Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2017

Vol.16, No.
2, 2017
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2017
Editorial Board
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/
Editor-in-Chief ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Miia Rannikmäe University of Tartu, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Boris Aberšek University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Agnaldo Arroio University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Dr. Paolo Bussotti University of Udine, Italy
Prof., Dr. Bulent Cavas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. André du Plessis Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
Prof., Dr. Peter Heering University of Flensburg, Germany
Prof., Dr. Jack Holbrook University of Tartu, Estonia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Milan Kubiatko University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dr. Todar Lakhvich Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Prof., Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Prof., Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Prof., Dr. Raffaele Pisano Lille 3 University, France
Dr. Pavol Prokop Trnava University, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Konstantinos Ravanis University of Patras, Greece
Dr. Alona Rauckienė-Michaelsson Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Hae-Ae Seo Pusan National University, Korea
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Gazi University, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica in cooperation with Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, empha-
sizes theoretical, experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international academ-
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for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The decision of the Editor on the acceptance
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and SCOPUS (http://www.scopus.com)
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ Contents
Contents
Editorial
SCIENTIFIC EPONYM IN EDUCATIONAL UNIVERSE

Uladzimir Slabin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Articles
EFFECT OF 5E TEACHING MODEL ON PRIMARY SCHOOL PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’

LEARNING ON SOME ASTRONOMY CONCEPTS
Çiğdem Şahin, Ümmü Gülsüm Durukan, Elif Arıkurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ CONCEPTIONS OF THE “CONDUCTION OF HEAT

IN SOLIDS”
Tülay Şenel Çoruhlu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
SCIENTIFIC COMPETENCIES: A MECHANISM TO FAVOUR THE INCLUSION OF WORKING

MARKET PROFESSIONALS
Alba Guzmán, Diana Oliveros, Mauricio Mendoza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A STUDY OF VOLUNTEERS’ SCIENCE SERVICE SATISFACTION IN RELATION TO THEIR SELF-

DIRECTED LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
Hui-Min Chien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
A STUDY OF THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TEACHERS’ TEACHING STYLES AND STUDENTS’

PARTICIPATION MOTIVATION IN THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Cheng-Bo Yang, Min-Kai Dong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
SCAFFOLDING MIDDLE SCHOOL AND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ MODELING PROCESSES

Meng-Fei Cheng, Jang-Long Lin, Shih-Yin Lin, Chi-Ho Cheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
THE EFFECTS OF COMBINING INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING WITH SCIENCE MAGIC ON THE

LEARNING OUTCOMES OF A FRICTION UNIT
Jang-Long Lin, Meng-Fei Cheng, Shih-Yin Lin, Jih-Yuan Chang, Ying-Chi Chang, Hsiao-Wen Li,
Deng-Min Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
A LEARNING PROCESS BASED ON CONCEPTUAL CHANGE APPROACH TO FOSTER

CONCEPTUAL CHANGE IN NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Syuhendri Syuhendri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
THE EFFECT OF MOVEMENT EDUCATION BASED ON COOPERATIVE

LEARNING METHOD ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC MOTOR SKILLS OF
PRIMARY SCHOOL 1ST GRADE LEARNERS
Mustafa Altınkök . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
FOR HUMANIZATION AND HISTORICISM: HOW WELL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS KNOW AND
WHAT THEY THINK ABOUT CHEMICAL EPONYMS
Uladzimir Slabin, Vasili Krasitski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
CLOSING THE SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS GAP BETWEEN STUDENTS WITH HIGH AND LOW
LEVEL ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Baskoro Adi Prayitno, Duran Corebima, Herawati Susilo, Siti Zubaidah, Murni Ramli . . . . . . . . . . 266
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
143
SCIENTIFIC EPONYM IN EDUCATIONAL UNIVERSE
Uladzimir Slabin
University of Oregon, USA
We, the educators, are born into the educational Universe. Real and educational Universes we live in have
amazingly much in common. They can be juxtaposed using numerous physical and chemical analogies, beginning
with the most basic structural elements (Table 1).
Table 1. Resemblance between components of real and educational Universes.

Being material, real Universe consists of two sorts of matter: sub- Being ideal (imagined), educational Universe consists of two sorts of ideal
stance and field. stuff: expertise and educational conception.
Field (gravitational or electromagnetic): Educational conception as a field:

•• is created by substance •• is created by publicly accumulated expertise (knowledge and/or ignorance);
•• (mass and/or charge); •• impacts expertise: makes it be taught or excluded (postponed) from
•• impacts substance: makes it attract (mass anyway, opposite charges) teaching;
or repel (like charges); •• is ideologically characterized by didactic principles (e.g. humanization
•• is energetically characterized by field strength (e.g. V/m for electric, and historicism);
acceleration due to gravity for gravitational); •• the principles determine vector (content, forms, methods, techniques) of
•• the field strength determines vector (force and direction) of how fast teaching – how fast and where the expertise moves.
and where the mass or charge moves.
Substance can interconvert: proton into neutron, electron and positron Expertise can interconvert: in organized pedagogical process ignorance
into photons. goes into knowledge.
Protons and electrons attract to combine into atoms. Ignorance and knowledge attract to form an expertise set for each object
(ignorance-and-knowledge).
Protons locate in the atomic nucleus, electrons in the shell. As of Ignorance locates in the core of cognition, being its motive force. Knowl-
today, the shell has been researched on better than the nucleus. edge coats the ignorance as the shell. As of today, the knowledge has been
researched on better than the ignorance.
Both atomic nucleus and shell have levels and sublevels inside. E.g. Both ignorance and knowledge have levels. E.g. for knowledge there are
for shell there are K-, L-, M-, N- levels with s-, p-, d-, f- asf. sublevels. data – information – knowledge – wisdom.
Similar atoms constitute the element. Ignorance and knowledge about a particular object constitute the knowledge
Elements are grouped into metals, nonmetals and metalloids. element.
Knowledge elements can be grouped into those describing people and
things.
Strictly speaking, knowledge for every object in educational Universe is limited by ignorance or, in other
words, these two components co-exist. However, pedagogy primarily deals with knowledge, its acquisition and
144
retention. It ignores the ignorance, leaving it as a subject for a more generic science of psychology. Similarly, atomic
nuclei in real Universe are a subject for a more generic science of physics, being only slightly studied in chemistry.
To research on knowledge is by far easier than on ignorance, same as chemical research involving mere electron
shells is easier than physical research targeting atomic nuclei.
With respect to science education, let us limit ‘people’ in this context to scientists. It is also worth to limit
‘things’ to loosely defined big and small discoveries – objects the scientists produce or work with (theories, laws,
reactions, principles, rules, equations, constants, chemicals, solutions, flasks, adapters, condensers, asf.). One can
even outline a periodic system of knowledge elements, certainly, not in details because scientists and discoveries
many times outnumber discovered chemical elements. Like metals and nonmetals occupy the lower left and the
upper right areas, resp., scientists and discoveries would have their distribution in such table.
Having addressed the educational Universe’s primary hierarchy and identified the two families of knowledge
elements, one should further consider organization of these elements (Table 2).
Table 2. Resemblance between chemical elements and knowledge elements.

Particular metal and non-metal elements form mixtures Particular knowledge about scientist and knowledge about discovery form binary com-
and binary compounds in physical and chemical pounds in social, causal, and linguistic processes, resp.:
processes: •• scientist-scientist, e.g. rivalry (Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla), teacher-student
•• metal-metal alloys (steel, brass) and intermetallides partnership (Nikolai Zinin and Alexander Butlerov) or marriage (Marie Skłodowska and
(Nb3Sn); Pierre Curie);
•• nonmetal-nonmetal, e.g. water (H2O), ammonia •• discovery-discovery, i.e. relations and operations between theory and equation, task and
(NH3), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2); solution, procedures and calculations, samples and techniques, etc.
•• metal-nonmetal, e.g. oxides (CaO), phosphides •• scientist-discovery, e.g. story of discovery (oxygen by John Priestley, electromagnetism
(Zn3P2), salts (NaCl). by Michael Faraday) or eponym (Boyle law, Le Châtelier principle, Planck constant,
Claisen flask).
In today’s practice of science education, teachers spend the most of available classroom or auditorium time to
teach the discovery-discovery (thing-thing) compounds. The scientist-scientist and scientist-discovery compounds
are addressed a way less frequently. However, the aforementioned principles of humanization and historicism,
whether manifested explicitly or present implicitly in national standards, determine the field in the educational
Universe. This field implies scientists being taught together with their discoveries. Hence the importance of scientific
eponym, aka named notion – a natural linguistic compound of scientist and his/her discovery in scientific and his-
torical context. With respect to educational goals, eponyms can and should be unwrapped into stories of discovery.
Using analogy with the real Universe and chemical VB (Valence Bond) and MO (Molecular Orbitals are Linear
Combination of Atomic Orbitals) theories, consider how eponyms are formed in educational Universe (Fig.1 and
2). One should remark that formation of a widely adopted scientific eponym is a complex process being a subject
for sociology of science. It involves a great deal more factors than just knowledge about scientist and his discovery.
Moreover, this process can be reversible. Nevertheless, the analogy is curious – it looks like formation of chemical
bonds and formation of eponyms obey pretty similar logic (Table 3).
Figure 1: Formation of an eponym (right) as a VB metaphor of chemical bond (left).
145
Figure 2: Formation of an eponym (right) as a MO metaphor of chemical bond (left).
Table 3. Resemblance between formation of molecule and formation of eponym in the light of VB and MO
theories.
Atoms in molecules are held together due to paired Knowledge about scientist and his/her discovery is held together due to combining relevant
electrons. information about both components.
Only external (valence) electrons from outer levels Only external (in terms of science education), most relevant info about scientist is used to
participate in the bond formation. form an eponym.
Inner electrons remain do not engage. Information of scientist’s non-scientific biography, political views, hobbies, private affairs is
not involved.
Atomic orbitals can combine to form bonding molecular Information about scientist and discovery is relevant, appropriate, engaging and/or
orbital(s): conveyed in such a way that the whole combination is remembered more reliably than sci-
•• stability of the system increases; entist’s name and the discovery’s description apart. Interesting and catchy. It is an eponym!
•• energy of the system lowers. •• stability of two-word system increases;
•• energy to memorize and retain lowers.
Atomic orbitals can combine to form anti-bonding Information about scientist and discovery is irrelevant, boring, freaking out and/or conveyed
molecular orbital(s): in such a way that the whole combination is remembered less reliably than scientist’s name
•• stability of the system decreases; and the discovery’s description apart. Easy forgettable.
•• energy of the system increases. •• stability of two-word system decreases;
•• energy to memorize and retain the two-word system increases.
Atomic orbitals can combine to form non-bonding When information about scientist and discovery and/or teaching technique is inconsist-
molecular orbital: stability and energy of the system ent, positive impact is nullified by negative. No notable difference in retention of the whole
does not change. combination in comparison to the two words set apart.
Electrons can jump from bonding to anti-bonding When information about scientist and discovery in an existing eponym can be found
molecular orbital, which results in the bond breakage. unethical, imprecise or inappropriate – eponym disappears (e.g. abandonment of eponyms
featuring Nazi scientists).
Along with known stable compounds, chemist can syn- Along with existing official eponyms, educator can make up situational, temporary eponyms
thesize unstable but theoretically allowed compounds. to use in classroom or auditorium if they are in line with the principles of humanization and
historicism and allowed by teaching freedom.
The following IUPAC-nomenclatural parallels demonstrate that scientific eponyms in educational Universe
are manipulated like chemical compounds in the real. Moreover, eponyms can undergo changes like chemicals,
engaging in linguistic “reactions”:
146
Table 4. Resemblance between nomenclature and transformations of chemical eponyms and chemical com-
pounds.
Compound – sodium chloride: Eponym – Claisen reaction:
•• metal cation: sodium Na+; •• scientist: Claisen;
•• nonmetal anion: chloride Cl- •• discovery: reaction
The cation can combine with some other anions: The scientist can author several other discoveries:
•• sodium sulfide; sodium oxide •• Claisen flask; Claisen adapter; Claisen condensation
The anion can combine with some other cations: This type of discovery can be made by different scientists:
•• potassium chloride; iron (III) chloride •• Grignard reaction; Wittig reaction; Tishchenko reaction; Sabatier reaction; Cannizzaro
reaction
The anion sometimes can be present in binary mixtures The discovery sometimes can have multiple authors:
or double salts: •• Claisen-Wislicenus reaction; Claisen-Schmidt reaction; Claisen-Geuther reaction
•• potassium sodium chloride (sylvinite) KCl·NaCl
Compounds can change or react with other compounds in Eponyms can change or interact with other eponyms in the following linguistic transfor-
the following chemical reactions: mations:
•• synthesis: zinc + phosphorus  zinc phosphide; •• synthesis: Boyle + law  Boyle law;
•• decomposition: mercury (II) oxide  mercury + oxygen; •• decomposition: Mendeleev periodic table  Mendeleev + periodic table (in most
•• single displacement: iron + copper (II) bromide  iron countries periodic table is not used as eponym, so it disappears);
(II) bromide + copper; •• single displacement: Charles + Gay-Lussac law  Charles law + Gay-Lussac (the
•• double displacement: silver nitrate + potassium iodide eponym changes its name from one country to country, namely Gay-Lussac law in
 silver iodide + potassium nitrate Belarusian tradition of teaching physics is Charles law in US usage);
•• double displacement: Claisen reaction + Wurtz adapter  Claisen adapter + Wurtz
reaction (although the process is quite speculative, all the four eponyms actually exist).
The described resemblance between real and educational Universes, formation of chemical bonds and epo-
nyms, chemical compounds and scientific eponyms in their nomenclature and transformations raises a bunch of
questions. Is it OK to extrapolate patterns identified here onto practical science education? How productive can
it be for science education? What are other components of educational Universe? Figuratively speaking, is our
educational Universe expanding or shrinking? If eponym is a crystal of linguistic human-substance synthesis in
the fields of humanization and historicism, what are other crystals initiated by other didactic principles? Research
on such polyhedral, looking theoretical but essentially very hands-on educational issues is worth pursuing and
stays always welcome on the pages of Journal of Baltic Science Education.
Received: March 05, 2017 Accepted: March 25, 2017
Uladzimir Slabin Ph.D., Research Associate, Center for Advanced Technology in

Education, College of Education, University of Oregon, 1244 Walnut
Street, Suite 220 Eugene, OR 07403-5214, United States of America.
Member of JBSE Editorial Board
E-mail: uslabin@uoregon.edu
147
EFFECT of 5E TEACHING
MODEL ON PRIMary School
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/ Pre-Service TeacherS’
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/ Learning on Some
Astronomy CONCEPTS
Abstract. The purpose of this research was Çiğdem Şahin,

