation of consensus within the level
of a group in the context of a lesson. Here, the teacher asked specific focus questions related to a particular lesson
under the topic bioenergetics. This was labeled ‘consensus group activity.’ It was addressed to the class who were
grouped based on their dominant preferred mode of acquiring information. Facilitated by a group leader, students
discussed among themselves the most plausible answer to the focus question. Consensus answer to the question
was arrived at by unanimous agreement. The group was given a leeway on the manner by which they could arrive
at a general agreement - orally or by using the hand gestures similar to how it was done in generating whole class
consensus. The group’s consensus answer was presented to the class by a representative. If answers to the focus
question were not unanimous for all groups, scaffolding was done by the teacher.
In the CE class, the teacher stuck to the developed learning plan and relied on his own judgment of what he
thought was the best way to deliver the topics without asking any input from the students. The students were
not allowed to negotiate their learning needs, difficulties and preferences. Thus, all of these aspects remained as
teacher’s assumptions. However, because of the faster pacing of educational delivery in the control group, CBE
class was one meeting longer than the control. To address ethical issues such as depriving the students in the CE
of the possible advantages of CBE, the researcher ensured that the objectives of the LP were attained for both
groups in that they only differed in terms of the negotiated elements of the LP and the consensus group activities.
These were done by the researcher by studying very well the LP as well as keeping a planner and a journal. Table
3 shows the educational comparison between the two approaches.
Table 3. Comparison of Educational Activities between CBE and CE classes.
Educational
CBE CE
Activities
Pre-Educational activities and acclimatization to video-recording device

Pretest Canfield Learning Style Inventory (CLSI)
•• Administration of the Questionnaire on the Importance of Democratic Practices Getting to know each other/ Self-intro-
in Classroom (QIDPC) ductions
•• Orientation Introduction of the use of consensus-based education, both whole class and Presentation and discussion of the learn-
within group consensus. ing plan in bioenergetics.
Presentation of the learning plan in bioenergetics. •• The learning plan was good as ap-
•• Negotiation of the learning plan following the suggested whole class consensus proved.
process: •• Students were not allowed to negotiate
•• Raise an issue any part of it.
•• Negotiate
•• Grand conversation
•• Call for a consensus
•• Adhere to the agreed process
•• Consensus within group
•• Focus question
•• Group discussion
•• Consensus answer
•• Presentation and scaffolding
•• Administration of the Learning Needs Analysis Protocol (LNAP) and discussion
of the results using whole class and within group consensus.
•• Negotiation of Items of LP negotiated through consensus:

Learning Plan •• Medium of education: Taglish (mix of English and Filipino) •• English
through Con-
sensus •• Checking of attendance: Students sign on the attendance sheet. •• The teacher checked the attendance.
•• If with a valid excuse, the student with absence will not be deducted points. •• One point deduction per absence,
•• If with a valid excuse, students’ requirement will still be accepted and not be excused or unexcused.
graded zero. •• Non-acceptance and zero grade for
•• Alphabetical seat plan. requirement submitted late.
•• Use of stootsies (scorecards which the teacher can easily dispose of in ap- •• Alphabetical seat plan.
praising the quality of students’ answers. During recitation, the teacher gives the •• Use of teacher signature in recitation
appropriate scorecard that matches the quality of students’ answers. The latter cards.
just sign their names on the scorecard). •• Pure lecture with a slide presentation.
•• Suggested teaching strategies: trivia, video clips, games, observation activities •• Quizzes were also administered with a
with worksheets which can be done at home, experiment and hands-on activities, slide presentation.
and slide presentation of quizzes with accompanying visuals.
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Educational
CBE CE
Activities
•• Implementa- •• Education was based on the agreed process with additional group consensus •• Based on the teacher-prepared learn-
tion of the activities within the group. ing plan.
Learning Plan •• Review of Cell Structures
(Trial)
•• Trivia: What is the largest known cell?
•• Video clip with worksheet: Overview of cell structures

•• Consensus group activity (CGA) #1: Make a consensus group deci-
sion about the Top 3 most important structures that are necessary for the
cell to survive. Support your decision with convincing reasons.
•• Pretest Bioenergetics Achievement Test (BAT)

Educational Activities
•• Implementation •• Metabolism •• Based on the teacher-prepared learn-
of the Learning •• Video clips: metabolic pathway; feedback inhibition ing plan.
Plan in Bioen-
ergetics •• Trivia: Do you know that those spicy foods can boost your metabolic rate?
•• CGA#2: Based on the video-based experiment, in which cup do you think
will the gelatin NOT solidify? Support your decision with what you have
learned about the enzymatic activity.
•• Photosynthesis
•• Trivia: Do you know that the pea aphid is the only insect that is capable
of photosynthesis-like energy production? Do you know that the enzyme
RUBISCO is just an acronym?
•• Video clips: Light-dependent and light independent reactions.
•• Game: Peel me, I peel you!
•• CGA#3: Which of the materials needed for photosynthesis do you think
is converted to plant’s food and contributes most to plant’s mass? Why do
you think so? (10 mins.)
•• Cellular Respiration
•• Trivia: Do you know that the mitochondrion has a limited amount of
DNA? Do you know that yeasts are very important in beverage and baking
industries?
•• Video clips: Glycolysis, transition reaction, Krebs cycle and electron
transport chain.
•• Other visuals: Use of lego pieces and post-it notes in illustrating the
oxidation of glucose by NADH and FADH2 and production of ATP.
•• Game: Traffic lights
•• CGA #4: Do you think plants also oxidize glucose to release energy (cel-
lular respiration)? Why or why not? Be scientific in your consensus answer.
•• Experiment: Swell Lab: Experiment on yeast fermentation
•• CGA #5 (During the yeast experiment): What do you think will
happen to the balloon in each bottle? Why do you think so?
•• Poster making •• Evaluated based on criteria generated through whole class consensus. •• Based on criteria set by the teacher.
(learning outcome)
Post-Educational Activity
Post-test QIDPC & BAT BAT
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Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics such as the mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum scores were used in the
BAT scores to present preliminary information. The t-test for independent samples was used for testing the signifi-
cant difference in posttest scores in BAT between CBE and CE because the pretest scores were the same for both
groups. Two-Way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA II) was employed in determining the interaction effects between
educational approach and gender, and between educational approach and learning styles on students’ posttest
mean scores in BAT. Pretest values for their corresponding posttest mean scores in BAT were used as covariates.
Preliminary checks were conducted to ensure that there was no violation of the assumptions of normality, linear-
ity, homogeneity of variances, homogeneity of regression slopes, and reliable measurement of the covariates. In
addition to these quantitative statistical analyses, students’ perceptions in the CBE group about the importance
of democratic practices in the classroom before and after they were exposed to the intervention were analyzed
using the t-test for paired samples. Data were analyzed using SPSS 16.0. Supporting qualitative evidence were then
gleaned from observation notes, data sheets, questionnaires, recorded videos, and interviews.

Results of Research
Comparison of Students’ Achievement in Bioenergetics Test across Educational Approach
Both the CBE and CE groups incidentally had equal pretest mean score in BAT (10.40). But after the intervention,
those in the CBE group obtained higher posttest mean score (15.40) than those in the CE group (15.27) (Table 4).
A t-test for independent samples was conducted to compare the effectiveness of the two educational approaches
in improving students’ achievement in bioenergetics test. Levene’s test revealed that the two groups have equal
variances (F = 0.275, p = .602). It was found out that there was no significant difference between the two educa-
tional approaches on posttest mean scores in bioenergetics achievement test (t = 0.114, df = 58, p = .910) (Table 5).
Table 4. Comparison of posttest mean scores in bioenergetics achievement.
Posttest BAT Score (POSTBAT)

Educational Approach in Biology
Mean SD
CBE (n = 30) 15.40 4.37

CE (n=30) 15.27 4.69
Table 5. t-test analysis for independent samples on students’ achievement in bioenergetics test across edu-
cational approaches.
Levene’s Test for Equality of

t-test for Equality of Means
Variances
p
F p t df Mean Difference
(2-tailed)
POSTBAT
(equal variance 0.275 0.602 0.114 58 0.910 0.133
assumed)
The use of gained scores for analysis neither established the difference (CBE = 4.87, CE = 4.97) but when the
gained scores were categorized in a five-point interval, interesting results were gleaned (Table 6). The range of
scores gained by the students exposed to CBE was 18 (from -2 to 15), while those in the CE group was 16 (from -4 to
11). It is also noticeable that the CBE group has two students whose scores did not increase or possibly decreased
in the posttest as compared to CE group which has 6. Interestingly, there were five students from the CBE group
whose gained scores were above 10 points as compared to one in the CE group.
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Table 6. Gained scores in BAT across educational groups.
Educational Approach
BAT Gained Score Total
CBE CE
0 and below 2 6 8
1 – 5 points 13 13 26
6 – 10 points 10 10 20
Above 10 points 5 1 6
Total 30 30 60
Minimum Gain -2 -4
Maximum Gain 15 11
Likewise, when gained scores on an item-by-item analysis was conducted across bioenergetics achievement
scores disaggregated by topic and by cognitive domain, another noteworthy trend was seen (Table 7). In terms
of the topics covered, CBE group obtained higher gained score in 10 out of 16 items (62.5%) related to cellular
respiration. As to the cognitive domains measured by the test items, CBE group outperformed the CE group in 7
out of 10 items (70%) at the domain of reasoning.
Table 7. Comparison between CBE and CE groups on frequency of items with gained scores across BAT com-
ponents.
Frequency of BAT Items with Gained Score

BAT
Total
Components
Favoring CBE Favoring CE Tie
By Topic
Metabolism 2 3 1 6
(1,15) (2, 4, 5) (3)
Photosynthesis 6 6 1 13
(7, 9, 11, 16, 22, 24) (8, 10, 17, 18, 21, 25) (6)
Cellular Respiration 10 6 0 16
(13, 14, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, (12, 19, 20,
35) 26, 27, 33)
Total 18 15 2 35
By Cognitive Domain
Knowing 6 4 1 11
(1, 7, 9, 13, 14, 29) (2, 8, 12, 19) (6)
Applying 5 8 1 14
(11, 16, 23, 28, 30) (4, 5, 10, 17, 18, 20, 26, 27) (3)
Reasoning 7 3 0 10
(15, 22, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35) (21, 25, 33)
Total 18 15 2 35
Perceptions of the Students in CBE Group on the Importance of Democratic Practices in the Classroom
In the CBE group, students’ perceptions about the importance of democratic practices in the classroom changed
after they were exposed to the intervention. Results of the paired samples t-test (Table 8) show that there is a sig-
nificant difference between their pretest (3.23) and posttest mean scores (3.40) on the QIDPC, t = -3.009, p= .005.
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Table 8. Paired samples statistics for students’ perceptions on the importance of democratic practices in
classroom.
Mean p
Variables N Mean Std. Deviation t df
Difference (2-tailed)
Pair 1 PREDEMOC 30 3.23 0.29 -0.17 -3.009 29 0.005

POSTDEMOC 30 3.40 0.34
Moderating Effects of Gender on Students’ Achievement in Bioenergetics Test
In the class exposed to CBE, males obtained higher posttest mean score (16.86) than females (14.96) (Table
9). The same observation can be found in the conventional class. The overall posttest mean score of the 14 males
for this test was 17.21, whereas, for the 46 females, it was 14.76. To determine if this observed difference among
males and females is significant and whether a gender-by-educational approach interaction exists, the two-way
ANCOVA was employed (Table 10). Pretest BAT score was used as a covariate. Preliminary checks were conducted
to ensure that there was no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, homogeneity of variances, homo-
geneity of regression slopes, and reliable measurement of the covariate. After adjusting for pretest scores, there
was no significant interaction effect (F= 0.026, p = .873). Neither of the main effects were statistically significant,
treatment: F = 0.000, p = .985; and gender: F = 2.081, p = .155.
Table 9. Descriptive statistics for students’ achievement in Bioenergetics Test (Educational approach by
gender).
Pretest Posttest
Treatment Gender n
Mean SD Mean SD
CBE Male 7 10.71 1.98 16.86 5.11

Female 23 10.30 3.02 14.96 4.14
Total 30 10.40 2.79 15.40 4.37
CE Male 7 11.57 3.41 17.57 5.00
Female 23 10.04 2.65 14.57 4.47
Total 30 10.40 2.86 15.27 4.69
Total Male 14 11.14 2.71 17.21 4.87
Female 46 10.17 2.82 14.76 4.27
Total 60 10.40 2.80 15.33 4.49
Table 10. Tests of between-subjects effects for achievement in Bioenergetics Test (Educational approach by
gender).
Source Type of III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p
Corrected Model 242.985a 4 60.746 3.523 .012

Intercept 315.469 1 315.469 18.296 .001
CV: PREBAT 174.832 1 174.832 10.139 .002
TREATMENT .006 1 .006 .000 .985
GENDER 35.881 1 35.881 2.081 .155
TREATMENT* GENDER .443 1 .443 .026 .873
Error 948.349 55 17.243
Total 15298.000 60
Corrected Total 1191.333 59
a. R Squared = .204 (Adjusted R Squared = .146)
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Moderating Effects of Learning Style on Students’ Achievement in Bioenergetics Test
In the class exposed to CBE, iconics obtained the highest posttest mean score (16.10) over readers (15.42) and
listeners (14.50). In the CE class, however, iconics also scored the highest (17.70) but listeners (14.60) scored higher
than the readers (13.50). The overall posttest mean score of the 20 iconics for this test was 16.90, whereas, for the
18 listeners and 22 readers, it was 14.56 and 14.55, respectively (Table 11). After adjusting for pretest scores which
were used as covariates, there was no significant interaction effect of learning styles on students’ achievement in
bioenergetics test (F= 0.246, = 0.783). Neither of the main effects were statistically significant, treatment: F = 0.010,
p = .921; and learning styles: F = 0.962, p = .389 (Table 12).
Table 11. Descriptive statistics for students’ achievement in Bioenergetics Test (Educational approach by
learning style).
Pretest Posttest
Treatment Learning Style n
Mean SD Mean SD
CBE Listening 8 9.88 1.73 14.50 5.63

Reading 12 10.83 3.19 15.42 3.60
Iconic 10 10.30 3.13 16.10 4.43
Total 30 10.40 2.79 15.40 4.37
CE Listening 10 9.30 2.58 14.60 3.41
Reading 10 9.60 1.96 13.50 4.25
Iconic 10 12.30 3.13 17.70 5.54
Total 30 10.40 2.86 15.27 4.69
Total Listening 18 9.56 2.20 14.56 4.38
Reading 22 10.27 2.71 14.55 3.94
Iconic 20 11.30 3.21 16.90 4.95
Total 60 10.40 2.80 15.33 4.49
Table 12. Tests of between-subjects effects for achievement in Bioenergetics Test (Educational approach by
learning style).
Type of III Sum of

Source df Mean Square F p
Squares
Corrected Model 247.146a 6 41.191 2.312 .047

Intercept 297.276 1 297.276 16.687 .001
CV: PREBAT 140.629 1 140.629 7.894 .007
TREATMENT .179 1 .179 .010 .921
LS 34.288 2 17.144 .962 .389
TREATMENT*LS 8.753 2 4.376 .246 .783
Error 944.188 53 17.815
Total 15298.000 60
Corrected Total 1191.333 59
a. R Squared = .207 (Adjusted R Squared = .118)
Discussion
The effect of using consensus on academic performance or scores on standardized tests is one of the major
challenges against consensus (Sartor & Young Brown, 2004). As of yet, there was no empirical research from which
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results of the current research can be compared. Although the mean posttest BAT scores of students in the CBE
group was 0.13 higher than the CE group, it was not enough to establish that the difference was significant. The
use of gained scores for analysis neither established the difference. However, when the gained scores were cat-
egorized in a five-point interval and an item-by-item analysis was conducted across bioenergetics achievement
scores grouped by topic and by cognitive domain, proofs of CBE’s effectiveness were apparent. For example, five
students in the CBE group had gained more than 10 points as compared to only one in the CE group. Students
in the CBE group also gained higher score in 10 out of 16 items on the topic related to cellular respiration. Of the
three bioenergetics lessons, cellular respiration is considered to be the most difficult, and it is probably due to the
consensus group activities, trivia, games, video clips, and other negotiated items in the learning plan that they
were able to gain more points in the BAT posttest as compared to the CE group. The result showing that the CBE
group outperformed the CE group in 7 out of 10 items at the domain of reasoning is a reflection of what Sartor and
Young Brown (2004) claimed that consensus serves as a channel to create critically thinking citizens. It possesses
requisite models for developing critical thinking (Pearce, 2002). Didcoct and DeLapa (2000) profoundly emphasized
that not everyone accesses wisdom through the intellect. By incorporating feelings, intuition, experience, body
wisdom, insights and personal reflection, consensus process gives individuals opportunity to participate which is
helpful in gaining access to multiple levels of information.
Although statistical test results say otherwise, the above are some evidence supporting the beliefs of Sartor
and Young Brown (2004) that when learners feel safe and loved, they follow nature’s plan to develop their higher
intelligence and eagerly learn whatever the curriculum offered them (Pearce, 2002). The latter author also argued
that an environment of respect and affirmation, which is reflective of a CBE classroom, promotes learning, as
against an environment characterized by fear, stress, and threat which can cripple memory and learning. It is just
difficult to associate such environment to the CE group because the current research did not impose such negative
environment and experience to that group.
Despite this result, there appears to be a preference to CBE as indicated by these comments of three students
in an informal spot interview (translated in English): “At first, I hated biology because I said to myself what can I get
from it, it seems like it is boring. But when consensus was introduced, it was seemingly enjoyable that you were
learning a lot.” “Sometimes the student is afraid of the teacher. It is important that the student and teacher must
meet somewhere so that the student will learn.” “If consensus has been used, we agreed and resolved our differ-
ences in whatever it is that our group wants to do.”
That those students exposed in CBE showing significant improvement in their perceptions of the importance
of democratic practices in the classroom is a proof supporting what Blinne (2013) observed that students wanted
to be heard, that they wanted to know that their ideas and input matters and that they can influence class direc-
tion. They appear to appreciate and recognize the importance of educational activities as a practice of freedom
(Hooks, 1994; Freire, 1998) as well as the development of a conscious community through democratic practice
(Blinne, 2013). The finding is also a validation of consensus as an approach that provides students with daily experi-
ence in their capacity to bring about change, thus developing both the skills and attitude necessary for effective
democracy, in and outside the classroom (Sartor & Young Brown, 2004). It appears then that students deemed it
important that they are asked of their difficulties and preferences, they are being involved in revising the learning
plan, or in developing criteria of how their work will be evaluated.
CBE has also challenged the researcher’s technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). It was no-
ticeable that among the negotiated elements of the learning plan, students wanted to include strategies that
demanded teacher’s technological pedagogical content knowledge such as the use of video clips. Assessing which
of the video clips available on the internet gives accurate information at the level of understanding of the students
also required a strong grasp of pedagogical content knowledge. This challenge is doubly hard on an island where
internet connection is very slow. TPCK was also important in selecting which trivia to share, which game to be
played, which question to ask and which experiments or activities are to be done. These things were beyond the
influence of the students in this experiment and thus, were left to the teachers’ personal judgment, experience,
and consideration of the learners’ needs.
Based on the researcher’s reflective experiences from this research, to be successful at implementing CBE,
biology teachers have to move from being the authorities both in classroom management processes and con-
tent, down to facilitators. They must be good group facilitators with effective communication and group dynamic
skills. Facilitation is central to consensus, therefore, those teachers with high levels of facilitating skills are likely
to benefit from CBE. Moreover, other traits include teachers’ willingness to share with the students the authority
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and responsibility of learning. Too, they must be good curriculum planners and implementers and demonstrate
a genuine interest in hearing students’ voices and addressing their learning needs. They must also exude reason-
able patience, honesty, friendliness, open-mindedness and cheerfulness, among others. In general, they must
demonstrate the postmodern, social constructivist, democratic and student-centered features of biology teachers
highlighted in the literature.
In the context of consensus within groups, teachers can be successful in this aspect of CBE if they possess
average to high TPCK. In particular, they must be knowledgeable of what they are asking. Focus questions in
consensus group activities can only be engaging if they are carefully thought of. They must involve higher level
thought processing skills such as decision-making and problem-solving which are best accomplished in groups.
Likewise, good focus questions enable students to make connections to real-world objects, events, and situations
and tap their diverse perspectives and experiences. For millennial learners, negotiations with the use of technolo-
gies in the classroom will no longer be a surprise, thus a technology savvy teacher will likely find CBE a feasible
educational approach.
Reports in literature are conflicting about the effect of gender on achievement in science, particularly in Biol-
ogy. The findings of the current research confirmed reports of previous studies about the non-significant difference
in male and female performance in Biology (Lauer et al., 2013; Ajewole, 1991; Catsambis, 1995; Greenfield, 1996).
However, evidence from this research contradicts those reports about females performing better in Biology (Abu-
Hola, 2005; Ahmad, 2013) or males dominating it (Fleming & Malone, 1983; Erickson & Erickson, 1984; Levin, Sabar
& Libman, 1991; Mullis, Martin, & Foy, 2008; SWE-AWE-CASEE, 2009; Rauschenberger & Sweeder, 2010; Creech &
Sweeder, 2012; Eddy, Brownell, & Wenderoth, 2014). One factor that must be looked into this result is the sample
size per group, where females were almost three times more than males, thus offsetting the significance of mean
difference (2.45).
The non-significance of difference in achievement across students’ learning styles is consistent with the as-
sumption of consensus that when learners become actively involved in their learning, they adapt better to both
individual and group’s preferred learning styles, utilize alternative pathways, and provide the space to make choices
regarding the learning approach and learning environment that work for everyone (Sartor & Young Brown, 2004;
Blinne, 2013). This unbiased effect of learning styles implied that CBE is a non-discriminatory approach to biology
education that is equally comparable with the conventional method.
Limitations of the Research
Among the limitations of this research were the unequal sample size of male and female groups which might
have affected the results of the statistical analysis about the moderating and main effects of gender, the non-
synchronization of lessons between the CBE and the CE groups brought about by the time-consuming learning
needs analysis in the former which was addressed by conducting a make-up class in the treatment group, and
the ethical issue behind depriving students in the control group the advantages of CBE. Moreover, the absence
of statistical significance could be possibly explained by the insufficient dosage of intervention due to the short
duration of the experiment. Thus, findings of this research must be interpreted in the light of these constraints.
Conclusions
This research ascertains that involving students in making educational decisions through consensus process
can be a feasible alternative approach to teaching biology at the college level other than the conventional method.
The open, democratic, affirming and collaborative environment in consensus-based education affords fair accom-
modation of students’ individual learning styles without compromising achievement. Just by knowing that their
voice matters and their opinion on varied issues counts, whether it is a whole class issue or an answer to the focus
question, the approach has the potential of facilitating the development of reasoning skills among the learners,
thus, switching on other entry points of information aside from intellect. In this approach, teachers are given leeway
in discovering more their students’ interests and difficulties which are beneficial inputs in improving their teaching
practice that is a reflection of their collective preferences. However, in order to further capture the other effects of
using consensus in science education, a qualitative analysis of group dynamics during consensus group activities
can be comprehensively examined within the context of developing science process skills and 21st-century skills.
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Acknowledgments
The author thanks Dr. Ricardo T. Bagarinao (University of the Philippines Open University) for sharing him the
possibility of bringing into the classroom the concept of consensus decision-making, Dr. Maria Helen D. Catalan, Dr.
Grace Aguiling-Dalisay, Dr. Monalisa M. Te-Sasing, and Dr. Rosanella T. Yangco (University of the Philippines-Diliman)
for discussion and help with the instrumentation, analysis and discussion, the Philippine Commission on Higher
Education for the funding support, and the two NatSci 102 classes (CBA-RSU) for their participation in this research.
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Received: April 19, 2017 Accepted: June 18, 2017
Eddie G. Fetalvero PhD, Director for Applied Research, Associate Professor III, College
of Education, Romblon State University, Odiongan, Romblon,
Philippines.
E-mail: eddiefetalvero@gmail.com
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VIRTUAL SCIENCE TEACHING
MODEL (VS-TM) TO IMPROVE ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
STUDENT’S SCIENTIFIC ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
CREATIVITY AND CONCEPT

MASTERY ON SENIOR HIGH
SCHOOL PHYSICS SUBJECT
Iwan Wicaksono, Abstract. VS-TM refers to a teaching model

that applies virtual media aided scientific
Wasis,
approach. VS-TM is required to prepare
Madlazim students who are trained problem-solving
process through scientific creative think-
ing opportunities and complete physics
concept mastery. The aim of this research
is to analyze the effectiveness of VS-TM to
improve student’s scientific creativity and
Introduction concept mastery on Senior High School
physics subject. This research involves 318
Teaching in the 21st century must develop an educating vision using students from 3 State Senior High Schools
technology integration to creative such a creative thinking (Anderson & in Jember Regency, Indonesia. Pre-test
Krathwohl, 2001). The teaching framework in the 21st century should depict and post-test scores obtained using Sign
student’s skill, knowledge, and ability required to reach success while entering Test and Paired Sample T-test are used to
professional zone today. The framework shall include: (1) the core subject and analyze VS-TM impact on student’s scien-
theme of the 21st century; (2) learning and innovative skill; (3) informational, tific and concept mastery improvement.
media-related and technological skill; and (4) life skill and career (Bellanca, Such impact consistency then is observed
2011). A successful creativity teaching process on physics subject requires through the calculation of n-gain achieved
such a learning environment that can encourage the students to answer with by each testing class using ANOVA. The re-
all possible answers available based on the right concept. The result of the search of VS-TM application on Senior High
research shows that an inspiring teaching evaluation will encourage thinking School physics subject indicates that there
and imagination freedom. The students will not only be required to master is a high categorized significant improve-
a certain concept, but also they need to be creative in solving any problems ment student’s scientific creativity (n-gain >
(Park, Lee, Oliver, & Cramond, 2006). The characteristics of physics teaching 0.7) and concept mastery (n-gain > 0.8) on
have similarity with the creative process through scientific method that physics subject, before and after VS-TM ap-
characterizes a scientist when trying to achieve the meaning and relevance plication with p-value is < 0.05 and there is
of process, to emphasize on the product and attitude. The result of research not any difference between 9 testing classes
indicates that this creative process must be supported by the involvement with p-value is > 0.05.
of creativity and student center learning (Kind & Kind, 2007; Junus, Santoso,
Keywords: concept mastery, scientific
Isal, & Utomo, 2015).
creativity, virtual science teaching model.
Scientific creativity refers to an intellectual character or an ability to cre-
ate or potential to create a certain product that is original and has the value
of both social and personal as it is designed to reach a certain goal in mind
Iwan Wicaksono
using the given information (Hu & Adey, 2002). Scientific creativity is differ- University of Jember, Indonesia
ent from free content creativity. A creative thinking must be activated during Wasis, Madlazim
the process of investigation or process of scientific knowledge application. State University of Surabaya, Indonesia
Scientific creativity has three dimensions consisting of products, creative
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STUDENT’S SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY AND CONCEPT MASTERY ON SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
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(P. 549-561)
characteristics, and processes (Park, 2013). Scientific creativity consists of two main spaces, namely the hypothesis
space (looking for possible hypotheses) and the experimental space (doing experiments to get new hypotheses
generated from the data). The activity that supports the improvement of scientific creativity can be held through
a creative experiment, a search for scientific problem solution, and creative activity. The result of research indicates
that creativity application on physics subject can be done through scientific inquiry and discovery (Oral, 2006; Hong
& Kang, 2010). However, another result of research that has been performed shows that when a student is having
a discussion, the student does not involve their personal experience and finally finds a creative idea as a potential
solution (Akinoglu, 2008; Russell & Weaver, 2011).
Many scientific ideas owned by a student must be supported by right concept mastery, and such concept
in physics teaching is interrelated with one another. Such a large number of concepts in physics subject that is
systematically structured will cause the students to have a different cognitive structure from one another (Hançer
& Durkan, 2008). Concept mastery refers to the ability of students to understand the meaning scientifically, both
theoretical and application on daily life. Concept mastery is in the cognitive area that emphasizes on intellectual
aspect, and this area has a hierarchy order (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Students who master the right concept
will be able to show the presented subject into a more understandable form so that they will be able to interpret
and apply. Physics concept mastery is obtained from theoretical and empirical comprehension through one’s
knowledge of experiment, so that the student can record and transfer some information to be used in a problem
solving, analyzing, and applying to a certain event. The result of research indicates that the student’s concept mas-
tery shall depend on the level of their cognitive development that encourages the involvement of performance
and motivation (Bilal & Erol, 2012; Trnova, 2014). However, another result of research in that has been performed
shows that the physics concepts presented by the teacher to the students tend to serve as a fact instead of natural
event or phenomenon that must be observed, measured, and discussed. Thereby, the student will only memorize
the concept instead of understanding it fully (Madlazim, Supriyono, & Jauhariyah, 2015).
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilization as teaching media gives such a quite large
contribute creating attractive physics teaching. The teaching that utilizes ICT can be one of those keys to growing
the student’s creativity and concept mastery successfully. The utilization of ICT to gain scientific creativity can be
done through (1) idea development that supports imaginative, explorative, and representative assumptions; and
(2) make and create, which can be interpreted as giving a meaning according to media process, manipulation,
and transformation (Jucan & Baier, 2012). Besides, ICT utilization to concept mastery of physics can also be ap-
plied to minimize human sense limitedness during the observation process and to display natural phenomena
that require sophisticated or dangerous devices without having to present it live. The result of research shows that
the use of computer as the device to present virtual demo and laboratory is the potential solution for abstract
materials (tiny, huge, or fast), limited laboratory facilities, dangerous materials and devices, long-term teaching
process (Finstein, Darrah, & Humbert, 2013; Záhorec, Hašková, & Bílek, 2014). However, another result of research
that has been performed shows that less utilization of ICT during experimental activities, especially of a subject
that is either complex or abstract, will only repeat and memorize the concepts as explained (Jeanpierre, 2014;
Wicaksono & Pandiangan, 2015).
Data taken from Global Creativity Index (GCI) and Program for International Students Assessment (PISA) provide
a contribution to the importance of improving the student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery in Indonesia.
The creative group of Human Resources influences how a country grows and develops (Florida, 2006). The result
of CGI measurement in a country uses three aspects, those are technology, talent, and tolerance, which places
Indonesia in the 81st position of 82 countries with a score of 0.037 (Institute Martin Prosperity, 2011). Besides, the
research was done by PISA from 2012 – 2015 shows that the average score of Indonesian student’s achievement
in science is of 403 and categorized in the group of low concept mastery and is in the 64th position of 72 countries
being surveyed (OECD, 2016). This indicates that it is necessary to prepare a trained generation of Human Resources
to solve problems and master the concept of teaching physics creatively. In addition to the results obtained from
GCI and PISA, identification and analysis of need through scientific creativity and concept mastery student’s profile
is held at 3 State Senior High Schools in Jember Regency, Indonesia. Those schools are State Senior High School
4 of Jember, State Senior High School 3 of Jember, and State Senior High School 1 of Pakusari. The result of such
student’s profile activity shows the teaching model that so far has been placing the teacher center learning. How
less the chance is for the students to think creatively during experimental activities and ICT has been less used to
give an interesting experience and direct them to develop scientific ideas and physics concepts instead of only
memorizing (Wicaksono, Madlazim, & Wasis, 2016).
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Based on the result of research that has been performed and the student’s scientific creativity and concept
mastery profile, the teaching model that has been developed is called Virtual Scientific Teaching Model (VS-TM).
VS-TM refers to a teaching model that applies virtual media aided scientific approach developed to improve stu-
dent’s scientific creativity and concept mastery on Senior High School physics subject. VS-TM is also constructed
according to the analysis of limited teaching model that has been applied formerly. They are 5E teaching model
that gives less chance to share ideas and emphasize on concepts used during experimental activities (Bybee, Tay-
lor, Gardner, Scotter, Powell, Westbrook, & Landes, 2006; Akcay, 2013) and creative problem-solving model that
gives less feedback to the quality of idea to be followed up and relate physics concepts to give idea (Giangreco,
Cloninger, Dennis, & Edelman, 2002; Laisema & Wannapiroon, 2013). VS-TM syntax that is valid of both content
and constructs for student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery shall consist of (1) identify the problem; (2)
formulating electronic problem-solving alternatives; (3) discussing alternatives problem-solving; (4) design and ap-
ply experiments virtual; (5) elaborating experimental results; and (6) reflection. The result of research that supports
these characteristics of VS-TM that is teaching to achieve student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery must
provide the student with an opportunity to think of how to express and apply ideas during experimental activities
(Hu, Wu, Jia, Xinfa, Duan, Meyer, & Kaufman, 2013). It must encourage the student to think about the applied physics
concepts deeply (Miller & Dumford, 2016). ICT utilization on VS-TM is using virtual media of Mindjet Mind Manager
and virtual laboratory of PhET. The result of the research shows that Mindjet Mind Manager can accelerate idea
organization as created (Brewer, 2009), while virtual laboratory of PhET gives such a high level of interactive and
dynamic feedback. This enables the students to correlate between life phenomenon and the underlying physics
concept (Adams, Alhadlaq, Malley, Olson, Alshaya, Alabdulkareem, & Wieman, 2012).
An evaluation of student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery improvement due to the application of
VS-TM teaching holds a series of activities to obtain, analyze, and interpret data in systematical and continuous ways
so that the data will serve as meaningful information. Student’s scientific process skill will show how many students
those who have scientific creativity component are (Park, Lee, Oliver, & Cramond, 2006; Pekmez, Aktamis, & Taskin,
2009). Scientific creativity indicators those are attributed to scientific process skill are (1) unusual uses; (2) scientific
imagination; (3) sensitivity to science problems; (4) creative science problem-solving; (5) creative experiment; (6)
a technical product improvement; and (7) creative science product design (Hu & Adey, 2002; Pekmez, Aktamis, &
Taskin, 2009). The procedure of scientific creativity refers to the criteria adapted from Torrance’s Test of Creative
Thinking (Torrance, 1990; Runco, Millar, Acar, & Cramond, 2010) and Scientific Structure Creativity Model compiled
from Structure of the Intellect (Guilford, 1956) and creative dimension through student’s fluency, flexibility, and
originality of answer in the test point (Hu & Adey, 2002). Concept mastery has cognitive area indicators accord-
ing to Bloom’s taxonomy, as follows remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating
(Krathwohl & Anderson, 2001; Jatmiko, Widodo, Martini, Budiyanto, Wicaksono, & Pandiangan, 2016).
Problem of Research
The problem researched in this research is to analyze how the effectiveness of VS-TM to improve student’s
scientific creativity and concept mastery on Senior High School physics subject. VS-TM is categorized as effective
when there is a statistically significant difference between the improvement of scores achieved during the pre-test
and post-test of student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery. The effectiveness of student’s scientific creativ-
ity and concept mastery are decided from the normality gain (n-gain) scores. N-gain scores are obtained by the
equation (post-test score – pre-test score)/(maximal score – pre-test score) (Hake, 1999). The calculation of n-gain
scores then is converted under the following criteria: (1) if n-gain > 0.7 (high); (2) if 0.3 < n-gain < 0.7 (moderate);
and (3) if n-gain < 0.3 (low).
Research Focus
This research focuses on the analysis of VS-TM impact on the student’s scientific creativity and concept
mastery on Senior High School physics subject. This analysis of impact shall be as follows (1) statistically, whether
student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery on physics subject are significantly improved before and after
VS-TM application; (2) How is the category of scientific creativity and concept mastery on physics subject after VS-
TM application; and (3) is there any difference in improvement student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery
of physics in 9 testing classes.
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General Background
Scope Research is the application of VS-TM to improve student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery on
Senior High School physics subject. The research was conducted in Odd Semester of Academic Year 2016/2017 for
ten weeks using physics topic vibration and wave. This research is performed to analyze the effectiveness of VS-TM
based on its impact on student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery on Senior High School physics subject
marked by n-gain scores before and after VS-TM application. Student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery on
Senior High School physics subject are statistically analyzed to decide whether there are different scores of pre-test
and post-test. The calculation of n-gain can be used to categorize student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery
on Senior High School physics subject whether it is high, moderate, or low in 9 testing classes.
Sample
This research involves 318 students from 3 State Senior High Schools from a population of 1552 students at 15
State Senior High Schools in Jember Regency. Determination of the number of samples is based on Slovin’s formula
using error tolerance e = 5% ie [sample = population / 1 + (population × e2)] (Sevilla, Ochave, Punsalan, Regala,
& Uriarte, 1984). The sample used represents three high, moderate, and low school criteria. The criteria of Senior
High School selection is based on the average scores achieved in the national exam. Those selected schools are
State Senior High School 4 of Jember (high) uses 3 testing classes (37 of each class), State Senior High School 3 of
Jember (moderate) uses 3 classes (35 of each class), and State Senior High School 1 of Pakusari (low) uses 3 testing
classes (34 of each class). Indicators of scientific creativity and concept mastery the same were used for 9 test classes.
The type of this research is quasi-experimental, this research testing is done using one group pre-test and
post-test design, namely Opre-test Xtreatment Opost-test (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Scientific creativity and concept mas-
tery test use pre-test and post-test are given before the process of learning are applied to all sample students.
The realization and application of VS-TM on such process of learning are using the syllabus, lesson plan, student
textbook, and student worksheet. VS-TM syntax in the learning process shall consist of (1) identify the problem;
(2) formulating electronic problem-solving alternatives; (3) discussing alternatives problem-solving; (4) design and
apply experiments virtual; (5) elaborating experimental results; and (6) reflection.
The indicators of evaluated scientific creativity shall consist of (1) unusual uses, which is to write down as many
uses of certain object as possible; (2) scientific imagination, which is to describe a certain event that will happen; (3)
sensitivity to science problems, which is to sense scientific problem through scientific inquiries; (4) creative science
problem solving, which is to solve scientific problems creatively; (5) creative experimental, which is to write down as
many creative experiment as possible to hypothesize a scientific statement; (6) improve a technical product, which is to
improve a technical product for better use; and (7) creative science product design, which is to design a certain product
of science and description thereof (Hu & Adey, 2002; Pekmez, Aktamis, & Taskin, 2009). Meanwhile, concept mastery
shall refer to Bloom’s taxonomy evaluated to consist of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating,
and creating (Krathwohl & Anderson, 2001; Jatmiko, Widodo, Martini, Budiyanto, Wicaksono, & Pandiangan, 2016).
Data Analysis
The analysis of the student’s answer of scientific creativity for each dimension consists of (1) fluency, which
is to calculate all answers to each assignment given without taking the quality of answer into account; (2) flex-
ibility, which is to calculate the number of approach or content used in the answer; and (3) originality, which is to
calculate the probability of answer by means of frequency tabulation with the following percentage of answer: if
the percentage is > 5% (2 points) if 5% < percentage < 10% (1 point), and (3) if the percentage < 10% (0 points).
The answer of scientific creativity for each dimension shall be categorized as follows: (1) fluency: if total answer >
7 (high), if 3 < total answer < 7 (moderate), if total answer < 3 (low); (2) flexibility and flexibility: if the score of an-
swer > 4 (high), if 3 < score of answer < 4 (medium), and if the score of answer < 3 (low) (CCSS ELA Aligned, 2013).
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An analysis of VS-TM application impact toward the improvement student’s scientific creativity and concept
mastery on Senior High School physics subject is done using the scores achieved in the pre-test and post-test
acquired using Paired Sample T-test if it meets data normality or non-parametric using Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
or Sign Test is applied. Furthermore, an analysis of impact consistency toward the improvement student’s scientific
creativity and concept mastery on Senior High School physics subject using the n-gain calculation of each testing
class shall use Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Kruskal-Wallis Test will apply when it meets data normality or non-
parametric. An analysis of statistic software shall use IBM SPSS 22.
Results of Research
The average pre-test and post-test scores of each scientific creativity indicator in 9 testing classes are shown
in Figure 1. Horizontal box graph indicates the scores of pre-test, while the slanting lines graph indicates the scores
of post-test. The whole n-gain indicators of scientific creativity in 9 testing classes are shown in Table 1.
*Flu: fluency; Flex: flexibility; Ori: originality
Figure 1: The average pre-test and post-test scores of each scientific creativity indicator in 9 testing classes.
Table 1. The average n-gain scores student’s scientific creativity in 9 testing classes.
State Senior High State Senior High State Senior High

School 1 of Jember School 3 of Jember School 1 of Pakusari
n-gain Scientific Creativity Indicators Average
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9
Fluency 0.758 0.758 0.766 0.758 0.761 0.771 0.758 0.767 0.761 0.762
Unusual uses Flexibility 0.736 0.729 0.743 0.720 0.739 0.741 0.731 0.736 0.733 0.734
Originality 0.686 0.670 0.688 0.669 0.689 0.689 0.678 0.687 0.688 0.683
Fluency 0.777 0.771 0.778 0.773 0.778 0.782 0.773 0.78 0.777 0.777
Scientific imagination Flexibility 0.754 0.736 0.745 0.736 0.750 0.746 0.741 0.747 0.746 0.744
Originality 0.695 0.699 0.697 0.700 0.698 0.692 0.698 0.702 0.701 0.698
Fluency 0.758 0.749 0.759 0.748 0.755 0.759 0.754 0.758 0.759 0.755
Sensitivity to Science
Flexibility 0.727 0.720 0.731 0.722 0.730 0.725 0.719 0.726 0.728 0.725
Problems
Originality 0.676 0.667 0.678 0.673 0.676 0.681 0.670 0.676 0.675 0.675
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State Senior High State Senior High State Senior High

School 1 of Jember School 3 of Jember School 1 of Pakusari
n-gain Scientific Creativity Indicators Average
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9
Creative science problem Flexibility 0.715 0.709 0.729 0.712 0.723 0.729 0.714 0.727 0.720 0.720
solving Originality 0.666 0.651 0.669 0.660 0.666 0.667 0.660 0.671 0.671 0.665
Flexibility 0.816 0.808 0.826 0.805 0.816 0.831 0.806 0.830 0.821 0.818
Creative experimental
Originality 0.755 0.743 0.759 0.742 0.746 0.758 0.739 0.763 0.747 0.750
Fluency 0.786 0.785 0.787 0.786 0.784 0.787 0.789 0.791 0.787 0.787
Improve a Technical
Flexibility 0.755 0.758 0.762 0.759 0.756 0.760 0.756 0.751 0.749 0.756
Product
Originality 0.705 0.701 0.707 0.709 0.697 0.716 0.707 0.707 0.701 0.706
Creative science product Flexibility 0.796 0.789 0.807 0.786 0.787 0.806 0.787 0.810 0.795 0.796
design Originality 0.717 0.706 0.724 0.707 0.717 0.721 0.708 0.726 0.717 0.716
*C : Testing Classes
The average scores of concept mastery pre-test and post-test in 9 testing classes can be seen in Table 2. The
whole n-gain indicators of concept mastery in 9 testing classes are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The average scores of concept mastery pre-test, post-test, and n-gain in 9 testing classes.
State Senior High School 1 of State Senior High School 3 of State Senior High School 1 of
Concept Jember Jember Pakusari
Mastery
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9
Pre-test 26.0 26.1 26.4 26.2 26.0 26.2 25.8 26.3 26.1
Post-test 89.4 88.3 88.7 88.0 89.2 88.7 87.9 88.6 88.8
n-gain 0.854 0.840 0.829 0.828 0.850 0.839 0.834 0.843 0.845
*C : Testing Classes
Figure 2: The average n-gain scientific creativity and concept mastery indicators in 9 testing classes.
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Figure 1 shows the average pre-test and post-test scores of each scientific creativity indicator in 9 testing
classes those are improved. Such improved pre-test and post-test scores of each scientific creativity indicator are
reviewed from the fluency, flexibility, and originality of answer. Table 1 indicates the average scores of fluency,
flexibility, and originality n-gain of each scientific creativity indicator of a student. The average scores of fluency
and flexibility n-gain are categorized as high, but the originality is categorized as moderate. The average scores of
concept mastery pre-test and post-test in 9 testing classes are improved as shown in Table 2. Figure 2 indicates the
average n-gain of each scientific creativity and concept mastery indicator in 9 testing classes. The average n-gain of
each creativity indicator of a high category is > 0.7. The average n-gain of concept mastery of high category is > 0.8.
An analysis of VS-TM application impact toward the improved student’s scientific creativity shall use Sign Test
statistic, while the improved student’s concept mastery shall use Paired Sample T-test statistic of a normal distri-
bution. The result of Sign Test statistic applied on pre-test and post-test of each scientific creativity indicator can
be seen in Table 3. The result of statistic using Paired Sample T-test applied on pre-test and post-test of concept
mastery can be seen in Table 4.
Table 3. The result of sign test statistic on each student’s scientific creativity.
Testing
Scientific Creativity Indicators Pre-test & Post-test N Sign Test p
Classes
C1 37 Z = -5.918 < .0001

C2 37 Z = -5.918 < .0001
1. Unusual uses
2. Scientific imagination C3 37 Z = -5.918 < .0001
3. Sensitivity to science problems C4 35 Z = -5.747 < .0001
Fluency
4. Creative science problem solving Flexibility C5 35 Z = -5.747 < .0001
5. Creative experimental Originality
C6 35 Z = -5.747 < .0001
6. Improve a technical product C7 34 Z = -5.659 < .0001
7. Creative science product design
C8 34 Z = -5.659 < .0001
C9 34 Z = -5.659 < .0001
Table 4. The result of statistic using paired sample t-test on student’s concept mastery.
Paired Sample T-test

Testing Classes N Mean S df t p
(pre-test – post-test)
C1 Pair 1 37 63.42 11.36 36 33.95 < .0001

C2 Pair 2 37 62.34 10.59 36 35.79 < .0001
C3 Pair 3 37 62.70 11.52 36 33.10 < .0001
C4 Pair 4 35 61.81 10.70 34 34.16 < .0001
C5 Pair 5 35 63.23 11.56 34 32.37 < .0001
C6 Pair 6 35 62.52 11.56 34 32.00 < .0001
C7 Pair 7 34 62.06 10.82 33 33.45 < .0001
C8 Pair 8 34 62.40 11.60 33 31.36 < .0001
C9 Pair 9 34 62.69 11.53 33 31.71 < .0001
The result of Sign Test on each student’s scientific creativity indicator shows that Z = -5.918 in 3 testing classes
at State Senior High School 4 of Jember, Z = -5.747 in 3 testing classes at State Senior High School 3 of Jember,
and Z = -5.659 in 3 testing classes at State Senior High School 1 of Pakusari. Furthermore, all results of asymptotic
significance 2-tailed for p-value is < 0.05. It can be concluded from the result that VS-TM does have a significant
impact toward the student’s scientific creativity with the significance level of 5%. The result of Paired Sample T-test
on the student’s concept mastery in 9 testing classes shows that asymptotic significance 2-tailed for p-value is <
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0.05. It can be concluded from the result that VS-TM does have a significant impact toward the student’s concept
mastery with a significance level of 5%.
A consistency analysis of VS-TM application impact toward the improved student’s scientific creativity and
concept mastery in 9 testing classes is done using ANOVA of a normal distribution. The result of ANOVA statistic
test on the student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery indicator respectively is shown in Table 5 and Table 6.
Table 5. The result of ANOVA statistic test on the student’s scientific creativity indicator in 9 testing classes.
Scientific Creativity Indicator n-gain Sum of Squares df F p
Fluency 3.624 0.133 .943