to examine the effect of the 5E teaching
Ümmü Gülsüm Durukan,
model on the primary school pre-service
teachers’ (PSPTs) learning some astronomy Elif Arıkurt
concepts. The sample of this research con-
sisted of 90 PSPTs in the 2nd year at a state
university. The research was carried out on
the pre-experimental methodology with a
single research group. The data of the study
were collected by concept cartoon form Introduction
which included some astronomy concepts
such as the Sun, star, planet, meteor, Solar Learning is directly correlated with individualistic differences. Likewise
System, constellations. The developed Bodner (1990)’s perspective, a meaningful teaching may not be realised
teaching materials about the chosen with all of the students, however the teacher practises teaching well. The
astronomy concepts were implemented in students give meaning to their new knowledge by associating them with
eight course hours. It was seen that most their pre-knowledge and construct them in their minds (Osborne & Wittrock,
of the PSPTs had alternative concepts. A 1983). While the students are constructing the concepts, they can develop
considerable decrease was determined alternative concepts which are scientifically wrong and called misconceptions
when the pre and post-test results of the or alternative frameworks (Driver & Easley, 1978) in literature. The existence
PSPTs were compared; it was found that of knowledge which does not comply with scientific facts in the students’
learning based on the 5E teaching model pre-knowledge with reference to the topic they learn prevents realisation of
had a positive effect on the conceptual meaningful learning (Osborne & Wittrock, 1983). The 5E teaching model, one
change. It can be said that 5E teaching of the models of constructivist learning theory, is frequently used in concept
model was effective on remedying alterna- learning to have the students construct the concepts scientifically in their
tive concepts. In the future research about minds. In the research, it was determined that 5E teaching model was effec-
astronomy teaching may be conducted to tive to provide student achievement and to remedy their misconceptions
determine the effects of 5E teaching model (Vincent, Cassel & Milligan, 2008). The studies intended for the 5E teaching
on remedying the alternative concepts and model were carried out about such topics as cell (Wilder & Shuttleworth,
achieving conceptual change with the dif- 2005), floating- sinking (Vincent, Cassel & Milligan, 2008), buoyancy force
ferent education levels of students. (Şahin & Çepni, 2012), and so on.
From the literature about the teaching astronomy, it can be said that the
Keywords: concept cartoons, primary
participants possess various alternative concepts like many other abstract
school, pre-service teachers, astronomy
concepts (Blown & Bryce, 2010; Küçüközer, Bostan & Işıldak, 2010; Ercan,
concepts, 5E teaching model, alternative
Taşdere, & Ercan, 2010; İyibil & Sağlam-Arslan, 2010; Kallery, 2011; Kurnaz,
concept.
2012). Many research conducted about teaching astronomy are mostly to
determine student perception about basic astronomy topics and concepts
(Klein, 1982; Atwood & Atwood, 1996, 1997; Kikas, 2005; Kalkan & Kıroğlu,
Çiğdem Şahin, Ümmü Gülsüm Durukan
Giresun University, Turkey
2007; Cin, 2007; Emrahoğlu & Öztürk, 2009; Frede, 2006; Kallery, 2011; Kur-
Elif Arıkurt naz, 2012; Wallace, Prather & Duncan, 2012; Karslı & Kara-Patan, 2016) and
Nebi Güney Middle School, Turkey mental models (Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992; Liu, 2003; Panagiotaki, Nobes &
Potton, 2008; İyibil & Sağlam-Arslan, 2010). However, same studies carried
148
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ EFFECT of 5E TEACHING MODEL ON PRIMary School Pre-Service TeacherS’ Learning
on Some Astronomy CONCEPTS
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 148-162)
out to remedy alternative conceptions (Küçüközer, Bostan & Işıldak, 2010; Trumper, 2006a; Ercan, Taşdere & Ercan,
2010) are quite few in number. One of these researches, Trumper (2006a) determined that activities based on con-
structivist theory were effective to remedy the prospective teachers’ misconceptions about the Earth’s, the Sun’s,
and the Moon’s motions. In another research, Ercan, Taşdere and Ercan (2010) determined that teaching based on
constructivist approach was positively important on the students’ conceptual change and understanding key con-
cepts such as star, planet, celestial body, meteor, The milky way, telescope. Similarly, in study of Küçüközer, Bostan
and Işıldak (2010), significant difference was found between the two tests in favour of post-test and teaching was
found to be effective in providing of conceptual change. In the literature related with 5E teaching model, there are
not enough research which aimed at teaching astronomy topics and concepts. The limited researches about the
using 5E teaching model in teaching astronomy indicate that it is a useful model to remedy alternative concepts.
Astronomy is a branch of science which has a close relationship with many branches of science such as physics,
mathematics, and geography. Undoubtedly, what lies beneath these relations is that the individuals make a great
effort to understand the universe, the Earth and the nature (Percy, 1998; Trumper, 2006b). Thus, Trumper (2006c)
determined in his study that among the subjects which most drew the attention of the high school students were
astronomy concepts and stated that the students were curious about the answers of such questions as “How it feels
to be weightless in space”, “How meteors, comets, or asteroids may cause disasters on earth” and “Black holes, super-
novas, and other spectacular objects in outer space”. The learners’ great interest and curiosity in astronomy topics
and concepts caused the researchers to focus on these topics. It is no doubt that the teachers have an important
role to make astronomy education qualified. Therefore, firstly the pre-service teachers’ alternative concepts about
astronomy should be determined and implementations must be carried out for these concepts to be exchanged
or remedy by scientific concepts. In this study, the alternative concepts of the Primary School Pre-Service Teach-
ers (PSPTs) who are going to carry out the primary education about the basic concepts for astronomy in formal
education environments about some concepts of astronomy were determined and they struggled to remedy these
alternative concepts. It is believed that this study would supplement the lack of material pointed out in literature
(Cin, 2007; Kurnaz, 2012) to some extent and the results of the study will light the way for the future studies.
Problem of Research
The purpose of this research was to examine the effect of the 5E teaching model on the PSPTs’ learning some
concepts of astronomy. The research questions are “Does the 5E teaching model affect the PSPTs’ learning situa-
tions about some concepts of astronomy such as the sun, star, planet, meteor, solar system, constellations?” and
“How do the PSPTs’ conceptual understandings of some concepts of astronomy change after the implementation
of 5E teaching model?”
Methodology of Research
General Background of Research
The research was carried out according to the single group pre and post-test design of pre-experimental
methodology. In pre-experimental methodology, a single research group is often studied but no comparison
between equivalent non-treatment groups is made. Treatment is carried out on a single research group during
pre and post-test implementations (Cohen & Manion, 1994). The effect of the 5E teaching model to remedy the
alternative concepts was investigated on a single research group in this research.
Sample of Research
The sample of the research consisted of the PSPTs in the 2nd year of the Education Faculty, Primary School
Teacher Education at a university located in Eastern Black Sea Region. In the pre-test of the research 123 PSPTs
joined, 121 PSPTs participated in the teaching sequence and 105 PSPTs participated in post-test. Therefore, the
sample of research consisted of 90 PSPTs who participated both in the pre-test, teaching sequence and the post-
test, because the pre and post-test scores were going to be compared.
In Turkey, Primary school teacher’s job description can be done as follows: primary school teachers try and
arrange learning environments in order to gain basic knowledge, skills and attitudes on basic sciences such as read-
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EFFECT of 5E TEACHING MODEL ON PRIMary School Pre-Service TeacherS’ Learning
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ing and writing, basic citizenship, mathematics, social sciences, natural sciences, arts, sports areas etc. to students
between 6 to 12 ages in the formal teaching process.
The knowledge and skills which the PSPTs gained throughout their education life about the field of astronomy
can be listed as follows:
•• Within the framework of life science course under the theme of Yesterday, Today, Future, the students
learn the concepts of the Earth and the Sun in the 1st grade, the same concepts, their motions and
what we can see when we look up the sky in the 2nd grade, the moon and its phases, the Earth and its
motion and the Sun concepts in the 3rd grade (MNE, 2009).
•• Within the framework of Science and Technology course under the field of the Earth and the Universe,
the students learn the subjects related to the shape of the Earth and its structure properties in the 4th
grade, the size of the Earth, the Sun and the Moon and their motions, and they can be able to distinguish
these concepts from each other in the 5th grade (MNE, 2005).
•• Within the framework of Science and Technology course, the materials which form the lithosphere, the
place and the importance of these materials in our life will be studied. In the 7th grade, the students
are introduced to the basic concepts such as galaxy, planet, star, comet, and constellation. They are
also told about the solar system and optical instruments used for the space exploration. In the 8th
grade, the formation of the Earth, plate tectonics, and the climate phenomenon in the atmosphere are
mentioned and the importance of these events in our daily life will be addressed in Turkish education
system (MNE, 2006).
The students are expected to comprehend the basic astronomy concepts which are presented in a spiral
structure in teaching curricula with life science and science and technology courses in primary education.
Instrument and Procedures
In the literature to collect data about astronomy topics and concepts, such techniques as multiple choice
tests (Trumper, 2003; Küçüközer, Bostan & Işıldak, 2010), open ended questions (Frede, 2006; İyibil & Sağlam Ar-
slan, 2010), drawings (Hannust & Kikas, 2007), word association test (Ercan, Taşdere & Ercan, 2010) were used and
therefore, the primary school students’ and the PSPTs’ mental models, understanding levels, and misconceptions
related to the topics were revealed and their conceptual change processes were investigated. Conspicuously, the
concept cartoons do not take place among the data collection tools of the studies in the literature. Keogh and
Naylor (1999a) defined concept cartoons as teaching approach which presents alternative concepts in science
and is formed by small texts where cartoon characters take part. Opportunities are given to the students with the
concept cartoons to compare their scientific opinions with their opinions about the situations in daily life (Keogh
& Naylor, 1999b). The abstract and complex science concepts are able to be explained easily by the characters in
concept cartoons (Stephenson & Warwick, 2002). Each cartoon character about a new situation must be prepared
in such a way that a character can assert a different opinion (Keogh & Naylor, 1999b; Stephenson & Warwick, 2002).
The students are given an opportunity to inquire their own understanding and their misconceptions about the
relevant concept and justify their own ideas by this way (Stephenson & Warwick, 2002; Kabapınar, 2005). Concept
cartoons enable the students to meet the events which they have never realized before. Concept cartoons prepared
must consist of common misconceptions and scientific facts (Kabapınar, 2005). Additively, it was stated in literature
that concept cartoons were effective to reveal the preliminary knowledge of the students, though (Stephenson &
Warwick, 2002). Therefore, it was decided that concept cartoons were used as data collection tool in this research.
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Figure 1: An example of a concept cartoon.
The research data were collected by concept cartoon form developed by the researchers to be used in pre
and post-test and which include some concepts of astronomy and the relevant concepts. As data collection tool, 12
different concept cartoons about the concepts in astronomy such as “The sun and the star”, “shape of the star”, “The
stars and the planets”, “The brightness of the stars, their colour and size”, “Meteor”, “the planet”, “location of meteor,
star, and celestial bodies (the sky and the space)”, “the structure of the solar system”, “Shooting stars”, “Constella-
tion”, “Light year”, “The comet” were prepared. There were three characters who said different statements about
the subject on the concept cartoons. While the PSPTs answering the concept cartoons were asked to identify the
characters’ statement true or false and to write only the answer (true/false) in the table next to cartoons. Besides
the three cartoon characters in concept cartoons, there is “you” character which represents the PSPTs. So the PSPTs
can express their own thoughts on “you” character’s thought balloon. In order to help the students answer them
easily, characters are called with names (Kabapınar, 2005). An example of cartoon character was presented in Figure
1. While concept cartoons were prepared, many alternative concepts which were determined in the studies about
astronomy topics and concepts in literature were benefited from and identified alternative concepts/misconcep-
tions were used in concept cartoon character statements. Besides that, some of alternative concepts were obtained
in the textbooks. The gains about astronomy topics were examined in the primary school science and technology
course instruction program. And, concept cartoons were prepared parallel to these gains in the instruction program.
Table 1. The gains belonging to the concept cartoons, alternative concepts and the studies where the alter-
native concepts were determined.
The studies where the alternative

Gains Alternative Concepts
concepts were determined
1 S/he expresses that the Sun is a star too. The sun is not a star because the star reflects the Kurnaz, 2012; Roald & Mikalsen, 2000;
heat and the light it takes from the Sun.
2 “Star” suggests the shape in the Turkish flag. We are told in the books we have read and the İyibil & Sağlam-Arslan, 2010; Kurnaz,
The stars are usually thought to be spherical. publications we have followed till now that the star 2012; Sharp, 1996
is shaped like that «
3 While doing observation, the students distin- Stars exist in the sky but the planets exist in the Dunlop, 2000
guish the stars from the planets. space.
4 They explain the difference between the We learn the natural phenomenon with the help of Ercan, Taşdere & Ercan, 2010;
meteor and the meteorite. the meteors.
5 They know the features of the stars. Stars are the smallest celestial bodies. Ercan, Taşdere & Ercan, 2010; Sadler,
1998
The hottest stars are red, yellow and white. Küçüközer, Bostan & Işıldak, 2010;
Zeilik, 1998
6 The planets are not the source of light and they We cannot see the planets but the people who Ercan, Taşdere & Ercan, 2010
exist in the space and they compare the size of travel to space can see them.
the planets to the other celestial bodies.
The largest celestial objects are the planets.
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The studies where the alternative

Gains Alternative Concepts
concepts were determined
7 Because we can observe them with a naked Stars are seen in the sky. Ercan, Taşdere & Ercan, 2010; Kurnaz,
eye in the space, they notice that there are 2012
more celestial bodies.
8 They know the place of the celestial bodies in Cin, 2007; MNE, 2006; Sharp, 1996
the Solar System.
9 They know that a meteor which enters with To me, shooting star is the stars’ changing loca- Küçüközer, Bostan & Işıldak, 2010
a great speed and burns in the atmosphere tion with their movement.
causes the shooting star.
Shooting star is the visible comet.
10 They give examples of known constellations. Horoscopes are also constellations. Moreover, the Kurnaz, 2012; MNE, 2006
They also state that stars which make up most famous constellation is Halley.
constellation are called by a common name
because they exhibit the same view when they
are looked at from the Earth but not due to their Daily horoscopes cannot be stars.
common features or relationships. Stars appear close together in the constellation.
11 They also state that the long distances be- Light year is a unit of time. A light year is 100 MNE, 2006
tween the stars are expressed by a light year, years.
unit of distance.
Light year is a unit of time but it is a flow of time
that occurs between when the sun rises and sets.
12 They also indicate that comets are named as Comet is a star because comets also emit light. Kurnaz, 2012; MNE, 2006
stars but they are different from the stars.
Comets are stars because comets are made up of
dust and gas like the other stars.
Every concept cartoon has been developed in accordance with a pair of gain-alternative concept in Table 1.
The views of two experts were consulted in order to provide the construct validity of the concept cartoons. The
PSPTs completed the concept cartoon form about 60 minutes. The gains, the alternative concepts and the studies
which determined alternative concepts were presented in Table 1.
Development of Teaching Materials and Their Implementation Process
The teaching materials based on 5E teaching model which included the star, the planet, meteor, celestial
bodies, comet, constellation and light year topics of astronomy were developed. The reasons why the 5E teaching
model was preferred was that; it was determined that 5E teaching model was effective in teaching various science
concepts (Şahin & Çepni, 2012). And it was considered that the PSPTs would be using the applications based on
the 5E teaching model in their teaching process after their graduation, as the 5E teaching model of constructivist
theory is adopted and used in the updated Turkish curriculum of science and technology courses (MNE, 2006).
Moreover, Trumper (2000) defended that the strategies like class discussion used were effective for remedying the
misconceptions of the PSPTs and constructivist theory had an important role in teaching astronomy.
The content of the course was formed by preparing two plans. The activities that take place in the teaching
materials developed and their implementation process were presented in Table 2.
In the first course plan, each PSPT was given a worksheet and the PSPTs were asked to answer the questions
in the worksheet and then their answers were heard. However, the answers of the PSPTs were not interfered. In
explore stage; the PSPTs watched a detailed video about space from a CD. After the video, the questions of “Which
celestial bodies did you see? What might there be in the space apart from these?” were asked to the PSPTs and
their answers were heard. In the explain stage, after the video, necessary explanations about the star, meteor,
meteorite, the Earth, the Sun and the planets were given. In the elaboration stage, the PSPTs were asked to create
their own space with play dough. During this activity, the PSPTs are divided into groups, the groups are distributed
worksheets and each group gives a name to their group and work on the pasteboard with play dough. The PSPTs
were enabled to make celestial bodies such as planets, stars, and meteor. The lecture invited a PSPT from each
group to the board to have them compare and explain what they have done. After all the groups completed their
work, the lecturer gets the PSPTs to watch another video which included in the sizes of the planets and the stars
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and comparisons between their sizes. In the evaluation stage, the structured communication grid worksheets
were prepared about the concepts PSPTs have learnt were given to the PSPTs. The PSPTs answered them and then
their answers were discussed.
Figure 2: Examples from the PSPTs’ applications from a play dough activity called “Space in Our Dream”.
Table 2. Information about teaching materials developed in the research, their intended purpose, the stages
where teaching materials (TMS) are used in the 5E teaching model and implementation time.
Plan-1 which involves the Star, The Planet, and Meteor concepts
Gains Duration
Materials developed Purpose The 5E TMS
(see Table 1) (min.)
A worksheet called “Astronaut –Taz” To reveal misconceptions and determine their 2,4 25 Engage
preliminary knowledge.
Watching a CD of Science Journal To compare the sizes of star and planet and to go 1,3,4,5,6,7 45 Explore
over opinions and teach concepts
Discussion activity of comparison of a To enable the PSPTs to internalise by having them 1,3,4,5,6,7 30 Explain
Science Journal CD and the knowledge discuss what they watch in the video and their own
inherent in their minds knowledge and help them go over the expressions
they use in daily life
A play dough activity called “Space in To reveal the portrait related to the space in the 3,7, 8 60 Elaboration
our Dream” ” and a video minds of the PSPTs
Structured communication grid To go over misconceptions and to evaluate their 20 Evaluation
learning conditions
Plan-2 which involves the Comet, the Constellation, and Light year concepts
Gains Duration
Materials developed Purpose The 5E TMS
(see Table 1) (min.)
Work sheets To examine the preliminary knowledge of the PSPTs 10 30 Engage

about constellation and light year and to create
curiosity.
Making a constellation map activity To learn the concepts of constellation and light year 10, 11 60 Explore
called “Which star group are you?”
Discussion To give an explanation of constellation and light 10, 11 35 Explain
year concepts via discussion and to come up with
an explanation related to constellation and light year
A conceptual change text called “The To go over opinions, to have them comprehend the 9, 12 35 Elaboration
story of a comet” difference between the comet and the shooting star
and to teach a concept
Semantic Features Analysis To go over misconceptions 20 Evaluation
In the other course plan, concepts such as the comet, the constellation, light year were studied. In the engage
stage in this plan, the questions of “Do you always see the stars in the sky in the same shape when you look up
the sky?”“Can you group the stars you observe in the sky?” were asked to the PSPTs and their answers were heard.
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The questions of “When is your birthday?”“Do you know your horoscope?” were asked to draw the attention of the
PSPTs. Their answers were heard. Afterwards, they were asked whether the horoscopes called “Aries, Taurus, Gemini,
Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces” are stars or not. In the explore stage,
the student groups were composed of 4 or 5 PSPTs. Each group determined a pseudo-name for their group. The
scissors, glue, ruler and the constellation map to be made were distributed to each group. After the constellation
map was done, the activity became a competition. Then, the Great Bear, a constellation determined by researchers,
asked the PSPTs to explore the constellation of their own horoscopes. After the constellations were found, they were
asked to explore the distance between these constellations. The group which completed this activity becomes the
first and the group was given a prize. In the explain stage, with questions such as “What is a constellation?”, “How
is a constellation formed?”, “Can you give examples to a constellation you know?” and “What is a light year?” the
PSPTs were enabled to reinforce what they learned with the activity they did. Constellation and light year were
explained in detail. In the elaboration stage, the misconception that “comets are stars” was tried to be exchanged
with a conceptual change text (CCT) activity called “The Story of a Comet”. Moreover, it was emphasised in the
CCT that comet is not associated with shooting star event by taking into consideration the misconception that
“shooting star is the comet which is visible” and it is stated that shooting star occurs when the meteor enters the
atmosphere and it burns up into flames due to friction of the meteors. The evaluation of the course was carried
out with the semantic features analysis. The developed teaching material was implemented in eight course hours
(time of one course= 45 mins/8x45= 360 mins).
Data Analysis
The data collected from the concept cartoon form were analysed by content analysis method. The qualita-
tive expressions which are the indicators of which alternative concepts the PSPTs possess in concept cartoons or
whether they possess scientifically accepted knowledge or not, were analysed and they were coded under three
categories as “True Answer (TA)” and “Alternative Concept (AC)” and “No Answer (NA)” and their frequency was cal-
culated. While the answers of the PSPTs related to the opinions of the cartoon character in each concept cartoon
were evaluated, the PSPTs’ determination condition of whether the opinion belonging to a cartoon character was
true or false were taken into consideration during the analysis. For example, if a PSPT wrote that Hüseyin’s idea
which is “The Sun is not a star because the star reflects the heat and the light it obtains from the Sun.” is false the
PSPT’s answer was coded as TA. If a PSPT writes that Hüseyin’s idea is true, the PSPT’s answer was coded as AC. If
he did not answer, it was coded in category NA.
The PSPTs who possess different views than the cartoon characters wrote their opinions about the topic on
the “you” character’ thought balloon in the concept cartoon and by examining these expressions the alternative
concepts were analysed descriptively. Researchers coded data by re-reading identifying codes, discussing with
the other researchers for providing credibility of data analysis. Direct quotations were given in the text from the
PSPTs’ statements in order to enhance the validity of the data.
Results of Research
The findings obtained from the research were presented in this section in the tables prepared for each concept
cartoon. Moreover, apart from these alternative concepts, alternative concepts which the PSPTs were determined
to possess were presented with the support of quotations from the PSPTs’ statements.
Table 3. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about the sun and the stars.
Pre-test Post-test
Characters in Concept Cartoons and the Statements of the Characters
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Hüseyin In my opinion the sun is not a star because the star reflects the heat and 73 17 - 84 3 3
the light it takes from the sun.
Rumeysa To me, the sun is not a star because the sun is larger than the stars. 74 15 1 88 2 -
*Emre No, I don’t agree with you. To me, the sun is a star. 72 13 5 88 2 -
*: The cartoon character who told the correct statement in the concept cartoon, TA: True Answer, AC: Alternative Concept NA: No
answer, are the abbreviated forms of the statements
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When Table 3 was examined, it was revealed that conceptual change has been realized. The frequency
distribution of TA of the PSPTs about this concept cartoon before teaching was quite high. When the findings of
post-test were examined, there were an increase PSPTs’ answers in TA category but a decrease in their alternative
concepts’ frequency. Such alternative concepts which came out in the pre-test with answers given by the PSPTs
in the “you” section of the cartoon as “The sun is not a star because the sun is seen in the sky but the stars are not
visible.” (PSPT24) and “the planets and the stars reflect the light.” (PSPT113) were removed in the post test.
Table 4. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about the shape of a star.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Yeşim In my opinion, the shapes of the stars are like that. («). 45 44 1 78 10 2
Tuğra To me, the shapes of the stars are like that (shapeless). 47 43 - 79 11 -
*Ömer To me, the shapes of the stars are like that (¡). 8 75 7 82 - 8
The PSPTs possessed an alternative concept in the concept cartoon about the shape of the stars before teaching
sequence. They stated that the shape of the stars looked like the star («) on our flag (Turkish flag) or they did not
have a specific geometric shape. After teaching, conceptual change was realized and the frequency of alternative
concepts decreased. Apart from these expressions, it was determined by the “you” cartoon character that the PSPTs
possessed such alternative concepts as “Because the stars are planets, they are circular.” (PSPT53), “The sun is in the
shape of a circle.” (PSPT26) and “The stars are worm-shaped” (PSPT39).
Table 5. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about the stars and the planets.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Hüseyin The stars exist in the sky but the planets exist in the space. 34 51 5 75 13 2
*Rumeysa The stars emit light but the planets do not give light. 50 27 13 82 8 -
Zeynep To me, the stars are larger than the planets. 15 60 15 77 9 4
When Table 5 was examined, there was an increase answers in the TA category in favour of post- test. Moreover,
it was determined by the “you” character in concept cartoon that the PSPTs possessed alternative concepts such as
“we can’t see the planets because they do not emit light.” (PSPT65), “the planets could be big stars” (PSPT119) and “The
stars exist on the Earth” (PSPT120). After teaching, the PSPTs could correct these alternative concepts in post-test.
Table 6. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about the life cycle of stars, their colours and size.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
*Alp The stars are not living beings, but they are born like a living being, they live 43 41 6 70 19 1
and die like them.
Ezgi To me, the hottest stars have warm colours such as yellow, red and orange. 40 30 20 80 8 2
Bahri The stars are the smallest celestial bodies. 50 30 10 85 2 3
The frequency distribution of pre and post-tests in concept cartoon about the life cycle of stars, their co-
lours and size revealed in Table 6 that the PSPTs possessed alternative concepts but these alternative concepts
decreased after teaching sequence. It was determined by the “you” character in concept cartoon that the PSPTs
possessed alternative concepts in pre-test apart from the given alternative concepts such as “stars are not living
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beings because they do not disappear.” (PSPT26), “stars are not born and they don’t die, but they only change
location.” (PSPT61), “The hottest part of the sun is red, and then comes orange and yellow.” (PSPT70), “stars do not
have colours” (PSPT78), “stars die because of shooting stars.” (PSPT80), “stars are not the source of heat. We cannot
classify them as hot according to their colours.” (PSPT85) and “stars are not living beings and they do not have any
colours. The sun is a star and larger than some planets.” (PSPT123).
Table 7. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about meteor.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Yeşim The meteors form a pit where they fall. 83 1 6 90 - -