Unusual uses Flexibility 9.453 0.089 .918
Originality 14.307 0.054 .920
Fluency 2.914 0.068 .939
Scientific imagination Flexibility 10.765 0.064 .976
Originality 10.763 0.042 .998
Fluency 2.613 0.076 .882
Sensitivity to science problems Flexibility 10.839 0.014 .957
Originality 14.501 0.018 .963
317
Flexibility 11.218 0.074 .865
Creative science problem solving
Originality 15.619 0.021 .920
Flexibility 7.524 0.181 .866
Creative experimental
Originality 7.806 0.987 .862
Fluency 1.923 0.039 .993
Improve a technical product Flexibility 8.393 0.026 .992
Originality 10.237 0.050 .990
Flexibility 11.833 0.078 .894
Creative science product design
Originality 10.292 0.050 .886
Table 6. The result of ANOVA statistic test on the student’s concept mastery in 9 testing classes.
n-gain Sum of Squares df F p
Concept mastery 5.347 317 0.129 .873
ANOVA result of each student’s scientific creativity indicator obtains asymptotic significance 2-tailed for p-
value is > 0.05. It can be concluded from the result that there is not any significant difference in the application of
VS-TM to the student’s scientific creativity in 9 testing classes with a significance level of 5%. ANOVA result of the
student’s concept mastery obtains asymptotic significance 2-tailed for p-value is 0.873 > 0.05. It can be concluded
from the result that there is not any significant difference in the application of VS-TM to the student’s concept
mastery in 9 testing classes with a significance level of 5%.
Discussion
Student Scientific Creativity
According to Figure 1, the average scores of pre-test and post-test of each student’s scientific creativity indicator
obtained in 9 testing classes before applying any teaching process using VS-TM is categorized as low. Such a low
average scores of pre-test and post-test of each scientific creativity indicator of the student is due to the dominant
role of teachers that the students are less actively involved. Fewer freedom students to develop their independence
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and creative thinking during the process of teaching will consequently block qualified ideas. In line with the theory
of development with respect to the background of creative people and how to design an environment to meet such
a creative potential, creativity will then be developed from time to time (from the potential to make achievement)
as it should be mediated by an interaction between a man with his environment (Kozbelt, Beghetto, & Runco, 2010).
This theory gives a contribution to the teachers and students to support such a learning environment that may
support the creative effort, i.e. an environment in which exploration, imagination, and creative ideas of freedom
thinking are possible. This result is supported by a student’s profile scientific creativity, namely a teaching model
that has been so far teacher centered learning that the students have less chance to think creatively. ICT is also less
used to provide the students with interesting experiences to encourage the emergence of creative ideas (Wicak-
sono, Madlazim, & Wasis, 2016). Such a low scores average of each student’s scientific creativity indicator highly
confirms the result of GCI research of creativity as the factor of a low level of human resources quality (Institute
Martin Prosperity, 2011). Besides, teachers often block the chance to think creatively and emphasize on convergent
thinking that will block creative potential instead (Runco, 2007; Jeanpierre, 2014). The result of another research
shows that during the process of teaching the teachers should give an opportunity to express and apply scientific
ideas through experiment activities using corresponding new ways (Leonard & Penick, 2009).
However, according to Figure 1, the average pre-test and post-test scores of each student’s scientific creativ-
ity indicator obtained in 9 testing classes after teaching process using VS-TM are improved of high category. The
students have the freedom to think creatively about the given problem. Theoretically, it is to find a problem that
explains how to apply an idea and solve the problem as creative people will be proactively involved in the process
and exploration to identify the problem to be solved (Kozbelt, Beghetto, & Runco, 2010; Starko, 2010). The freedom
of a search for problem-solving according to creative process theory as creative people have while identifying an
interesting problem. Besides, the statistic testing of pre-test and post-test scores indicates that there is a signifi-
cant impact of VS-TM toward the student’s scientific creativity with a significance level of 5%. According to Table
1, fluency, flexibility, and originality n-gain average scores and Figure 2 of n-gain average scores of each student’s
scientific creativity indicator in 9 testing classes is slightly different as proven by statistic measurement in which
there is not any significant difference of VS-TM application to the student’s scientific creativity with significance
level of 5%. The result of research supports this improvement, investigation and scientific inquiry in such scientific
creativity shall include an interaction to understand the problem, to collect data, imagination, to make and test
hypothesis, to design an experiment, to find solution, solve problem, indicate the process of evaluation, and to
draw a conclusion (Hong & Kang, 2010; Usta & Akkanat, 2015).
VS-TM application gives such a consistent impact on improving each student’s scientific creativity indicator.
A successful VS-TM syntax application shall be according to a syllabus, lesson plan, student textbook, and student
worksheet. The improvement of each student’s scientific creativity indicator is made using VS-TM syntax teaching
process, as follows (1) to identify a problem through a sample of event that is familiar to the student and to under-
stand the features of important information using ICT, this stage will provide a training of unusual uses. The result of
research that supports this stage is to motivate the student when student knows about the benefit of what student
learned and used the information to do something about it (Kolis, Krusack, Stombaugh, Stow, & Brenner, 2011);
(2) formulating electronic problem-solving alternatives through electronic brainstorming in order to formulate
such alternative problem solving, so that each student has an opportunity to contribute a scientific idea to solve
the problem, this stage provides a training of scientific imagination and sensitivity to science problems. The result
of research that supports this stage is a learning environment in which it is possible to ask questions openly, and
exercises must encourage creative thinking through an imaginative approach that various solutions are created
(Park, Lee, Oliver, & Cramond, 2006), asking a question is one of creative thinking skill indicators (AlMutairi, 2015);
(3) discussing alternatives problem-solving through scientific ideas database. Thereby, there will be a feedback of
qualified scientific ideas to be followed up, and this stage provides a training of creative science problem-solving.
The result of research that supports this stage is a hypothesis space as one of scientific creativity major space that
shall consist of little temporary knowledge as a hypothesis that can explain the knowledge (Klahr, 2000); (4) design
and apply experiments virtual using scientific ideas those compatible with the database to be further followed up
through designing and conducting an experiment in a virtual laboratory, this stage provides a training of creative
experiment. The result of research that supports this stage is that teaching physics through an experiment can be
facilitated effectively by the use of both real laboratory experiment and/or virtual laboratory experiment (Başer &
Durmuş, 2010); (5) elaborating experimental results by applying scientific ideas, which is a further action taken on
the result of experiment in a new situation, this stage provides a training of technical product improvement and
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creative science product design. The result of research that supports this stage is that a product design is initiated
by process of finding the weakness of formerly used product, which supports the evaluation of idea quality (Hu,
Wu, Jia, Xinfa, Duan, Meyer, & Kaufman, 2013). In addition, the ability to use scientific knowledge to create a simple,
appropriate, and original product is the success key to a valuable scientific creativity (does not have to be physical)
(Siew, Chong, & Lee, 2015); (6) reflection during a virtual scientific teaching process that leads to the scientific ideas
creation. The result of research that supports this stage is to do such an idea reflection to evaluate any superiorities
and weaknesses so that further perfection is possible (Leung & Chiu, 2010).
Student Concept Mastery
Based on Table 2, the average scores student’s concept mastery obtained in 9 testing classes before applying
any teaching process using VS-TM are categorized as low. Such low average scores student’s concept mastery is
due to the given concept that cannot provide the students with the scientific meaning understanding and cannot
encourage the student to correlate with the problems encountered in daily life. The teaching process becomes
meaningful when the new subject has a systematic correlation with relevant concepts. Such teaching must create
a meaningful learning activity instead of being memorizing without thinking. In line with the cognitive theory
about advanced organizers, it will lead the students to the subject to be learned that helps them to remember the
relevant information and finally, they can integrate the new information (Schunk, 2012). During the teaching, the
teachers must encourage and direct the attention of students to the important concepts to be learned, must un-
derline the interrelation of creative ideas, and relate the new subject with things those have been formerly known.
This result is supported by the student’s concept mastery profile that so far has been indicating that many students,
who have learned physics, are not capable of understanding basic concepts. There are also many concepts those
are wrongly understood so that physics is considered as a difficult and uninteresting science. Furthermore, the
teachers should be aware of the cognitive structure of their students (Wicaksono, Madlazim, & Wasis, 2016). The
result of the research shows that the students tend to memorize the theory without referring to their experience
during physics teaching (Palmiero, Giacomo, & Passafiume, 2016). The result of PISA also indicates the low average
scores student’s concept mastery in Indonesia (OECD, 2016).
According to Table 2 of the average scores of concept mastery n-gain in each testing class and Figure 2 of the
average scores of concept mastery n-gain in all testing classes after the teaching process, using VS-TM indicates
that the average scores student’s concept mastery in 9 testing classes is improved of high category. The essential
components of teaching are the organization of information to be learned, the former knowledge that the learner
has mastered, and the process that involves comprehension, understanding, saving, and regain information. The
students are active seekers and information processors. According to information processing theory, an individual
selects and be in the environment, changes and trains information, relates new information through formerly
obtained knowledge, and controls the knowledge to be meaningful (Schunk, 2012). According to the statistic
measure of pre-test and post-test scores, it indicates that there is a significant impact of VS-TM toward the student’s
concept mastery with a significance level of 5%. N-gain obtained in 9 testing classes is slightly different as proven
by statistic measurement that there is not any significant difference of VS-TM application to the student’s concept
mastery with a significance level of 5%. The result of research that supports this improvement is that the cognitive
development level of student can be obtained from the mastery of physics concepts perceived by the senses of a
learning environment, especially using ICT. It can help the student to solve problems encountered not only during
teaching at school but also in everyday life (Bilal & Erol, 2012; Sharda, Sastri, Bhardwaj, & Jha, 2016).
The consistent impact of the student concept mastery cannot be separated from the application of VS-TM.
The cognitive structure of student is hierarchically organized so that the general concepts have the concepts of
lower level under them. The cognitive structure of information organization and processing is a concept realized
through a scheme or thinking pattern (Moreno, 2010). VS-TM syntax encourages the students to obtain meanings
from the physics subject that have been learned, to be able to solve a problem scientifically based on the concept
comprehension formerly obtained, and to apply it in everyday life. The VS-TM teaching process is integrated with
a virtual laboratory that emphasizes on experimental activities those support the explanation of the meaning
of a learned concept. This virtual laboratory has an interactive interface, so that it will not only demonstrate but
also enable the students to manipulate the equipment, to do data collection and analysis, to prepare experiment
reports, and to draw a conclusion based on data and graphs (Darrah, Humbert, Finstein, Simon, & Hopkins, 2014).
The result of the research shows that such a right concept mastery will bring success to the student in solving a
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problem and grow their independence to be involved actively in obtaining knowledge (Miller, 2014; Wicaksono,
Jatmiko, & Prastowo, 2015). A cognitive aspect during concept mastery will create a positive relation with deep
creative and teaching processes (Miller & Dumford, 2016).
Conclusions
The effectiveness of VS-TM to improve student’s scientific creativity and concept mastery on Senior High
physics subject has an impact on the problem-solving process when having scientific creativity will be able to
conduct investigations and processes of applying scientific knowledge. Besides, concept mastery will be able to
show a matter presented into a more comprehensible form, providing interpretation and applying it. According
to the result of research and discussion above, the effective improvement of the student’s scientific creativity and
concept mastery is as follows: there is a significant improvement of the student scientific creativity and concept
mastery on physics subject before and after VS-TM application with asymptotic significance 2-tailed for p-value
is < 0.05, the category of the student scientific creativity and concept mastery improvement on physics subject
after VS-TM application is of high category that is > 0.7 and > 0.8, and there is not any difference of improvement
between scientific creativity and concept mastery of the student on physics subject in 9 testing classes with as-
ymptotic significance 2-tailed for p-value is > .05. Depending on the results of the study, it is considered that the
application of VS-TM on physics subject requires that can encourage scientific creativity the students to answer
with all possible answers available based on the right concept. It may be recommended to researchers that they
conduct research to encourage students the courage to express ideas and focus during the discussions, this activity
provides an opportunity to find creative ideas according to personal experience. Besides, the need for theoretical
and empirical concepts mastery so that students can understand it fully.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Republic of Indonesia Government through the Ministry of Finance,
especially LPDP for the fund added to accomplish this research. The authors also like to thank State Senior High
School 4 of Jember, State Senior High School 3 of Jember, and State High School 1 of Pakusari for giving us the
opportunity to conduct this research at school.
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Wasis Ph.D, Researcher, Universitas Negeri Surabaya (The State University
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E-mail: wasis@unesa.ac.id
Website: http://www.unesa.ac.id
Madlazim Professor, Researcher, Universitas Negeri Surabaya (The State
(Corresponding author) University of Surabaya), Jalan Ketintang, Surabaya 60231, Indonesia.
E-mail: madlazim@unesa.ac.id
Website: http://www.unesa.ac.id
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PERCEPTIONS OF RESEARCH
SCIENTISTS – OUTCOMES
OF AN INDIRECT DRAW-A-
SCIENTIST TEST (InDAST)
Abstract. What is the image of research

Paweł Bernard,
scientists in students’ minds? Studies in
this area have been underway for more Karol Dudek
than fifty years and suggest that scientists
are perceived as bespectacled men in lab
coats, working alone in rooms full of basic
lab glassware. This image has been derived Introduction
mainly from the analysis of drawings,
known as the Draw-A-Scientist Test (DAST). The current market demand for STEM (Science, Technology, Engineer-
However, DAST instructions are based on ing and Mathematics) graduates in many countries exceeds the number of
the word, “scientists”, the meaning of which students interested in these fields (Bernard, Migdał-Mikuli, & Ciura, 2014;
seems too narrow for today’s world and not Barmby, Kind, & Jones, 2008). Therefore, it is no surprise that actions are be-
reflecting the wide range of STEM-based ing taken to encourage students to take up those subjects and that research
research careers. Moreover, the instruc- is in progress to determine the factors that are putting students off science
tions can predetermine the number and studies. One major factor shown to have an impact on the perception of
gender of people in the picture. For this science is the image of the scientist. The manner in which students perceive
reason, a new tool has been developed scientists and their work can influence their attitudes towards school subjects
which provides an indirect analysis – the (Schibeci, 2006), their choices of university courses (Kahle, 1988) and their
Indirect Draw-A-Scientist Test (InDAST). The professional careers (O’Brien, Martinez-Pons & Kopala, 1999; Farland, 2003).
new instrument was used in an experiment For these reasons, intensive research of the image of the scientists has been
with secondary-school students (n = 851), conducted all over the world for many years.
and the resulting image of the scientist
was compared with an earlier experiment Theoretical Background
that employed the original DAST instruc-
tions. The results showed that the basic The image of scientists and the factors that shape it have been the
attributes, appearance, and workplace of subject of research in different countries throughout the world for more than
scientists are similar in both studies, but the fifty years. During this period, several types of tests have been developed, and
new procedure disproved the theory that the research methodology has expanded proportionately (Finson, 2002). The
scientists are perceived as men working first type of research conducted on a large scale in the United States was the
alone and that female students do not see description test, in which participants were asked to write an essay about their
themselves as scientists. perceptions of scientists (Mead & Métraux, 1957) or answer questionnaires
Keywords: drawings analysis, gender
(Beardslee & O’Down, 1961). Further research on the image of scientists was
and science, image of scientists, scientist
dominated by drawings analyses. This approach was developed by Chambers
stereotype, STEM careers.
(1983), and the instrument was called the Draw-A-Scientist Test (DAST). This
instrument is commonly called a test, but in fact, it is a questionnaire, in which
part of the respondents’ task is to draw a scientist.
The research based on description tests and DAST analyses came up
Paweł Bernard, Karol Dudek with the stereotypical image of the scientist in the students’ minds. Students
Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland viewed a scientist as a white middle-aged male wearing a white lab coat and
prescription glasses, working in a laboratory surrounded by various flasks,
vials, and test tubes. In the following years, analyses of the drawings became
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more detailed, and the images of the scientist and his/her working environment were characterized. Distinct
characteristic features of the scientist emerged: (1) lab coat (usually white), (2) glasses, (3), beard or moustache, (4)
laboratory equipment, (5) books or other symbols of knowledge, (6) items related to new technology and inven-
tions, and (7) captions of the “eureka!” type (Finson, Beaver & Cramond, 1995). This image still prevails.
Other research focused on the correlation between the students’ age and the image of the scientist. Analyses
of drawings revealed that the vast majority of the youngest students (kindergarten, first grade) did not include
any of the abovementioned indicators in their drawings. They began to be incorporated by second-grade students
who, on average, drew two features viewed as stereotypical. It was also found that the drawings made by older
students more closely resembled the stereotypical image of the scientist as analysed above – fifth-grade students
included three, sometimes even four, examples of those indicators (Fung, 2002).
Further research described the successive parameters which affected the perception of the scientist in the
minds of students, e.g., their cultural background (Sjøberg, 2002, Farland-Smith, 2009; Narayan, Park, Peker, &
Suh, 2013). A comparative study carried out among the US and Chinese students (Farland-Smith, 2009) showed
that a greater proportion of Chinese students held stereotypical and traditional images of scientists, and the
American students had a broader image of scientists. It was also noticed that US students (the majority of whom
lived in detached houses) often drew laboratories in basements, whereas Chinese students (living in multi-storey
apartments) did not produce even one such drawing (Narayan, Park & Peker, 2009). Instead, in their drawings of
laboratories, Chinese students included ‘places for rest’, which are typical in their culture and are not included by
US students (Farland-Smith, 2009). Another factor can be the stage of development within a given country (Sjø-
berg, 2002). Children from poorer countries presented the scientist as a noble and wise figure trying to save the
world and helping people in need, whereas students from highly developed countries often presented scientists
in a negative light – mad, careless, responsible for environmental pollution, performing dangerous experiments
on animals, constructing nuclear bombs. Other research shows that the image of the scientist among students is
affected by teachers, textbooks (Türkmen, 2008) and the type of school (public or private) (Medina-Jerez, Middle-
ton, & Orihuela-Rabaza, 2011). Several authors indicate that the students are strongly influenced by the images
seen at home, in comics, and particularly on television programmes and in movies (Gardner, 1980; Long, Boiarsky
& Thayer, 2001; Steinke et al., 2007).
Another area of research is the gender analysis of the drawn scientists, very often in respect to the gender of
the person drawing the picture. Much research has demonstrated that the scientist has been perceived mainly as
a man and not as a woman (Chambers, 1983; Barman, 1997; Türkmen, 2008; Sjøberg, 2002; Huber & Burton, 1995).
Moreover, it is very rare that a boy, when asked to draw a scientist, presents such a figure as a woman, and only a
small number of girls draw a picture of a female scientist. Research on drawings in terms of gender can also focus
on other correlations. For example, Kind (1996) and Tan, Jocz & Zhai (2015) indicate that boys more often draw
unrealistic pictures that can be considered as science-fiction. Boys also have a greater tendency to draw pictures
of cruel and brutal scientists (Krause, 1977; Türkmen, 2008).
Limitations of DAST
It would thus seem that the issue has already been thoroughly addressed and that the image of scientists
among students is well known and exhaustively described with all of its shaping factors. The problem, however,
is the impact of the research tool on the findings. The instructions for DAST, “Draw a scientist”, have certain limita-
tions which become greater on translation into other languages. To begin with, students are asked to draw a single
person; accordingly, we should not be surprised that their drawings rarely depict groups. In addition, while the
word “scientist” is gender-neutral in English, in other languages, such as Polish or Turkish, it is a masculine noun
(Dudek & Bernard, 2015; Akcay, 2011) with no feminine equivalent. The image of scientists as men working alone
in labs can thus be largely induced by the instructions of the test. It does not necessarily need to reflect the actual
perception of scientists or the attitudes of girls towards a scientific career. Those are technical difficulties with the
tool. The other aspect of limitation is the meaning of the word “scientist”. It seems too narrow for today’s world, and
does not reflect the wide variety of science-related careers that are available and related to the research. Consider-
ing all those limitations, it can be concluded that there is a need for new tools that can inform us how students
perceive science, the research process, researchers and their professions.
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Modifications to DAST
In the last 20 years the original DAST has undergone various modifications. For instance, Matthews (1996)
conducted research in which he instructed students to draw two scientists and subsequently supply a short de-
scription of their drawings. The experiment was carried out in English; therefore, the instructions did not suggest
any particular gender. Most students drew a mixed-gender group of two scientists. Importantly, drawings of two
men represented around 20% of all analysed drawings, while two women appeared in only 6% of the pictures,
drawn only by girls.
DAST is often supplemented with descriptive elements, such as in the abovementioned research. This facili-
tates the interpretation of drawings and provides additional information on the scientist’s occupation (Dudek &
Bernard, 2015) or activities (Aguilar, Rosas, Zavaleta & Romo-Vázquez, 2014). The description can take the form of
a short comment or a more elaborate and structured statement (Farland-Smith, Finson, Boone & Yale, 2014). Some
of the most complex approaches integrate many distinct measurement tools and methods. Such an approach was
used by Sjøberg (2002), in a large project entitled ‘Science and Scientists: The SAS-study’. In this research, the DAST
test is used as part of a tool called the SAS questionnaire. It is divided into several parts, in which students describe
scientists as people, their out-of-school experiences, things they like to learn about, and what is important for their
future job, then give an opinion on the characteristic features of science, write a short essay in which the students
put themselves in the position of being a scientist and, finally, draw a scientist.
There were also attempts to avoid using instructions based on the word “scientist”. Christidou, Hatzinikita &
Samaras (2010) asked students: “Please draw a researcher”. They received drawings depicting a wide range of STEM-
related specializations, such as researchers in biomedical sciences, engineers, earth science specialists, astronomers,
and space science specialists. Unfortunately, those results did not reflect the ideas of regular students, since the
research was undertaken during a science event: “Researchers night” and participants drew what they had just seen.
Research Question and Aim of the Research
This research addresses the question, “What is secondary-school students’ image of people conducting scientific
research”. Using the word “scientist” is deliberately avoided, first of all to avoid suggesting the number or gender
of the persons to be drawn, and second, to release the full potential of research-based professions and activities
that can be depicted. To this end, the classic DAST is modified to facilitate an indirect analysis. The questionnaire
contains the following instructions: “Imagine how scientific research is conducted. Present what you see in a draw-
ing. Add a short description below.” The tool has been called the Indirect Draw-a-Scientist Test (InDAST). The aim
of the research is to assess the influence of changing the instructions on the images of a scientist obtained and to
test the entrenched DAST-based theory, which holds that scientists are perceived as men working alone and female
students are less likely than their male peers to see themselves in the scientist role. For that reason, the InDAST
results have been compared to those of the classic DAST research by Dudek & Bernard (2015).
Background of the Research
The perception of scientists among Polish students was studied in the 2013/2014 school year (Dudek & Bernard,
2015) using the classic DAST questionnaire. The results did not differ significantly from those observed in other
countries. According to Polish students at both the lower and upper-secondary-school levels, a typical scientist
was a young male wearing corrective glasses with crazy hair. The scientist usually wore a lab coat and worked in
chemistry. Consequently, he was surrounded by simple laboratory glassware placed on a table, along with books
and notes. Another frequent element in the surroundings was a blackboard.
It needs to be noted that the Polish student population and society as a whole is quite homogenous. Almost
all students are white Caucasian, and 92% of them are Catholics (GUS, 2014). Education is compulsory in primary
(grades 1-6, age 7-12) and lower-secondary schools (grades 7-9, age 13-16). Students can continue education vol-
untarily in upper-secondary schools (grades 10-12 or grades 10-13 in technical vocational schools, age 16-19(20),
respectively). The vast majority of students attend public schools in their local districts. In lower-secondary schools,
the percentage of male and female students is almost equal – 52% boys (GUS, 2014). At the upper-secondary-school
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level, this proportion is different and depends on the type of school. In general, and non-technical vocational
upper-secondary schools, the domination of female students is noticeable – only 38% are boys. However, in tech-
nical schools, this proportion is the opposite – 60% are boys. Teaching in Polish schools is dominated by lecturing
methods with elements of problem-based learning, but this approach is changing. The latest reform of the core
curriculum, introduced in 2009, defined new general objectives of education, graduates’ key competences, and
advised using inquiry as one of the leading methods (Act of the Polish Parliament, 2008). So far, changes in legisla-
tion have not had much effect on the methods used by teachers and the level of implementation of Inquiry-Based
Learning (Bernard, Maciejowska, Krzeczkowska & Odrowąż, 2015; Bernard et al., 2012).
The InDAST-based experiment was conducted during the 2014/2015 school year. No significant changes
had been introduced to the curriculum or expected learning outcomes in Polish schools between the DAST and
InDAST research. In both cases, questionnaires were sent to the randomly selected lower- and upper-secondary
public schools all over the country. No school was in both groups. Survey materials were sent to schools, rather
than to specific teachers, and were to be completed in a manner freely chosen by the school. Therefore, it could
be assumed that they reached teachers of a range of subjects and students completed the survey materials both
during classes and as part of their homework assignments.
Research Tools
Both questionnaires used a single A4 page. The main element in the DAST questionnaire was a drawing with
the original instruction – “Draw a scientist”, but supplemented with the one-sentence description “The drawing
shows...” so that the drawing was more understandable for the analysing person. InDAST used a similar layout
and the corresponding instructions were “Imagine how scientific research is performed. Present what you see in
a drawing. Add a short description below.” The questionnaires were anonymous and community-based (Krosnick
& Presser, 2010). The main questions were preceded by questions about the respondent’s personal information
such as gender, age, type of school they attended, and school location. These data were needed for the analysis
of such factors as the effects of gender.
Participants
The DAST and InDAST research involved 938 participants each. Questionnaires which did not include complete
data were excluded from the analysis. The final research group sizes and their characteristics are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Number and characteristics of respondents in the DAST & InDAST research groups.
Respondents DAST InDAST
N 781 851
Women 512 512
Men 269 339
Lower-secondary 350 300
Upper-secondary 431 551
Data Collection and Analysis
The student questionnaires were subjected to qualitative and quantitative analyses. Coding was used as a
process of organizing and sorting data. At the first stage of the DAST, qualitative analysis of completed question-
naires was performed. For this purpose, fifty responses were randomly chosen, and features associated with the
drawings were characterised. The derived characteristics were listed and compared with the DAST checklist (Finson
et al., 1995). These derived features covered all the DAST checklist features (lab coat, glasses, facial hair, symbols
of research, symbols of knowledge, and technology), and included several additional scientists’ attributes. The
obtained characteristics created a new checklist which was used for the drawings’ transcriptions. To this end, a list
of codes was created that covered the identified characteristic features of the responses. Then students’ answers
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were coded into an Excel spreadsheet using a 0/1 coding system (1 – indicates the presence of a feature and 0
– indicates the absence of a feature). At the next stage, percentage frequencies of the answers were calculated.
In the InDAST case, completed questionnaires were divided into two groups: 1 – those which featured hu-
man figures, and 2 – those which did not. The first group was analysed to determine the students’ perception of
scientists; the second provided a broader insight into perception of conducting scientific research process. Table
2 shows the number of respondents in the two sections.
Table 2. Features of InDAST drawings.
InDAST drawings
Respondents
With persons Without persons
All
(group 1) (group 2)
N 851 640 211
Women 512 337 175
Men 339 263 76
Lower-secondary 300 228 72
Upper-secondary 551 412 139
As in the DAST experiment, fifty drawings from each InDAST group were randomly selected for qualitative
analysis. The characteristic features of the drawings which depicted people overlapped with the DAST checklist.
The features noted in the pictures without people (group 2), were largely similar to those observed in the DAST
experiment, but also included several items which had not been previously recorded (see Table 10).
In both experiments, all drawings were coded by one trained and experienced person. The reliability of the
data was checked using the intra-rater and inter-rater tests (Gwet, 2014). For this purpose, forty randomly selected
questionnaires from each group were coded a second time by the main coding person and a third time by an in-
dependent researcher without experience in that particular type of transcription. The results were compared and
the correlation coefficients were determined to be 0.95, p<.001 for DAST and 0.90, p<.001 for InDAST, and between
the coding and independent coding 0.85, p<.001 for DAST, and 0.80 p<.001 for InDAST.
Even though the InDAST research was completed second, and the coding and recoding personnel were more
experienced than for the DAST research, the reliabilities for InDAST were lower. On the other hand, the values
reached for the intra-rater and inter-rater were fairly high, similar to the reliability shown in the previous research
by Schibeci and Sorensen (1983) or Toğrol (2013).
Results of Research
Table 3 shows the typical features obtained using both methods. In general, the findings of InDAST overlap
with the results of the reference group, as well as similar research conducted in other countries, and confirms that
scientists tend to be perceived as young people in lab coats. In addition, the InDAST group features fewer drawings
of older people. Individuals are less frequently depicted as bald, or as having facial hair and do not generally have
crazy hairdos, which makes them conform to the image of the crazy scientist. The percentage of drawings with
bespectacled scientists continues to be high, but the glasses tend to be lab goggles, rather than prescription glasses.
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Table 3. Analysis of the drawings – the frequency of personal indicators.
Frequency [%]
Feature
DAST InDAST
Young 53.4 43.9

Lab Coat 46.9 45.0
Glasses 34.7 17.7
Crazy hair 28.3 8.0
Old 15.5 4.2
Lab goggles 10.0 22.8
Facial hair 9.9 4.8
Bald 8.6 3.0
Scientists are usually depicted in an indoor setting (lab), surrounded by basic glassware, notes, and a black-
board. The frequency of these elements was similar for both experiments. InDAST, however, stands apart in that
its respondents more frequently depict more advanced technologies, showing a preference for computers and
microscopes over books and equations on the blackboard. InDAST also features more attributes suggesting fields
other than chemistry, such as animals, plants, and syringes.
Table 4. Analysis of the drawings – the frequency of the scientists’ attributes.
Frequency [%]
Attribute
DAST InDAST
Basic lab glass 81.8 82.2

Table 68.5 66.3
Books 15.5 7.7
Blackboard 14.6 11.1
Notes 11.3 15.2
Equations 11.0 7.5
Computers 7.4 14.5
Microscope 5.9 16.4
Animals 3.2 16.9
Plant 2.0 4.5
Chalk 1.7 1.4
Loupe 1.3 1.1
Pointer 1.0 0.8
Syringe 0.5 5.2
The objects depicted in the drawings and the one sentence descriptions of the drawings made it possible to
assign an area of science to the portrayed scientist in a large number of cases (Table 5). In both experiments, the
most frequent field was chemistry. However, in InDAST, chemistry’s lead over the next-best-represented discipline
was significantly reduced. The percentage of scientists working in biology, pharmacology, physics, or medicine was
much higher in the indirect group. Drawings which depicted scientists dealing with mathematics or the humani-
ties, however, again constituted a marginal fraction of a percent.
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Table 5. Analysis of the drawings – the frequency of the indicated scientific disciplines.
Frequency [%]
Scientific discipline
DAST InDAST
Chemistry 64.0 55.5

Biology 2.0 17.5
Physics 0.9 4.7
Pharmacy 0.9 6.4
Mathematics 0.6 0.2
Humanistic 0.3 0.0
Medical doctor 0.1 2.0
No indicator 31.2 19.4
One of the primary objectives of InDAST was to test whether the image of the scientist as a man working alone,
as obtained from DAST, corresponded to the actual perceptions of science and scientific research among students,
or was implied by the phrasing of the instructions, these suggesting a singular person who is masculine. The re-
sults presented in Table 6 below indicated that drawings which featured human figures mostly depicted groups.
The next most frequent were pictures of lone men, followed by the pictures of lone gender-neutral individuals.
Lone women were the least common. It should be noted, however, that even when students were the least likely
to draw lone female scientists, the frequency of such pictures was twice as high as in the reference DAST group.
Table 6. Analysis of drawings – the characteristics of the drawn persons.
Frequency [%]
Feature
DAST InDAST
Lone woman 7.8 15.8

Lone man 88.6 30.3
Lone, no indicator/other 0.8 20.5
Group of people 2.8 33.0
A large number of groups drawn in the InDAST survey enabled a more detailed analysis. Table 7 showed the
relevant frequency of the genders. Unfortunately, the drawings were often not very detailed, and, consequently,
no gender could be identified in as many as 41% of the cases (see examples at Figure 1). Among the remaining
drawings, a significant majority depicted mixed-gender groups; the percentage of all-male groups was half that
of mixed-gender groups and all-female groups accounted for a quarter the mixed-gender groups.
Table 7. Analysis of the drawings – genders in groups of people.
Frequency [%]
Feature
InDAST
Group of women 8.4