*Tuğra The meteors which reach the Earth after entering the Earth’s atmos- 77 1 12 90 - -
phere are called meteorites.
Serap We learn the natural events with the help of the meteors. 60 17 13 88 2 -
It was determined in the concept cartoon about the meteors in Table 7 that the distribution of correct answer
frequency of the PSPTs was quite high before teaching sequence. When the distribution of frequency after teaching
sequence was examined, the PSPTs who could not answer or who possessed alternative concepts gave true answers.
Table 8. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about the planets.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Hüseyin We can’t see the planets. The people who travel to the space can see 45 44 1 71 18 1
them.
*Zeynep The planets do not emit light. 53 29 9 79 11 -
Emre The planets are the largest among the celestial bodies. 51 30 9 71 15 4
When the findings of pre-test and post-test about planets in concept cartoon were examined, it was revealed
in Table 8 that the true answers given by the PSPTs in post-test increased considerably. Moreover, it was determined
by the “you” character in concept cartoon that such alternative concepts possessed by the PSPTs as “stars are on our
world” (PSPT79), “the sun is the largest among the celestial bodies.” (PSPT103), and “we cannot classify the celestial
bodies according to their sizes.” (PSPT23) were exchanged after teaching sequence.
Table 9. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about the location (the sky and the space) of a meteor,
star, planet and celestial bodies.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
*Erkan When we look up the sky, we can see the meteor, the planets and the stars. 18 70 2 34 53 3
Nagihan No, we can only see the stars in the sky. The meteor and the planets exist 14 71 5 40 49 1
in the space.
Yağmur The planets and the stars are the same celestial bodies and exist in the sky. 55 26 19 84 6 -
The meteor is found in the space.
When the pre and post-test results of the PSPTs in concept cartoon about the location (the sky and the
space) of celestial bodies as meteor, stars and planets were compared, it was revealed in Table 9 that there was
an increase in the answers towards post-test. Such alternative concepts of the PSPTs in pre-test determined by
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the “you” character of concept cartoon. PSPT65 said, “We cannot see the meteor the planets because they do not
reflect the light.” PSPT10 stated, “We can only see the stars when we look up the sky.” PSPT103 said, “Stars are the
non-living light sources and they can fall to the Earth.” and PSPT29 said, “all the planets are in the sky but meteors
are in the space.” The alternative concepts determined were exchanged considerably after teaching sequence.
Table 10. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about the structure of a solar system.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Can To me, it is the most correct figure. 42 44 4 40 45 5
To me, the celestial bodies exist like

Fatih 71 14 4 80 10 -
that.
*Bahri No, they exist like that. 34 50 6 46 39 5
When the findings obtained from the concept cartoon about the structure of the Solar System were examined
in Table 10, it was revealed that there was not a distinctive difference between the pre and post-test results of the
PSPTs, in other words, the PSPTs still possessed the same alternative concepts after teaching sequence.
Table 11. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about shooting star.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Ahmet To me, shooting stars is that stars move and replace their places. 39 50 1 40 45 5
*Can The meteors which enter into the atmosphere cause shooting stars. 32 56 2 62 23 5
Gülay No, I don’t agree with you. Shooting stars are visible comets. 85 5 - 81 9 -
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When the pre and post-test results of the PSPTs about shooting star in concept cartoon were examined, it was
revealed that there was not a considerable change between the results. Especially the PSPTs still possessed the
following alternative concept after teaching sequence: “To me, shooting stars is the stars’ changing places.” Such
alternative concepts of the PSPTs in pre-test determined by the “you” character of concept cartoon were exchanged
after teaching sequence. PSPT89 said, “When stars run out of energy, they die and we see this activity as a shooting
star.”, PSPT16 stated “Meteor can cause the star to fall by hitting it.”, PSPT10 and PSPT73 said “Shooting star reveals
that star has run out of light.”, PSPT48 said “shooting star is observed when a comet changes its place.”, PSPT50
stated “Stars do not shoot. Why we see the stars shoot is that the Earth rotates around its axis”. PSPT75 said “it is
due to the particle the comet leaves behind when it falls.” and PSPT110 said “It is the disappearance of the stars by
burning up”. The PSPTs did not make any explanations to the “you” character which involved alternative concepts.
Table 12. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about a constellation.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
*Serap The group of stars that are seen together are referred to as constellation 64 20 6 84 5 1
Ömer To me, horoscopes are also constellations. Moreover, the most famous constel- 25 55 10 83 6 1
lation is Halley.
Ceren To me, daily horoscopes cannot be stars. 40 35 15 80 8 2
When the pre and post-test results related to constellation in concept cartoon were examined, it was revealed
that there was a considerable change between the results. The PSPTs possessed the alternative concepts which were
determined by the “you” character in the pre-test but conceptual change was provided after teaching sequence:
PSPT64 said, “Horoscopes have nothing to do with the constellation. Whatever star moves in front of the moon,
the person’s horoscope is interpreted according to that star.”
Table 13. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about light year.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Erkan To me, light year is a time unit. A light year is 100 years. 40 20 10 60 22 8
Nagihan I agree that light year is a time unit. But, it is the time between when the sun 48 30 12 75 15 -
rises and sets.
*Yağmur I don’t agree with you. Light year is a unit of distance. 48 33 9 66 24 -
When the pre and post-test answers of the PSPTs about light year in concept cartoon were analysed in Table
13, it was revealed that there was an increase in favour of post-test in which the PSPTs stated that light year was
a unit of distance. Moreover, such alternative concept determined by the character “you” in concept cartoon in
pre-test, as stated by PSPT14, “Light year is not a unit of distance because it is a year.” was exchanged considerably
when the post-test answers were analysed.
Table 14. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about comets.
Pre-test Post-test
TA AC NA TA AC NA
Sibel In my opinion, the comet is a star because the comets emit light. 8 75 7 41 46 3
Fatih To me, the comets are stars because the comets are made up of gas and 15 52 23 53 36 1
dust just like the other stars.
*Bahri I don’t agree with you. The comets are not stars. 11 75 4 52 34 4
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In Table 14 it was seen that there was a considerable increase in favour of post-test between the pre and post-
tests frequency distributions related to a comet in concept cartoon. It was revealed that such alternative concept
in pre-test, as stated by PSPT64 “It is not a star which is made up of dust and gas, but a planet.” and by PSPT71,
“Comets are formed by burning up dust and gas.” and PSPT12, “the light of the comet is due to the light emitted
by its tail.” were exchanged after teaching sequence.
Discussion
Effect of the 5E teaching model on the PSPTs’ learning outcomes related with the astronomy topics and con-
cepts were discussed at below in detail:
The findings revealed that PSPTs’ alternative concepts such as “Sun and star”, “the shape of the star”, “stars
and planets”, “the life cycle of the stars, their size and colour”, “Meteor”, “Planet”, “the location of meteor, star,
planet and celestial bodies (the sky and the space)”, “shooting star”, “Constellation”, “Light year”, “The comet”
concepts were removed considerably in this research. Moreover, it was determined that the PSPTs’ alternative
concepts were different from in the literature like “When stars die, they become shooting stars”, “Stars do not
have a colour”, “Stars are worm-shaped”, and “Shooting star is the disappearance of stars by burning up”. The
PSPTs’ these alternative concepts were exposed via the “you” character in concept cartoon. It can be stated
that the alternative concepts can be determined by concept cartoons. It was seen that the determined PSPTs’
alternative concepts with concept cartoons related with stars and their features are similar to the ones in the
literature such as “Stars have («) shape.’(Sharp, 1996; İyibil & Sağlam-Arslan, 2010; Kurnaz, 2012), ‘Stars and plan-
ets reflect light’ (Emrahoğlu & Öztürk, 2009; İyibil & Sağlam-Arslan, 2010), ‘The sun is not a star because the sun
is seen in the sky during day time but stars are not seen in day time’ (Sharp, 1996; Küçüközer et al., 2010). Such
expressions of the PSPTs as “the sun is a star and it is larger than some planets” or “The sun is the largest among
the celestial bodies.” revealed that the PSPTs did not have adequate knowledge about the size of the celestial
bodies and their comparisons and they had some alternative concepts. At this point, with the worksheet called
“Astronaut-Taz” in Plan-1, the preliminary knowledge of the PSPTs about the celestial bodies were determined
by having them draw pictures or write their opinions about them. In the explore stage, the PSPTs watched a CD
where they could observe the three dimensional model of celestial bodies. After the PSPTs watched the video,
the discussion which they had about the size of the celestial bodies was effective for remedying their alterna-
tive concepts. Moreover, it can be stated that this activity helped the PSPTs to remedy the alternative concepts
which they had about the shape of the stars.
The most frequently encountered alternative concept about light year is that light year is not a unit of dis-
tance but is a unit of time. It can be stated that the term “year” in light year was associated with the unit of time
by the PSPTs. In the activity called “Which Star Clusters are you?” in Plan-2 in the research, the PSPTs made a map
of constellation and they measured the distance between their constellation and the constellation belonging to
their classmates’ in their group and wrote it down in the light year column. It was revealed that this activity was
effective to remedy the alternative concepts about the light year.
It was determined that the PSPTs could not give clear information about constellation and they usually pos-
sessed alternative concepts. It was determined with creating constellation map activity called “Which star clusters
are you?” in Plan-2 that alternative concepts not only about light year but also constellation were considerably
removed. The PSPTs analysed the constellation created by star clusters which appeared to be together on their
maps. They internalized that their horoscopes were also constellation.
It was determined that the PSPTs could not understand the structure of the comets and the comet concept
was explained differently with the concepts of star and planets. During these explanations, especially the use of
a star concept and perception of comet as a type of a star can be associated with the term “star” which is used to
name the concept (Kurnaz, 2012). In this context, the CCT called “The Story of a Comet” in Plan-2 was used to draw
the attention of the PSPTs on the difference between the comets and the stars. It was determined that CCTs were
quite successful in removing alternative concepts related with celestial bodies (Şahin, Bülbül & Durukan, 2013).
But, CCT related to alternative concepts about comet was not encountered in literature. Kurnaz (2012) conducted
a study about comets and he suggested that carefully prepared conceptual change activities should be used to
correct the alternative concepts of the PSPTs and it was proved in this study that CCT was effective to remove the
alternative concepts about comets. Similarly, when shooting star was taken into consideration, it was revealed
that the PSPTs expressed this event as the movement of a comet or a star. The PSPTs who were able to establish a
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correlation between the concepts of shooting star, comet and star changed their alternative concepts which they
expressed during the pre-test after teaching sequence considerably with the help of CCT.
The activities used in the research were not effective in realizing conceptual change and development related
to the solar system at a satisfactory level. The PSPTs maintained the alternative concepts which they had acquired
with the solar system after teaching sequence. All of the alternative concepts which were not exchanged after
teaching are called hard-core concepts. Moreover, such alternative concepts were maintained by the students after
teaching (Duit & Treagust, 2003). In the research, the PSPTs did a play dough activity called “Space in Our Dream” to
teach the solar system and then they watched the video about solar system. The PSPTs were enabled to compare
their own solar systems with the video they watched and to discuss the faults in their models. The PSPTs were not
asked to make a solar system again. Although watching videos were effective in comparing the size of the stars
and the planets for the PSPTs, it was not effective for the PSPTs to understand the placement of the stars and the
planets in the solar system. Therefore, few of the PSPTs realized conceptual change about the solar system but most
of them were not able to realize conceptual change. In this context, the teachers/ the lecturers were suggested
that they should use the activities intended for actual practises with their PSPTs, as in the constellation activity,
during the teaching sequence about astronomy.
It is revealed in the concept cartoon about planets, the PSPTs attributed some features of stars to the plan-
ets. Similarly, it was determined in literature (Emrahoğlu & Öztürk, 2009; İyibil & Sağlam-Arslan, 2010; Şahin et al.,
2013) that PSPTs possessed alternative concepts about stars. They thought that stars were planets. Moreover, it
can be stated that they brought the relations built between planet and star concepts to unscientific dimensions
such as “Planets can be big stars”. In this research, the findings from the post-test of concept cartoon where the
difference between a star and a planet was discussed point out that the alternative concepts the PSPTs possessed
were corrected after teaching sequence. The PSPTs gave true answers in the post-test about meteor in concept
cartoon. When the position of meteor, star and planet concepts were taken into consideration, it was understood
that PSPTs did not have adequate knowledge about the concepts and they could not differentiate between the
concepts (Emrahoğlu & Öztürk, 2009).
The PSPTs generally had alternative concepts at first. After teaching sequence of 5E teaching model, the
number of alternative concepts of the PSPTs was decreased but the PSPTs’ some alternative concepts were not
removed completely. It was not possible to remove the alternative concepts completely all the time (Arıkurt, 2014;
Şahin et al., 2013). This situation which was encountered among the results of conceptual change studies reminds
that while constructing the knowledge of the students about the topic, they were affected by the resistant nature
of alternative concepts against change as well as their daily life experiences or cultural values (Kurnaz, 2012). The
PSPTs’ stating that the sun was the largest celestial body while comparing the sizes of the celestial bodies or per-
ception of the star as the figure on the Turkish flag by drawing the star as pentagonal («) bears an evidence to this
situation. The first evidence supports the result of daily life experiences, and the other evidence supports the result
that cultural factor was effective in the concepts’ being restructured by the students (Kurnaz, 2012).
Conclusions
When the findings were generally evaluated, it was seen that most of the PSPTs had alternative concepts
about astronomy concepts. A considerable decrease was determined in the number of alternative concepts of
the PSPTs after teaching sequence. It can be said that 5E teaching model was effective on remedying alternative
concepts of the PSPTs. The PSPTs learned new knowledge and they showed a conceptual change and development
related with some astronomy concepts. In the future research about astronomy teaching, it may be conducted to
determine the effects of 5E teaching model on remedying the alternative concepts and performing conceptual
change with the different education levels of students. And also, it should be identified the effect of the teaching
sequences on students’ alternative concepts in long term.
Another result of the research was that the use of such activities and teaching plans enriched by alternative
assessment and evaluation methods has been effective in teaching process. It is suggested that the teaching
materials developed in this research can be used in other research or the teachers can use them in their own
learning process. The similar teaching materials for other astronomy concepts can be developed and investigate
the effects on students’ learning. Besides that, in this research alternative concepts of the PSPTs were determined
with concept cartoons. As parallel, it can be stated that concept cartoons can be used as diagnostic or formative
test for determining of the alternative concepts as well as conceptual change.

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Received: June 28, 2016 Accepted: February 23, 2017
Çiğdem Şahin PhD, Assistant Professor, Giresun University, Department of

Mathematics and Science Education, Giresun, Turkey.
E-mail: hcsahin38@gmail.com
Ümmü Gülsüm Durukan Research Assistant, MD, Giresun University, Department of
Mathematics and Science Education, Giresun, Turkey.
E-mail: u.g.durukan@gmail.com
Elif Arıkurt MD, Science Teacher, Nebi Güney Middle School, Ministry of
National Education, Antalya, Turkey
E-mail: elf_bulbul_ktu@hotmail.com
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Abstract: There has been various research-

Tülay Şenel Çoruhlu ers focus on “heat transfer”. “Convection, ra-
diation and conduction” discussed as mere
elements of the wider object of analysis in
these research. Given the lack of sufficient
emphasis on conduction in solids, no cross
Introduction age research conducted with pre-service
science teachers supported by drawings,
The exchange of heat through space or material medium is called “heat interviews, and open-ended questions
transfer”. Heat transfer can be provided in three ways: conduction, convection could be found. Employing a cross-age
and radiation. All these ways need the existence of a temperature difference design, this research determined pre-service
(Cengel, 2007). Heat transfer is associated with the heat, temperature and science teachers’ (PSTs’) conceptions in the
energy. A review of the existing literature reveals that there are many stud- “conduction of heat in solid”. The sample
ies aiming to identify misconceptions students of various grades may have group of the research consists of 257 PSTs
with respect to the concepts of heat/temperature (i.e., Alwan, 2011; Brook, (first year student-n=55; second year
Bringgs, Bell & Driver, 1984; Carlton, 2000; Harrison, Grayson & Treagust, 1999; student-n=76, third year student-n=56,
Jasien & Oberem, 2002; Kesidou & Duit, 1993; Leong Wong, Chu & Chin Yap, and fourth year student-n=70) selected
2016; Thomaz, Malaquas, Valente & Antunes, 1995) and energy (Amettler & from Department of Science Education in
Pinto, 2002; Kaper & Goedhart, 2002; Soloman, 1985; Stylianidou, Ormerod Fatih Faculty of Education at the Karadeniz
& Ogborn, 2002). A prerequisite of teaching the concept of heat transfer to Technical University in the city of Trabzon in
students is an accurate description of the relationships between the concepts Turkey. Conceptual understanding test and
of heat, temperature and energy. semi-structured interview were used in the
An understanding of heat transfer, and particularly conduction, requires data collection process. The test including
insight into the particle-based structure of matter at secondary schools. Yet, two questions was administered to 257
in this perspective, one may come across microscopic-level misconceptions PSTs from different years. Semi-structured
of the students from the elementary school to university level, regarding interview including one question was
conduction. Against this background the need to identify how PSTs, who conducted with 16 voluntary PSTs (4 stu-
are set to play a significant role in science teaching to future generations, dents from each grade level). The research
imagine conduction at particle level, becomes crucial. A glance at the stud- found that PSTs had difficulties in terms of
ies performed at the university level suggests that “convection, radiation, describing and showing the movement of
and conduction” as the means of heat transfer have always been discussed the particles of solid under the impact of
en masse. Yet, there are no studies which try and determine the views PSTs heat. In the light of the findings, it can be
in different years of training have with respect to each mode of transfer. Ac- suggested that animations should be used
cording to Lubben, Netshisaulu & Campbell (1999), students believe that the to the teaching of the movement of the
specific modes of heat transfer were essentially similar concepts, and that particles under the impact of heat.
the atoms comprising the matter would undergo changes such as melting- Keywords: cross-age study, conduction of
disintegration and merging during heat transfer. The research also revealed heat in solid, pre-service science teachers.
that the students do not have sufficient knowledge about conduction, and
that they had misconceptions such as wood would not conduct heat. Brook
et al. (1984) found that students confused conductivity of heat and electricity.
Jacobi, Martin, Mitchell & Newell (2004), in a research on the modes of heat Tülay Şenel Çoruhlu
Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
transfer, found that the students had difficulty comprehending the difference
between conduction in metals, and heat transfers involving liquids and gases,
and that they believed the dissipation of heat in solids occurred through the
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movement of atoms, as is the case with liquids and gases. Pathare & Pradhan (2010) investigated the misconcep-
tions 57 undergraduate students in India had about the modes of heat transfer and kinetic theory. The research
analyzed conduction, convection, and radiation not as distinct objects, but mere elements of a general topic, and
reached to general results. Tanahoung, Chitaree and Soankwan (2010) reviewed the conceptual structures first
year university students have with respect to the concepts of heat and temperature. Most students were found
to fail to define the concepts of temperature, heat, phase transition enthalpy, specific heat capacity, and thermal
equivalence in an accurate manner. Moreover, the students were observed to have only an incomplete grasp of
heat transfers, and fail to provide accurate descriptions of the matter. All these studies were found to discuss “con-
vection, radiation and conduction” as mere elements of the wider object of analysis, and not as distinct objects
of interest. Given the lack of sufficient emphasis on conduction in solids, no developmental studies supported by
drawings, interviews, and open-ended questions could be found. This state of affairs once again emphasizes the
necessity of the present research.
An understanding of conduction of heat in solids requires insight into the particle-based structure of solids.
Existing literature in the field, particularly the one focusing on the particle-based structure of matter, notes vari-
ous misconceptions on part of the students, with respect to such particle-based structures (Adadan, Trundle &
Irving 2010; Adbo & Taber 2009; Ayas & Özmen, 2002; Ayas, Özmen & Çalık, 2010; Johnson 1998; Kokkotas, Vlachos
& Koulaidis 1998; Nakhleh, Samarapungavan & Sağlam 2005; Özmen, Ayas & Coştu 2002; Pozo & Gomez Crespo
2005). The samples involved in these studies focus mostly on primary (Johnson 1998; Nakhleh et al., 2005; Özmen,
2011; Pozo & Gomez Crespo, 2005) and secondary (Adadan et al., 2010; Adbo & Taber 2009; Ayas & Özmen, 2002;
Ayas et al., 2010; Pozo & Gomez Crespo 2005) education. For instance, Adbo & Taber (2009) carried out a research
to understand the mental models 16 years old students have with respect to the particle-based structure of matter.
The research found that the students described the inertness of solid objects in connection with the static state of
their particles. The studies at the university level, on the other hand, are found to be limited in numbers (i.e. Ayas,
Özmen & Çalık, 2010). Özmen (2013) carried out a literature review on 79 studies performed in the last 30 years, on
the particle-based structure of matter. The review revealed that open ended and multiple choice questions as well
as interviews were the most popular data gathering tools in the literature. The present research enables a detailed
analysis at the microscopic level, of the movement of the particles of solids under the impact of heat. The research
will investigate the views PSTs at various years of education have with respect to the matter. This is considered
as a means for taking concrete steps to eliminate the misconceptions PSTs may have. The aim of this research is
to determine PSTs’ conceptions of the “conduction of heat in solids”. The following research question guides this
research: How do the PSTs’ conceptions of conduction of heat in solid change over year?

The research is carried out as a cross-age study, which refers to a specific type of developmental research.
In developmental research; students’ conceptions across time may be investigated in cross-age and longitudinal
studies (e.g. Abraham, Williamson & Westbrook, 1994). Longitudinal studies may require a lot of time, since re-
searchers conducted long term study with the same sample group (Çepni, 2010). Cross age studies are preferred
option for quick access to data (Babbie, 2009; Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007; Jackson, 2009). Cross-age studies
allow researchers to use time effectively (Çepni, 2010). Cross-age studies also persuade researchers for describ-
ing the understanding about a particular concept held by students from kindergarten until university education
(Ruane, 2005). There have been numerous researchers prefer to use cross-age studies in the literature (i.e. Çalık,
2005; Çalık, Turan & Coll, 2014; Çepni & Keleş, 2006; Prokop, Usak, Özel, Fančovičová, 2009; Yen, Yao & Chiu, 2004).
In this research; it was preferred a cross-age study to provide insights into 257 pre-service science teachers, at dif-
ferent grade in the university. This research was conducted in the fall semester of the 2014–2015 academic year.
Pre-service science teachers take chemistry courses in grade 11 before the university education. When pre-service
science students graduate from the university they become science teachers at grades 5-8. They teach “particulate
structure of solid”, “heat”, “energy” and their relationship between each other. Determining the conceptions of the
“conduction of heat in solid” held by PSTs’ gain importance at this point. With the help of such research, concrete
steps will be taken to remedy PSTs’ non-scientific concepts.
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The Context of the Research
Students firstly introduce the concept of the “solid” within the “Matter and change” unit in grade 4 (Getting
to know the matter) curriculums (MoNE, 2004a). Students learn macroscopic structure of the matter. They learn
microscopic structure of the matter within the “Particulate structure of matter” unit in grade 6 (Matter and change)
curriculum (MoNE, 2004b). Students learn relationship between matter and energy within the “Chemistry and en-
ergy” unit in grade 11 (MoNE, 2011). Students learn the concepts “Heat, mechanical work, internal energy, entropy,
internal energy, and the laws of thermodynamics” in this unit. The PSTs take the “General Chemistry I-II” and “General
Chemistry lab. I-II” course in the fall and spring semester of first year of the university. Students learn ‘solid matters’
structure in macroscopic and microscopic’ in depth with these courses. When they graduate from the university,
students take nation-wide exam called ‘Public Personnel Selection Exam (Kamu Personeli Seçme Sınavı)’ employed
in the state schools. They answer questions related to the General Chemistry in the exam.
Participants of the Research
The research was carried out with 257 PSTs (first-year student-n=55; mean age: 19.3; 49 females and 6
males; second-year student-n=76, mean age: 20.2; 50 females and 26 males; third-year student-n=56, mean
age: 21.5; 36 females and 20 males; and fourth year student-n=70, mean age: 22.4; 47 females and 23 males)
attending the enrolled at department of science education in a city of Trabzon in Turkey. It was decided that
participation was based on voluntariness. Pre-service science teachers who did not want to participate in the
research were not included in the sample group. Therefore, 257 voluntary PSTs participated in this research.
They all took chemistry course in grade 11. The sample of the research socioeconomically came from low and
medium income families.
Data Collection
Conceptual understanding test and semi-structured interview were used in data collection process. The test
asked students two questions (See Appendix) and developed by the researcher. The first question provided one
daily life example regarding the conduction of heat, and asked an explanation for the case thus described, while the
second question asked students to draw a figure describing the transfer of heat in solids. The drawings are useful
tools to reveal the level of comprehension by not constraining the student’s response, in cases where interviews
and open ended questions are not helpful (Çepni, 2010). The pilot application of the test was carried out with 8
pre-service science teachers (2 students from each year). The pilot research helped find out how much time to
allocate for the test, and assess the comprehensibility of the questions.
The semi-structured interview was carried out with a total of 16 PSTs. 4 PSTs who volunteered for each year of
education participated as interviewees. Individual interviews were conducted by the researcher. Semi structured
interviews were conducted one-to-one. The interview intended to carry out a detailed review of the conceptual
transformation of PSTs. The interview was based on the question “When you stir your tea for a while using a tea
spoon, you would notice your heat getting warmer. How does the tea spoon transfer heat to your hand? What can you
say to explain this process?”. The pilot application of the interview took place with 4 pre-service science teachers
(1 PST from each year). The preliminary interview asked two questions: The first question was “When you stir your
tea for a while using a tea spoon, you would notice your heat getting warmer. How does the tea spoon transfer heat to
your hand? What can you say to explain this process? Please explain”. The second one asked “How does heat transfer in
solids take place? Please explain.” As the interviews were observed to give answers similar to those they gave for the
first question, the second question was removed in actual application, to eliminate redundancy. The pilot research
revealed that each interview took 10-15 minutes. Interviews were recorded by the researcher.
Data Analysis
Content analysis was utilized for the analysis of interview responses. The content analysis is summarized in
four stages; (1) encoding of data, (2) finding of, (3) organization of codes and themes, (4) interpretation of findings
(Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013). These stages were taken into consideration of the interview analysis. Individual interviews
transcribed and then analyzed. Each PST’s responses was evaluated and then compared with each other. 2 main
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codes–macroscopic and microscopic– were developed with reference to the statements PSTs provided in the inter-
view. The examples of the statements PSTs provided, within each 2 codes, are quoted directly in the findings section.
The responses PSTs provided to the first question of the conceptual understanding test were analyzed with
reference to Marek’s (1986) classification. Complete understanding was letter coded A, while partial understanding
was coded B, misconception was coded C, and no response / unrelated response was coded D. The rate of PSTs in
each category is presented to the readers in the tables. The categories developed in the literature (Ayas & Özmen,
2002) were utilized for the analysis of the second question of the conceptual understanding test. In this context,
the drawings were categorized as “particle-based/accurate”, “particle-based/inaccurate”, “continuous”, and “blank”.
Furthermore, point-based drawings were also observed in the research, and hence a relevant category was devel-
oped. The drawings by PSTs exhibit either one or two stages. Some PSTs draw more than one category. The one
and two stage drawings by PSTs were then coded; particle-based/accurate drawings, particle-based/inaccurate
drawings, continuous drawings, blank, and point-based drawings. Examples of the drawings are provided in results.
Reliability, Validity and Ethical Issues
Ethical issues have been emphasized in this research. Voluntary pre-service science teachers participated to
the research. 257 PSTs answered the conceptual understanding test. Researcher conducted interviews with 16
PSTs. Interviewers choose the place of interviews. PSTs’ voices were recorded. Before recording, permissions have
been obtained from the PSTs. Due to research ethics considerations; PSTs were assigned codes to identify them.
i.e. PST 1 among first year student was coded Fr1, while PST 1 among second year, third year, and fourth year were
coded Sn1, Th1, and Ft1 respectively.
Experts’ opinions and member checking can be used to ensure internal validity (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013). To en-
hance external reliability of the research, the following criteria were taken into consideration; (1) researcher makes her
position clear in the research (2) determining the participants (3) identification of social environments and processes
in the research environment (4) defining the conceptual framework used in data analysis. Conceptual understand-
ing test questions were submitted to two experts in the field of science education, for internal validity. The experts
verified the validity of the test questions in terms of the objectives of the research. Researchers separately analyzed
the conceptual understanding test questions. They analyzed first question according to Marek’s (1986) classification.
Second question analyzed to the categories developed in the literature (Ayas & Özmen, 2002) by the researchers. The
results of the analysis by the researchers were compared by an expert out of the research. Firstly, %90 agreement was
checked between two researchers’ analysis. After the discussions full agreement was reached. The same process was
followed in interviews. Researchers separately analyzed the interview question and determined codes. The results of
the analysis by the researchers were compared by an expert out of the research. Firstly %85 agreement was checked
between two researchers’ analysis. After the discussions full agreement was reached between researchers.
Results of Research

The findings reached through the interviews and conceptual understanding test presented respectively. PSTs’
responses to interview are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. PSTs’ responses to interview.
Codes Sub-codes Sample statements
“Tea spoon is made of metal. In metals and solids, heat transfer is through conduction.” (Fr1)
Mac. Mode of transfer
PSTs:Fr2, Fr4, Sn2, Sn3, Th1, Th 2, Th3, Ft2, Ft3, Ft4
“Tea spoon is a solid object. Since the distances between solid molecules are low, heat transfer is
Inter-particle through conduction.” (Fr3)
space
PSTs: Sn1, Sn2, Ft3
Mic.
“In solids, particles vibrate. When heated, particles vibrate, and transfer energy to surrounding
Particle particles. This leads to the transfer of heat through the vibration of particles.” (Ft1).
movement
PSTs: Sn2, Sn4, Th4
Fr: first year student, Sn: second year student, Th= third year student, Ft= fourth year student Mac.= macroscopic, Mic.=microscopic
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As can be seen in Table 1 the macroscopic explanations code, PSTs refer to “mode of transfer”, and in the
microscopic explanations code they refer to “inter-particle space” and “particle movement”, hence providing ex-
planations in two codes. The statements PSTs’ provided in response to item 1 in the conceptual understanding
test are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Percentages of the PSTs’ responses to item 1 in the conceptual understanding test.
Ct. Examples of student statements Fr.( %) Sn. ( %) Th. ( %) Ft. ( %)
A Tea spoon transfers heat through conduction. In solids, the particles 14,54 26.31 16,07 28,57
comprising the matter are very close to each other. The heat causes the
particles to vibrate and crash into each other.
B As the tea spoon is a solid, it transfers heat through conduction. 58.18 59,21 32,14 50
C The tea spoon transfers heat through convection. 5.45 6.57 5.35 7.14
D Un-related response-no explanation 21.81 7.89 46.42 14.28
Ct: categories, A:complete understanding, B: partial understanding, C: misconception, D: no response/unrelated response
Table 2 shows that 14.54% of first year student, 26.31% of second year student, 16.07% of third year student,
and 28.57% of fourth year student provide microscopic explanations of how heat transfers occur in solids. The
distribution of PSTs’ drawings provided in response to item 2 in the conceptual understanding test is presented
in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The analysis of PSTs’ drawings with respect to the transfer of heat in solids.

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Figure 1 reveals that 5.26% of second year student, and 1.42% of fourth year student made particle-based
accurate drawings. Examples of two-stage and one-stage particle-based accurate and particle-based in-accurate
drawings provided by PSTs are presented in Figure 2 below.
Two stage Two stage One stage

particle-based accurate drawing particle-based particle-based
in-accurate drawing in-accurate drawing
Sn44 Fr49 Sn61
Figure 2: Examples of two-stage and one-stage accurate particle-based and in-accurate particle-based draw-
ings provided by PST.
Figure 2 shows that Sn44 provided a “particle-based accurate” depiction of conduction in solids. Fr49 and
Sn61, on the other hand, provided “particle-based inaccurate “ depictions. For instance, Sn61’s drawing shows a
larger than accurate space between the particles of solids. The distribution with reference to year of education, of
the drawings coded “continuous”, is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3: The analysis of PSTs’ drawings with respect to the “continuous” code.
Figure 3 suggests that PSTs depict the heating of the tea spoon, heating of a metal bar, and heating of solid
objects, phase transition, and heat exchange in their continuous drawings. The examples of continuous drawings
and point-based drawings by PSTs are presented in Figure 4.
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Heating of a tea spoon Heat exchange Heating of a metal bar

(continuous drawing) (continuous drawing) (continuous drawing)
Sn21 Th28 Sn4
Phase Transition Heating of solid objects Filled point

(continuous drawing) (continuous drawing) (Point based drawing)
Fr30 Fr32 Fr46
Figure 4: The examples of continuous drawings and point-based drawings by PSTs.
Figure 4 reveals that Sn21 drew the heating of a tea spoon, Sn4 drew the heating of a metal bar, Fr32 drew
the heating of solid objects, Th28 drew heat exchange, and Fr30 drew phase transition. Fr46, on the other hand,
depicted the particle structure of atoms, by drawing filled points.
Discussion