Group of men 16.4
Mixed group 34.0
Group no indicator/other 40.9
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Figure 1: Examples of drawings – groups of scientists with no gender indicator.
The results were further analysed in terms of the students’ gender (Table 8 and Table 9). Girls were equally
likely to draw female scientists and male scientists. In the case of boys, however, drawings of male scientists were
approximately four times as frequent as those of female scientists. For both genders, the percentage of women
in the pictures was still considerably higher than in the DAST survey. It should also be noted that both boys and
girls drew groups of people in more than 30% of the cases. Drawings without any gender indicators were also
significantly more frequent than in DAST and were twice as high for male respondents as for their female peers.
Table 8. Analysis of the drawings – frequency of scientist’ gender in relation to the respondent’s gender.
Frequency [%]
Gender of
Indicators
the respondent
DAST InDAST
Woman (lone or in group) 11.5 41.6

Man (lone or in group) 85.0 48.5
Woman
No indicator/other 1.6 24.1
Woman (lone or in group) 0.7 11.4
Man (lone or in group) 95.5 43.3
Man
No indicator/other 0.0 46.8
Because of the number of drawings which depicted groups of people in InDAST, it was possible to analyse the
pictures in terms of their author’s gender – Table 9. Girls tended to draw a lone man almost as often as boys did,
but lone women were considerably more frequent in pictures drawn by girls (see exemplary drawings at Figure
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2). Girls were also considerably more likely to opt for a mixed team of scientists. Conversely, drawings by boys,
regardless of whether they featured a lone person or a group, were more likely to have no gender indicators at all.
Table 9. Analysis of drawings – frequency of gender in relation to the respondent’s gender.
Gender of respondent
Feature
Women frequency [%] Men frequency [%]
Lone woman 22.6 6.8

Lone man 30.2 32.7
Lone no indicator/other 16.4 27.5
Group of women 4.3 0.4
Group of men 3.8 8.0
Mixed group 15.4 4.8
Group no indicator/other 7.4 19.9
Figure 2: Examples of drawings – female and mix gender groups of scientists.
Drawings without a human figure were also analysed and the feature checklist proved to be partially different.
Table 10 listed elements identified in at least 1.0% of the questionnaires. It could be noted that these drawings
mostly showed rooms and equipment highly similar to those in the pictures with human figures. Additionally, they
were also more likely to feature elements such as signs of radioactivity or DNA symbols. Some drawings included an
explosion or a hand (often giant) which was performing various activities (examples at Figure 3). Others depicted
the research procedure in a pictorial, descriptive, or symbolic form, often as a decision-making/logical template
(examples at Figure 4).
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Table 10. Analysis of the drawings – frequency of features on drawings without persons.
Feature InDAST
Basic lab glass 75.8

Table 34.1
Procedure diagram 22.3
Burner 21.3
Animals 16.6
Microscope 12.8
Computers 12.3
Hand 8.5
Notes 8.1
Explosion 6.2
Syringe 6.2
Loupe 4.7
Blackboard 4.7
Books 3.8
Radioactivity sign 2.8
Equations 2.8
DNA helix 2.4
Plant 1.9
Figure 3: Examples of drawings – hands performing various activities.
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Figure 4. Examples of drawings – research procedures.
Discussion
The aim of the research was to develop a tool to determine the students’ perception of people conducting
scientific research that would not be based on the word “scientist” and did not suggest the number or gender of
the persons to be presented. The results demonstrated that the wording used in the InDAST questionnaire and the
method of analysis met the above requirements and was a useful alternative to the classic DAST.
The attributes of scientists and their working environment were similar in both groups. The number and char-
acter of presented characteristic features were typical for studied age group. Scientists were perceived as youngish
bespectacled people in lab coats in rooms containing tables, basic lab glassware, and other, more advanced, equip-
ment. The aim of the InDAST research was to test the theory that scientists were perceived as men working alone.
The percentage of drawings that featured groups was approximately 3% in the reference DAST survey, it increased
more than tenfold in the InDAST experiment. The analysis of depicted scientists, in terms of gender, painted an even
more distinct picture. In the reference group, nearly 89% of the drawings depicted a male scientist compared to
the low 30% observed in InDAST. The latter also featured more lone women (16%). The number of groups differed
considerably, as well. In the reference study, it was too small to allow a detailed analysis. In InDAST, on the other
hand, such pictures were quite common and, importantly, featured both single-gender and mixed-gender groups,
a phenomenon rarely observed in the reference survey and in other similar research. An important group of the
InDAST drawings also depicted human figures of no specific gender (21%). This could be because respondents
did not attach great importance to gender but also because the InDAST drawings were much more complex and
thus human figures tended to be sketched in much less detail. This explanation was supported by the analysis of
drawings showing groups of scientists, which were often very elaborate and depicted many different elements
in a schematic form. In these drawings, gender could not be identified in as many as 41% of the figures (Table 7).
In addition, gender-neutral scientists were more likely to appear in the drawings made by male students. These
seemed less precise overall. However, this was just an impression of the person who coded the pictures, since the
parameter of “precision” had not been analysed. Furthermore, the analysis of gender suggested that girls tended
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to depict female scientists (alone or in groups) almost as often as boys drew male scientists. These findings were
significantly at odds with the earlier DAST research (e.g. Finson et al., 1995). The reference survey and other similar
experiments thus far showed that only a small percentage of female respondents drew female scientists. This was
explained by the theory that girls did not see themselves as scientists (Chambers, 1983; Barman, 1997; Türkmen,
2008; Sjøberg, 2002; Huber & Burton, 1995, Medina-Jerez et al., 2011). The InDAST experiment disproved this theory.
While the percentage of lone female scientists drawn by girls was lower than that of lone male scientists drawn
by boys, girls were more likely to draw mixed-gender groups. This could be linked to a greater awareness of the
issues of gender equality and rights among girls (Kelly, 1985; Long, Boiarsky & Thayer, 2001).
In previous research students from poorer countries presented the scientists as noble and wise figures, whereas
students from highly developed countries more often presented scientists in a negative light. On images of Polish
students none of the variants was dominating, both brutal scenes and world saving scientists were not frequent.
Despite the rather neutral character of drawings, images of crazy scientists were present in both Polish studies.
Moreover, a significant difference in frequencies between the classic DAST (28%) and InDAST (8%) was observed.
There was a general trend over time that showed a decreasing number of drawings presenting mad scientists
(Tan et al., 2015), but observed massive disproportion was rather an effect of the instructions. The InDAST guided
respondents to depict real world situation – conducting research – and DAST did not suggest in what situation the
scientist is to be drawn, so respondents could let their imagination run wild. However, the science fiction drawings,
frequently drawn by students in other countries, were not present in both Polish studies.
Due to the one sentence descriptions of the drawings, it was possible to assign an area of science to the
portrayed scientist in a large number of cases. The diversity of depicted professions was almost the same in both
cases, but there was a difference in distribution between particular professions. In the InDAST research, the number
of depictions of chemists was lower, and other professions were more common. Additionally, the percentage of
drawings without profession indicators was much lower in the InDAST research. Once again it could be an effect
of the instruction. As it was noticed, in the InDAST research, respondents were asked to present a meaningful situ-
ation – conducting research – and the DAST drawings often presented a man in lab coat just standing between
laboratory glassware. Christidou, Hatzinikita, & Samaras (2010) pointed that DAST (and draw a researcher) results
indicated that students were not familiar with the organization, specialization, possibilities, means, and achieve-
ments of modern research. Instead, they drew outdated and distorted clichés about science and technology from
an earlier period. The InDAST results showed that students’ ideas of research were more complex and that many of
them were aware that conducting research required teamwork, and the process involved high technology. What
might be disappointing is the range of professions presented. This might be caused by the students’ lack of knowl-
edge of the range of research-based STEM careers. Conversely, the InDAST instructions created an opportunity
to present various professions but did not stimulate students to think deeper. They could present the first idea so
the narrow spectrum of presented professions could result from the strongest and the most typical associations,
not from a lack of awareness of available STEM careers.
Since the InDAST instructions did not explicitly require respondents to draw human figures, a number of
pictures only featured a research lab or schematic representations of scientific procedures. Drawings without scien-
tists did not differ significantly from those with human figures. They did, however, tend to include more advanced
equipment. People were sometimes replaced by disembodied hands performing various activities. Drawings
without human figures often featured warnings about threats (radioactivity) or explosions, i.e., elements which
were not typically drawn together with scientists. It was not clear whether these pictures focus on the negative
consequences of research and its uncontrollable outcomes, or rather the space in which dangerous processes were
carried out and noxious substances used. A significant percentage (22%) of drawings without persons showed
schematic representations of scientific procedures in a pictorial, descriptive, or symbolic form. These were not
analysed, but the issue seemed to constitute an interesting subject for further research. In general, the variety of
leading motifs was greater in the pictures without human figures than in those that depicted scientists at work.
Conclusions
The world around us and our lives are changing quickly in the 21st century, and science is not an exception.
Extremely fast technological progress not only changes scientific research but also demands a large number of
STEM graduates with diverse specialties. For that reason, it is important to create a positive image of science and
people involved in research and to build students’ awareness of STEM career diversity and offerings, which cannot
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be achieved without research on current students’ images of science and scientists. Research of this kind has a
rich history, with many groups, relations, and shaping factors being studied and elaborated upon. Unfortunately,
historically important tools, such as DAST, seems not to be sufficient and adequate for today’s STEM-based world.
This article describes how the InDAST questionnaire facilitates research on the image of scientists in the stu-
dents’ minds when it is no longer plagued by the narrowness of word “scientist” and does not specify the number
and the gender of the persons to be drawn. While there is a risk of obtaining pictures in which scientists are not
present at all, other drawings allowed us to arrive at a clear image of scientists. Basic attributes, appearance, and
the workplace of scientists are similar in both DAST and InDAST. What is shown, thanks to the new procedure, is
that students possess a wider image of scientists and do not necessarily perceive person undertaking scientific
research as men with crazy hair working alone and items within drawings, related to new technology, are more
frequent when students draw a scientist in action – conducting research. Of particular importance is that the results
also show that female students see women may be scientists. It seems that the current focus in science education,
as indicated by the InDAST instrument, is that students are seeing science researchers in a wider orientation, more
in keeping with members in society in general. This lends hope that current approaches to science education are
allowing students to see scientific research as a meaningful career direction.
The major limitation of the presented research is the interpretation of students’ intentions basing on draw-
ings. Pictures, supplemented with short descriptions, create an opportunity to identify the profession of the people
depicted, but we cannot be sure of the student intentions or their reasons. Therefore, a natural next step is sug-
gested to use a mixed approach – the InDAST questionnaire combined with an interview – thus enabling students
to explain their drawings and motives.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to Anonymous Reviewers for their constructive comments on the manuscript.
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Received: March 13, 2017 Accepted: June 22, 2017
Paweł Bernard PhD, Assistant Professor, Jagiellonian University in Kraków,

(Corresponding author) Department of Chemical Education, ul. Gronostajowa 2, 30-387
Kraków, Poland.
E-mail: pawel.bernard@uj.edu.pl
Website: http://www.zdch.uj.edu.pl/bernard
Karol Dudek PhD, Assistant, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Department of
Chemical Education, ul. Gronostajowa 2, 30-387 Kraków, Poland.
E-mail: karol.dudek@uj.edu.pl
Website: http://www.zdch.uj.edu.pl/karol-dudek
575
DETERMINING THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF A
DESIGN–BASED, CONTINUOUS
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMME FOR SCIENCE
TEACHERS
Abstract. This research examined the effec-
tiveness of a design-based, continuous pro-
fessional development (CPD) programme in-
tended to promote teachers’ self-confidence
and teaching reflection skills. The CPD was Ana Valdmann,
associated with teacher implementation of Jack Holbrook,
theoretically devised, motivational, context-
Miia Rannikmae
based, inquiry teaching modules, based on
a justified 3-stage teaching model. The CPD
programme was devised from prior identi-
fication of teacher needs, using a validated
teacher questionnaire (TNQ) covering sub-
ject and pedagogical content knowledge, as
well as other literature-identified, desirable Introduction
teaching attributes. The effectiveness of the
CPD provision was determined through two Rapid changes within society demand changes in education. To meet
approaches - by re-administering the TNQ at such changes, education can be expected to undergo reform and accordingly,
the end of the programme and identifying new curricula need to be developed. This is especially so in science education
significant self-confidence gains through which aims to prepare scientifically literate persons who have competences
application of the K-means clustering tech- to conceptualise the science, manage new technologies, are prepared for
nique, and was also by the range of teacher lifelong learning and who are capable of undertaking responsible actions
reflections in, on and for action, provided within the society (Tytler, 2007; Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2007).
by teachers after using modules in their A major international reform over the last decade or so is the goal of
teaching. Each teacher’s reflections were developing students’ key competences (NRC, 2010; Eurydice, 2002; OECD,
qualitatively grouped, based on comments 2005), through a focus on science education for everyday life (Aikenhead,
made during a semi-structured interview 2006) This view is strongly identified with a teaching shift towards a wide
about the teaching, opinions on students’
view of scientific literacy (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2009; Choi, Lee, Shin, Kim,
learning and attitudinal outcomes. Findings
& Krajcik, 2011; Roberts & Bybee, 2014), which aligns with competence-based
suggested a strong correlation between
curriculum developments encompassing the acquisition of knowledge, skills,
teaching confidence gained from the CPD
attitudes and values (Eurydice, 2002; 2012; OECD, 2005).
programme and the range of identified
To support the intended change in teaching, specific attention is paid
types of reflective skills mentioned during
the interview, which provided the depth of
to students’ motivation (Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003; Bybee & McCrae,
feedback related to classroom teaching in 2011), inclusion of a context-based teaching focus (Gilbert, 2006; Gilbert,
implementing the modules. Bulte & Pilot, 2011), inquiry-based learning (IBL) (Crawford, 2000; Hofstein,
Keywords: competence-based, continuous Carmi, & Ben-Zvi, 2003; EC, 2009) and argumentation and decision-making
professional development, teacher reflection skills (Sadler & Zeidler 2005; Osborne, Erduran, & Simon, 2004). Efforts in
skills. supporting teachers in this direction have been the focus of two European
Commission projects – PARSEL (Holbrook, 2008) and PROFILES (Bolte, Streller,
Holbrook, Rannikmäe, Hofstein, Mamlok Naaman, & Rauch, 2012). In both
Ana Valdmann, Jack Holbrook, projects, teachers are guided towards new approaches to science teaching
Miia Rannikmae using a 3-stage implementation model (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2010) and
University of Tartu, Estonia
project, or teacher self-developed, teaching modules indicating the teaching
approach. These were based on a philosophy, identified as ‘Education through
Science’ (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2007).
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 576-591)
Following European initiatives, the Estonian Government (2011) implemented a new competence-based
curriculum, in which Estonian teachers were confronted with the realisation that the new curriculum required
a different approach to teaching. Osborne (2007) pointed out “Changing the curriculum was one thing, asking
teachers to change their pedagogy to meet the demands of such a curriculum was another” (p.181). To support
teacher change, much research drew attention to the importance self-efficacy played in developing the ability
of a teacher to function effectively in the classroom (Bandura, 1994; Woolfolk Hoy & Davis, 2006). While knowing
ones subject was seen as important and having a range of teaching skills was essential, dealing with changes that
occurred in the education system and in teaching methodologies which were previously not essential, required
the establishment of teachers’ confidence so that they felt they were capable of handling the change, even if ini-
tial implementation met with reductions in the classroom climate. The need to facilitate an effective promotion
of teacher self-efficacy, led to a need for greater attention to providing a professional development programme.
Although numerous CPD programmes have been developed, which focused on an in-service training model,
or approach (e.g. Saunders & Rennie, 2013; Witterholt, Goedhart, Suhre, & van Streun, 2012; Brand & Moore, 2010;
Dijk & Kattmann, 2007; Diaconu, Radigan, Suskavcevic, & Nichol, 2012), these programmes tended to lack a desired
philosophical frame, based on specified teacher needs and often did not pay attention to post-CPD implementation.
As an alternative approach, Kapanadze, Bolte, Schneider, and Slovinsky (2015) used a so-called ‘stages of concern’
model, grounded on philosophies by Fuller (1969) and Hall and Hord, (2011), through which they determined
professional-oriented attitudes and concerns by in-service science teachers regarding inquiry-based science
education (IBSE). However, this model is specific to inquiry based teaching, limited to comparing outcomes from
a pre- and post- teaching concerns questionnaire and does not seek to address wider teacher needs associated
with changes, such as conceptualisation of relevant educational theories, appreciation of the nature of science and
science education (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2007) and the emphasis on addressing student motivational aspects.
There was thus a perceived need to develop CPD programmes, related to meaningful teaching philosophy
and which promoted student motivational, teaching materials, also seen as curriculum relevant and motivational
by teachers. To address these concerns, an authentic, continuous professional development (CPD) programme
was specifically designed, based on teacher-identified needs for competence-based science teaching, as derived
from responses to a validated questionnaire (Holbrook, Rannikmäe, & Valdmann 2014; Valdmann, Rannikmäe, &
Holbrook, 2016). Besides addressing the identified teacher needs, the CPD also emphasised a competence-based,
teaching approach through specifically designed teaching modules. The teaching modules were developed, in
line with this CPD thrust, based on a literature reported, 3-stage model (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2010) seeking to
give greater clarity to competence-based science teaching.
Clearly the effectiveness of the design-based CPD provision is important. Although steps have been taken to
evaluate the effectiveness of CPD programmes (Desimone, 2009; Harland & Kinder, 2014; Whitworth & Chiu, 2015),
these are limited in their philosophical approach and teacher identified needs. While the effectiveness of a CPD to
raise a teacher’s self-efficacy can be determined by means of a questionnaire, it is also important to ascertain the
effectiveness of the design-based CPD in promoting a permanent change (Rannikmäe, 2001) in teacher classroom
practices and event more to check on the manner in which the teacher has progressed to be able to reflect on their
teaching and make adjustments in the light of concerns. The teacher’s ability to be able to reflect on their teach-
ing is thus an important aspect in identifying the teacher self-confidence of the philosophy, model and teaching
approach so as to be able to effectively operate in the classroom as intended from the CPD provision.
The goal of this research study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a previously described, design-based CPD
programme (Holbrook et al., 2014) intended to:
•• raise teacher confidence in teaching, based on a previously reported 3-stage model;
•• allow meaningful implementation of the philosophy promoted during the CPD using teaching modules
based on the 3-stage model, and
•• prepare teachers able to reflect on their teaching, based on the 3 stage, Education through Science
model.
The Research Questions
1. Can the effectiveness of the CPD programme, based on teacher self-identified needs, be determined by
increased teacher self-confidence and their subsequent reflection skills in undertaking competence-
based teaching using teaching modules based on the 3-stage model?
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2. Can teacher self-confidence and reflection skills play a meaningful role in evaluating meaningful teach-
ing, based on the 3-stage model?
Theoretical Background
Self-confidence
Studies show that self-confidence influences teacher’ autonomous abilities in teaching (Spratt, Humphreys,
& Chan, 2002; Benson, 2010; Harrison, Lawson, & Wortley, 2005; Paradis, Lutovac, & Kaasila, 2015). Self-confidence
is defined within the literature as a positive/negative self-evaluation, or perception of the self (Chuang, Cheng,
Chang, & Chiang, 2013; Tett & Maclachlan, 2007) and is usually related to the degree of certainty directed towards
one’s general capabilities, personalities or abilities (Morony, Kleitman, & Stankov, 2013). Thus, self- confidence re-
lates to efficacy beliefs. The concept of self-efficacy beliefs proposes that the belief (confidence) in one’s abilities
(competence) is a powerful driving force that influences “motivation to act” (Bandura, 1997). Self-confidence, based
on efficacy beliefs, derives from successful practice and positively received feedback. Furthermore, meta-cognition
and reflection play an important role in the development of teachers’ self-confidence to use new approaches and
novel ideas, which are accepted and meaningfully applied in teaching (Kaune, 2006). In this study, self-confidence is
used in order to evaluate the effectiveness of CPD programme in a new context i.e. the 3-stage “Education through
Science” teaching model.
The 3-Stage ‘Education through Science’ Teaching/Learning Model
This model seeks to promote students’ intrinsic motivation to stimulate greater interest and subsequent
engagement in the learning of conceptual science ideas and, in particular, to relate inquiry learning to a science
education which promotes intellectual, personal and social competences (Holbrook, 2008; 2010; Holbrook & Ran-
nikmäe 2010; 2014).
In the initial stage (contextualisation) of the model, learning is based on a relevant scenario (real life setting),
which is then intended to motivationally activate the second stage in which the learning is decontextualized, en-
abling students to gain appropriate scientific concepts through inquiry-based approaches (Holbrook & Rannikmäe,
2010; 2014; Holbrook, 2010). At this stage, the teaching is seen as aiming to deliver science education that goes
beyond cognitive learning towards the gaining of educational competences, it needs to involve both personal
and social development in line with the ‘Education through Science’ philosophy (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2007) as
opposed to the more traditional science teaching through an introduction based on science content.
The purpose of the third stage (re-contextualisation) is to further strengthen the earlier ‘Education through
Science’ learning enabling students to make justified, socio-scientific decisions through well-reasoned argumenta-
tion and, in the end, arrive at a consensus decision about the socio-scientific issue put forward in the initial scenario.
Reflection
Reflection is seen as an important component of professional learning and hence teacher development.
Dewey (1933) defined reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief, or supposed
form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (p. 9).
Reflection is seen as a metacognitive strategy involving an active exploration of experiences to gain new, or greater,
understanding. In addition, several researchers highlight the importance of teacher reflection when experimenting
on new teaching approaches in professional development, which aim to develop teachers’ beliefs and practices
(Kaasila, Hannula, Laine, & Pehkonen, 2008; Kaasila & Lauriala, 2010; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Shulman, 1987).
Calderhead and Gates (1993, cited in Dana et al., 1997) suggest that the use of reflection in teacher educa-
tion encourages teachers to take greater responsibility for their own professional growth, to acquire a degree of
professional autonomy and facilitates teachers’ development of their own theories of educational understanding
and practice. Wenger (2005) contends that reflective practice helps teachers to focus on the complex, interactive
relationship between practice and theory (p. 48). In Clarke’s and Hollingsworth’s (2002) interconnected model of
teachers’ professional growth, reflection is one of the mediating processes that connect beliefs and practices. Re-
flection is this seen as a meaningful way to help improve the teaching practices of veterans and novices, as well as
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future teachers (van Es & Sherin, 2010; García, Sánchez, & Escudero, 2007; Kersting, Givvin, Sotelo, & Stigler, 2010;
Moore-Russo & Viglietti, 2011; Freese, 1999; Sherin & Han, 2004; Moore-Russo & Wilsey 2014). This necessitates
teachers questioning themselves about what, how and why they are teaching in a particular way based on defined
objectives. It is not surprising, therefore, that reflection has an important place in many in-service programmes
(Howe & Stubbs, 1997; Clark & Hollingsworth, 2002; Shulman & Shulman, 2004; Brand & Moore, 2011), thus helping
to increase teachers’ self-efficacy or change their beliefs and practice.
Schön (1983) introduced the terms reflection-in-action, referring to the ability to reflect or think about what
was occurring while it occurred and reflection-on-action, to refer to reflecting or thinking about what had already
occurred. This was seen as purposeful revisiting of the past, often to consider critical events. Later, Killion and Tod-
nem (1991) added reflection-for-action as the process of reflecting on past actions and decisions seen as a means
to guide future practices. Thompson and Pascal (2012) claimed reflection-for-action was the process of planning,
by drawing on experience and taking context into account. Regardless of whether the reflection was, at that mo-
ment, in the past, or about what might occur, at its most basic level the reflection was descriptive.
However, reflection could also be seen as productive, when it was comparative (i.e. views a crucial incident
from a variety of perspectives), or critical (i.e. involved questioning perspectives that led to new ideas) (Hayden,
Moore-Russo, & Marino, 2013). Fund (2010) depicted productive reflection as reflections that were at a “higher level
extending beyond the immediate situation.” Reflection might also be deemed productive, because it considered
what had been noticed in light of other perspectives (Jay & Johnson, 2002), including personal experiences, practi-
cal knowledge, educational theory and professional development (Fund, 2010). With this emphasis, Davis (2006)
asserted productive reflection involved integrating the idea that four aspects of teaching (learners and learning,
teaching and instruction, assessment, and subject matter knowledge) were noticed, emphasized and linked together.
Smyth (1989) and Larrivee (2008) suggested that reflection, as a critical component in its various forms, could
actually be expressed at four levels (Table 1).
Table 1. Reflection viewed at 4 levels.
Smyth (1989) Larrivee (2008)
Level 1 Describing: Pre-reflection in which the teacher is focused only on teaching.