The vast majority of the PSTs at every year of the teacher training program were found to provide partially
correct responses, as Table 2 attests. The overwhelming majority of PSTs stated that the tea spoon is a solid
object, and that heat transfer in solid occurs through conduction. The PSTs associated the solidness of the tea
spoon with heat transfer, and responded to the question from a macroscopic perspective. Only a very limited
number of PSTs explained heat transfers at the particle level. The interviews also support this finding (Table 1).
The review of the science curriculum reveals that the students are introduced to the concept of particle-based
structures in 6th grade. The example of tea spoon heating our hand is about a case we often come across in our
daily life. PSTs failed to provide particle-level explanations for this quite ordinary example from daily life. Indeed,
it is well known that the students are unable to refer to the particle-based structure of matter, as well as the space
in between the particles comprising it, when providing explanations for cases in daily life (Haidar & Abraham,
1991; Tsai, 1999). This point is once again apparent in the drawings made by the students. Figure 1 shows that
the number of students who made continuous drawings fall as they progress through years of program. The
studies carried out with respect to the particle-based structure of matter found that PSTs provide continuous
depictions, and that they have rather macroscopic perspectives (Ayas & Özmen, 2002; Ben-Zvi, Eylon & Silberstein,
1986; Nakhleh & Samarapungavan 1999; Novick & Nusbaum, 1981). In the same vein, the PSTs are known to have
difficulties in terms of getting a grasp of the particle-based structure of solid, liquid, and gaseous forms of matter
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(Pozo & Gomez Crespo, 2005). Lack of a microscopic-level insight into the particle-based structure of matter, on
part of PSTs led them to continuous depictions. Only a few PSTs (Tables 1 and 2) explained heat transfer in solid
matter, with reference to the arrangement and movement of particles. Fr3, Sn1, Sn2, Ft3 explained conduction
in solids with reference to the space between the particles. Sn2, Sn4, Th4, Ft1, on the other hand, associated the
transfer with the movement of particles of solid matter. While importance is attached to providing a macroscopic
level of insight into processes discussed in chemistry classes, not enough emphasis is placed on microscopic
level teaching. Failure to learn concepts at a microscopic level, in turn, prevents a meaningful learning at the
conceptual level (Demircioğlu, 2003; Mammino & Cardellini, 2005). It is evident that a larger portion of second
year and fourth year student provide particle-level explanations for conduction in solids (Table 2). Second year
students have referred to vibration of and close proximity of particles with one another, when trying to explain
conduction in solids. This is perhaps due to the General Chemistry I, General Chemistry II, and laboratory practice
courses they had taken during the first year of their undergraduate education. As PSTs learned about the solid,
liquid, and gaseous forms of matter in a context discussing the particle level as well, they provided mostly ac-
curate explanations. Yet, the percentage of particle-level explanations fall from 26.31% to 16.07% as we move
from 2nd year to 3rd year PSTs. Forgetting about the information learned earlier as the PSTs proceed from the
2nd to 3rd year of education may have something to do with this trend. As PSTs fail to register the information
they received earlier, on a more permanent basis, they seem to forget such information in time. However, the
percentage of PSTs providing particle-level explanations for conduction of heat in solids rises once again in the
4th year, from the earlier 16.07% to 28.57%. A possible explanation may lie in the fact that PSTs need to take
the Teaching Content Knowledge Test as part of the Public Personnel Selection Examination (KPSS) for a teach-
ing position at public schools. PSTs take this exam applied country-wide, in order to become eligible for public
employment. From 2013 on, PSTs in a number of fields are subjected to the Teaching Content Knowledge Test
within the framework of KPSS. One such field is science teaching. Teaching Content Knowledge Test is composed
of questions on content knowledge and education in one’s field. The content knowledge part directs physics,
chemistry, biology, earth sciences, astronomy, and environment science questions to the candidates. 22% of
the questions are in the field of chemistry. That is why it is crucial for 4th year PSTs to respond correctly to the
chemistry questions in the Teaching Content Knowledge Test. The fact that a larger portion of PSTs in the 4th
year of education have noted particle-level vibrations as the means of heat transfer in solids may owe to their
enhanced grasp of these topics, as a way to prepare for the exam. On the other hand, the fact that PSTs tend to
forget about the knowledge they received in earlier years of education suggests that they tend to memorize,
rather than engage in meaningful conceptual learning. Re-learning in 4th year, with a view to achieving success
in the exam, the knowledge they had learned but forgotten earlier, may be an effective solution for the short
term, but may not be helpful in terms of rendering information permanent in the long run.
A glance at the drawings by PSTs reveals that the vast majority provided continuous drawings (Figure 1, 3
and 4). The overwhelming majority of PSTs drew how a metal bar got hot. It is well-known that spaces between
the particles of metals are tighter compared to other forms of matter. Yet, the PSTs evident emphasis on metals
may be due to a confusion of the terms “electrical conductivity” and “heat conduction”. In the drawings, the PSTs
explicitly referred to metal bars. The drawings by Sn21 and Sn4, as shown in Figure 4, support this argument. Both
PSTs explicitly mentioned the word “metal” in their drawings. Brook et al. (1984) found that students confused
conductivity of heat and electricity. The findings here, particularly the explicit emphasis on the concept of “metal”
in continuous drawings lead one to a similar conclusion. Moreover Lubben et al. (1999) observed that university
teachers did not have a sufficient level of information regarding the transfer of heat through conduction, and that
they had misconceptions about wood, considering it a material which would not be conducive to heat transfers.
Figure 2 shows that when using drawings to depict solid particles, PSTs drew the particles in a state
lacking reference to vibrations. This has perhaps something to do with the students’ conception of solid par-
ticles in a motionless state. Lee, Eichinger, Anderson, Berkheimer & Blakeslee (1993) had also observed such a
misconception of motionless particles in solids. The literature is not poor in studies which revealed students’
misconceptions of lack of movement on part of the particles of solids (Lee et all 1993; Valanides 2000; Adadan,
Irving & Trundle 2009; Adadan, Trundle & Irving 2010). The misconception has perhaps something to do with
confusing the characteristics of particles and the characteristics of solids. It is widely known that students tend
to ascribe the observable macroscopic characteristics of matter to its particles in the microscopic level as well
(Gomez Crespo & Pozo 2004; Griffiths & Preston 1992; Kokkotas et al., 1998; Novick & Nussbaum 1981; Valanides
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2000; Papageorgiou, Johnson & Fotiades 2008; Talanquer 2009). Against this background the misconceptions
on part of PSTs would easily translate into a failure to direct their students into an accurate scientific domain.
It is therefore necessary to identify the PSTs’ misconceptions and to intervene removing such misconceptions
through an effective conceptual transformation in the learning process.
The research by Kokkotas et al.’s (1998) led to the conclusion that students’ confusion between the char-
acteristics of particles and the characteristics of matter played a substantial role in developing the misconcep-
tion. The depictions provided by PSTs, of still particles, may also have their roots in the belief that particles of
solids have no energy. Indeed Çökelez (2009) noted the misconceptions of students in the phrase “particles of
solids do not vibrate at all, as they do not have energy.” The students do not think heat as a form of energy (Yeo
& Zadnik, 2001). In this vein, for the students to get a solid grasp of the states of matter and the movement
of particles, they need to have strong logical thought skills (Tsitsipis, Stamovlasis & Papageorgiou, 2010). This
suggests that PSTs have problems in terms of demonstrating the movement of particles with reference to the
heat energy in the matter.
Conclusions
PSTs apparently have difficulties in establishing the connection between heat, energy, and the particle-
based structure. In order to eliminate misconceptions about these, and to replace them with scientific knowledge
instead, emphasis in content-courses should be placed on fundamental concepts, and more time should be
dedicated to the teaching of such concepts within the framework of curricula.
One may forcefully argue that students have problems concerning microscopic-level drawings of the particle-
based structure of solids. In the research PSTs majority of the students at each grade drew the particles in a state
lacking reference to vibrations. Different education strategies which can help students grasp the particle-based
structure of matter are necessary. Teaching staff offering General Chemistry courses may contribute to learning
on part of the students, by using a number of techniques such as drawings and animations at the classroom
level. Animations focus on microscopic-level of the movement of the particles of solids under the impact of heat.
It was found out that PSTs tend to forget about the knowledge they received in earlier years of education
suggests that they tend to memorize, rather than engage in meaningful conceptual learning. The percentage of
PSTs providing particle-level explanations for conduction of heat in solids rises in the 4th year because of KPSS
exam. The knowledge they had learned but forgotten earlier, may be an effective solution for the short term,
but may not be helpful in terms of rendering information permanent in the long run. So, meaningful concept
learning gains importance. Students don’t learn with memorizing concepts only. They should be done experi-
ments and actively involved in the process. However, such meaningful learning takes place.
It was focused on PSTs conceptions of the “Conduction of heat in solids” with a cross age study supported
by drawings, interviews, and open-ended questions in this research. Future research should be conducted to
examine PSTs conceptions of the convection or radiation. This research should be revealed with students’ con-
ceptions in detail with different data collection tools.
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Appendix
Items used in the conceptual understanding test
1. In the figure to the left, when Burak Emre stirs tea with a tea spoon, Burak Emre realizes that his hand gets
heated. What do you think about heat transfer from tea to Burak Emre’ hand? Please provide your response
below.
Answer: For, ….
2. How the particles of solid are seen under the heat? (Think of the particle-based structure of solid and
describe it with a drawing)
Draw:
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Received: December 21, 2016 Accepted: March 02, 2017
Tülay Şenel Çoruhlu PhD, Assistant Professor of Basic Education, Karadeniz Technical
University, Fatih Faculty of Education, Department of Basic
Education, Trabzon, Turkey.
E-mail: tulaysenel41@gmail.com, tsenel@ktu.edu.tr
Website: http://aves.ktu.edu.tr/tsenel/
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Scientific competencies:
A mechanism to favour
the inclusion of Working ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
Market professionals ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
Abstract. Institutions of Higher Education

seek to instil in their students the scientific
competencies throughout the guidance of
different included courses in their curricu-
Alba Guzmán, lums. However, the assimilation of diverse
Diana Oliveros, methodologies evidence the lack of develop-
ment of those scientific competencies neces-
Mauricio Mendoza
sary for professionals to be graduated and
therefore required by the labour market. This
research examines the research competen-
cies of students of higher education sample

(N=189) to determine their appreciation to-
Introduction
wards scientific competencies they consider
to have developed in both their educational
The phenomena of Globalization influence the perception of en-
processes. The results prove the perception
trepreneurs about the competences that professionals need and require
of subjects in respect to the development
to perform in their job (Conchado, Carot, & Bas, 2015) It implies that the
of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills,
advance of knowledge needs to be constantly updated in issues related
decision-making, problem-solving and
to their profession through scientific and technological developments. The
acquisition of scientific competences, the
current environment invites you to the generation of knowledge through
basic ones; use of technology, appropriation
Research, where Technologies of Information and communication TIC,
of new knowledge, self-learning and search
have unleashed the boom of the knowledge for the proliferation of infor-
of information, specialized competences,
mation in an exponential way (Guzmán, 2013), the increase of devices to
drafting of reports, design of articles, presen-
get access to the information and innovative modes regarding education
tations, development of degree works and
(Torkunova, 2015).
definition of new projects. The application
The earlier implies that Institutions of Higher Education, IHE, need to
of ANOVA detects that there are significant
strengthen education in these aspects considering within their curriculum,
differences according to the gender of sub-
the methodologies that contribute to the Development of competencies
jects on competencies referred to the search
in Research in their students in order to facilitate their immersion in the
of physical information where women
work field having considered the required skills for the performance of
stand out, and reading comprehension of
their job positions, their contribution to the development of critical think-
documents in English where men stand
ing, collaborative work, creative thinking and problem-solving capacities
out. Besides, it’s demonstrated that these
(Moreno & Soto, 2005).
competences contribute to students’ critical
In the international scope, the competences in Research are oriented
thinking. IES required to include research as
toward the fostering of team-working in search of truth leading pointing
mechanism to strengthen the education.
toward multi-disciplinary aspects in the academy, where IES foster collab-
Key words: scientific competences, higher
orative work throughout different areas of action (Guzmán, 2013; (Pešaković,
education, research training, scientific com-
Flogie & Aberšek, 2014). In the Colombian Context, the strengthening of
petencies, labour market.
Research competences in students is fostered from spaces of formation
with the Learning-by-Doing strategy, providing an environment based
on the following values: collaborative work (based on interdisciplinarity), Alba Guzmán, Diana Oliveros,
Mauricio Mendoza
teamwork, communication, respect of others’ opinions, honesty, self-control Autonomous University of Bucaramanga,
and ethics (Moreno & Soto, 2005). Here lies the importance of implement- Colombia
ing strategies that will facilitate the inclusion of research in the teaching-
learning process as a methodology to develop spaces that encourage the
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development of skills and improvement of the competencies of the students, and the appropriation of values of
the researcher shown in students, evidenced by the interpretation made out of real world based on the results
they got (Valencia, Macías & Valencia, 2015).
The current research was developed in an Institution of Higher Education in the North-eastern region of
Colombia with undergraduate and postgraduate students whose goal consisted on proving subjects’ perception
towards the development of their acquired skills in implemented competences and research processes leading to
the conclusion of the importance of offering enabling spaces for the development of teaching-learning processes.
The Scientific Competencies
Perspectives about the Scientific Competencies
The competencies according to Véliz, Díaz and Rodríguez (2015) and quoting in his/her publication in
2011, are a set of knowledge allowing the involvement of knowledge, of knowing-how (skills, habits, capacities)
knowing-how-to-be (values and attitudes). The approaches toward a conception of scientific competencies are
diverse. In respect to Torres, Blanchar and Freile (2015) they allow students to contribute to the construction
of both scientific and technological knowledge to solve different issues in a specific context taking into ac-
count their reality and acquired knowledge. Véliz et al. (2015) consider that scientific competencies favour the
acquisition and generation of knowledge for professionals to be qualified starting from the training in sciences
and citizen culture. The Gobierno Vasco (2012) shows they are Relevant for Young people to live in a society of
change guiding them towards situations of responsibility with their environment, being this aspect necessary
for the future of society. For its part, Zhao (2014) mentions that training of professionals in scientific competen-
cies contribute to consolidation of knowledge in an empirical and quantitative matter.
It is important to indicate that Institutions of Higher Education nowadays, require training competent
professionals for their High Quality Accreditation Processes. Table 1 shows studies that have been carried out in
some IHE in the world, where scientific-investigative competencies have proved to be developed by students in
their higher education processes, highlighting their contribution to the fostering of learning and development
of other competencies.
Table 1. Studies carried out in IHE to determine the importance of scientific competencies in students
of IHE.
Findings… Students require to develop their

Authors
scientific competencies because...
Allows them to have a wider vision of the world and face their knowledge with the real (Véliz et al., 2015)
world throughout the critical, creative and innovative thinking, which happens to be
very effective for professionals.
Favours the application of basic competencies to understand Reality. (Torres et al., 2015)
Fosters the conceptual foundation in the first academic years at the University to (Falicoff, 2015)
develop the professional’s overall performance.
Foster the learning of science taking into account their environment and application (Colorado, Ospino & Salazar, 2013)
from theory to practice.
Allow communication with other students and research groups in order to produce (Pollo-Cattaneo, Rodriguez, Britos & García, 2009)
knowledge.
Likewise, scientific competencies can be considered as elements that favour scenarios for the devel-
opment of critical thinking in students, one of the main factors labour market demands from the recently
graduated(Conchado et al., 2015; Falicoff, 2015; Lamanauskas & Augienė, 2009).
Valdés, Nenninger and Noriega (2013) have made the classification of research competencies in both basic
and advanced. The basic competencies allow the search, generation and release of knowledge favouring the
ability to use it, identify scientific matters and lead to a conclusion based on evidence, aspects that are relevant
to comprehend and help in making decisions of the natural world and changes made through human activity.
Advanced research competencies allow the release, resource management and commercialization of knowledge.
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On the other hand, Campos and Chinchilla (2009) indicate that scientific competencies can be transversal because
they are necessary for professionals at the moment of encouraging the development of skills for all disciplines.
Training for Research
The transformation of the world and education as a consequence of globalization, implies that IHE show
interest for adopting new Teaching methodologies in order to make students appreciate reality (Véliz et al., 2015)
and become critical professionals, being the training for research the key for the development of necessary skills
in the working world (Conchado et al., 2015). According to Pollo-Cattaneo et al. (2009) training in Research in
Institutions of Higher Education starts from the conception of Research groups, addressing of an experienced
research advisor and lines oriented toward the constant training of students. Moreno Bayardo (2005) and Guer-
rero (2007) point out This training remarks an integrated vision of Teaching, considering it as a process that
seeks to instill and facilitate the appropriation of knowledge and Development of necessary attitudes for the
improvement of skills related to scientific Research, technology and innovation. According to Valencia, Macias
and Valencia (2015) Formative Research is a strategy that stimulates and allows the student to reinforce their
acquired knowledge in their field.
Studies carried out in “Universidad de la Guajira” in 2014 to validate both teachers’ and students’ compe-
tencies in the institution in respect to research, it was confirmed their conception about the management of
basic research competencies: cognitive, driving and communicative skills (Torres et al., 2015), favouring their
working performance. Falicoff (2015) in their research in Universidad Nacional del Litoral (Argentina) carried out
in 2014, showed that one of the main motors for the Development of scientific competence in students, was
the identification of phenomena, explanation and gathering of scientific proofs generated in the first years of
study where, from reality, student approaches to the development of his scientific skills.
Colorado et al. (2013) affirm that Research processes contribute to the Development of scientific competen-
cies oriented toward professional’s self-training and training in research. The paragraph above allows to admit
that one of the mechanisms to contribute to the Development of scientific competencies in IHE is education
from the use of technology as an innovative mechanism for Learning, considering the innovative capacity of
processes that favour the application of acquired knowledge avoiding mechanicity (Torkunova, 2015), and
working in teams from the cooperation developed from other carried out research (Pollo-Cattaneo et al., 2009).
Therefore, it is necessary to incorporate Research in the IHE academic lives from a pedagogical approach
allowing construction and re-construction of transforming research spaces and actions (Campos & Chinchilla,
2009; Moreno, 2005), as well as establishing pedagogical strategies that foster in students attitudes directed to
promote curiosity, to problematize, rethink ideas and reconsider methodologies and practices nowadays used
from generation of pedagogical contexts facilitating an active and constructive relation with knowledge (Hewitt
& Barrero, 2012); with new methods of education favouring the development of scientific competencies from
innovation in the ways different courses are taken (Torkunova, 2015); in which the teacher is an important actor
who interacts with students starting from some knowledge and fostering classroom participation (Guzmán &
Del Moral, 2016).
Precisely, in the activities carried out in the IHE in the training for research, critical thinking is being de-
veloped from: elaboration of essays, drafting of articles, bibliographical review about a topic in particular, case
study, conversation sessions and integrating projects (León, Núñez & Torres, 2015); analyses of experiences with
other students and team-working to carry out activities (Solbes, 2013); reading and writing courses (Oliveras
& Sanmartí, 2009); the ones controlled by the “Ondas” program in elementary and secondary education; the
development of reflective and proactive thinking favouring the qualification of professionals who are able to
solve problems (Valencia et al., 2015); use of technology to carry out activities (Álvarez, 2014).
The Values in Research
Values of human beings are hard to measure, taking into account that it is something intangible and proper
of human beings. However, (Tarrés, Montenegro, Gayol & D’Ottavio, 2016) point out that values are experiences
related to people’s capacities and are generated by feelings expressed toward others. Cascante (2013) assures that
research processes in a researcher is affected by values, so it makes people be ethical. Precisely, (Gutiérrez, 2009)
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points out that values in research are related to ethics and opinion about an individual, fostering participation in
the social environment. Even though, (Vidal & Araña, 2014) show in their findings that that approaches of peda-
gogical models are required in higher education based on: formation of values, study of reality and formation.
The above is considered within the curricular guidelines of higher education programs developing in pro-
cesses that favour university and professional values.
The values of a researcher start from the satisfaction of curiosity. In this sense Tarrés et al. (2016) and Cas-
cante (2013), point out that the values in the research process are: the intellectuals (humanistic, scientific and
technical); Ethical-moral issues related to the formation of character, freedom, responsibility, sense of justice
and the greater good; Transcendental aspects related to the vision of the world; and, interpersonal relationships
and professional social participation.
The Scientific Competences and the Working World
The training required by students and future professionals of IHE should be oriented towards the develop-
ment of skills and the acquisition of skills that facilitate their insertion in the working world (Falicoff, 2015). In
fact, there are several studies related to the skills required by a graduated person to perform in their personal,
professional and work space, which obey the skills acquired in their disciplinary training. Velasco (2014) indicates
that this process allows students to be proactive, dynamic and more efficient in the working world, which is why
employers prefer those who have been trained under specific aspects of competencies. Campos and Chinchilla
(2009); Valencia et al. (2015) point out that the formative processes in research through the Information and
Communication Technologies contribute to efficiency, develop autonomy and contribute to flexibility in the
activities proposed by teachers; However, it is very important that content offered through ICT were of high
quality and oriented towards critical thinking, building collective knowledge and discussing issues collectively
to acquire the skills required by the professional.
Within the main competences that are developed during the Research process are the transversal ones to
the disciplinary areas since they are necessary in all professionals (Campos & Chinchilla, 2009); Learning, net-
working, leadership, critical thinking and problem-solving skills are also favored, using Information and Com-
munication Technologies, allowing self-management of the graduate’s career (Moreno & Soto, 2005). Finally,
the competences that a person graduated from an HEI must possess to perform in their personal, professional
and work space, obey, undoubtedly, their disciplinary training (Conchado et al., 2015).
The Scientific Competences: Colombian Case
As it is mentioned, scientific competences are necessary for student and future professional develop
different skills. In Colombia, the training by competencies has been carried out since 2000, when students
were given more freedom to be competitive in his doing (See Fig. 1). It is important to remark that nowadays
training in HEI is task-oriented, however, in Europe there have been advances in developing spaces where
teachers and students interact (Salas, 2005). In fact, the author points out that Colombia has not only had
two structural upgrades of the educational system: law 39 of 1903 which contributed to the creation of the
educational system, and law 115 of 1994 which defines education as the training process considering the
person, culture and society.
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BACKGROUNDS IN EDUCATION
Name of Assistant Function Name of Subject Function

of education
1903 Professor Say Pupil Listen
1925 Master Explain Student Understand
1950 Teacher Demonstrate Student Experience
1975 Educator Construir Pupil Learn
2000 Mediator Transform Transf. Leader Compete
Teaching Learning
Teach to Learn
Figure 1: Educational backgrounds in Colombia.