(a) Describe/explain concrete teaching events.
(b) Find the meaning of the event.
(c) Provide an account of how the event happened as a basis for
analysis
Level 2 Informing: Teachers reflect about the effectiveness of their instruction.
(a) Explore principles that inform classroom events.
(b). Develop theories of teaching based on particular classroom
situations (theory-in-use).
Level 3 Confronting: Undertake reflection that enables being in touch with inconsist-
(a) Ask questions about the theory, practice, assumptions, beliefs encies between espoused pedagogical theories and what is
and values about teaching. carried out in the classroom (theory-in-use)
(b). Situate the theory/ practice in broader social contexts.
Level 4 Reconstructing: Engage in critical reflection about the moral and ethical implica-
(a) Take a position about the meaning of teaching. tions of one’s teaching.
(b) Describe what action to take to change the situation.
This research recognises that reflection can indicate much about a teacher’s belief. The teacher’s reflection skill
can point towards the effectiveness of the CPD in guiding teachers to reflect on their change of beliefs, associated
with acceptance of the 3-stage model as a way to promote competence-based science education. It is accepted
that meaningful reflection can relate to the past, the present, as well as the future and, hence, give insights into
a teacher’s width of vision. The research thus recognises that it is useful to interrelate the three reflection types
(reflection in, on and for) with the four reflection levels (describing teaching events, instructional effectiveness,
questioning interactions, critically reconstructing) as a means of identifying teacher CPD gains and hence an
indicator of its effectiveness.
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Research Methodology
This research was carried out to determine the effectiveness of a teacher CPD programme carried out within a
European Commission project (PROFILES), based on teacher self-identified needs, to promote competence-based
science teaching through the use of a teaching/learning modules, based on the 3-stage model. For this research,
16 teaching modules were utilised, or created, by teachers for use in the CPD programme, which extended over a
1 year period covering 40 contact hours.
Sample
In total, 27 volunteer science teachers agreed to participate in the longitudinal CPD programme. This purposive
sample was composed of female (26) and male (1) teachers, of whom 22 taught in high schools (grades 7-9; 10-12)
and 5 in middle schools (grades 7- 9). Among the teachers, 14 had more than 21 years of teaching experience,
whereas the other 13 had a less experience.
The sample is not representative, but purposeful in the sense that it included very experienced and less experi-
ence teachers, teachers teaching at both basic and upper secondary school level and teachers exhibiting differing
degrees of self-confidence in their own ability to promote student motivational teaching. However, all teachers
in the sample were willing to try out new ideas and to discuss between themselves about teaching approaches.
For this form of research, it is clear teachers need to be volunteers and feel they want to participate. While the
degree of success is likely to be higher than that from teachers as a whole, the diversity of the sample is expected
to lead to degrees of self-confidence following the CPD and a range in the effectiveness of teaching using the ap-
proach being promoted. In this way, the effectiveness of the CPD can be considered.
Instruments
Three instruments were used:
1) Previously published pre- CPD questionnaire (Holbrook et al., 2014) and post- CPD questionnaire results
(Valdmann et al., 2016) on the Teacher Needs Questionnaire (TNQ) are used in this study to develop
the teacher self-confidence clusters. The validated TNQ consisted of 10 subscales (Appendix 1, 2). The
participating teachers were asked to separately rate their self-perceived confidence (internal consistency
shown by Cronbach α=0.95) and in-service preferences (Cronbach α=0.98) using a four-point scale in
each case (1 – not at all; 4 – definitely).
2) Three questions were developed for a semi-structured interview. These questions, pertaining to the
3-stage model, were:
(a) How did you motivate students? Do you think you did well? What would you do differently another
time? (This was asked related to the implementation of stage 1 in the teaching approach).
(b) How did you undertake inquiry-based teaching? What do you think went well in your implementa-
tion of inquiry-based teaching? What problems did you face and what would you do differently
next time? Please give explanations? (This question related to the teaching of the 2nd stage in
the 3 stage model).
(c) How did you carry out the third stage decision-making? What do you think went well? What prob-
lems did you encounter and what would you do differently another time? Explain?
3) A literature-based reflection frame was created to capture teacher comments for each of the three
model stages from using the teaching modules. This frame was based on the 4 levels as given in table 1.
Comments made by the teachers were applied to this reflection frame. in relation to:
•• ‘reflection-for-action’ (the reflection self-reported by teachers during the interview on their
prior preparation);
•• ‘reflection-in-action’ (reflections with respect to the actual teaching as it took place), and
•• ‘reflection-on-action’ (reflecting with respect to the future)
•• (Schön, 1983; Killion & Todnem, 1991).
This allowed reflective comments by the teachers to relate to their teaching preparation, the teaching in ac-
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tion and reflections that pertained to future teaching. The frame was further extended so that teacher reflections
were captured for each of the three stages in the 3-stage model driving the teaching approach.
Data Collection
The TNQ was re-administered to the teachers (n=27) during the last CPD session, allowing pre- and post-
questionnaire data to be obtained for comparison. This enabled the determination of changes in the teachers’
self-confidence after the CPD had been completed. At the same time (in the last CPD seminar), a semi-structured
interview (n=27) was carried out. In this research, the teacher responses to semi-structured interview questions
were used for triangulation of the TNQ self-confidence clusters.
Data Analysis
Pre- and post- TNQ (Valdmann et al., 2016), were analysed using K-means clustering, to identify changes in
self-confidence.
All reflective comments from the semi-structured interviews were analyzed using a literature-based reflection
frame, as amplified in table 2. Similar explanatory expressions were linked together and preliminary levels (L1 – L4)
of descriptions were formed, based on their differences. Simultaneous vertical analysis allowed identifying the
types of reflections (R1-R3), which is the aspects that became the focus when reflecting before, during, or with
respect to future, teaching. Eventually reflections divide into twelve levels, based on Table 2. These responses were
compared and discussed to ensure their mutual understanding.
Table 2. A literature-based reflection frame used for analysing teachers’ semi-structured interview responses.
Guidelines for Reflective Comments /

Reflective Comments at a Productive Level (Fund, 2010; Davis, 2006)
Levels of reflection
Describing comments Effectiveness comments Problems remaining Future
(Smyth, 1989;
(L 1) (L2) (L 3) considerations
Larrivee, 2008)
(solution) (L 4)
Types of
reflection
Answering to the Answering to the Answering to the Answering to the
(Schon, 1983;
question: question: question: question:
Killion & Todnem, 1991)
Reflection-in-action What was I doing (at this Was I feeling it was going to Was I feeling there was How was I thinking
(R1) component time)? (L1R1) work (at this time)? going to be problems (at this the problem could be
(Perceived student reaction) time)? (Difficulties perceived) reconciled?
With respect to Stage: (L2R1) (L3R1) (L4R1)
1 Re Q1 outcomes Re Q1 outcomes Re Q1 outcomes Re Q1 outcomes
Reflection-on-action What did I do before? Did it work in the past? What were the problem(s) How to reconcile
(R2) component (L1R2) (L2R2) I faced? the problems for the
(L3R2) future?
With respect to Stage: (L4R2)
Reflection-for-action What will I do in the How will I know whether it What issues might I still How do I suggest to
(R3) component future? works in the future? face? other teachers how
(L1R3) (L2R3) (L3R3) to reconcile future
With respect to Stage: problems? (L4R3)
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The levels and types of reflections by teachers were grouped, based on the clustering of teachers to allow the
manner of reflections to relate to self-confidence teacher clusters. Comments were inserted per teacher wherever
the appropriate comments were made. By combining the reflection levels and types, teacher reflection categories
were obtained.
Validity and Reliability
The outcomes from the K-mean clustering and the teacher comments inserted in the frame (Table 2) were
compared to triangulate the teacher self-confidence, based on teacher self-responses to the TNQ and the level of
comments made during the semi-structured interviews.
Interview questions were validated against the philosophy of the 3 stage model by 2 independent experts,
as were the interpretation of Table 2. Teachers answers were categorised against Table 2 by two researchers in
agreement 80%.
Research Results
Self-confidence Cluster Changes before and after the CPD Provision
To identify K-clusters, the mean values for the 10 subscales on the pre- and post-TNQ were utilised to form 3
clusters representing high, medium and low self-confidence groups in using the teaching approach advocated in
the CPD. As the clusters were fairly well distinguished from each other, the three clusters approach was considered
appropriate. In the pre-test interdisciplinary subscale had no significant influence in the forming of clusters (Ap-
pendix 1). In the post-test, all self-confidence sub-scales had a significant influence in the forming of the clusters
(Appendix 2).
The change of self-confidence cluster groups by the 27 teachers, based on the pre- and post-test clusters,
was as illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3. Self-confidence cluster changes from pre- to post-test.
Pre-test Post-test
Cluster
No. teachers No. teachers
High self-confidence C1 3 3 (group 1)

} C1
7 (group 2)
Medium C2 7
9 9 (group 3)
1 } C2
6 (group 4)
Low C3 6 1 (group 5)
} C3
1 1 (group 6)
Key – arrows show teacher movement between clusters
Thirteen teachers moved to a higher self-confidence cluster based on the post CPD K-mean clustering, while
thirteen remained in the same cluster. Only one teacher dropped to a lower cluster. At the end of the CPD, the high
self-confidence cluster group comprised ten teachers, the medium cluster group, fifteen and the lowest cluster,
two teachers.
Teacher Reflection
Examples of teachers’ reflections are presented in Appendix 3. The appendix describes teacher reflection
categories (L1R1 ... L4R3) and examples are given, based on implementation of teaching modules developed using
the 3-stage model plus teacher’s self-confidence derived by means of the post-CPD cluster affiliation.
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Reflections by the High self-confidence Cluster
Teachers from the high self-confidence cluster gave extensive reflective comments. Their comments covered
all four levels (L1-L4), but were more related to reflections on problems remaining and future considerations. In
fact, only teachers in this cluster group provided reflective comments in answer to the question: How do I suggest
other teacher be advised to reconcile future problems? (L4R3). Also, as evidenced in Appendix 3, the comments of
this group were related to all three teaching stages included within the modules and used in the classroom (i.e.
to the contextualisation (stage 1), de-contextualisation (stage 2) and re-conceptualisation (stage 3) components).
The high self-confidence cluster group indicated:
a) A student relevant scenario was important for contextualisation.
b) Contextualisation needed to be related to students’ age, prior knowledge and local circumstances.
c) More autonomy needed to be given to students in planning experiments during contextualisation
and de-contextualisation.
d) Teachers needed to be more willing to include an open inquiry approach.
e) During re-conceptualisation teachers could guide student decision-making.
f ) It was important to have a repertoire of good teaching ideas for the more difficult socio-scientific
argumentation stage 3, such as role-playing, discussion sessions and holding a debate (Appendix 3).
Clearly, all 10 teachers were willing to adapt their teaching style. From reflections on how to deal with prob-
lems, they were more willing to embrace the 3-stage approach. They also expressed the desire to develop their
own future teaching/learning modules and were willing to give advice to other teachers.
Reflections by the Medium Self-confidence Cluster
Teachers from the largest, medium self-confidence cluster also gave many meaningful, reflective comments.
In many aspects, their comments coincided with those from the high self-confidence group, but it was notable that
they did not provide comments to the question: How do I advise other teachers to reconcile future problems? (L4R3).
Nevertheless, they were able to reflect on all three teaching stages. Two teachers from this cluster had previous
teaching experience in using modules, based on the 3-stage approach (they previously participated in similar project)
and perhaps, not surprisingly, all comments at the level of future considerations (L4R2; L4R1) were given by them.
This group of teachers mentioned that the main problem identified in stage 2 was that students were not
strong in critically examining information and needed guidelines. The main problems encountered in stage 3
were that after interpreting experiment results, students were not interested to return to economical/social issues,
presented in the initial scenario and teachers were not competent to guide students to incorporate social, ethical
or economic arguments alongside those scientific.
Generally, teachers in this cluster gave competent comments on their actions in the classroom, but reflected
less on the value of their actions compared to teachers in the high self-confidence cluster group.
Reflections by the Low Self-confidence Cluster
Teachers from this cluster gave fewer comments, found it difficult to be reflective about their teaching and
tended to simply provide feedback in the form of a description (L1), or in terms of the effectiveness of their teaching
(L2). They never reflected on future actions (reflection- for- action; R3). Also, they did not comment on stage three
(the re-contextualisation stage in which the science gained was consolidated by relating to the initial scenario)
and finished with interpretation of findings (which is part of the 2nd stage).
Discussion
It is generally recognised that CPD provisions for teachers, especially after curriculum or intended philosophical
changes, are essential for successful implementation of an intended change of teaching direction and approach
in the classroom. But the type of CPD needs careful consideration, if it is to be effective. From this research study,
effectiveness is seen as being governed by:
a) Meeting teacher needs (in this case, for competence-based teaching) by promoting teacher self-
confidence gains.
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b) Clearly indicating, in a participant-involved manner, competence in using teaching modules related to

the changes; this shown through the diversity and levels of reflective perceptions put forward on the
teaching enacted in the classroom.
c) Ensuring teacher self-competence in handling the scientific concepts involved from enacting student-
centred, problem solving learning (in this case related to stage 2 of the 3-stage model).
d) Teacher acceptance of the proposed philosophy and approaches, which are directly related to teacher
confidence in the educational changes being advocated (in the case, competence-based teaching
modules based on a 3-stage model).
e) Recognition, by the proponents, that the CPD model needs to be applicable generally and be superior
to other CPD models in relation to the change being promoted (i.e. competence-based teaching). Thus
the CPD is seen as generally applicable and the model is not solely dependent on the specific theo-
retical aspects considered (in this case, all that is intended via the 3-stage ‘Education through Science’
model, although both are seen as key to promoting competence-based teaching in science subjects).
The research is based on a created CPD model (Holbrook et al., 2014) and seeks to show that the effectiveness
of such a model can be determined from:
a) Consideration of self-confidence, and
b) The type and diversity of levels of reflection related to teaching advocated by the CPD model.
Recognising a growing need for teachers to be able to carry out change in their teaching, based on society
needs, a unique CPD programme was designed (Holbrook et al., 2014), based on using a constructivist socio-cultural
professional model (CSPM) suggested by Howe and Stubbs (1997). This constructivist CPD was specifically devised,
based on teacher-identified needs for competence-based teaching and, in this specific case, on the research un-
dertaken to operationalise a 3-stage model (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2010). To evaluate the effectiveness of the
programme, the methodology used was based on self-identified teacher gains in their teaching confidence and
teacher’s reflection comments, following teaching based on the CPD guidelines. The teacher-needs component
of the CPD was identified using a validated questionnaire (Holbrook et al., 2014) and the degree to which these
needs were meaningfully addressed was a feature identified using a clustered analysis of teacher’s self-confidence
once the CPD had been completed. The early outcomes from the Teacher Needs Questionnaire (TNQ) indicated
the CPD was effective in raising teacher self-efficacy based on a teacher perceived self-confidence increase plus
teacher recognition that training needs had decreased (Valdmann et al., 2016)
In this research, high confident teachers signalled they believed in the 3-stage model and the related modules
and saw these as useful tools to increase students’ scientific and technological literacy (Holbrook & Rannikmäe,
2009; Choi et al., 2011). While the initial TNQ indicated some teachers had high self-confidence at the beginning of
the CPD, nearly half the teachers indicated high self-confidence at the end of the CPD programme. Furthermore,
13 teachers showed growth in their self-confidence in implementing a teaching approach, based on the 3-stage
model. This suggested the CPD programme was able to meaningfully support, or raise teachers’ reported self-
confidence in teaching science using teaching modules, based on the 3-stage model. The CPD programme was,
therefore, judged as providing a useful and effective approach to promote competence-based teaching.
It was noticeable that teachers within the high and medium self-confidence clusters gave more productive re-
flective comments; they associated personal experience, practical knowledge, educational theory with professional
development (Fund, 2010). They were able to take a position about of the meaning of teaching, describe action to
undertake to change the situation (Smyth, 1989) and engage in critical reflection about moral and ethical implemen-
tation of one’s teaching (Larrivee, 2008), which refer to changes in estimates of the teacher’s beliefs and practices.
When implementing the 3-stage model in their teaching, low confidence teachers admitted they found the
greatest difficulty in administering the third (re-contextualisation) stage, where the aim was to develop students’
argumentation skills and decision-making techniques. In this, the research findings supported previous evidence
that ethical dimensions within competence-based teaching are new and uncommon in science teaching (Jutunen
& Aksela, 2014). This reinforces the value of determining teacher’s self-identified need so that the CPD provision
can seek to improve teaching and guide teachers to determine approaches to raise student’s argumentation and
decision-making skills (Laius & Rannikmäe, 2011). This is in agreement with previous findings (Valdmann et al.,
2012), where science teachers professed difficulties with leading students’ discussions and argumentation.
Lotter, Smiley, Thomson and Dickenson (2016) found that teachers’ self-efficacy to use inquiry learning
developed when teacher training programme emphases social construction of new knowledge and reflection.
They found an association between teacher self-efficacy and teachers perceived level of school support. This is
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reinforced by findings from this study where two teachers who formed the low self-confidence cluster reported
that they suffered from a lack of school support. Such results were also seen to be in agreement with studies, which
emphasised the importance of a positive school climate (collective efficacy) and the headmaster role in support-
ing teachers seeking to implement new ideas (Desimone, 2009; Bianchini & Cavazos, 2007; McGinnis, Parker, &
Graeber, 2004; Fullan, 2007).
About Reflection Findings
The findings illustrated that teacher reflections provided valuable insights into their teaching and the man-
ner in which teacher gain from the CPD programme were put into practice. In this study, types of reflection were
considered from the perspective of reflection in action, reflection on action and reflection for action (Schön, 1983;
Killion & Todnem, 1991) and the levels of reflection within these types, derived from the literature (Smyth, 1989;
Larrivee, 2008). This provided extensive insights into the teaching undertaken by teachers following the CPD.
As expected, the teachers varied in both the types of reflection put forward and the degree of level of insights
into their teaching and students’ learning. Teachers, effective in implementing the intentions put forward in the
CPD programme, showed they were giving considerable thought to considerations of all aspects of the intended
teaching and striving to promote competence-based teaching. This was very apparent in the decision making of
values areas, which in the 3-stage model was specifically promoted in stage 3 and where careful consideration of
new teaching approaches were included.
About the Self-confidence – Extensive Reflection Link
In this research, findings suggested a strong correlation between teacher self-confidence gained from the CPD
programme, irrespective of subject teaching background, and the range of identified types of reflective feedback,
based on classroom teaching undertaken following the completion of the CPD course. The research showed clearly
a link between self-confidence gains and the extent and diversity of teacher reflections put forward and pointed
to these aspects proving a meaningful measure of effectiveness of the CPD course.
Findings from teacher reflections supported the opinion that the CPD was an effective tool in raising teacher’s
self-confidence to motivate students and use inquiry-based learning (IBL), even though this was inconsistent with
a previous study (Kask, 2009). In the earlier study, Estonian science teachers exhibited low awareness and skills
about inquiry based learning (IBL). The reasons might be associated with the need for high self-confident teachers
in seeking teacher change and showed an effective CPD programme could influence teaching reforms. Teacher
reflections from teachers who had higher self-confidence indicated that they confided more in students and gave
them greater autonomy to choose learning problem/task. Nevertheless, based on many teachers’ reflections,
teachers generally commented that students had difficulties to create inquiry questions and teachers were able
to notice student problems indicating their increased awareness.
The outcomes from the research study support the consensus opinion that reflection helps teachers to in-
tegrate the pedagogical theory and professional teaching-learning materials with their own experience, thereby
developing their own practice (Wenger, 2005; Fund, 2010 Kaasila & Lauriala, 2010; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002;
Shulman, 1987). Also findings are in agreement with researchers who highlighted the importance of teacher
reflection during a professional development program, undertaken to promote new teaching approaches aimed
to develop teachers’ beliefs and practices (Kaasila & Lauriala, 2010; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Shulman, 1987).
Teachers valued the initial scenario stage in the stage model from two major aspects: motivational for students
and usefulness for evaluating student’s prior knowledge. This was very consistent with the intentions of stage 1 of
the 3-stage model approach (Holbrook & Rannikmäe, 2010). This also shows that in any professional development
course there are components which most teachers are able to pick up. Based on the literature, these tend to be the
most novel aspects (Kaune, 2006), or aspects related to major paradigm shifts in education, well communicated
with the public and therefore publicly valued (Holbrook, 2008a).
Conclusion
The CPD programme, based on teacher-identified needs, is shown to be effective in raising the teacher’s
self-confidence to use the 3-stage ‘Education through Science’ teaching/learning modules. Findings from teacher
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reflections supported the opinion that the CPD was effective in raising the self-confidence of the participating
teachers to motivate students and use student-centred, inquiry-based learning. For the science teachers taking
part in this research study, the most difficult stage in the 3-stage model is the last (de-contextualisation), where
the aim is developing students’ argumentation skills and decision-making techniques, as components of higher
order learning skills associated with the promotion of a competence-based science teaching approach.
Findings suggest a strong correlation between the teacher’s self-reported confidence following the CPD and
the range of identified types and levels of reflective feedback, based on classroom teaching in implementing the
3-stage teaching/learning modules. The high self-confident teachers are able to give a greater number and a wider
range of reflective comments. They exhibit the ability to analyse the situation, summarise the value of their ac-
tions and identify and analyse patterns, plus link theory and practice. This contrasted with the lower self-confident
teachers who gave less reflective comments especially related to the decision making, 3-stage model and how to
deal with perceived future teaching issues. The gains by the top self-confidence cluster group of teachers and the
high range of reflective comments made related to prior preparation operation and future changes point to the
effectiveness of the CPD.
Limitations of the Research
The research had limitations because of the comparatively small sample size of voluntary teachers involved in
the CPD, who could not be taken as representative of Estonian teachers as a whole. These teachers were motivated
to join the programme and willing to promote project-developed modules in their classroom and were willing
to reorganise their teaching programme to accommodate this. Nevertheless, these volunteer teachers illustrated
that teacher gains from CPD provisions can vary and that for those indicating high self-confidence, this tends to
be linked to the ability to reflect on their teaching in multiple directions associated with reflections in, on and for
the suitability of the teaching.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme within Science
in Society project PROFILES.
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Appendix 1. Significance Testing of Differences between Clusters centres for the K-means Three-Cluster
Solution (pre-CPD questionnaire on self-confidence).
Cluster Mean Degrees of Error Mean

Variable Degrees of F Value
Squared freedom Squared
Freedom (N=27)
Assessment 1.591 2 .081 24 19.661**

Goals of Education 1.770 2 .062 24 28.714**
IBL 1.044 2 .076 24 13.709**
Interdisciplinary 0.719 2 .186 24 3.863
Learning environment 0.902 2 .049 24 18.274**
Motivation 1.110 2 .069 24 16.009**
NOS 0.521 2 .102 24 5.125*
Self-reflection 1.157 2 .096 24 12.014**
STL 0.747 2 .096 24 7.783*
Theories of Education 1.362 2 .134 24 10.154**
**p <.001, *p <.01 two-tailed
Appendix 2. Significance Testing of Differences between Clusters centres for the K-means Three-Cluster
Solution (post-CPD questionnaire on self-confidence).
Cluster Mean Degrees of Degrees of

Variable Error Mean Square F Value
Square freedom Freedom
(N=27)
Assessment 1.558 2 .052 24 29.860**

Goals of Education 0.663 2 .113 24 5.880*
IBL 2.597 2 .127 24 20.393**
Interdisciplinary 2.163 2 .140 24 15.461**
Learning environment 0.325 2 .049 24 6.610*
Motivation 0.442 2 .032 24 13.739**
NOS 0.538 2 .077 24 7.017*
Self-reflection 2.274 2 .080 24 28.508**
STL .777 2 .047 24 16.562**
Theories of Education 2.037 2 .116 24 17.579**
**p <.001, *p <.01
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Appendix 3. Examples of reflections.
Reflective comments
Levels of reflection Describing Effectiveness Problems remaining Future considerations including

(Smyth, 1989; (L 1) (L 2) (L 3) solution (L 4)
Larrivee, 2008)
Types of C1- cluster 1 teachers

reflection
(Schon, 1983; C2=cluster 2 teachers
Killion & Todnem, C 3-cluster 3 teachers
1991)
Reflection-in-action What am I doing? Is it working? (Perceived Is there a problem? How do I reconcile the problem
(R1) (L1R1) student reaction) (L2R1) (Difficulties perceived) for the future?
(L3R1) (L4R1)
Stage 1 I am trying to make sure I feel that presenting a When students are I feel it is important based on their
How do you motivate students recognise the scenario goes well and discussing the scenario, comments to guide students to focus
students? (This was familiar issue. C3 students want to know they are afraid to express on scientific problems in a way that
asked related to the more about this theme. C3 their own opinions to the is related to everyday life and how it
implementation of teacher or the whole class. affects them personally, because they
stage 1 in the teaching It discourages discus- do not feel confident to use scientific
approach). sion. C2 terminology in everyday or familiar
settings. C1
Stage 2 I make strong use of Students are seen to be Students are unable to Students have difficulties with
How do you undertake group work. C2 more creative by looking deal with planning inquiry deadlines. They do not conclude their
inquiry-based teach- for answers to unexpected independently and I inquiry in the allotted time. I think
ing? (About the teach- experimental results. C2 helped them by asking students’ involvement in the drafting
ing of 2-stage) questions. C1 of the inquiry work plan is helpful in
meeting teaching deadlines. C1
Stage 3 I choose different I notice, students willingly The problem is that after In stage 3, the emphasis needs to
How do you carry out approaches (debates, talk about the results of interpreting test results, remain on the science, noting how it
decision-making? role play, and essay) in their work, and express students are not interested functions in the face of economic and
(About the teaching of stage 3, when teaching their opinions. Conse- to return to economic/ social demands. Next time, I intend to
3-stage) science using different quently, this theme is social issues (based on direct students to undertake a debate
modules. C2 interesting and necessary the initial scenario). C2 and find different resolutions by
for students. C1 questioning. C1
Reflection-on-action What did I do? (L1R2) Did it work? (L2R2) What were the How I was dealing with past prob-
(R2) problem(s) I faced? lems meaningful for the future?
(L3R2) (L4R2)
Stage 1 I used fragments of a I noticed that the students I feel that I have not The scenario was not relevant for
movie for the scenario. regarded the scenario always been able to my students. Next time I intend to
C3 positively. They are identify the students’ change the scenario to make it more
interested in economic and prior knowledge, because motivational for students. I will use
multidimensional aspects the discussion after the controversial problems and informa-
at a national level – they scenario has been weak tion technology (videos). C1
ask questions in these (usually cut short). C1
areas. C2
Stage 2 Students interact with In general, reflective I saw problem related Open inquiry is best handled with
each other in seeking discussions during the to how much students small (when you have 12 – 16 stu-
solutions to science experiment are seen as learn from other group’s dents) classes, because the discus-
questions. C2 helpful in guiding students presentations. It seems sion part take a lot of time and other
in being prepared for questionable how much students (who had different problems)
unexpected results in the the student presentation find it difficult to be involved in thinking
future. C2 style and orientation of- about other problems. Next time, I
fered learning to the other will ask the headmaster to divide big
student groups. C1 classes into two groups. C1
Stage 3 This time I used an Students were eager to Students do not have Since some student does not like to
essay to determine how participate in argumenta- skills to make meaningful participate in the final discussions, I
well students can make tion (sometimes even after summaries. C2 feel it is necessary to provide more
decisions and how good the lesson) and develop encouragement and provide them
they are in argumenta- decision-making skills. C2 with leading questions that help to
tion. C2 develop the student’s argumentation
skills. C1
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Reflective comments
Levels of reflection Describing Effectiveness Problems remaining Future considerations including

(Smyth, 1989; (L 1) (L 2) (L 3) solution (L 4)
Larrivee, 2008)
Types of C1- cluster 1 teachers

reflection
(Schon, 1983; C2=cluster 2 teachers
Killion & Todnem, C 3-cluster 3 teachers
1991)
Reflection-in-action What am I doing? Is it working? (Perceived Is there a problem? How do I reconcile the problem
(R1) (L1R1) student reaction) (L2R1) (Difficulties perceived) for the future?
(L3R1) (L4R1)
Reflection-for-action What will I do in the How will I know whether What issues might I still How do I suggest other teacher
(Guiding further ac- future? (L1R3) it works? (L2R3) face? (L3R3) advice to reconcile future problems
tions) (R3) (L4R3)
Stage 1 Involve students more, Observe the students’ I feel that identifying a In general, a relevant scenario is
as I recognise that emotions more, so as good scenario is still likely important and for this, the following
students are more mo- guide them to be better to be a problem. C1 need to be considered - student age,
tivated to learn science involved in the discussion prior knowledge and local circum-
when they are trying and in determining their stances. C1
to determine answers prior-knowledge. C1
to relevant social
problems.C2
Stage 2 In carrying out stage 2, By giving more attention Determining how much In general, collecting relevant and ac-
I need to take greater to teaching students how effort is important in get- curate information is important to plan
account of students’ to evaluate information, I ting students to progress an investigation, analyse the data and
prior knowledge about hope I can see whether towards more open inquiry make conclusions. For this, the follow-
science. C2 students use sources that approaches. C2 ing need to be considered – access to
are appropriate. C2 information and establishing science
questions and hypotheses. C1
Stage 3 Monitoring the progress I let self-assessment and How far is role-playing Teachers feel it important to have
of student using essays, students evaluating each the dominant approach to a repertoire of good teaching ideas
mental maps and other in a group. C1 increase student engage- for the more difficult socio-scientific
portfolios. C2 ment in socio-scientific argumentation stage 3, such as
issue. C1 role-playing, discussion sessions and
holding a debate. C1
In the table: C1 – reflection by teachers in the post-test high self-confidence cluster (group 1 and group 2 in figure 3); C2 – reflection
by teachers in the post-test medium self-confidence cluster (group 3 and group 4 in figure 3); C3 - reflection by teachers in the post-
test low self-confidence cluster (group 5 and group 6 in figure 3). Where R1 is reflection in action: R2 is reflection on action and R3 is
reflection for action. And level 1 is describing: level 2 is indicating effectiveness; level 3 is problems encountered, and level 4 is future
considerations and moral/ethical aspects. And stage 1, 2 and 3 refer to the 3-stage model.
Ana Valdmann PhD Student, University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: Ana.Valdmann@ut.ee
Jack Holbrook PhD, Professor, University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu,
Estonia.
E-mail: jack.holbrook@ut.ee
Miia Rannikmäe PhD, Professor, University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu,
Estonia.
E-mail: miia.rannikmae@ut.ee
591
DEVELOPMENT AND
EVALUATION OF AN
INSTRUMENT MEASURING
ANXIETY TOWARD PHYSICS
LABORATORY CLASSES AMONG
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Abstract. The learning in the physics labo- Namudar İzzet Kurbanoğlu,

ratory is related to several non-cognitive
variables such as anxiety which has a
Mithat Takunyacı
significant role in teaching and learning
process. Therefore, university students may
have different thoughts and anxiety levels
towards physics laboratory class. The aim
of this research was to develop a measure-
ment tool assessing the anxiety levels of
university students in a physics laboratory
class. In this research the Physics Labora- Introduction
tory Anxiety Scale (P-LAS) consisting of
18 items was developed, and its validity Introductory physics is a required course for many science fields such as
and reliability were analysed. The sample engineering, chemistry, and mathematics. Also, introductory physics is taught
consisted of 557 university students (295 in many academic programs such as chemistry, biology, medicine, dentistry,
female and 262 male) who take physics pharmacology, environmental sciences, engineering, and architecture as a
and/or physics laboratory classes at three compulsory course at high school and university level. Physics education
different Faculties of Education. Validity of in Turkey starts in the fourth grade as science courses and it continues all
the scale was first assessed by expert review. through secondary and university education.
Exploratory factor analysis was performed Students traditionally have difficulty in physics course (Byun, Ha, & Lee,
to assess structural validity, and revealed 2008; Raw, 1999). As a result, many students change their major after failing
a one-dimensional structure. The loading physics several times (Tuminaro & Redish, 2004). Introductory physics requires
values of all 18 items varied between 0.58 a laboratory to accompany the lecture sequence. There are a variety of reforms
and 0.80, and explained 52% of the total (Hake, 1998; Sokoloff, Laws, & Thornton, 1995) designed for introductory
variance. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of physics laboratories that show promise for improving student learning.
internal consistency was calculated as 0.94 Laboratory works have always been important components for the
and the split-half test correlation was 0.76. reinforcement and understanding of physics concepts in high schools and
These results showed that P-LAS can be universities. Millar (2004) emphasizes the important role of practical work
used as a valid and reliable instrument in in helping students to make links between the domain of objects and
physics education. observable properties and events, and domain of ideas. Therefore, labora-
tory application should be considered seriously to make learning in physics
Keywords: physics education, physics
lessons reach higher cognitive levels than just knowledge and comprehen-
laboratory anxiety, scale validity and reli-
sion. Laboratory activities have long had a distinctive and central role in the
ability, university students.
science curriculum and thus science educators have suggested that many
benefits accrue from engaging students in science laboratory activities (Hof-
stein & Lunetta, 1982, 2004; Lunetta, 1998; Tobin, 1990). More specifically,
Namudar İzzet Kurbanoğlu, it has been suggested that inquiry-centred laboratories have the potential
Mithat Takunyacı
Sakarya University, Turkey to enhance students’ meaningful learning, conceptual understanding, and
their understanding of the nature of science (Taitelbaum, Mamlok-Naaman,
Carmeli, & Hofstein, 2008).
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PHYSICS LABORATORY CLASSES AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 592-598)
Laboratory experiences that use hands-on inquiry have been considered as one of the most effective methods
for learning science and developing the higher-order thinking skills necessary to “do” science (Escalada & Zollman,
1997). According to Hershey (1990), laboratory experiences provide students with the important experience of
meeting “nature as it is, rather than in idealized form” and (Hoffer, Radke, & Lord, 1992; Shymansky, Kyle, & Alport,
1983) the opportunity to develop skills in scientific investigation and inquiry. Moreover, the laboratory provides
support for high-order learning skills that include observing, planning an experiment, asking relevant questions,
hypothesizing, and analyzing experimental results (Bybee 2000; Hofstein, Shore, & Kipnis, 2004).
The learning in the physics laboratory is related to several non-cognitive variables such as anxiety which has a
significant role in teaching and learning process. Science anxiety was firstly introduced by Mallow (1978) as involv-
ing feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the manipulation of scientific equipment in a wide variety of
ordinary life and academic situations. Science anxiety can also be described as a state of discomfort which occurs
in response to situations involving scientific tasks which are perceived as threatening to self-esteem. Such feel-
ings have been shown to lead to panic, tension, helplessness, fear, distress, shame, inability to cope, sweaty palms,
nervous stomach, difficulty in breathing, and loss of ability to concentrate (Seligman, Walker, & Rossenhan, 2001).
The causes of science anxiety are many, including past bad experiences in science classes, exposure to anxious
science teachers who are teaching science in secondary schools, lack of positive role models, gender and racial
stereotyping, and the stereotyping of scientists in the popular media. Though some degree of anxiety may be
helpful in the learning process, a high level of anxiety impedes optimum performance on science learning (Udo,
Ramsey, & Mallow, 2004). Previous studies have demonstrated that anxiety causes students generally to withdraw
from participation in teaching and learning process. It has been suggested that solution to an anxiety problem
and its resulting lack of participation may be found in teaching methodologies that move away from more tradi-
tional, teacher-centered classrooms and concentrate more on student-centered, cooperative learning techniques
(Gregersen, 1999).
Students may have different thoughts, attitudes, and anxiety levels towards physics laboratory. Ensuring that
students develop positive attitudes towards physics laboratory classes and reducing their levels of anxiety will en-
hance students’ abilities to learn physics concepts. Thus, when tools are developed for measuring the dimensions
of the factors affecting the learning in physics laboratory, teaching can reach the intended destination. When we
look at the literature (Berber, 2013; Bowen, 1999; Kurbanoğlu & Yücel, 2015; Kurbanoğlu, 2014; Mallow, 1994; Sahin,
Caliskan, & Dilek, 2015), there are a few scales which measure students’ levels of anxiety towards science classes.
For this reason, this research was conducted to develop and assess the validity and reliability of a scale to be used
for measuring university students’ anxiety toward physics laboratory class.
General Background
This research is a scale development study. Survey design was used to collect data for this research. Par-
ticipants were asked to complete the scale, consisting of a series of questions taken from the Physics Laboratory
Anxiety Scale (P-LAS). All of the participants were informed about the purpose of the research before completing
the scale. The scale was administered in a group format in each physics laboratory classes during the first semester
of 2012-2013 academic years.
Sample
A convenience sample was recruited from science teacher candidates and a sufficient supply of surveys was
distributed to three universities. Research sample consisted of 582 first grade students in science teacher training
program. They took physics and/or physics laboratory classes at three different Faculties of Education (İbrahim
Çeçen University, Sakarya University, and Cumhuriyet University) in Turkey at the first semester of 2012-13 academic
years. Five hundred eighty-two valid surveys returned to researcher. The data were examined through control items
and 25 samples were eliminated since these samples were thought to be involuntary responses. The remaining
557 (295 female and 262 male) samples were used as data for this study. Their ages ranged from 18 to 20 years,
with a mean age of 19 years.
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Preparation of Scale Items
Since the scale was intended to determine the anxiety of individuals about physics laboratory classes, re-
searcher has reviewed the literature for similar scales and also brainstormed about situations which cause anxiety
in students during physics laboratory classes. Items expressing these situations were noted down. A 23-item pre-
liminary question pool was developed based on the content of physics laboratory classes. Items were designed
to comprehensively cover the content of physics laboratory classes (Mechanics, Heat and Temperature, Electricity,
Optics, and Electronics). Next, questions were reviewed by three content experts who work in the Faculty of Educa-
tion at Sakarya University for readability, representation of content and how well they are likely to measure student
anxiety for physics laboratory classes. Five items were excluded for their inability to scale or irrelevance, leaving an
18-item draft P-LAS. Respondents were asked to respond to each item using a 5-point Likert scale regarding how
frequently each item makes me anxious: Never, sometimes, often, usually or always (Kurbanoğlu & Akın, 2012).
Procedure
Physics laboratory classes (ranging in size from 20 to 25 students) were selected randomly by the on-site data
collector at the faculties of education of the three different universities. Before administration of the instrument, all
participants were informed about the purposes of the study. Administration took almost 15 to 20 minutes. Analysis
of the data was made in two ways: (a) calculating item total correlation estimates for item analysis to identify any
faulty items, obtaining internal consistency reliability estimates of the scale scores and (b) testing the construct
validity by exploratory factor analysis.
Validity and Reliability Assessment
Validity is one of the most important criteria for the development and assessment of an instrument. Validity
refers to whether an item measures or defines a construct correctly. This study assessed structural validity of the
P-LAS. Structural validity refers to whether the items are independent and evenly distributed, covering the intended
range of the construct. This was assessed with an exploratory factor analysis, a statistical technique that measures
the variance and accounts for it with the fewest number of structural factors (Büyüköztürk, 2004). Cronbach`s alpha
coefficient of internal consistency was used to assess the significance of the difference in item means between the
upper and lower 27th percentiles. Reliability of the instrument was also assessed with the item-total correlation by
split-half reliability and t-tests. SPSS 13.0 software was used for statistical analyses.
Results of Research
Item Analysis and Reliability
The analyze result of the corrected item-total correlations of the 18 items ranged from 0.56 to 0.76. Estimated
Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.94. The split-half reliability coefficient was calculated as 0.76. Table 1 shows means,
standard deviations, and the item total correlations of the 18 items.
Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and item-total correlations of the draft Physics Laboratory Anxiety Scale
(P-LAS).
Items X SD rjx t Items X SD rjx t
Q1 1,99 1,13 0.56 -10,81 Q10 1,80 0,99 0.75 -15,53

Q2 1,94 0,97 0.67 -12,16 Q11 1,92 1,01 0.75 -14,83
Q3 1,71 0,94 0.68 -10,68 Q12 1,91 1,00 0.76 -18,48
Q4 1,75 0,97 0.70 -11,41 Q13 1,91 1,00 0.74 -18,20
Q5 1,75 1,03 0.68 -13,85 Q14 1,86 0,95 0.70 -12,86
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Items X SD rjx t Items X SD rjx t
Q6 2,04 1,12 0.59 -15,24 Q15 1,94 0,99 0.67 -13,39

Q7 2,10 1,01 0.66 -13,55 Q16 2,07 1,01 0.66 -14,19
Q8 2,10 1,14 0.58 -14,50 Q17 2,11 1,07 0.66 -15,77
Q9 1,83 0,96 0.71 -15,04 Q18 2,05 1,04 0.68 -13,37
Construct Validity
For construct validity, exploratory factor analysis was conducted to validate the underlying structure of the
model. Prior to the conduct of exploratory factor analysis, to assess the factorability of the scale, the Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity were used (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). In
this research, the KMO value (KMO=0.93) indicated that the degree of common variance among the variables was
marvellous. The Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated a Chi square 711.541 with an observed significance level of
p<.001. The KMO values are above the cut off of .60 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity value is significant as suggested
by Pallant (2001) and Tabachnick and Fidell (2007). Based on the results, it was inferred that the relationship between
the variables was strong and appropriate for factor analysis. The loading values of all 18 items varied between 0.58
and 0.80 and one factor explained 52% of variance. All of the items had factor structure coefficients exceeding an
absolute value of 0.30. Factor loadings and total percentages of explained variance are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Items and principal components un-rotated factor/structure component matrix solution of the Phys-
ics Laboratory Anxiety Scale (P-LAS).
Items Factor loading
Q1 Entering the physics laboratory 0.588
Q2 Determining the elements in an electric circuit 0.708
Q3 Setting up an electric series connection 0.719
Q4 Setting up an electric parallel connection 0.740
Q5 Recording data obtained from the physics experiment 0.721
Q6 Drawing a table and graph from the obtained data 0.626
Q7 Explaining the laws of physics by conducting experiments 0.689
Q8 Preparing the physics laboratory 0.610
Q9 Determining the image obtained from the planar mirrors 0.760
Q10 Measuring the angle of incidence and angle of reflection obtained from the planar mirrors 0.797
Q11 Determining the focal point of a curve mirror 0.799
Q12 Determining the focal point of lens 0.809
Q13 Obtaining images from lens 0.790
Q14 Determining the difference between heat and temperature 0.747
Q15 Determining the measureable properties of matter 0.721
Q16 To make precise measurements for measurable properties of matter 0.696
Q17 Making interpretation of the data obtained from physical experiments 0.696
Q18 Setting up a test ring in physics laboratory 0.713

Explained Total Variance 52%
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Discussion
In researches dealing with the psychology of learning, one can identify various theoretical approaches per-
taining to the role of anxiety in learning. One aspect that is emphasized is the strong relationship between anxiety,
attitude and motivation. Another emotional dimension of the affective factors that has received increasing attention
in recent decades is anxiety. The negative anxiety has considerable significance in learning and achievement situ-
ations. The psychological studies illustrate the significance of anxiety in both learning and performance situations
(Berdonosov et al., 1999; Black & Deci, 2000; Eddy, 2000; Möller, 1996). Jerusalem and Pekrun (1999) showed that
negative anxiety was frequently related to learning and performance situations. Czerniak and Chiarelott (1984)
indicated science anxiety as a factor influencing science achievement in primary school students and suggested
that high science anxiety may cause low science achievement. Furthermore, there is a general agreement in the
empirical literature that test anxiety is associated with lower academic performance (Chapell et al., 2005; Kurbanoğlu
& Nefes, 2015, 2016; Mallow et al., 2010; Zeidner, 1998).
It is believed that physics laboratory anxiety, which appears to be ignored by most of the researchers, is one of
the significant factors like attitude and motivation which have been studied extensively in the physics education.
Physics laboratory courses have been generally acknowledged as an important component of the undergradu-
ate curriculum, particularly with respect to developing students’ interest in, and understanding of experimental
physics. Also, physics laboratory is one of the most important courses for undergraduate students majoring in
applied chemistry, polymer chemistry, material chemistry, chemical engineering, life science, and environmental
engineering and science. Designing research based instructional strategies according to the results of physics
laboratory anxiety scale might prove useful in education of teachers, at least for physics components of their sci-
ence courses, and in education of students in other science fields. Therefore, in present research a measurement
tool was developed in order to measure the anxiety level of university students’ towards physics laboratory classes.
There are a few anxiety scale development studies in international science literature and they generally have
been focused on the determination of physics (Berber, 2013), science anxiety questionnaire (Mallow, 1994), and
chemistry (Bowen, 1999; Kurbanoğlu & Yücel, 2015), and biology laboratory classes (Kurbanoğlu, 2014). Furthermore,
Berber (2013) developed and validated physics laboratory anxiety scale and it was a scale with four sub-dimensions
and 16 items. The internal consistency reliability coefficient of the scale, using Cronbach alpha, was 0.87.
In this research, the P-LAS was developed through the use of four-step model. Following an extensive review
of literature, the authors constructed initial draft of the instrument and then, this initial draft was reviewed by the
experts (on science education). Based on the principle of measuring physics laboratory anxiety by a global scale,
we proposed an eighteen-item global measure of physics laboratory anxiety and the proposed P-LAS was admin-
istered to 557 university students in three different universities to provide validity and further reliability evidences.
Construct related content validity was confirmed by the mostly successful item and scale validity. Of the 23
items, item scale criteria were unsatisfactory in only 5 items. In order to determine the scale factorial structure, an
investigation was carried out and it was observed that the scale items collectively comprised one factor. Principal
components analysis was performed such that the eigenvalue of the 18 items would be 1 in the factor analysis and
a varimax rotation with the factor analysis revealed a one-dimensional structure that explained 52% of total vari-
ance. This rate is above the minimum of 30% typically considered sufficient for scale development (Büyüköztürk,
2004). The results of the factor analyses show that the loading values of all 18 items ranged from 0.58 and 0.80.
In addition, the results of item analysis indicated that the item-total correlations of the 18 items ranged from 0.56
to 0.76. Estimated Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.94. The split-half reliability coefficient was calculated as 0.76.
Results of our analysis on the psychometric properties of the P-LAS demonstrated an overall satisfactory evidence
of acceptability, reliability, and validity of the included questions.
Conclusions
This research aimed to develop a measurement tool assessing the anxiety levels of university students in a
physics laboratory class. The measurement tool study is being rigorously developed as the first validated tool for
measuring university students’ physics laboratory anxiety in physics educational programs. As a result, the find-
ings obtained from the analyses show that P-LAS has high reliability criteria. Moreover, this measurement tool is a
potentially valid and reliable tool for the use in future studies to assess students’ anxiety level for physics labora-
tory class. Also, future studies are needed to assess the responsiveness and predictive validity of this instrument.
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SCIENCE EDUCATION
Mustafa Akilli, Abstract. It is well known affective,

Murat Genç cognitive and psychomotor factors have
positive effects on science learning process.
All these factors have interaction between
themselves. So it is important to research
what is the size and direction of these
interactions. The aim of this research is to
Introduction
analyze the effects of value, attitude and
self-efficacy on active learning strategies
Since the 1980s, the main purpose of science programs of the America
and classroom activities using Structural
and many European countries has been to educate each student to be a
Equation Model. The research was con-
“science-literate” and equip them with scientific thinking skills rather than
ducted by the analysis of students’ answers
only transmitting scientific information through science education (AAAS,
to questionnaires data using Structural
1993). These science-literate individuals can inquire, question, make effec-
Equation Modelling. Initially KMO and
tive decisions, solve problems, communicate effectively and acquire skills for
Bartlett’s tests were done to test appropri-
lifelong learning with enhanced awareness of sustainable development; they
ateness of scale to factor analysis. Then
are self-confident and open to cooperation, and have knowledge, skills, posi-
theoretical structural model was tested
tive attitudes, perceptions and values concerning sciences and possess the
using LISREL. At the end of the SEM test,
understanding and psychomotor skills related to the relationship between
it was found that there are positive effects
sciences and technology, society, and the environment (MEB, 2015).
of selected affective factors on learning
To this respect, the conceptual structure and mental interpretation of
strategies and classroom activities.
knowledge, affective variables operating in these mental processes during
learning, and learning and teaching processes in a classroom environment Keywords: science learning value, atti-
play an important role in science teaching. Studies in this area lay emphasis tude towards science, self-efficacy, learning
on affective factors in students’ concept learning (Duit & Treagust 1998; Lee & strategies, classroom activities, structural
Brophy 1996; Pintrich et al. 1993; Strike & Posner 1992). Similarly some stud- equation model (SEM).
ies on affective factors show that attitude, value, and self-efficacy are critical
determinants of students’ learning, achievement in science, and development
of critical thinking and of scientific process skills (Wolters & Rosenthal, 2000;
Ozkan, 2003; Lee & Brophy 1996; Kuyper et al. 1999; Tuan, Chin & Sheh, 2005).
Many other studies suggest that affective domain skills are also a signifi-
cant factor in students’ achievement (Alsop & Watts, 2000; Duit & Treagust,
1998; Duit & Treagust, 2003; Lee & Brophy, 1996; Meredith, Fortner & Mullins,
1997; Thompson & Mintzes, 2002; Weaver, 1998). Affective skills consist of
many factors such as interest, attitude, motivation, value, belief and self-
efficacy. The identification of these factors will be of critical importance in
enhancing the knowledge of students and will make a significant contribution Mustafa Akilli
Uludağ University, Turkey
to the discovery of their skills. Murat Genç
As well as affective factors, learning strategies and learning activities in Düzce University, Turkey
a classroom environment also support students’ achievement and develop-
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ment of skills. When constructivist learning and affective factors combined, students’ self-efficacy, the value they
place on science learning, learning strategies they implement, learning goals they pursue to complete academic
tasks and physical conditions in the learning process seem to have an effect on students’ science learning. These
factors were briefly explained below.
Self-Efficacy
There are many affective factors assisting students in engaging in learning activities and effectively completing
tasks for a specific course. One of these affective features is students’ beliefs regarding their ability to successfully
finish assigned tasks (Aslan, 2012). Perceived self-efficacy includes students’ beliefs about their self-competence
for the completion of science-related tasks. It is about students’ self-motivation.
Students’ attitudes toward science have also an effect on scientific self-efficacy (Jones & Young, 1995; Talton
& Simpson, 1986; Smist & Owen, 1994). There is a statistically significant correlation between the perception of
chemistry self-efficacy of American secondary school students and the perception of “normality” of scientists
(Smist & Owen, 1994). Some studies argue that scientific self-efficacy is associated with academic achievement,
suggesting that students with better scientific self-efficacy rank higher in science and have more motivation to
achieve in science (Lent et al., 1984; Rowe, 1988; Williams, 1994). It is stated that students’ conceptions of learning
contribute to the formation of their own learning style profiles (Vermunt & Vermetten 2004) and that it is related
to their own self-efficacy (Ferla et al., 2008, 2009, Lin, & Tsai 2013a, b, Vermunt, 2005).
There are some studies investigating the effect of students’ conceptions of science learning on science learning
self-efficacy in science education (Chiou & Liang 2012; Lin & Tsai 2013a, b; Tsai et al. 2011). These studies indicate
that students’ thoughts about learning is one of the main effects of their academic self-efficacy. They state that
students’ interpretations of their own learning experiences make profound contributions to reinforce and maintain
their own scientific learning self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy beliefs influence one’s motivations, cognitive structures and behavior (Bandura, 1986, 1993). Stud-
ies show that students who feel more self-efficacious use cognitive, metacognitive and self-regulatory strategies,
aspire to achieve goals requiring more knowledge and skills and, attain high levels of achievement (Anderman
& Young, 1994; Kahraman & Sungur, 2011; Middleton & Midgley, 1997; Pintrich, 1999; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990;
Wolters, Yu & Pintrich, 1996; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990).
Science Learning Value
Science learning value allows students to gain problem-solving skills, experience research-based activities,
think on their own, and link science to everyday life. If students can perceive these values, they will be willing to
learn science. The “science learning value” is a factor pertaining to students’ attaining problem-solving abilities,
experiencing inquiry activities, stimulating their own thinking processes and connecting science with everyday life.
Science learning value allows students to gain problem-solving competency, experience inquiry activities,
simulate their own thoughts and find the connection of science with everyday life. If students perceive these
important values, they become motivated to learn science. Science learning value is associated with achievement
and strategy use (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Sungur, 2007; Yumusak, Sungur, & Cakiroglu, 2007).
Tuan, Chin and Shieh (2005) investigate whether students perceive the value of science learning through
activities focused on acquiring problem-solving competency, seeing the relevance of science to everyday life,
implementing thinking processes and engaging in scientific inquiry during science learning.
They state that, in a suitable environment, students perceive the value of science learning when they acquire
problem-solving competency, engage in inquiry activities, stimulate their own thinking processes and comprehend
the relevance of science to everyday life in science learning (Tuan, Chin & Shieh, 2005).
Attitude towards Science
There are three important factors for students to gain effective learning experiences. These factors are improv-
ing their attitudes, improving their thinking processes and physical skills, and improving their episodic informa-
tion (Martin & Sexton, Franklin & Gerlovich, 2005: Doğru & Kıyıcı, 2005). Of these three factors, attitude plays an
important role in science learning.
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Attitude refers to the mental tendency of individuals toward objects, subjects and events. Attitudes determine
the level of readiness of individuals to a subject. For this reason, students’ attitudes toward science enable them
to understand and learn course materials and related activities.
Individuals with negative attitudes toward science resist participation in activities and have difficulty in
understanding course materials (Doğru & Kıyıcı, 2005). An attitude is not an observable behavior, but a tendency
predisposing to behavior. According to Pratkanis et al. (1988), attitudes refer to the appraisal of episodic informa-
tion on some objects (Bilgin & Karaduman, 2005). Zacharias and Barton (2004) claim that attitudes are resistant to
time, learnable, related to behaviors and change depending on personal beliefs.
In addition, students’ attitudes toward science are an important factor affecting student motivation (Hassan,
2008), achievement (Papanastasiou & Zembylas, 2002), and course and career choice (Koballa & Glynn, 2006).
Active Learning Strategies
Learning strategies are individual learning activities which assist individuals in learning on their own. Learning
strategies are each one of the approaches that facilitate self-learning.
Student achievement depends largely on students’ awareness of their own learning styles and on guiding their
own learning, suggesting that learning strategies should be taught to students starting from primary school. The
aim of learning strategies is to act on the sensory state of students and facilitate the selection, organization and
integration of new information (Harmanli 2000). Affective strategies play an important role in learning strategies
(Garcia & Pintrich 1992, Kuyper et al. 2000, Wolters 1999). Active learning strategies play an active role in students
making use of different strategies to construct knowledge based on prior information.
Playing a vital role in the utilization of various strategies to generate new information based on prior percep-
tions, “active learning strategies” pertain to the feeling of self-motivation during this process. Students actively
engage in utilizing a variety of strategies to construct new knowledge on the basis of their prior understandings.
Active learning strategies involve various methods such as research and exploration in which students actively
participate during learning.
Tuan, Chin and Shieh (2005) identified active learning strategies in science education from a constructivist
perspective. According to their definition, active learning strategies refer to students’ active engagement in using
various strategies to build new knowledge based on their prior understandings.
Despite the importance of learning strategies, one must motivate oneself to use these strategies (Zimmerman,
2005). Motivational variables are associated with various student outcomes such as conceptual engagement (Garcia
& Pintrich, 1993), conceptual change (Pintrich, Marx & Boyle, 1993) and learning strategies (Midgley, Arunkumar,
& Urdan, 1996). Studies lay emphasis on motivational components for understanding students’ use of different
strategies (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Meece, Blumenfeld & Hoyle, 1988). Pintrich (1999) regards self-efficacy, science
learning value and goal orientations as important motivational beliefs about students’ learning.
Classroom Learning Activities
DeWitt and Osborne (2008) state that some classroom learning activities are more effective in encouraging
and motivating students to complete higher-level tasks. The most attractive and motivating classroom learning
activities are those which allow more autonomy, lead to self-learning, facilitate ongoing collaboration with class-
mates and overseas students, and extend beyond the scope of a course.
Effective classroom teachers understand the importance of providing students with various classroom learn-
ing activities. They also understand that as the number of students in the classroom increases, they will have less
problems with behavior management.