Adaptation of Salas (2005).
Figure 1 also evidences how the function of educational models in Colombia have changed from having a
teacher who tells to the student what he wants to listen to a mediator that transforms the process and interacts
with the leaders (students) to create shared knowledge contributing to the development of critical thinking. .
In fact, there have been carried out several studies to determine the competencies that a professional requires
considering his training in research. León et al. (2015) studied the influence of This training in the Academic quali-
fication of students of accountancy in Colombia, finding the need of strengthening the academic programs and
the training for research, because there exist an ignorance of students who don’t find themselves identified with
research because it makes them feel fear and uncertainty. Torres et al. (2015) assessed both the basic Research and
Cognitive skills in the Research process, driving skills and communicative skills of undergraduate students from
Universidad de la Guajira, identifying the Research competences they have, which are supported by the use of
ICTs. Colorado et al. (2013) detected that students who belong to Research seedlings tend to better develop their
scientific competences. Oliveras and Sanmartí (2009) found that students who have participated in these processes
are adhered to the culture of science, technology and innovation, making this an interesting questioning to rethink
the teaching-learning processes using research as a pedagogical strategy.
Last but not least, for the case of the concern of scientific skills and competencies that ought to prepare pro-
fessionals graduated from Higher education institutions to get into the working market, the following questions
are approached:
•• How Research Competencies affect or influence critical thinking that is used for problem-solving in the
professional’s working performance?
•• What is the contribution of scientific skills and competencies to graduates’ working performance?
•• What pedagogical strategies can be carried out in Higher education Institutions for the Development
of competencies of students throughout formation processes in research?
To measure the scientific competence the four dimensions considered by Gobierno Vasco (2012) are used:
explanation of natural reality, comprehension of scientific knowledge, the acknowledgement of the key features of
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scientific research and the use of scientific knowledge to make decisions. So, in the HACOIN form (See description in
the “Instrument and Procedures” section) the following dimensions were considered: Values, technology management,
cognitive skills, competencies in research (basic and specialized). The Research type is Descriptive and addressed to
Higher education students in undergraduates and postgraduates in Santander-Colombia on September 2015.
Sample of Research
The Research is descriptive and was carried out in an Institution of Higher Education in Santander Department
in Colombia in September 2015, using a digital source to gather information and focused on 189 students which
was the population of Higher Education enrolled students: undergraduate (48.7%) and postgraduates (51.3%),
who answered an online questionnaire to determine their appreciation on the development they perceive of their
scientific competencies within both their academic and research processes. To confirm if there were differences
between both groups, an ANOVA program was applied and results showed there wasn’t any significant difference,
therefore, the sample is taken as a homogeneous group for data management.
It is observed that 55.6% of the surveyed population were women, the highest percentage of participants
are “between 18 and 25 years old” (50.3%), followed by the ones “between 26 and 35 years old” (27.5%), the ones
“between 36 and 45 years old” (12.7%), “between 46 and 55 years old” it is only 5.8%, and only 3.7% are “under 18”.
From all of participants, 59.3% of the population has not received any training in research.
The measure instrument called HACOIN (Habilidades y Competencias en Investigación) is composed of four
factors: values, technology management, cognitive skills and competencies in research. The measure of the items
in which each of the factors is composed, was carried out throughout a Likert scale from 1 a 5 (1=Nothing y 5=too
much). To validate the instruments, the Research was sent to ten experts in Higher Education to approach the
subject of competencies and, after the answers, a factorial analysis was carried out to determine the validity of the
instrument, stating it as valid (Cronbach’s α=0.92and for the constructs with the technique of main components,
it was detected that they were valid. Like this: values (KMO=0.90; Bartlett Sphericity test p < 0.0001; explaining el
78.301% of data); Technology management (KMO=0.87; Bartlett Sphericity testing p < 0.0001; explaining 75.185%
of data); cognitive skills (KMO=0.83; Bartlett Sphericity testing p < 0.005; explaining 73.854% of data); competen-
cies in research (KMO=0.87; Bartlet Sphericity testing p < 0.0001; explaining 79.165% of data).
Values are measured according to the following parameters: V1) Respect to others; V2) responsibility; V3)
honesty; V4) self-control; V5) team-working; y, V6) Ethics. Technology management is valued asking about the skill
in the management of: D1) Text editors (Word); D2) spreadsheets (Excel); D3) Slideshares (power point, Prezi, etc.);
D4) internet browsing; D5) statistic software; D6) macromedia; y, D7) Bibliographical promoters.
The cognitive skills measured by items: H1) observation, analysis y synthesis; H2) systematization; H3) analysis
of results; H4) Decision-making; H5) Problem-solving; H6) creativity; H7) organization of resources; H8) communica-
tive; H9) interpersonal; e, H10) intrapersonal.
In the end, the competencies in Research were divided into basic and specialized. In the basic ones, the fol-
lowing aspects were considered: C1) Search of Information (physical); C2) Digital Search of Information (magazines,
database); C3) self-learning; C4) approaches of Questions/problems; C5) problem-solving; C6) use of technology;
C7) design and/or creation of information instruments; C8) use of knowledge; C9) appropriation of new knowledge;
C10) knowledge of the scientific method; C11) planning of a scientific research; C12) Identification of components
of a research project; C13) reading and comprehension of documents in English. Specialized competencies are
measured through: C14) drafting of reports; C15) design of an article; C16) presentations; C17) direction of projects;
C18) definition of new projects; C19) detection of new lines or topics; C20) experience in seedlings; C21) experience
as young researcher; C22) defense of scientific poster; C23) degree works.
Data Analysis

The statistical techniques used in research were descriptive to the contextualization of the sample, and, the
ANOVA to establish meaningful differences in respect to both the gender and age variable using SPSS pack ver-
sion 23.
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Results of Research
Values
By asking the students about the values they consider to have developed in the Research process, they stand
out in the “Very High” Level and in the order of importance: Respect to others (83.1%), ethics (83.1%), honesty
(78.3%), responsibility (67.2%), teamwork (58.2%) and self-control (51.9%), as observed in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Percentage distribution of the values that students perceive to have developed in their research
processes.
In the High level highlight: self-control (40.7%), teamwork (32.8%), responsibility (27.5%) and honesty (21.2%).
It is a fact that research processes contribute to the enrichment of knowledge and development of values,
according to the students’ perception who participated in the study. It is highlighted that in the “High” and “Very
High” levels, they perceive to have developed honesty (99.5%), respect (98.4%), ethics (96.3%), responsibility (94.7%),
self-control (92.6%) and teamwork (91.0%).
At the moment of carrying out ANOVA it is detected that with the gender variable, the statistically signifi-
cant values are the responsibility (F-ratio=7.823, df=1, p < 0.006) for women, and ethics (F-ratio=3.185, df=1, p <
0.076) for men. With the age variable there exist significant differences as for responsibility (F-ratio=2.595, df=1,
p < 0.0001) for ages “between 26 and 35 years old”, and honesty (F-ratio=2.196, df=1, p < 0.001) for the ones who
are “between 18-25 years old”.
Management of Technology
As for the use of different technological tools that students manage in their process of research in the Very
High level highlight: the use of browsers (49.7%), text editor (47.6%), slideshares (36.0%) and spreadsheets (21.7%).
In the High level students indicate a bigger use of spreadsheets (47.6%), slideshares (46.0%), browsers (43.9%) and
text editors (38.6%), insofar as the bibliographical promoters cover 28.6%, followed by statistical software (23.3%),
as observed in Figure 3.
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Figure 3: Percentage distribution of Technological management of tools used in the research process
In the analysis of the ANOVA there weren’t any statistically significant differences with the gender variable.
As for the age variable the differences are found in the text edition (F-ratio=6.44, df=3, p < 0.040), spreadsheets
(F-ratio=6.44, df=3, p < 0.0001), for ages “between 26 and 35 years old”, slideshares (F-ratio=6.44, df=3, p < 0.0001)
and the use of browsers (F-ratio=6.44, df=3, p < 0.041), for the ones who are “between 18-25 years old”, being
significant to 95.0% of reliability.
The Skills as Pillars of Knowledge
Figure 4 evidences the skills that students perceive to have developed in the research process. In the “Very
High” level highlight: interpersonal (45.0%), creativity (40.2%), intrapersonal (40.7%), decision-making (39.2%),
problem-solving (38.1%), communication (36.5%), and organization of results (35.4%).
In the High level all skills are perceived to be improved, in order of importance: observation (58.2%), analysis
of results (55.0%), information systems (52.4%), organization of results (49.2%), decision-making (47.1%), intrap-
ersonal (47.1%), problem-solving (47.1%), communication (45.5%), interpersonal (43.4%), and creativity (34.4%).
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Figure 4: Percentage distribution of skills developed in the process of research.
On the Other hand, skills that students perceive to be developing in their Research processes taking into ac-
count the “High” and “Very High” levels are: interpersonal (88.4%), intrapersonal (87.8%), decision-making (86.2%)
and problem-solving (85.2%), fostering Communication and teamwork throughout problem-based learning (PBL).
At the moment of carrying out the ANOVA considering both the gender and age variables, it has been de-
tected there are statistically significant differences with the use of Information Systems (F-ratio=5.932, df=1, p <
0.016), organization of results (F-ratio=7.785, df=1, p < 0.006) and intrapersonal skills (F=3.700, df=1, p < 0.056)
for women and interpersonal skills (F-ratio=3.944, df=3, p < 0.049) for men. In the age variable there doesn’t exist
any significant difference.
The Scientific Competences: Basis for Work Employability
Students were asked about their perception in respect to the basic and specialized competencies in research.
As for the basic ones, in the high level they highlight appropriation of knowledge (58.2%), application of knowl-
edge (54.0%), self-learning (52.4%), problem-solving (50.3%), approach of questions/problems (49.2%), search of
digital information (48.1%), use of technology (45.5%) and search of physical information (41.8%) (See chart 2). In
the Very High level the basic competence that is perceived as the most developed is: use of technology (38.1%),
followed by the search of digital information (29.1%), problem-solving (27.0%), application of knowledge (26.5%),
self-learning (25.4%), application of new knowledge (23.8%), and approaches of questions and answers (22.2%).
As for Specialized competencies in the High level they highlight drafting of reports (43.9%), design of an
article (37.0%), definition of new projects (32.3%), presentations (30.2%), Development of degree works (29.6%),
and, with 29.1% of each of them are found the indicators of direction of projects and detection of new lines or
problems. Insofar as in the Very High level, the perception of having developed the Specialized competencies is
not remarkable, since only 16.9% of the students indicate drafting of reports, el 12.2% development of degree
works, el 13.8% presentation and 10.6% indicators of direction of projects and detection of new lines or topics.
Students indicate that the basic competencies that have been better developed in their processes related to
Research are use of technology (83.6%), appropriation of new knowledge (82.0%), application of knowledge (80.4%),
self-learning (77.8%), problem-solving (77.2%), search of digital information (77.2%), and approaches of questions/
answers (71.4%). As for Specialized competencies they highlight drafting of reports (60.8%), and less considered,
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design of an article (46.0%), presentations (43.9%), development of degree works (41.8%), and definition of new
projects (40.2%). The earlier implies that Research processes in IHEs need to be strengthened from academy taking.
ANOVA was used in order to establish whether the gender variable affects the perception regarding the
development of the basic competences and specialized in research. It was detected that in the basic there is a
significant difference in the indicator of searching for physical information (F-ratio=7.026, df=1, p < 0.009) where
women stand out, and reading and comprehension of documents in English where men stand out (F-ratio=4.362,
df=1, p < 0.038).
After having applied the ANOVA app in the specialized competences only the indicator of Presentations hap-
pens to be statistically significant for them (F-ratio=4.049, df=1, p < 0.046). In the age variable there doesn’t exist
any significant difference.
Discussion
One of the greatest contributions of Research process towards the Development of the competencies of
graduates is being observed at the moment of considering the values that students perceive to have improved
right after having participated in the Research processes. Precisely, research evidences that the values are related
to people’s capacities and their empathy favours the interaction of students in the process, just like Tarrés et al.
(2016) mentions when they point out that people’s feelings are generated towards others due to the existing
closeness between them at the moment of carrying out a research. One clear example of this is respect and ethics.
Students in their Research processes involve knowledge, they know how to do (shown through the acquired
skills) and know how to act in unexpected situations just like Véliz et al. (2015) points out by mentioning the
importance of these aspects in the Development of their competencies, just like how students have expressed
throughout their answers with the measure instrument. The earlier statement implies that Institutions of Higher
Education require to include within their curriculum, tools and courses that facilitate research-based learning.
On the other hand, students’ perception regarding the development of their competencies in Research
processes is reflected in the improvement of communication and teamwork throughout Problem-Based Learning
(PBL) methodology, as a new mechanism to contribute to the improvement of social issues and to the develop-
ment of critical thinking in order to foster this contribution to society. It is evident that scientific competencies
favour professionals to improve in the professional field and citizenship culture (Véliz et al., 2015), the Development
of responsibility towards society (Gobierno Vasco, 2012) and applicability of knowledge (Conchado et al., 2015;
Valencia et al., 2015; Zhao, 2014), competencies that are necessary for the graduates’ professional performance in
the working world (Campos & Chinchilla, 2009).
As for the consideration on competencies and their relation to the Development of their process and the use
of basic and specialized technologies, it highlights that the earlier implies that Research processes in IHEs need to
be strengthened from academy taking into account different points of view of authors and involving research in
the curriculum of institutions.
On the other hand, gender and age are variables that differentiate students. Women give bigger value to
responsibility while men do it for ethics.
This Research let us evidence the importance of the inclusion of Research processes in classes in both under-
graduates and postgraduates, similar to the measure in Universidad de la Guajira in 2014 (Torres et al., 2015) to
favour the working performance, in coincidence with students’ perception towards research and, showing that one
of the most developed skills is critical thinking. Velasco (2014) affirms that thanks to the competencies, students
are effective in the working world. This implies that students who are formed in scientific competencies are the
most preferred by employers.
Finally, the development of critical Thinking perceived by the students who participated in that Research, it
has agreed with the results of Falicoff (2015) study where it highlights that the explanation of reality improves with
the research processes. Apart from the experiences developed by teamwork activities (León et al., 2015; Solbes,
2013) it is evident that the working world is requiring critical Thinking-related competencies from recently gradu-
ated professionals (Conchado et al., 2015) and the fastest Higher education Institutions and companies create
alliances to favour transfer of knowledge, the better will be for the graduates their inclusion in the working world.
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Conclusions
Higher Education Institutions require knowledge transfer since its purpose is to prepare professionals who
will become part of the working world. In this sense, the participation of HEIs and companies is required to seek
the competitiveness of organizations. Colombia has been performing a huge effort to strengthen this relation-
ship considering that both the management of knowledge and research processes are differentiating factors in
the market and foster competitiveness in those organizations throughout the employment of graduates with the
competencies that Work market requires.
The development of competencies in research in professionals allow the graduates to expand their work
opportunities because it is prepared for the demand of working world and, personally, because it contributes the
chance to improve and apply their knowledge through the development of critical thinking in the activities that
are carried out in the companies.
It is necessary for HEIs to establish Transversal criteria for the teaching of competencies in Research and that
companies make a selection of professionals carrying out measurement of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills,
multiple intelligences and the scientific competences themselves.
It is important to remark that students deem relevant to participate in Research processes, which is a promising
setting for IHE as long as they consider to foster critical thinking, a fundamental skill for their performance in the
graduate’s working world. For instance, in subjects oriented in the institution analysed highlight research method-
ology, involving cores, research seedlings, development of degree works, and contribution of young researchers
where students or recently graduated leaders are trained in IHE to become future researchers. There can also be
found curriculum of master and doctorate programs focused on postgraduate students with the purpose of an-
swering for demands raised by the economic increase and process of globalization that Colombia is dealing with.
In order to achieve this goal, the following strategies in IHE are proposed:
- It is required to create a connection between programs of different levels of education: elementary, secondary
and higher. For that, research must be promoted from elementary and secondary education strengthening
initiatives that instil development of research in childhood. For instance, in Colombia the program Ondas works
as a pedagogical strategy for the fostering towards research from kids. Likewise, potentiate in higher educa-
tion research seedlings as an extracurricular activity with the purpose of fostering research culture. Besides,
it is needed to support training of young recently graduated researchers joining them to research groups.
The former will allow to IHE provide an appropriate scenario for the development of basic and specialized
competencies in research allowing the increase of scientific production and visibility of IHE.
•• Foster an adequate environment for Research involving curriculum with Research projects where, from
the very first moment of involvement of student to the Institution of Higher Education, make sure that
he starts his process as a learning methodology and not as an obligation.
•• Training teachers in Research so they can also train their own students, establishing parameters that
allow to adapt a Methodology of Research and PBL to be used as a mediator strategy in the Teaching-
learning process.
•• Encourage the application of government policies related to the fostering of Research making University-
company-state alliances that allow to increase economic resources for hiring and developing research
projects in IHE.
•• Foster a Research Culture, to value and manage knowledge.
All above mentioned evidences the need of strengthening the existing relationship between HEIs and the
company with the purpose of improving the transfer of knowledge and work involvement of professionals with
competencies in research that are flexibles to change and experienced in the area of formation.
Last but not least, lines of future research related to research process and scientific competencies are related
to the proposal of a model which allows determine which of the factors influence graduate’s working performance
considering innovation and management of knowledge that must be adhered to organizational processes favour-
ing competitivity in the HEIs.
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Received: January 18, 2017 Accepted: March 05, 2017
Alba P. Guzmán Duque PhD, Associate Professor, Autonomous University of

Bucaramanga, Cl. 42 #4011, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia.
E-mail: aguzman201@unab.edu.co
Diana V. Olivares Contreras PhD, Associate Professor, Autonomous University of
E-mail: doliveros364@unab.edu.co
Edgar M. Mendoza García PhD, Associate Professor, Autonomous University of
E-mail: emendoza84@unab.edu.co
187
A STUDY OF VOLUNTEERS’
SCIENCE SERVICE
SATISFACTION IN RELATION
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
TO THEIR SELF-DIRECTED
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
Abstract. In Taiwan, the Science Volunteer

Locomotive (SVL) Program has been in
operation for the past ten years. During
these years of its implementation, the SVL Hui-Min Chien
Program has continued to participate in
and co-ordinate various national scientific
activities. This study examined the relation-
ships between volunteers’ prime motiva-
tions, self-directed learning and satisfac-
tion among Taiwanese science volunteers. Introduction
To explore volunteers’ perspectives on their
involvement in science service, in this re- Volunteers are considered as valuable human resources in a wide range
search, we developed three questionnaires of areas in today’s society. To cite an example, some mega-events rely heavily
to investigate the relationships among vol- upon volunteers because a large number of individuals are often necessary
unteers’ motivation, self-directed learning for creating and delivering various types of services. McBride, Johnson, Olate
and satisfaction with their science service. and O’Hara (2011) argued that it is possible to design volunteer service such
The study sample included 289 volunteers, that it channels people into activities which not only contribute to society,
taken from a project for science volunteers but which also allow them to develop their civic, educational and personal
run by the Ministry of Science and Technol- capacities. In addition to the positive links demonstrated between level of
ogy in Taiwan. The results indicate that education and volunteering, some pioneering studies have also found that
the prime motivations and self-directed educational service projects are often labor intensive and may be imple-
learning of science volunteers are focused mented by a variety of labor sources such as teachers, students, and related
on doing something meaningful for others volunteers (Cravens, 2006; Kwok, Chui, & Wong, 2013). This means that there
and for society in general. It was found is an increased possibility of some form of civic engagement among students
that the science volunteers’ motivation, due to service learning programs which encourage students to participate
self-directed learning and satisfaction in volunteering and which benefit the organizations. In recent years, educa-
all had significant positive correlations. tional authorities which have invested in service learning and civic engage-
The findings suggest that science training ment have begun promoting the value of science education. For example,
programs may provide some motivational in Japan, based on the stimulation of science and technology activities, it is
support to enhance satisfaction, so that important to promote science and technology integrally with innovation,
science volunteers will be more inclined resulting in economic growth that will strengthen Japan’s competitiveness
to participate in collaborative scientific (Japanese Ministry of Education, 2014). Hence, this project provides a sci-
projects. entific, educational, and community-volunteer domain context for society
Keywords: prime motivation, service sat-
using science volunteer labor which can produce social and psychological
isfaction, science volunteers, self-directed
benefits in concert with educational benefits. Therefore, volunteer science
learning.
service has gained popularity in educational service projects, and is expected
to be increasingly highlighted.
Research Problem
Hui-Min Chien
Cheng Shiu University, Taiwan
Nowadays, citizen science projects are not only remarkably successful in
advancing scientific knowledge, but are also prevalent in the social psychol-
ogy literature (Widener, 2012). As a matter of fact, there is a range of studies
188
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 188-198)
on volunteering in the psychology literature (Vecina, Chacón, Sueiro, & Barrón, 2012). One of the psychological
factors that operates at the volunteer level is the motivation to engage in service learning. Dwyer, Bono, Snyder,
Nov and Berson (2013) described that volunteer motivation can be defined as an individual’s drive to seek out
volunteer opportunities, to commit themselves to voluntary helping, and to sustain their involvement in volun-
teering over extended time periods. There are many volunteer studies on social services showing different kinds
of motivation including altruism, social contact, personal interest, and emotional needs (Carpenter & Myers, 2010;
Warner, Newland, & Green, 2011). It appears that those people who volunteer for mega-events do so as a result of
a range of motivations including the chances it offers to socialize, their ability to gain material rewards, the possible
enhancement of their status in the local community, the connection with their own hobbies and/or interests, as
well as the opportunities it provides for expressing altruism. Although much is known about the motivations of
volunteers (Pan, 2012; Yamamoto & Engelsted, 2014), little is known about specifically why volunteers participate
in science-related tasks. Hence, this research explored the motivation factors of science volunteers as a way to
provide a window into the culture of citizen science.
Volunteer satisfaction is a popular and extensively studied topic (e.g., Felver, Pierce, Judge, & Johnson, 2014;
Fitzpatrick, Edgar, Remmer, & Leimanis, 2013). Compared to traditional work engagement, people who have
performed volunteer work report higher life satisfaction than non-volunteers (Levy, Benbenishty, & Refaeli, 2012;
Pavlova & Silbereisen, 2012). It is essential to determine why some individuals choose to volunteer, while others
never even consider doing so. People also consistently report an increased sense of life satisfaction and perceived
improvement in quality of life after participation in volunteer programs (Wilson, 2012; Chua & de Guzman, 2014).
This indicates that volunteers enjoy the experience that recipients receive sustained help, and that organizations
manage the process effectively. Furthermore, in the Three-Stage Model of Volunteers’ Duration of Service (Vecina
et al., 2012), satisfaction, commitment, and intention to remain are used in order to explain the duration of volun-
teer service over a tracking period of one year. There is a need to understand the reasons why some continue to
volunteer over a long period of time, while others stop volunteering shortly after starting, often feeling dissatisfied
or, on occasion, even deeply disappointed and having had enough.
However, research has shown that volunteer satisfaction, a favorable evaluation of an experience or behavior,
can be better predicted by motivation (e.g., Garner & Garner, 2011; Finkelstein, 2008). It is vital that general event
organizers understand volunteer motivation and their satisfaction with the volunteering experience such that they
can respond effectively to the management needs in the areas of recruitment, retention, and daily operations. Much
research has been conducted on volunteering motivations and their effects on satisfaction and future intentions
related to social events (e.g., Bang & Ross, 2009; Wright, Underhill, Keene, & Knight, 2015). For example, Allen and
Shaw (2009) found that volunteer motivation (e.g., altruism, value, extrinsic, and intrinsic factors) and satisfaction
with the 2002 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games were strongly positively correlated. In other words, if vol-
unteers feel satisfied and if their motivational needs can be met, they are more likely to return to volunteer in the
future. However, as far as the authors are aware, there has been no research to date focusing on the development
of scales of volunteer motivation and volunteer satisfaction with science services. Therefore, the aim of this research
was to investigate volunteers’ motivation and satisfaction in this area.
Furthermore, some studies have also paid considerable attention to the factors that influence volunteers’
satisfaction (Oostlander, Guentert, & Wehner, 2014; Luzurier, Damm, Lion, Daniel, Pellerin, & Tavolacci, 2015), one of
which is self-directed learning. Knowles (1975) described ‘self-directed learning’ as an inborn potential utilized by
human beings at various times in their life while encountering new and challenging situations. The development
of SDL may help learners adapt to changing environments and enhance their creativity. Over the past decades,
self-directed learning (SDL) has received considerable attention in the educational literature (Santhanam, Sasid-
haran, & Webster, 2008; Bearn & Chadwick, 2010), and the concept may be generally well accepted in the field of
volunteering, despite limited evidence to support its value in science service programs.
There are many studies linking self-directed learning to positive personal characteristics, individual achieve-
ment, and satisfaction. For example, Gagnon, Gagnon, Desmartis and Njoya (2013) have emphasized that it is more
important to evaluate the learner’s acceptability and satisfaction with SDL rather than the outcomes. Recently in
higher education, self-directed learning has been gaining greater attention than ever as it is believed that it im-
proves comprehension, memory, critical thinking, inquisitiveness, good decision making, achievement satisfaction,
enthusiasm, competency and self-reliance (Shen, Chen, & Hu, 2014). These supported studies mean that the SDL of
those volunteers who are satisfied with volunteering is quite important. Therefore, it is also becoming increasingly
interesting to encourage SDL by enhancing volunteers’ satisfaction with their volunteering activities.
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In sum, the major purpose of this research was to predict volunteers’ motivation, self-directed learning and
satisfaction with their science service. To this end, three questionnaires for assessing volunteers’ motivation, self-
directed learning and satisfaction with their science service were developed. Moreover, the possibility of using
volunteers’ motivation and self-directed learning to predict their satisfaction with their science service was con-
sidered. Based on the questionnaire responses of 289 participants in the project for science volunteers in Taiwan,
the following questions were addressed:
1. What motivation, self-directed learning and satisfaction with their science service do the volunteers
have?
2. What are the relationships between the volunteers’ motivation, self-directed learning and satisfaction
with their science service?
This research is part of a research trend which recognizes the relationships for a more holistic approach of vol-
unteers’ prime motivation, self-directed learning and satisfaction with their science service. A quantitative analysis
of volunteers’ perceptions was used so as to define the volunteers’ satisfaction. The methodology, data collection,
analyses and results of the survey method that used questionnaires as the assessment tools will be explained
individually in detail. The data obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed using the statistical program for
social science (SPSS) in the study. A series of analyses including factor, correlation and regression analyses were
carried out in this research. Firstly, factor analysis was performed to identify the scales of the instruments assessing
the volunteers’ MSS, SDL and SSS. Moreover, correlation analysis was utilized to examine the relationships between
the volunteers’ MSS and SSS as well as their SDL and SSS. Then, through a stepwise multiple regression analysis,
the volunteers’ motivation and self-directed learning were viewed as predictors to explain their satisfaction with
science service.
Sample
In Taiwan, the National Science Council (NSC) has developed an original Science Volunteer Locomotive Program
which is designed to promote the development of science, education and humanity. Generally, volunteer service
programs in Taiwan have been institutionalized; for example, the science volunteer service program is jointly run
by educational institutions and nonprofit organizations. This program is intended to serve as a resource for those
wanting to bring the human and material resources of the scientific and engineering communities into beneficial
and sustainable relationships with schools through science volunteer programs that use a team approach to de-
velop comprehensive school-focused plans.
These plans bring together scientists, mathematicians and technology expert volunteers from business,
industry, government and higher education to work with community volunteers, educators and students. The
participants of this research were from a project for science volunteers run by the Ministry of Science and Tech-
nology in Taiwan. According to the official statistics, altogether more than 1,400 volunteers, including 41 service
teams, have served at different sites in Taiwan. For the purpose of this research, the participants were randomly
selected from over 40 Science Volunteer Groups in Taiwan. The final sample included 289 volunteers of which 96
(33.21%) were male, while the other 193 (66.79%) were female. Of these 289 volunteers, 148 (51.21%) were less
than 30-years-old, 40 (13.84%) were 31-40-years-old, and 101 (34.95%) were 41-years-old and above.
Instruments
In order to assess the volunteers’ motivation, self-directed learning and their satisfaction with their science
service, three questionnaires were implemented in this research.
The Motivation toward Science Services (MSS) questionnaire administered in the current research was devel-
oped based on previous related studies (e.g., Lai, Ren, Wu, & Hun, .2013; Lee, Reisinger, Kim, & Yoon, 2014) such as
the “volunteer motivation questionnaire.” Initially, the questionnaire included 21 items in total, presented with a
seven-point Likert mode (anchored at 1, “strongly disagree” and 7, “strongly agree”). Four scales were designed for
MSS. The following is a description of the details of each of these four scales:
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Development scale: the individual is seeking to grow and develop psychologically through involvement
in volunteering.
Social scale: volunteering allows the person to strengthen his/her social relationships.
Understanding scale: the volunteer is seeking to learn more about the world and/or exercise skills that
are often unused.
Altruism scale: the individual’s behavior promotes the welfare of others without conscious regard for his/
her own self-interest.
The Self-Directed Learning (SDL) questionnaire, based on Chang (2006), is a 20-item questionnaire designed
to assess volunteers for self-directed learning that consists of five subscales: “Effective learning” (4 items), “Desire
for learning” (4 items), “Active learning” (4 items), “Independent learning” (4 items) and “Creative learning” (4 items).
The items are rated on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). This instrument
was adapted for science program volunteers in this research.
The Satisfaction with Science Service (SSS) questionnaire was adapted from Vecina et al. (2012). They proposed
two factors of satisfaction with science service; these factors included a total of 11 items which were presented
as bipolar strongly confident/strongly unconfident statements using a seven-point Likert scale. Following is a
description of the details of these two scales:
Satisfaction with organization scale: measuring volunteers’ perceptions of satisfaction with their volun-
teering organization.
Satisfaction with volunteer experience scale: assessing volunteers’ perceived meaningful experience and
responsibility for outcomes.
Data Analysis
The data obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed using the statistical program for social science
(SPSS) in the study. A series of analyses including factor, correlation and regression analyses were carried out in this
research. Firstly, factor analysis was performed to identify the scales of the instruments assessing the volunteers’
MSS, SDL and SSS. Moreover, correlation analysis was utilized to examine the relationships between the volunteers’
MSS and SSS as well as their SDL and SSS. Then, through a stepwise multiple regression analysis, the volunteers’
motivation and self-directed learning were viewed as predictors to explain their satisfaction with science service.
Results of Research
Exploratory factor analysis of the MMS, SDL and SSS Questionnaires
To validate the MMS, SDL and SSS questionnaires, three EFAs with varimax rotation were performed to clarify
their structure. The results of the exploratory factor analysis for the MMS questionnaire are displayed in Table 1.
Through this analysis, 22 items were included in the final version of MMS, with a total of 80.47% of variation explained,
and the items were grouped into four meaningful factors: 0.89 (Development, 4 items), 0.91 (Social, 4 items), 0.91
(Understanding, 4 items), and 0.95 (practical enhancement, 6 items), Therefore, these scales were deemed to be
sufficiently reliable for assessing volunteers’ motivation to engage in science service.
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Table 1. Rotated factor loadings and Cronbach alpha values for the MSS scales.
Scale Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Factor 1: Development, α =0.89,

D1 0.752
D2 0.738
D3 0.623
D4 0.595
Factor 2: Social, α =0.91

S1 0.761
S2 0.723
S3 0.654
S4 0.520
Factor 3: Understanding, α =0.91
U1 0.745
U2 0.723
U3 0.673
U4 0.550
Factor 4: Altruism, α =0.95,
A1 0.830
A2 0.822
A3 0.820
A4 0.791
A5 0.765
A6 0.706
Percentage of variance 28.49 19.55 16.72 15.71
Overall α =0.97. Total variance explained is 80.47 %
Table 2 reveals the SDL EFA results. In all, 18 items were retained in the SDL questionnaire and were divided
into five meaningful factors as suggested by Chang (2006): ‘Effective learning,’ ‘Desire for learning,’ ‘Active learn-
ing,’‘Independent learning,’ and ‘Creative learning.’ The total variance explained for SDL was 71.04%. The reliability
coefficients for these factors ranged from 0.79 to .88, while the overall alpha was 0.87. Consequently, these values
indicate that the SDL questionnaire is a reliable instrument for evaluating volunteers’ perceptions of their skills
and attitudes associated with self-directedness in learning during science service.
Table 2. Rotated factor loadings and Cronbach’s alpha values for the SDL questionnaire scales.
Scale Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5
Factor 1: Effective learning, α =0.912

EL1 0.794
EL2 0.707
EL 3 0.740
EL4 0.620
Factor 2: Desire for learning, α =0.906
DL1 0.637
DL2 0.790
DL3 0.670
DL4 0.839
Factor 3: Active learning, α =0.894
AL1 0.790
AL2 0.678
AL3 0.651
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Scale Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5
Factor 4: Independent learning, α =0.893

IL 1 0.901
IL 2 0.912
IL 3 0.753
IL 4 0.894
Factor 5: Creative learning, α =0.878
CL 1 0.757
CL 2 0.782
CL 3 0.758
CL 4 0.702
Percentage of variance 16.173 17.400 12.545 16.162 16.985
Overall α = 0.876. Total variance explained is 79.265%

Furthermore, as shown in Table 3, the EFA results of the SSS reveal two factors among the items. It should be
noted that the same criteria as were used for the other instruments (i.e., the MSS and SDL Questionnaires) were
adopted for SSS. Finally, 10 items were included in the final version of SSS, accounting for 83.68% of the total vari-
ance explained. The alpha reliabilities of this research’s sample were 0.96 for ‘Satisfaction with organization,’ 0.95
for ‘Satisfaction with volunteer experience,’ and 0.96 for the overall reliability of the SSS questionnaire. Therefore,
it appears that these scales are highly reliable for measuring the volunteers’ satisfaction with their science service.
Table 3. Rotated factor loadings and Cronbach alpha values for the SSS scales.
Scale Factor 1 Factor 2
Factor 1: Satisfaction with organization, α =0.96,

SWO 1 0.726
SWO 2 0.852
SWO 3 0.848
SWO 4 0.831
SWO 5 0.776
SWO 6 0.811
Factor 2: Satisfaction with volunteer experience, α =0.95