Research Focus
As mentioned above in the literature review light it can be easily said that affective, cognitive and psychomotor
factors have positive effects on science learning process. All these factors have interaction between themselves.
So it is important to research what is the size and direction of these interactions. In this context the research ques-
tions of this research are these:
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1. Is there any effect of science learning value on learning strategies and classroom learning activities?
2. Is there any effect of attitudes toward science on learning strategies and classroom learning activities?
3. Is there any effect of self-efficacy on learning strategies and classroom learning activities?
General Characteristics
In this research structural equation modelling (SEM) was used. SEM enables researchers to match theories in
their mind with the data, to decide on the extent to which they fit each other, and to use latent variables (Simsek,
2007) and it is a comprehensive statistical approach used to test the models characterized by causal and correla-
tional relationships between observable and latent variables, and it allows one to research the set of relationships
between one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables (Anagun, 2011).
Sample
The participants in this research included 1251 secondary school students in Turkey from two cities and eight
schools in the 2015-2016 academic year. Research participants were youth aged 10-14, with 641 (51.2%) female
and 610 (48.8%) male. There were 303 (24.2%) 5th grade, 333 (26.6) 6th grade, 332 (26.5%) 7th grade and lastly 283
(22.6%) 8th grade students in sample. In this research the data was collected at first hand by authors from students
based on voluntariness, so for sampling “convenience sampling” was used. Because it allows to select subjects by
availability (McIntyre, 2005).
Variables and Measures
Five latent variables were of particular interest in this research. Three of them were predictor variables that
describes affective factors: (1) attitude, (2) value and (3) self-efficacy and two of them were outcome variables:
(4) learning strategies and (5) classroom learning activities. Totally 30 items used for obtain data in this survey. A
detailed list of each scale (whole scales were five-point Likert-type ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “5 =
strongly agree” and developed in Turkish so it was no need to translate them into students’ mother language) that
measures variables in this research is shown below:
(1) Attitude
For measuring attitudes of students towards science lesson, the scale was used developed by Kaya & Böyük
(2011). The scale consisted of 7 items that asked students to express their opinions toward learning science and
the Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient was found 0.76.
(2) Value, (3) Self-efficacy and (4) Learning strategies
These three scales were developed by Yılmaz & Huyugüzel-Cavaş (2007). There were 5 items for “value” that
concerned with the importance and the utility value of learning science. The 7 items for “self-efficacy” scale focused
on students’ self-appraisal of their efficacy in performing science lessons. Lastly 6 items for “learning strategies” to
assessed students’ use of approaches for learning and understanding science topics. They found the Cronbach’s
Alpha reliability coefficients in respectively 0.74, 0.71 and 0.85 in their original research.
(5) Classroom learning activities
The scale was developed by Uzun, Gelbal & Öğretmen (2010) with 5 items. The items described the activities
which students participate actively in classroom like studying together on projects, textbooks or experiments. The
Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient was 0.72.
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Data Analysis
First of all, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s tests were conducted with SPSS to understand whether
the questionnaire items are suitable for factor analysis. Then used explanatory factor analysis (EFA) to respectively
clarify the factor structure of all scales and items’ factor loadings. After the result of EFA, the factor loadings of items
with a factor load of less than 0.40 and which were seen to be double loaded were removed from the research
model. Following exploratory factor analysis, whole variables were separately included in the model and tested
with LISREL. After testing measurement tools separately, the effects of attitude, value and self-efficacy on learning
strategies and classroom learning activities were analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM). The strength
of SEM is that it allows both confirmatory factor analysis for measurement models and path analysis for latent
variable models to be processed simultaneously (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996; Kelloway, 1998). Path analysis further
allows chains of association between latent variables to be estimated. In this research, the theoretical structural
model and latent variable path models, are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Theoretical structural model for effects of value, attitude and self-efficacy on learning strategies and
classroom learning activities.
The fit statistics in LISREL provide a holistic assessment for the quality of the structural relationships among
the variables. Following indexes were employed to inspect the fitness between the theoretical model and the
empirical data. The acceptance range of the criteria which are used the most to assess suitability of SEM are as
follows (Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger, & Müller 2003):
Table 1. Evaluation of SEM fit.
Fit measure Perfect fit Acceptable fit
χ2 0 < χ2≤ 2df 2df < χ2 ≤ 3df

p value .05 < p ≤ 1.00 .01 < p ≤ .05
χ2 /df 0 ≤ χ2 /df ≤ 2 2 < χ2 /df ≤ 3
RMSEA 0≤ RMSEA ≤.05 .05 < RMSEA ≤ .08
SRMR 0 ≤ SRMR ≤ .05 .05 < SRMR ≤ .10
NFI .95 ≤ NFI ≤ 1.00 .90 ≤ NFI < .95
NNFI .97 ≤ NNFI ≤ 1.00 .95 ≤ NNFI < .97
CFI .97 ≤ CFI ≤ 1.00 .95 ≤ CFI < .97
GFI .95 ≤ GFI ≤ 1.00 .90 ≤ GFI < .95
AGFI .90 ≤ AGFI ≤ 1.00 .85 ≤ AGFI <.90
Note: AGFI=Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit-Index, CFI= Comparative Fit Index, GFI = Goodness-of-Fit Index, NFI = Normed Fit Index,
NNFI=Nonnormed Fit Index, RMSEA=Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, SRMR= Standardized Root Mean Square Residual
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Results of Research
Explanatory Factor Analyses (EFA) for Scale
Before EFA, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s tests were conducted to understand whether the ques-
tionnaire items are suitable for factor analyses and results are given in Table 2:
Table 2. The results of suitability examination of scale for factor analysis.
Bartlett’s test
KMO test
χ2 SD p
0.857 6152.573 253 < .001
As seen in Table 2, KMO test value found as 0.857. The results of Bartlett’s test found as significant (χ2 = 6152.573;
SD = 253; p < .001). As KMO ensued greater than 0.60 and Bartlett’s test ensued as significant, this indicates the
suitability of the data for factor analysis (Çokluk, Şekercioğlu, & Büyüköztürk, 2010). Table 3 shows the results of
EFA for scale. The component analysis was utilized as the extraction method, with the “rotation method of varimax”
with Kaiser normalization. For finalizing the scale factor loadings should weigh greater than 0.40 and should not
be double loaded. Finally 23 items were remained in the final version of scale which was used in research model.
The alpha coefficients for scales from the sample of this research were between 0.67 – 0.79 for each scale and the
total variance explained was 47.90%.
Table 3. Rotated factor loadings and Cronbach’s alpha values for factors.
Factor 1: Factor 2: Factor 3: Factor 4: Factor 5:

Value Attitude Self-efficacy Learning strategies Classroom learning activities
Factor 1: value (coded as “val” for LISREL), α = 0.67, mean = 14.22, SD = 1.836
i14_val 0.684
i6_val 0.667
i4_val 0.589
i19_val 0.492
Factor 2: attitude (coded as “att” for LISREL), α = 0.77, mean = 11.82, SD = 2.594
i26_att 0.798
i25_att 0.748
i15_att 0.634
i13_att 0.568
Factor 3: self-efficacy (coded as “se” for LISREL), α = 0.77, mean = 15.17, SD = 3.430
i24_se 0.675
i20_se 0.661
i21_se 0.645
i30_se 0.618
i7_se 0.529
Factor 4: learning strategies (coded as “ls” for LISREL), α = 0.79, mean = 20.55, SD = 2.675
i3_ls 0.692
i29_ls 0.613
i1_ls 0.591
i2_ls 0.589
i28_ls 0.494
i9_ls 0.482
Factor 5: classroom learning act. (coded as “cla” for LISREL), α = 0.71, mean = 12.00, = 2.306
i17_cla 0.686
i16_cla 0.649
i23_cla 0.540
i10_cla 0.432
Overall alpha: 0.824; total variance explained: 47.896%
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Testing the Measurement Models
Following EFA, all factors were included in the model and tested with LISREL. However, in the model studies
to be conducted using latent variables, each measurement tool should be individually tested before starting the
analysis (Şimşek, 2007; Byrne, 2009). Testing measurement tools should be similar to confirmatory factor analysis
and a measurement model which hasn’t been confirmed shouldn’t be included in the structural model (Çokluk,
Şekercioğlu & Büyüköztürk, 2012). Therefore, each factor used in the research should be individually tested and
demonstrated to be compatible with the structural model. Goodness of fit values obtained for each factor are
given in Table 4.
Table 4. Goodness-of-fit values of factors.
Factors AGFI GFI NNFI NFI CFI RMSEA
Value 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.008

Attitude 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.000
Self-efficacy 0.98 1.00 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.045
Learning strategies 0.98 0.99 0.97 0.98 0.99 0.044
Classroom learning activities 0.95 0.99 0.91 0.97 0.97 0.049

Table 4 shows that goodness-of-fit values for factors intended to be use in the SEM were within the limits of
perfect fit according to the criteria in Table 1. Also all variables’ values for chi-square per degree of freedom (χ2 /df)
were between 0 – 2 (1.09 for value, 0.04 for attitude, 1.72 for self-efficacy, 1.63 for learning strategies and 1.93 for
classroom learning activities). So the dataset of all scales were seen to be suitable for SEM analyses.
Results of the Model Testing
After testing measurement tools, the theoretical structural model (figure 1) defined in order to reveal the ef-
fects of attitude, value and self-efficacy on learning strategies and classroom learning activities were analysed using
structural equation modelling (SEM). The explanatory power of model was assessed by calculating the coefficient
of determination (R2) of items. Velayutham & Aldridge (2013) supposed that the minimum R2 should be 0.10. They
also cited from Hair et al. that significant paths showing hypothesized direction empirically support the purposed
causal relationship. Table 5 shows the coefficient of determination (R2) and t values of items:
Table 5. Parameter estimations, R2 and t-values of items.
Parameter estimation R2 t
i4_val 0.29 0.16 12.91

i6_val 0.36 0.25 16.32
i14_val 0.24 0.12 11.11
i19_val 0.40 0.37 20.17
i13_att 0.33 0.11 10.60
i15_att 0.65 0.67 27.73
i25_att 0.62 0.41 21.55
i26_att 0.45 0.28 17.16
i7_se 0.37 0.11 11.26
i20_se 0.82 0.64 23.75
i21_se 0.53 0.26 17.37
i24_se 0.75 0.56 21.54
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Parameter estimation R2 t
i30_se 0.44 0.18 14.42

i1_ls 0.34 0.33 -
i2_ls 0.36 0.26 14.03
i3_ls 0.35 0.17 11.95
i9_ls 0.32 0.24 13.16
i28_ls 0.44 0.46 16.71
i29_ls 0.41 0.28 14.42
i10_cla 0.56 0.62 -
i16_cla 0.52 0.35 13.59
i17_cla 0.40 0.19 11.03
i23_cla 0.43 0.46 6.44
Table 5 shows that all the R2 values were higher than requirement (> 0.10) and t-values of items were statisti-
cally significant (p < 0.05). Table 6 shows the goodness-of-fit values of research model.
Table 6. Goodness-of-fit values of research model.
χ2 /df AGFI GFI NNFI NFI CFI RMSEA
1.88 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.048
According to the goodness-of-fit values presented in table 6, the research model has in within the perfect
ranges for evaluation of SEM fit (Table 1). In addition, the standardized RMR value was found 0.043, a value acknowl-
edged in many studies notably good fit (Keskin, & Başbuğ, 2014). These values all show that the research model had
perfect fit and it was valid for the whole dataset. Lastly figure 2 presents the standardized values of research model.
Figure 2: Standardized values for final structural model (research model).
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According to figure 2 value, attitude and self-efficacy have positive effects on learning strategies and classroom
learning activities. The correlation coefficients show that “value” (r=0.80 and t value = 11.16) and “self-efficacy” (r=0.69
and t value = 16.65) have high, but “attitude” (r=0.15 and t value = 2.89) has small effects on learning strategies.
When the correlation coefficients on classroom learning activities examined it is seen that “value” (r=0.49 and t value
= 9.19), “attitude” (r=0.31 and t value = 6.78) and “self-efficacy” (r=0.24 and t value = 6.34) have moderate effects.
Discussion
This research examined the effect of self-efficacy, science learning value and attitudes toward science learn-
ing on learning strategies and on classroom learning activities. The results indicate that science learning value
has positive effects on learning strategies. Similarly, Tas and Cakir (2014) report a positive relationship between
science learning value and use of active learning strategies. Students think that science learning is important in
terms of its applicability to real life, satisfying their curiosity, improving their own ideas, facilitating their ability
to make connections between the concepts they learn, and developing skills to research into science concepts
they initially do not understand. To this respect, students who value science learning are more likely to use active
learning strategies. Similarly, Pintrich and De Groot (1990) state that primary school students who value science
learning use more cognitive and self-regulatory strategies. Sungur (2007) also points to the presence of a positive
relationship between high school students’ science learning value and their metacognitive strategy use.
There are numerous studies carried out on the relationship between learning strategies and self-efficacy, and
between beliefs regarding science learning value and motivational factors and goal orientations. For example, in
their correlation study conducted on seventh grade students (n = 173), Pintrich and De Groot (1990) report that
students who have the ability to complete academic tasks (high self-efficacy) and believe that those tasks are im-
portant and interesting use more cognitive strategies and self-regulatory strategies than those with low self-efficacy.
Kahraman and Sungur (2011) carried out a study in Turkey with seventh grade students (n = 115) on the use
of metacognitive strategies; planning, monitoring and evaluation. The results of the regression analysis indicate
that self-efficacy has a statistically significant and positive effect on students’ metacognitive strategy use. In her
study with 391 high school students, Sungur (2007) states that there is a positive relationship between motivational
beliefs and cognitive strategy use.
This research shows that attitudes have a positive effect on learning strategies. Similarly, Tuan et al. (2005)
report a statistically significant correlation between attitudes toward science and learning strategies, which is also
similar to the result of the study conducted by Friedel et al. (2007). This study also indicates that the students’ goals
are positively correlated with personal goal orientations, self-efficacy and positive coping strategies. When students
interpret their interaction with their parents by laying emphasis on their goals, they use active learning strategies
more. The results also demonstrate that personal goal orientations positively and significantly affect the students’
active learning strategy use. In other words, students who work on improving their skills and competencies are
more likely to use active learning strategies.
Another result of this research is that there is a positive correlation between self-efficacy and active learning
strategies. This result emphasizes that students who believe that they can perform well in science learning tasks
use higher levels of active learning strategies. In other words, students who are confident of their ability to perform
well in science make associations between new scientific concepts and their prior knowledge, find further resources
to understand science concepts, and conduct discussions with teachers and other students to clarify their own
understanding. Previous studies show that students who are extremely impressive in terms of their abilities use
more cognitive, metacognitive and self-regulatory strategies (Kahraman & Sungur, 2011; Pajares, 2002, Pintrich &
De Groot, 1990). Similarly, Yilmaz and Huyugüzel-Çavaş (2007) point to a positive relationship between self-efficacy
and active learning strategy use. Andressa et al. (2015) also demonstrate a significant correlation between active
learning strategies and self-efficacy (p <.05). In addition, Baser (2007) states that active learning strategies are
positively correlated with self-efficacy (r = .606, p = .0001).
When students perceive the importance of science learning value, they actively engage in learning tasks
by using active learning strategies to integrate prior knowledge with new information. On the other hand, when
students do not perceive the importance of science learning value, they use superficial learning strategies (such
as memorization) for learning (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
Another result of this study is the positive correlation between self-efficacy and classroom learning activities,
which is in accordance with the result of the study carried out by İlhan, Yıldırım and Yılmaz (2012).
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The results indicate that attitudes toward science have positive effects on classroom learning activities. Similarly,
Owen et al suggest that different learning activities affect students’ attitudes toward science. Hampden-Thompson
and Bennett (2013) report that there is a relationship between students’ attitudes toward science and learning
activities. The results of their study indicate that teaching and learning activities are related to students’ interac-
tion with science. Frequently used in science education, hands-on activities are claimed to have more effect on
students’ motivation, enjoyment and future orientations toward science. The result of the regression analysis shows
that there is a positive relationship between classroom student investigations and students’ science motivation.
There are numerous studies in the literature which address the relationship between self-efficacy and sci-
ence learning (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Yılmaz & Huyugüzel-Çavaş, 2007; Cho & Heron, 2015; Baser, 2007; Yetişir
& Ceylan, 2015), between attitudes and science learning value (Tuan, Chin & Sheh, 2005; Ceylan & Berberoğlu,
2007) and between self-efficacy and attitudes toward science (Tuan, Chin & Sheh, 2005; Yetişir & Ceylan, 2015).
The analysis of the constructivist learning model and affective factors together indicate that students’ self-
efficacy, science learning value, learning strategies, learning goals and the learning environment are important
factors affecting students’ science learning.
Conclusions
This research indicates that science learning value, attitudes toward science and level of self-efficacy have
positive effects on classroom learning activities and active learning strategies. It shows that students with high
self-efficacy believe that they are capable of performing their learning tasks regardless of their difficulty. Science
learning value helps students understand whether it is valuable to learn science in which they are engaged.
The classroom learning activities and active learning strategies are important in science education. They
both influence academic achievement and motivation in science education. There may be many factors that af-
fect classroom learning activities and active learning strategies. Some of the factors are science learning value,
attitudes toward science and level of self-efficacy. It shows that students with high self-efficacy believe that they
are capable of performing their learning tasks regardless of their difficulty. Science learning value helps students
understand whether it is valuable to learn science in which they are engaged. Students’ attitudes toward science
enable them to understand and learn course materials and related activities. As several researchers mentioned,
science learning value, attitude towards science and self-efficacy have a significant correlation with learning strate-
gies and classroom learning activities. This research has proved such a theoretical position and also revealed that
self-efficacy, science learning value and attitude towards science have correlation with learning strategies and
with classroom learning activities. It would be interesting to study with other possible variables that would be
the effect on classroom learning activities and active learning strategies. Education curriculum can be organized
taking these variables into account. If it were known which factors would be the effect on classroom learning
activities and active learning strategies, effective learning could be realized. In this context, it is thought that this
research, in which the effects of different variables on classroom learning activities and active learning strategies
are investigated, will contribute to the researches about science education.
Acknowledgements
This research was conducted within the scope of the project named “The importance of science learning value,
attitude, self-efficacy, active learning strategies and classroom activities for secondary students’ science learning”
with the number 2016.10.02.513 which is supported by Düzce University Coordination of Scientific Research Proj-
ects. The authors like to thank Düzce University. The authors also wish to thank the referees and editors for their
suggestions for improvements to the original manuscript.
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MUCH MORE THAN OLD WINE
IN NEW SKINS: STUDENTS’
AND ADULTS’ KNOWLEDGE ON
GRAPEVINE AND VINEYARDS
AS A STARTING POINT FOR NEW
TOPICS IN SCHOOL
Abstract. Young people continually lose Astrid von Albedyll,

contact to their natural surroundings
Lisa Vogt,
and agriculture. As school is one of young
people’s main source of knowledge it
Daniel Dreesmann
should bring students and nature back
together, by using agricultural examples.
This research examines German students’
and adults’ knowledge on plant biological Introduction
basics and viticulture choosing grapevine
as an agricultural example of plants. It was In days of globalization, climatic changes and a continuous loss of spe-
undertaken as a paper-and-pencil test with cies the awareness of these phenomena is the inevitable pre-condition to
participants of different ages and from meet upcoming problems and dangers. It is by now a commonly accepted
different educational backgrounds. The fact that society should increase taking care for the environment, focus on
results reveal the weaknesses of partici- renewable energies and teach environmental sustainability and carrying
pants’ knowledge concerning botanical as capacity (Bonar, Fife & Bonar, 2016). In contrast to these aims, society, espe-
well as viticultural aspects. Additionally, cially the younger part, is increasingly alienated from nature (Brämer, 2006;
the results show a positive correlation Hesse & Lumer, 2000). As an example it may be observed that children lack a
between their age and their knowledge basic knowledge of species (Bebbington, 2005, Frančovičová & Prokop, 2011).
on viticulture. Thus, it shows the chance Even adults show significant deficits on their knowledge of species (Shipman
given by developing new teaching material & Boster, 2008). Hesse and Lumer (2000) demonstrated with their research
meeting curriculum requirements, modern that, depending on their educational background, young adults were able
didactical approaches and the attempt to identify less than half of the presented leaves of commonly known trees.
of reconnecting young people with their The ignorance of species is considerably dominant for plants. This may
agricultural surroundings. By using the be explained by the phenomenon of plant blindness (Wandersee & Schussler,
example of grapevine a local and culturally 1999). According to this theory “plants are often overlooked and neglected”
important agricultural plant is chosen as a (Wandersee & Schussler, 1999), since “people typically know less about plants”,
representative of different phenomena of “the homogeneity of their green leaves and stems does not serve to visually
botany as well as steps of food processing. label [plants] or make them pop out chromatically from their background”,
they “appear relatively stationary” and represent the “nonthreatening ele-
Keywords: biology curriculum, science
ments of an ecosystem” (Wandersee & Schussler, 1999). Dillon and colleagues
education, sustainability education, knowl-
(2005), Holstermann & Bögeholz (2007) as well as Bickel & Bögeholz (2013)
edge on grapevine, botany and viticulture.
point out that this is not only true for children’s natural environment but also
for agriculture. “Agricultural organizations realized a lack of knowledge and
understanding of agriculture and agricultural processes” (Hubert et al., 2000,
p. 526). Several studies have shown that people’s interest in and knowledge
about crops and other agricultural goods is very poor (Brämer, 2006; Bickel &
Bögeholz, 2013; Fritsch & Dreesmann, 2015; Holstermann & Bögeholz, 2007;
Astrid von Albedyll, Lisa Vogt, Hubert, Frank & Igo, 2000). Still it might be observed that plants which are
Daniel Dreesmann
Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz,
culturally important or have a direct impact on people’s lives (e. g. edibility,
Germany nativity) are far better known than others (Fritsch & Dreesmann, 2015; Pro-
kop & Frančovičová, 2014, Prokop, Majerčíková & Vyoralová, 2016; Robinson,
Inger & Gaston, 2016).
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Problem of Research
Knowledge on species and biological topics is a fundamental basic to understand nature and foster the aim
of sustainability. Hence, the reconnection of people and nature is important. A reason therefore is that people
may only protect what they know (Wandersee & Schussler, 1999), since “[values] for wildlife are connected with
knowledge and experience” (Sammet, Andres & Dreesmann, 2015, p. 248). Kellert (1985), Zubke & Mayer (2003), and
Reimer and colleagues (2014) have found out that students with a deeper knowledge on biology and biodiversity
have an affirmative attitude towards species. This positive attitude and knowledge form the primary condition
of sustainable thinking, since “it [is] determined that students of all ages, if presented information in a systematic
manner, would become better decision-making adults in matters relating to agriculture and the environment”
(Hubert et al., 2000, p. 527 f.). Agriculture may serve as a link between people and nature as it influences daily life
directly and indirectly. Some studies revealed that daily life influences students’ knowledge (Natarajan et al., 2002;
Partick & Tunnicliffe, 2011) and that plants which have strong connections to students’ daily lives are recognized
much better than other ones (Fritsch & Dreesmann, 2015; Prokop & Frančovičová, 2014, Prokop, Majerčíková &
Vyoralová, 2016). Natarajan and colleagues (2002) found out that sociocultural values and experiences may ad-
ditionally positively influence students’ knowledge.
Research Focus
Knowing the strong influences of (agri-)cultural plants on people’s knowledge it becomes interesting to
know whether Lindemann-Matthies’ (2005) statement that knowledge on plants leads to a higher appreciation
is also true the other way round. Consequently, we set up this research, taking grapevine as a highly appreciated
and socially influential plant in Germany (Ministerium für Wirtschaft, Verkehr, Landwirtschaft und Weinbau, 2010;
Charters, 2006; 316 f.) and measuring people’s knowledge on grapevine, its biological basics, grape processing
and wine production. Grapevine is a plant which is cultivated on almost every continent (Müller, 2008) and is, e.g.
in the United States, not only of agricultural importance, since it covers “one million acres of grape bearing land”
(The National Association of American Wineries, 2014). Beside countries which are famous for their grape produc-
tion like Spain, France or the United States, others like Iran, Romania, Moldova belong to the top fifteen countries
worldwide, concerning their vineyard acreage (Wine Institute, 2014). This demonstrates the widespread importance
of grapevine and wine to different cultures all over the world. Above that the long tradition of winemaking and
therefore, the continuous development of agricultural expertise over hundreds of years, becomes clear by lots of
allusions and images used in one of the oldest and most-sold books, the Bible (e.g., Wedding in Cana, John 2:1-11).
This research was undertaken to gather preliminary results on students’ knowledge about grapevine and
vineyards as a basis for an innovative teaching project. Following the theory of life-long learning (Ainley & Ainley,
2011; Seel, 2012) an accumulation of knowledge should be observed. Unlike typical ‘school topics’ (e. g. genetics,
neurology) people are confronted with facts about grapevine and wine a whole life. This may lead to the proposal
of the hypothesis that facts about wine and viticulture are better known by older participants than information
about a plant’s (grapevine) biology, which is implemented in several curricula (e.g., Ministerium für Bildung, Wis-
senschaft, Weiterbildung, und Kultur Rheinland Pfalz, 2014; Next Generation Science Standards, 2013; Ministerium
für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Weiterbildung Rheinland-Pfalz, 1998).
Therefore the following research questions were set up:
•• What do students and adults know about grapevine as a growing plant, its biology and about food
processing for wine production?
•• Does knowledge correlate with age?
•• Does knowledge correlate with formal education (highest degree obtained)?
This research was conducted from June to September 2015 in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. A paper-and-
pencil test collected data quantitatively and qualitatively. The test was divided into three contextual categories:
personal aspects, knowledge on grapevine biology (consisting of questions about plant biological and ecological
aspects) and knowledge on viticulture.
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Sample of Research
The sample of this research consisted of 365 participants (43.6% male, 1.1% did not offer any information
about their sex). As the differences in knowledge depending on participants’ age were content of this research,
176 school students as well as 189 adults were part of the sample. School students attended year six to twelve of
different types of schools in Germany (Gymnasium, i.e. the highest stratification level within the German school
system, secondary schools as well as special schools for handicapped students). 106 (37 students, 69 adults) of
the participants were attending or had attended the German ‘gymnasiale Oberstufe’, while 218 (130 students, 88
adults) had not (yet) (The ‘gymnasiale Oberstufe’, or ‘Oberstufe’ for short, are the two last, optional years of school in
Germany. They may only be visited in a Gymnasium and comply the requirements for reaching the German ‘Abitur’,
the highest graduation in Germany, which resembles a certificate of aptitude for higher education. More detailed
information is available online from the Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and
Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany, internet resource given in the references.). The
participants of this research had been selected irrespectively of their interest in plants, wine or biology in general.
Although participants did not live within a grapevine growing region directly, it was in a daily reachable distance in
the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate, which is famous for its wine production. For measuring their knowledge
on grapevine, plant physiology as well as wine and food production, the participants were not given any informa-
tion on the topic before this research, although they were informed about the research’s aim.
This research was conducted by a paper-and-pencil test following some main principles of questionnaire
construction according to construction rules of Porst (2014) and Brace (2004). The questionnaire consisted of 35
items. The participants had to answer with short sentences on open-ended items, with ticking on single-choice
questions as well as multiple-choice questions. Closed-ended content items could be answered on a nominal scale.
The main parts of the questionnaires for students and adults were constructed equally.
Among the personal aspects were questions about participants’ age (item P1), grade (students)/educational
level (adults) (P2), gender (P3), and whether they still visited or had already finished school. These aspects were
asked for to classify the participants in regard to the research questions. Furthermore, some items asked about
former visits to vineyards (e. g. number of visits, company) and their experiences with grapevine in school. All
content items of the questionnaire fit into the categories grapevine biology or viticulture (Table 1) and aimed at
measuring participants’ knowledge on viticulture, wine, grapevine and plants in general. The questions were con-
structed following the curriculum of science and biology, common topics in the public media as well as cultural
transmitted information.
Table 1. Overview over the questionnaire’s subcategories and the participants’ success.
Points to be
Mean value Median SD
reached
Grapevine’s biology 14 6.39 7 2.77

Correct use of terminology 5 2.33 2 1.16
Subcategories
Characteristics of vine 1 0.82 1 0.38

Interactions with the ecosystem 2 0.47 0 0.57
Characteristics of vine as a plant 6 2.77 3 1.75
Viticulture 23 10.72 10 4.75
General knowledge 2 1.50 2 0.51
Subcategories
Correct use of terminology 10 4.44 4 2.72

Process of wine making 8 3.41 3 1.84
Food processing 3 1.37 1 0.93
The items of the questionnaire were arranged depending on the question style, irrespectively whether they
belonged to the category grapevine biology or viticulture.
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A main aspect of the questionnaire was to investigate the correct use of terminology. Reasons therefore lie
within the German language, as it may cause some complications for the correct use. The first aspect the question-
naire addressed was the German word ‘Traube’ (Items Q6 to Q9, also see Table A, Appendix). The German language
uses ‘Traube’ as a layperson’s term for ‘grape’, although the correct meaning of this term is ‘bunch of grapes’ in
viticultural language. The aim of defining this sub-category was to figure out whether school manages to clarify
the difference and importance of the correct use of technical terms. The second aspect was the limited use of the
word ‘Wein’, which stands for ‘grapevine’ and ‘wine’, respectively. As the meaning of ‘wine’ seems to be dominant
in people’s heads, other meanings of ‘Wein’ were asked for, aiming for characteristics of the plant and itself (Q19,
also see Table B, Appendix). Additionally, the questionnaire asked for terminology synonyms in the German lan-
guage. As there is more than one word for the term ‘grapevine’, one item analyzed whether people knew about
the equivalence of the terms used (Q11, also see Table A, Appendix).
Data Analysis
For detailed data analysis descriptive statistics and statistical tests to answer the research questions were
used. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests revealed a lack of normal distribution of the data. Consequently, Mann-Whitney-U
and Kruskall-Wallis tests were used to identify significant differences of the results. Correlations between different
variables were analyzed with Spearman’s-ρ as coefficient.
For analyzing the open-ended items the answers were categorized primarily based on the category finding
process of qualitative content analysis processes following Mayring (2015) and Schreier (2012). Therefore, a coding
frame was set up deductively and complemented inductively. The categorization of participants’ answers was
checked by a second researcher to ensure objectivity. The percentage of agreement between the two research-
ers was 100%. Participants’ knowledge was measured with a knowledge score. Therefore, the given answers were
graded with absolute points. The open-ended items were graded with up to two points depending on their com-
plexity level. Partly correct answers were graded with one point. Single-choice questions were graded with one
point. Multiple-choice questions were graded with two points for completely correct answers and one point for
partly correct answers.
For all types of questions, wrong answers, missing answers as well as invalid answers were graded with 0
points. No penalty points were given.
For a detailed analysis of the data, participants were classified differently depending on the research aim.
Therefore, three different classifications were set up: depending on the age of the participants, their scholar status
(students/adult) as well as their educational level.
Data analysis was carried out with Microsoft Excel and IBM SPSS Statistics.
Results of Research
Personal Aspects
Numerous participants of the research (71.0%) had already visited a vineyard. Only 9.6% of all participants
expressed that they had visited a vineyard with school. Additionally, only 28.8% of the interviewees had dealt
with wine, grapevine and vineyards in school before. A percentage of 54.8% clearly expressed that they had not.
An absolute number of 136 participants agreed that they had already heard about the vinegar fly (Drosophila
suzukii), whereas 226 participants disagreed.
Knowledge
Participants reached a mean score of 47.0% of the reachable points of the questionnaire regarding the com-
plete sample of questions. Similar results where reached in the categories grapevine biology (45.6% success rate)
and viticulture (48.0% success rate). For the whole of all questions as well as within the two categories a positive
correlation between the number of previous visits in a vineyard and their content knowledge could be observed
(Table 2).
Participants who had already visited a vineyard before the research scored significantly higher than those
who had not (Mann-Whitney-U test: U=-9.332; p < .001, N=359).
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Table 2. Correlation of number of vineyard visits and success rate.
N Spearman-ρ p
All items 363 0.532 < .001

Vine’s biology 350 0.427 < .001
Viticulture 352 0.520 < .001
Note: Correlation is significant since p < .01.
Comparing students to adults revealed a significant difference in their success rate (Mann-Whitney-U test:
8026.500, U=-8.273; p < .001). As before, this was not only true for the complete sample of questions, but also for
the two content categories grapevine biology (Mann-Whitney-U test: 10852.500, U=-5439, p < .001) and viticulture
(Mann-Whitney-U test: 7800.000, U=-8.613, p < .001).
Comparing age to knowledge, the results indicate a positive correlation between these two factors
(Spearman-ρ= 0.584, p= .000 < .01, N=358). This correlation is clearly stronger for the category viticulture
(Spearman-ρ= 0.603, p= .000 < .01, N=360) than for the category grapevine biology (Spearman-ρ= .385, p= .000
< .01, N=358).
The tendency of increasing knowledge with higher age was also true for knowledge on botanical terminol-
ogy (Spearman-ρ=0.320, p= .000< .01, N=360). Additionally, the results indicate that people who have visited the
‘Oberstufe’, i.e. have had more formal education, perform significantly better recognizing and defining botanical
terms, than people who have not (Mann-Whitney-U-test: 8946.000, U=-3.422, p= .000< .05). A significant higher
score could also be demonstrated for adults compared to students (Mann-Whitney-U-test=11729.000, U=-4.822,
p < .001). Lowest scores of this sub-category were reached for the item “A bunch of grapes is a small, round fruit.”
(Q9, mean value: 0.08 of one reachable point).
Items of the sub-category ‘interactions with the ecosystem’ aimed at the relation between grapevine and an
upcoming parasite: the vinegar fly (Drosophila suzukii). All in all, participants reached 0.47 of two reachable points
within this category and people who had already heard about the vinegar fly scored significantly higher than oth-
ers (Mann-Whitney-U-test=8744.500, U=-7.896, p < .001).
Similar to the other sub-categories a slight tendency of increasing knowledge by a higher age could be ob-
served for the knowledge on the ‘characteristics of green plants’ (Spearman’s-ρ= 0.244, p < .001). Participants who
(had) experienced biology lessons of the ‘Oberstufe’ performed significantly better than others (up to ‘Oberstufe’:
mean value= 2.47, H=217; ‘Oberstufe’ or higher education: mean value: 3.59 of six reachable points, H=106; Mann-
Whitney-U-test: 7267.000, U=-5.475, p < .001). A closer look at individual items shows a difference of answers
between people who were or were not attending the ‘Oberstufe’ (Figure 1 and 2).
Figure 1: Percentage of students and adults deciding on the respective answering option of item Q23 (‘What
is vine’s main source of energy?’) in relation to their formal education.
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Figure 2: Percentage of students and adults deciding on the respective answering option of item Q24 (‘What
is, from the perspective of vine, main product of photosynthesis?’) in relation to their educational
level.
The sub-category ‘correct use of terminology’ revealed a clear correlation between success rate and age
(Spearman’s ρ=0.546, p < .001).
About 88% of the participants recognized grapevine/wine as an alcoholic drink, but only 3.7% selected
“Grapevine/Wine is a plant” as (additional) correct answer (Q19).
Discussion
Compared to current research this seems to be the first research focusing on students’ and adults’ knowledge
on grapevine, growing grapevine and processing grapes. The results show that so far grapevine and vineyards are
hardly used as topics or out-of-school learning sites. As reasons teachers name too long distances from school
(Anderson, Kisiel & Storksdiek, 2006) or a lack of teaching materials meeting the official curriculum requirements
and modern didactical approaches (Anderson et al., 2006; Dewitt & Osborne, 2007).
The aim of the research was to find out what people know about agricultural goods which do have large
impacts on social lives. The participants of the research reached about half of the reachable points (M = 47%). This
shows that school and cultural education could lay a foundation of general knowledge about agricultural plants
and food processing. Nevertheless, higher results had been expected in a federal state which claims to be famous
for its wine production.
As grapevine and wine have the same spelling in German (“Wein”) a connotation of this word was asked for.
The data reveal that “Wein” is predominantly thought of as alcoholic drink (Q19: “Grapevine/Wine is …”). Less than
four percent chose “a plant” as additional correct answer. This underlines people’s loose contact to nature and
agriculture (Bickel & Bögeholz, 2013; Brämer, 2006; Holstermann & Bögeholz, 2007; Kellert, 2002) and decrease in
knowledge about food processing and foods origin (Hubert et al., 2000).
Differences in Relation to Age and Education
Having a closer look at the results of the survey a significant positive correlation between age of the participants
and their knowledge becomes obvious: adults reached higher scores than students. This goes along with the theory
of life-long learning (Ainley & Ainley, 2011; Seel, 2012). According to this theory learning is not over by finishing one’s
educational career. Moreover, school and university lay the foundation of life-long learning. They provide a funda-
mental knowledge on which people may build further knowledge on the one hand, and teach them several strategies
of learning and understanding new facts and principles on the other. The correlation is stronger within the category
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viticulture than in the category grapevine biology (strongest correlation within the sub-category of ‘viticulture ter-
minology’). It supports the findings of Dillon, Rickinson, Sanders & Teamey (2005) “that young people’s knowledge of
how their food is produced and how it gets to their plate seems limited”. Additionally, the category of non-consumers
is lawfully kept in a distance to wine and its production processes (Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen
und Jugend, 2002). Moreover, it might be explained by the stronger cultural impact on older participants within the
category viticulture. Consumers inform themselves from “various outside sources” (Dodd, Laverie, Wilcox & Dunhan,
2005) and direct encounters before choosing a certain wine. These experiences accumulate during a lifetime, e.g.
on wine festivals, by consuming wine or other societal events like a guided group walk through a vineyard or vin-
ery. Further studies on the origin of participants’ knowledge would have to be conducted in order to verify these
assumptions. Another reason for a higher correlation in the category of viticulture might be the decreasing interest
in biological topics with older age (Prokop, Tuncer & Chudá, 2007). This lack of interest works against developing
botanical knowledge, depending on the age of the participants in contrast to other topics like wine consumption,
which are felt to be culturally valuable.
Although some basic botanical knowledge is even part of the biological curriculum in lower grades in Germany
(two in twelve topic areas, Ministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft, Weiterbildung und Kultur Rheinland-Pfalz, 2014),
plant biology as well as specialized ecosystems, like vineyards, are discussed in detail within the last two, optional
years of school. Therefore, the scores of students and adults who had already visited or were visiting the ‘Oberstufe’
were compared to those who did not. An obvious difference between the two groups could be observed in the sub-
category ‘characteristics of grapevine as a plant’. The distribution of answers on item Q23 (‘What is grapevine’s main
source of energy?’) reveals the clear shift of ideas of plant’s nutrition. In contrast to lower class students, who added
nutrients as an additional main source of energy, higher classes set their focus on the sunlight. This might be an indica-
tor that biology teachers of higher grades succeeded in emphasizing the outstanding characteristic of green plants:
‘catching’ sunlight’s energy into organic matter. Furthermore, participants visiting the ‘Oberstufe’ clearly succeeded in
identifying glucose as (from the plant’s perspective) most important product of photosynthesis (Q24, ‘What is, from
the perspective of grapevine, the main product of photosynthesis?’). Several post-hoc tests on significant differences
showed no knowledge differences between students who visited higher grades and adults. This indicates once more
the importance of higher scholar education for the gain of botanical knowledge. In contrast to this, the sub-category
‘viticulture terminology’ showed clear advantages of adults compared to students, irrespectively their educational
status. As mentioned above, a reason might be that a lot of terms and knowledge concerning viticulture are learned
by direct contact, which is more common among adults. Still, the correct use of terms, no matter what content field
they belong to, is very important and should be trained in school. It is especially important for those terms, which
are wrongly used in everyday-language (Q9, ‘A bunch of grapes is a small, round fruit.’). The different use of the same
term in everyday and technical language may confuse students (Jacobs, 1989), which is proven as correct by the
results on terminology knowledge.
The Importance of Previous Knowledge and Prior Experiences
According to the theory of cumulative learning (Seel, 2012) knowledge is constructed and learning new facts
is always based on prior knowledge or experiences and connected to these (Bransford et al., 2000; Falk & Dierking
2000). The present results support these theories as they indicate a significant difference between people who
have already been and those who have not been to a vineyard yet. Additionally, participants who had already
heard about the vinegar fly in any context, scored significantly higher for the sub-category ‘interactions with the
ecosystem’ than those who had not.
Implications for Further Teaching
The results show that in the case of Rhineland-Palatinate out-of-school learning at prominent examples like
vineyards is hardly used by now. New teaching projects combining curriculum requirements, students’ interests
and regional importance while using agricultural examples may meet this problem. Thus, they enable students and
teachers to explore vineyards as anthropogenic ecosystems, discover facets of plants and their biology by looking
at a typical representative, grapevine, and learn different aspects of its developmental stages. These direct experi-
ences with nature might positively influence learning compared to theoretical teaching units (Prokop, Majerčiková
& Vyaoralová, 2016) Especially in times, in which students spend less time directly confronted with nature (Moss,
2012), teaching the respective contents might change their attitudes towards food (Lineberger & Zajicek, 2000).
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As already mentioned by Hubert, Frank and Igo (2000) “it is hoped that implementation […] will produce better
educated students so their agricultural and environmental issue decision-making will be enhanced” (p. 528).
Conclusions
The results show a consisting but still very low level of knowledge on grapevine and wine processing as rep-
resentative examples of culturally important agricultural goods. Consequently, people, especially students and
adolescents, need to be better educated. This research clearly reveals the need for new teaching approaches facing
the participants’ lack of knowledge on nature and agricultural goods. As you may only protect what you know, re-
interaction with and understanding of the world around them is the only chance they get to understand biological
correlations and develop a sustainable way of thinking. By experiencing regional ecosystems with school, students
may be led back to nature. As agricultural ecosystems are widespread, found on every continent and have a direct
connection to adolescents’ environment and lives, these ecosystems may serve as excellent examples to convey
knowledge on biology as well as food production processes. Consequently, getting into contact with their natural
surroundings may help students grow up to responsible adults who do not only know more about nature than
former generations. They may develop a feeling of appreciation for nature and handle sensible with food and food
production to foster the idea of sustainable living and guarantee the existence of nature and biodiversity beside men.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank all participants who took part in this research. Moreover, helpful comments and suggestions
of anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged. This research has been conducted within the WinUM3-project.
See www.winumhochdrei.de for further information.
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Appendix
Table A Items of the category vine’s biology with the offered answer options or sample solutions and the
number of reachable points, mean score and percentiles.
Reachable points.
Percentiles
Type of question
Sub-category
Answer options. / Sample Summary

Item
Mean value
solutions. (sub-category)
Median
No.
25.
75.
A bunch of grapes is the inflorescence of

Q6 SC True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.65 0 1 1
Correct use of terminology
vine.
Mean value: 2.33
Q7 SC A grape is a bunch of grapes. True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.25 0 0 1
Percentiles:
Q8 SC A grape is a single fruit of an inflorescence. True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.48 0 0 1 25.: 2
Median: 2
Q9 SC A bunch of grapes is a small, round fruit. True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.08 0 0 0
75.: 3
Vine [Weinstock] may also be called vine
[Rebe].
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Reachable points.
Type of question Percentiles
Sub-category
Answer options. / Sample Summary

Item
Mean value
solutions. (sub-category)
Median
No.
25.
75.
teris-tics
Charac-
of vine.
Q16 SC Vine is a climbing plant. True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.82 1 1 1
The vinegar fly (Drosophila suzukii) does Mean value: 0.47

with the eco-
Interactions
not belong to vine’s pests. Percentiles:

system
25.: 0
The vinegar fly (Drosophila suzukii) lays its Median: 0
eggs on the grapes. 75.: 1
Q5 OE How does vine absorb minerals? Through its roots in the soil. 2 1.23 0 2 2
Characteristics of vine as a plant
Nutrients from the soil. /

Sunlight. /
Q23 MC What is vine’s main source of energy? Carbon dioxide from the air. / 2 0.90 0 1 2 Mean value: 2.77
Oxygen from the air. / Percentiles:
I don’t know. 25.: 2
Median: 3
Oxygen. /
75.:4
Sugar. /
What is, from the perspective of vine, main
Q24 MC Carbon dioxide. / 2 0.64 0 0 2
product of photosynthesis?
Minerals. /
I don’t know.
Note: Type of questions: OE = Open-ended item, SC = Single-choice question, MC = multiple choice question.
Questions and answers translated from German. In addition to the mean value median and other percentiles are
given, as our data was not normally distributed. The items’ names derive from their order within the question-
naire, which was depending on the questions style.
Table B Items of the category viticulture with the offered answer options or sample solutions and the number
of reachable points, mean score and percentiles.
Percentiles
Reachable points.
Type of question
Summary
Sub-category
Item Answer options. / Sample solutions.

Mean value
(sub-category)
Median
No.
25.
75.
Which fruit is wine

General knowledge
Q1 OE Grapes. 1 0.99 1 1 1 Mean value: 1.50

produced from?*
Percentiles:
The Romans 25.: 1
Q12 SC brought vine to True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.51 0 1 1 Median: 2
Germany. 75.: 1
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Percentiles
Reachable points.
Type of question
Summary
Sub-category
Mean value
(sub-category)
Median
No.
25.
75.
What is the
technical term
Q2 OE Vintage. [Ger.: Lese] 2 0.95 0 0 2
for harvesting
grapes?
He is a farmer of vineyards. He is caring for the vines and
responsible for the harvest./
He is a specially trained employee in a wine press house.
He refines wines with special seasonings./
He is a wine steward. He advises guests in a restaurant
Q18 MC What is a vintner? about the wines./ 2 0.88 1 1 1
He is an employee in a wine press house. He is responsible
for the production of wine, sparkling wine and grape juice./
He is a chemist, who specialized on insecticides and
fungicides./
Correct use of terminology
I don’t know.
… an alcoholic drink. / Mean value: 4.44
… the leaf of a plant. / Percentiles:
… a drink containing hop. / 25.: 2
Q19 MC Vine/Wine is … 2 0.96 1 1 1
… a plant. / Median: 4
… a fruit of the vine plant. / 75.: 8
… I don’t know.
That is the name of an organism, which is needed for wine
production./
That is the puree, which results from crushing the grapes./
Q20 SC What is mash? It is a juice, consisting of crushed grapes, which is meant 2 0.79 0 0 2
for fermentation./
It is the term for the process of using hop for wine making/
I don’t know.
That is the name of an organism, which is needed for wine
production./
That is the puree, which results from crushing the grapes./
Q21 SC What is must? It is a juice, consisting of crushed grapes, which is meant 2 0.86 0 0 2
for fermentation./
It is the term for the process of using hop for wine making./
I don’t know.
Why is vine
Q3 OE planted on ter- To avoid erosion. 2 0.89 0 0 2
races sometimes?
White wine is ex-
clusively produced
Q10 SC from the juice of True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.25 0 0 1
white (=green)
grapes.
Process of wine making
Yeast is necessary
Mean value: 3.41
Q15 SC for the production True./False./Don’t know 1 0.30 0 0 1
Percentiles:
of wine.
25.: 2
By a chemical process named fermentation. / Median: 3
By malt which is added to the wine. / 75.: 5
How does the By the help of sugar and an organism which may convert
Q22 MC alcohol get into this into alcohol. / 2 0.94 1 1 1
wine? By crushing the grapes with the feet. /
By the brewing process. /
I don’t know.
July to August./
What is the best September to October./
Q25 SC time for harvesting April to June./ 2 1.32 0 2 2
grapes? November to December./
I don’t know.
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Percentiles
Reachable points.
Type of question
Summary
Sub-category
Mean value
(sub-category)
Median
No.
25.
75.
Name all things
you can think of,
Q4 OE which may be Wine, Juice, Raisins. 2 1.01 1 1 1
Food processing
produced from Mean value: 1.37

vine. Percentiles:
25.:
Median:
The leaves of the 75.:
Q17 SC vine plant are True./False./Don’t know. 1 0.36 0 0 1
edible.
Note: Type of questions: OE = Open-ended item, SC = Single-choice question, MC = multiple choice question.
Questions and answers translated from German. *Only open ended item for which only one point could be
reached. In addition to the mean value median and other percentiles are given, as our data was not normally
distributed. The items’ names derive from their order within the questionnaire, which was depending on the ques-
tions style.
Received: April 26, 2017 Accepted: August 10, 2017
Astrid von Albedyll B.Ed., M.Ed., PhD, Former PhD Candidate, Johannes Gutenberg-
University, Department of Biology Education, Institute of Organismic
and Molecular Evolution, D-55099 Mainz, Germany.
E-mail: a.vonalbedyll@uni-mainz.de
Lisa Vogt Former Master’s Student, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Department
of Biology Education, Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution,
D-55099 Mainz, Germany.
Daniel Dreesmann PhD, University Professor, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Department
of Biology Education, Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution,
D-55099 Mainz, Germany.
E-mail: daniel.dreesmann@uni-mainz.de
624
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For chapters within books: Bjork, R.A. (1989). Retrieval Inhibition as an Adaptive Mechanism in Human Memory. In: H.L. Roediger III & F.I.M. Craik
(Eds.), Varieties of Memory & Consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“,
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Quality Issues and Insights in the 21st Century

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ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/, ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
Compiled by: Vincentas Lamanauskas

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Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2017

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Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2017

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Vol.16, No.

The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Published since 2002 Address:

ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/

EFFECT OF ACTIVE LEARNING ON PERCEPTION OF AND PERFORMANCE IN SCIENCE SUBJECTS

CHANGING NEGATIVE PERCEPTIONS OF ANIMALS THROUGH TEACHING PRACTICE: A RESEARCH

PROMOTING PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING ABOUT BOILING

EXAMINATION OF CHEMICAL REPRESENTATIONS IN TURKISH HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY

MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ABOUT DIFFERENT ANIMALS

ADOPTION OF ICT INNOVATIONS BY SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AND PRE-SERVICE

CONSENSUS-BASED EDUCATION: ITS EFFECT ON COLLEGE STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VIRTUAL SCIENCE TEACHING MODEL (VS-TM) TO IMPROVE STUDENT’S

REVISITING STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF RESEARCH SCIENTISTS – OUTCOMES OF AN INDIRECT

DETERMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A DESIGN–BASED, CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF AN INSTRUMENT MEASURING ANXIETY TOWARD PHYSICS

MODELLING THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED AFFECTIVE FACTORS ON LEARNING STRATEGIES AND

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

EFFECT OF ACTIVE LEARNING ON PERCEPTION OF AND PERFORMANCE IN

Received: August 12, 2016 Accepted: August 23, 2017

Milan Kubiatko PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Pedagogical Studies,

Abstract. This research focused on

Instrument and Procedures

Steps of the research EG CG

Validity and Reliability

Wolf 3.48 1.199 3.13 1.271 1114.0 .153

Experimental Group (EG) Control Group (CG)

Vulture Shark Mouse

First moment (pre-test)

Attraction (A) / Repulsion (R) Not Dangerous (ND) / Dangerous (D)

Wolf 38/12 27/26 6.938 .008 10/40 40/43 0.021 .885

Second moment (post-test)

Attraction (A) / Repulsion (R) Not Dangerous (ND) / Dangerous (D)

Wolf 44/6 27/26 16.497 .001 24/26 13/40 6.158 .013

Conclusions and Implications

Received: November 20, 2016 Accepted: May 30, 2017

António Almeida PhD, Coordinator Professor, Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon /

ABOUT BOILING BY DIALOGIC ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/

Introduction Abstract. In order to reach students who

Conceptual Difficulties about Boiling

Table 1. Alternative conceptions identified in previous studies.

Conceptual Change Activities in Chemistry and for Boiling Topic

Dialogic Teaching and Conceptual Change in Science Education

Purpose and Research Questions

Context, Teacher and Participants

Conceptual Difficulties about Boiling

Table 2. Conceptual difficulties about boiling.

Category Pre-service Teacher

Alternative Conceptions (AC)

The Impacts of Dialogic Interventions on Conceptual Difficulties

Before Dialogic Intervention After Dialogic Intervention

Table 4. The changes about conceptual difficulties after dialogic intervention.

Conceptions Before Dialogic Int. Conceptions After Dialogic Int.

Related to exothermic reaction

Related to formation and movement of bubbles

Note: One participant p10 did not write anything.

Before Dialogic Intervention Dialogic Intervention After Dialogic Intervention

Conceptual Difficulties about Boiling

The Impacts of Dialogic Interventions on Conceptual Difficulties

Conclusions and Implications

Limitations and Future Research

Received: April 20, 2017 Accepted: July 02, 2017

Mehmet Demirbağ Uludag University, Faculty of Education, Department of Science

Abstract. The aim of this research was to Betül Demirdöğen

Studies about High School Chemistry Textbooks in Turkey