SWVE 1 0.878
SWVE 2 0.866
SWVE 3 0.896
SWVE 4 0.863
Percentage of variance 44.57% 39.11%
Overall α =0.96. Total variance explained is 83.68%
Correlation Analysis: the MSS and SDL to the SSS
The results of the Pearson correlation analysis are indicated in Table 4. They show that all of the MSS factors
are significantly positively correlated to each scale of the SSS (r>0.51, р<0.01). These results, in general, support
that volunteers expressing higher satisfaction with their science service were likely to express stronger intentions
to learn for the purpose of their own development, to make more social contact, to enhance cognition, and to
promote the welfare of others through their science service. This implies that higher satisfaction with volunteer
experience may help the volunteers attain higher motivation to engage in science service, particularly for promot-
ing the welfare of others. However, it was also found that ‘Effective learning,’ ‘Desire for learning,’ ‘Active learning’
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and ‘Creative learning’ had positive correlations with both scales of the SSS (r>0.45, р <0.01); however, there was
no statistical correlation between ‘Independent learning’ and either of the SSS scales. In summary, it seems that
volunteers with higher MSS and SDL in their science service might tend to perceive satisfaction with the organiza-
tion and to see their experiences as being useful.
Table 4. Correlation of the volunteers’ MSS, SDL and SSS.
SWO SWVE
Development 0.56*** 0.66***

Social 0.53*** 0.69***
Understanding 0.57*** 0.72****
Altruism 0.51*** 0.67***
Effective learning 0.57*** 0.65***
Desire for learning 0.51*** 0.66***
Active learning 0.54*** 0.65***
Independent learning 0.03 -0.004
Creative learning 0.45*** 0.56***
*** р<0.001.
Stepwise Regression Model of Predicting Volunteers’ SSS
To explore the predictive effects of the MSS and SDL scales on the SSS scales, we performed stepwise multiple
regression analyses in which the MSS and SDL factors were the predictor variables, and each of the SSS scales was
an outcome variable, as shown in Table 5. As the table shows, the SWO factor has significant relations with ‘Un-
derstanding’ (β= 0.57, p>0.001), ‘Effective learning’ (β= 0.36, p>0.001) and ‘Development’ (β= 0.20, p>0.05). Also,
the SWVE factor has significant correlations with ‘Understanding’ (β= 0.72, p>0.001), ‘Effective learning’ (β= 0.34,
p>0.001), ‘Social’ (β= 0.25, p>0.001), ‘Active learning’ (β= 0.18, p>0.01) and ‘Altruism’ (β= 0.16, p>0.05). In summary,
the regression analysis revealed that the ‘Understanding’ and ‘Effective learning’ factors were the most significant
predictors for each of the SSS scales. More specifically, in general, both ‘Understanding’ (ß=0.57~0.72) and ‘Effective
learning’ (ß=0.36~0.36) significantly and positively predicted the SWO and SWVE scales, and explained 41% and
59% of the volunteers’ satisfaction, respectively.
Table 5. Stepwise regression model of predicting volunteer’ SSS.
Dependent variables Predicting variables S.E. β t 2

R
Understanding .068 .573 11.618*** .328
SWO Effective .067 .358 6.274*** .413
Development .118 .198 2.546* .426
Understanding .054 .719 17.139*** .516
Effective .052 .344 7.229*** .594
SWVE Social .080 .247 3.879*** .615
Active .066 .177 2.995** .627
Altruism .065 .155 2.570* .636
*** р<.001 ** р<.01* р<.05
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Discussion
In order to advance science and education, it is argued that expanded efforts are needed to garner support
for and recognition of citizen science as a discipline and an important form of volunteer service (Newman et al.,
2012). From this perspective, science volunteers should be the central focus of the related studies. Additionally,
the majority of prior studies have examined the mechanisms which link satisfaction to volunteers’ motivation and
which explain the relationships among them (Wang & Wu, 2014; Kwok, Chui, & Wong, 2013). In this research, we
further tested and developed another predictor for the measurement of volunteer satisfaction, suggesting that
self-directed learning through volunteering plays a crucial intervening role in connecting with volunteers’ satisfac-
tion. Therefore, this research was designed to predict science volunteers’ satisfaction with their science service by
the measures of three questionnaires: motivation toward science service (MSS), self-directed learning (SDL) and
satisfaction with science service (SSS).
This research is quite helpful for facilitating understanding of volunteers’ motivation, self-directed learning
and satisfaction related to science services. By using these three questionnaires, researchers can assess and review
volunteers’ motivation and satisfaction with science services in a more effective way, with possibly higher validity.
The results demonstrate that the MSS, SDL and SSS questionnaires developed in this research on volunteering can
be deemed to be sufficiently reliable for investigating various motivations, self-directed learning and their effect
on the satisfaction of volunteers. A contribution of this research is the further conceptualization and development
of predictors for the measurement of volunteers’ satisfaction with their science service. Using factor analysis, the
MMS and SDL conceptualized as predictors of satisfaction with considerable reliability are presented. Moreover,
the results of this research derived from the correlation and stepwise regression analyses demonstrate that some
useful predictors for satisfaction with science service were also revealed.
First of all, the correlation analysis revealed that all volunteers’ MSS related to satisfaction with the organiza-
tion and with their volunteer experience of science service. The Development, Social, Understanding and Altruism
factors of MSS show higher correlation with satisfaction. Volunteers with higher motivation expressed greater
satisfaction with the organization and with their volunteering experience of science service. This research supports
many earlier studies’ findings that volunteer motivation is positively associated with volunteer satisfaction (Barron
& Rihova, 2011; Pauline, 2011). This suggests that, to improve volunteers’ satisfaction with their science service, their
motivation to engage in science service should be highlighted. Moreover, some studies have revealed the positive
effects of SDL and technology usage perceptions (Gagnon et al., 2013; Shen, Chen, & Hu, 2014). This research sup-
ports these relevant studies, showing that volunteers’ SDL, except for ‘independent learning,’ is a good predictor
of satisfaction with the organization and with their science service volunteer experience. That is, volunteers who
had higher ‘effective learning,’ ‘desire for learning,’ ‘active learning’ and ‘creative learning’ expressed more positive
SSS. The results seem to suggest that volunteers should attempt to find ways to engage in self-directed learning
so as to increase their satisfaction with the science service program.
Furthermore, the stepwise regression analysis displayed that ‘understanding’ and ‘effective learning’ were the
most significant positive predictors of satisfaction with the organization and with their volunteer experience of
science service. SSS can be enhanced by developing higher MSS understanding. This claim is supported by the
research of Warner et al. (2011) who found that those volunteers who already understood more about learning
useful skills were more satisfied with their experience, and intended to further extend their time with the organiza-
tion. Additionally, the added value of this particular finding is the confirmation of the important role of volunteers’
SDL within a broad range of variables and processes influencing satisfaction with the organization and with the
volunteer experience. The implication of this finding is that, if volunteers adopt more effective learning regarding
volunteering in science service, they are likely to be more satisfied with the organization and with their volunteer
experience, which echoes the findings of previous studies (e.g., Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, & Willingham,
2013; Garrett, MacPhee, & Jackson, 2010).
With the growth in the popularity of volunteering, it is suggested that future studies focus on issues relating
to volunteers’ perceptions. This current study was an initial attempt to investigate the relationships among volun-
teer motivation, self-directed learning and satisfaction with science service. The majority of the former studies on
volunteer motivation and satisfaction were set in the context of social welfare volunteering, and proposed that
motivation and self-directed learning are the major influences on volunteer satisfaction (Gagnon et al., 2013; Gar-
ner & Garner, 2011). This study, which was carried out in the context of science service, reveals that the MSS factor
of Understanding and the SDL factor of Effective learning played significantly positive roles in the satisfaction of
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volunteers performing science service. This finding is consistent with the findings of previous studies carried out in
the context of social welfare volunteer work, and also shines a light on the nature of science service volunteer work.
Conclusions and Implications
The research findings offer two important managerial implications. Firstly, the present research clearly sup-
ports a positive effect of motivation on both of the SSS factors. The findings suggest important implications that
should be considered in both the design and the management of science service projects; it is therefore recom-
mended that the designers and leaders of projects such as these focus their efforts regarding the recruitment and
retention of volunteers on those motivational factors which are more salient and which have a positive relationship
with the satisfaction and participation of the volunteers. Enhancing motivation in the design of the assemblage of
volunteers is one approach to supporting scientific goals which are motivating, while well-designed participant
support features can also help to create a more satisfying experience for participants. When promoting training
courses and camp activities for science service projects, motivational factors have to be addressed and built into
the satisfaction, so that science volunteers will be more inclined to participate in collaborative scientific projects
when given the proper motivational impetus at the right time. As such, this popular science education promotion
modulus can contribute to creating a sustainable environment for public science learning in Taiwan.
Second, along with the rapid growth of social welfare institutes and groups, the demand for volunteers is
increasing. Some organizations suffer from a lack of volunteer participants. Corresponding to the research findings,
organizations should provide clear and achievable goals for volunteers. Volunteers need to be given missions or
tasks with specific meanings and clear instructions. In this way, the science volunteers will benefit greatly and will
be capable of accomplishing the goals set by the organization. In addition, a high degree of collective motivation
seems to suggest that science service projects should aim to enhance volunteer satisfaction with the project and
with its goals. One way of doing this is by clearly communicating the project’s mission and achievements to the
volunteers (e.g., through the Internet, including social media). In general, science volunteers’ motivation is pre-
eminent, but satisfaction-oriented functionality is also just as prevalent in existing projects. These valuable results
reveal that the science service project is a desirable education methodology that not only promotes popular sci-
ence education but also cultivates the scientific literacy of the general public, which will motivate people to have
more fun and to enjoy learning science.
Finally, this research was conducted with the involvement of volunteers from a variety of volunteer service
programs, and the results indicate that the scale of the organization was an influencing factor on the volunteers’
feedback. Bigger organizations tend to have a more positive reputation, and are likely to have greater access to
resources compared with smaller organizations, while also tending to be more systematic in their management of
volunteers. It is therefore suggested that future studies compare organizations of various sizes in order to identify
whether the scale of the organization does in fact influence the attitudes and experiences of volunteers. It is also
suggested that future studies focus on advancing the understanding of volunteer management and retention
issues in order to clarify or compare the impacts of organization scale. The age of the volunteers should also be
considered, as people of different ages tend to have different points of view, and different generations have differ-
ent backgrounds and were raised in different ways. It is likely that these factors lead them to think in completely
different ways, and therefore impact their volunteering attitudes. A better understanding of such generational
differences would be an important contribution to the literature in this field.
Acknowledgements
Funding of this research work is supported by Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, by grant numbers
MOST 104-2515-S-218-001 and MOST 105-2515-S-230 -001 -MY3
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Received: February 08, 2017 Accepted: March 12, 2017
Hui-Min Chien PhD, Associate Professor. Center for Teacher Education, Cheng Shiu
University, No.840, Chengcing Rd., Niaosong Dist., Kaohsiung City
83347, Taiwan.
Email: chm@csu.edu.tw
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MOTIVATION IN THE PHYSICAL

EDUCATION
Abstract. Based on Self-determination
Theory (SDT), this research intends to
analyze the effect of different physical edu-
cation (PE) teachers’ teaching styles on stu-
dents’ class participation motivation in uni-
Cheng-Bo Yang, versities. Students of some universities and
colleges in Sichuan Province and Shanghai
Min-Kai Dong Municipality, China, are researched. Total
871 valid copies of questionnaire are
retrieved for testing the research hypoth-
eses. The results reveal positive correlation
between incentive, intelligence inspiration
and the intrinsic motivation of student
Introduction learning as well as between charisma and
the extrinsic motivation of student learning
The progress of industrial development and information network in transformational leadership. In trans-
has largely enhanced the time for using information related products. actional leadership, contingent reward
Networking lifestyles allow daily necessities being satisfied without going and positive involving management show
out. In the technological civilization society, new generation adolescents positive relationship with the intrinsic
largely reduce the time for physical activity that the occurrence of civilized motivation of student learning, and nega-
illness becomes younger in modern societies. Physical education, as a part tive involving management also presents
of school education, aims to cultivate students’ regular exercise habit and positive relationship with the extrinsic
to promote national health. American Academy Pediatrics advocated that motivation of student learning. Finally, it is
children and adolescents should actively participate in physical education and suggested that PE teachers should build the
regular physical activity. Regular physical activity could benefit the physical situation which could satisfy the needs of
and mental health of adolescents, who were at the development stage. From autonomy, sense of competence and sense
the physiological aspect, exercise could control weight and body fat as well of belonging as well as create the physical
as reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular and chronic diseases; from the education environment which could satisfy
psychological aspect, exercise could release stress, reduce the occurrence basic psychological needs of autonomy,
of anxiety and depression, and promote learning efficiency (Rowland, 1990; competence, and sense of belonging to
Obert, Mandigout, Vinet, N’guyen, Stecken & Courteix, 2001). From the reinforce students’ positive motivation on
psychological points of view, the initial motivation of an individual proceeding physical education. Sports education is the
activity is the key factor in the continuity of the behavior. In the domain of most important education to develop the
psychology, “motivation” is often applied to present individual participation students’ physical and mental health.
involvement and effort. It is efficient to enhance students’ learning interests Keywords: self-determination theory,
and participation motivation on physical education activity through physical physical education, teacher’s leadership,
education in schools, to cultivate the regular exercise habit (Standage, Duda & participation motivation.
Ntoumanis, 2003). Accordingly, factors in the physical education participation
motivation become primary.
Cheng-Bo Yang
Recent research on motivation was generally based on Deci’s (1980) Chengdu Sport University, China
Self-determination Theory (SDT) to understand the effects of individual self- Min-Kai Dong
determination of activity engagement on different motivation styles. There Shanghai University of Finance and
Economics, China
were several studies on physical education learning with Self-determination
Theory. Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse and Biddle (2003) indicated
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that students’ perceived autonomy support in the physical education process would positively regulate students’
identification and intrinsic motivation. Aiming at samples from the UK, Greece, and Poland, Hagger, Chatzisaran-
tis, Barkoukis, Wang and Baranowski (2005) also supported such correlation in the research. According to above
experimental results, the effects of motivation on students learning physical education exercise were broad. This
research therefore intends to analyze students’ physical education motivation, based on Self-determination Theory.
Research Focus
From the viewpoint of Self-determination Theory, factors in motivation include successful and failed experience
in the past as well as leader behaviors. In the “Educational Social Psychology”, Bany and Johnson (1975) regarded
“leadership” as an important part of teaching activity, which presented the function to “assist” and “maintain” student
learning. Since college students are the subjects in this research, PE teachers’ leadership styles would be the key
factor in the physical education learning motivation. Research on leadership has gradually focused on charismatic,
transformational, and transactional leadership styles. Charismatic leadership was first proposed by Burns (1978);
then, Bass (1985) started to develop transformational and transactional leadership styles based on Burns’ theory
and early studies on charismatic leadership.
Transformational leadership encourages subordinates’ intrinsic motivation through higher ideal and value
(Burns, 1978; Wu & Tai, 2016), induces subordinates’ high-level needs of motivation, affection, and development
to cater to the leaders, stimulates subordinates’ ability and wisdom and gives individual care to subordinates
through leaders’ charisma (Bass, 1985) to eventually affect organizational members changing the psychological
state and attitudes as well as establishing commitment to organizational objective or mission (Yukl, 1989; Tsai, Wu
& Yeh, 2013; Wu, Tsai & Yeh, 2014). Transactional leadership is based on conditional exchange. According to Bass
(1985), leaders have the subordinates clearly know the role responsibilities and complete anticipated tasks and
give favorable promise to the subordinates. Transactional leadership therefore is based on an exchange process,
in which leaders offer rewards for the subordinates’ effort and performance.
Physical education in colleges does not simply stress on a single exercise event, but assists students in
cultivating the persistent exercise habit to further affect national exercise popularization and overall health standard
in the long term. Applying the above leadership style theory to physical education, PE teachers’ charisma is the key
factor in inducing students’ interests in physical education; besides, PE teachers often induce students’ motivation
on physical education by adding points to further lead students proceeding physical education activity. In sum, the
relationship between college PE teachers’ leadership styles and college students’ physical education motivation
is analyzed in this research.
Literature Review
Self-determination Theory is an idea of an individual determining to engage in the behavior because of certain
reasons. The so-called reason is the motivation. Motivation refers to an inner process to induce individual activity or
maintaining induced activity and have such activity move toward certain goal (Niemiec, Ryan & Deci, 2009; Broeck,
Vansteenkiste, Witte, Soenens & Lens, 2010); it could be the direction and strength of an individual participating in
the activity. A lot of researchers have proposed various types of motivation, which could be generally divided into
“intrinsic motivation” and “extrinsic motivation” (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Gagné & Deci, 2005; Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand,
Deci & Ryan, 2013). Intrinsic motivation refers to an individual participating in an activity according to personal
willingness and experiencing fun and acquiring satisfaction through the activity. Extrinsic motivation, on the other
hand, refers to an individual not participating in an activity because of personal interests, but being affected by
extrinsic incentives or performing to avoid punishment.
Nonetheless, such a theory has gradually increased the conceptual basis for contemporary research on students’
physical education motivation. For example, latest research on physical education, aiming at Self-determination
Theory, offered more complete measurement (Standage, Duda & Ntoumanis, 2006; Niemiec & Ryan, 2009; Langan,
Blake & Lonsdale, 2013). The basic assumption of Self-determination Theory refers to the factor of social background
in individual motivation (e.g. autonomy vs. controllability), well-being, and function. According to the opinion of
Deci and Ryan (1985), autonomy-support environment (e.g. social background as supportive choice, creativity, and
understanding) could better assist in self-determined motivation, healthy development, and ideal psychological
function than controlled environment (e.g. social background as dictatorship, oppression, and order). Past research
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on physical education revealed direct and positive relationship between autonomy-support environment and
self-determined motivation (Hagger et al., 2005). Standage et al. (2006) indicated that perceived autonomy sup-
port could positively predict self-determined motivation through needs of autonomy, competence, and sense of
belonging. Other research on physical education (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Appleton & Duda, 2016) also discovered the
positive benefit acquired from the interaction between students in physical education and teachers who offered
autonomy support.
The idea of school teachers’ teaching styles is introduced from leadership styles in histology. Teaching styles
in this research therefore are explained and described from the aspect of leadership styles. Leadership, as a kind
of authority, command and with the meaning of “pull”, refers to doing right things and asking for effectiveness
naturally and functionally integrating, encouraging, inspiring, and leading the term towards correct directions
(Tsai wt al., 2013; Stewart & Shamdasani, 2014) to make changes according to time and location, present choice on
tasks, focus on organizational planning or looking for and setting organizational direction in the change so that the
organization could adapt to the environment. From above ideas, nature, and function descriptions of leadership,
the importance of leadership in a group is understandable, which is not simply to passively control and maintain
current situations, but to actively break through the present standard to achieve the success (Piccolo, Bono, Heinitz,
Rowold, Duehr & Judge, 2012; Simsek, Jansen, Minichilli & Escriba-Esteve, 2015).
Charismatic and transformational leadership gradually became emerging leadership strategies in 1980.
Charismatic leadership integrated the viewpoints of attribution and trait theories, revealing that a leader was
attributed as heroic or extraordinary leadership when specific behaviors were viewed. New leadership nowadays
refers to transformational leadership, which could be a type of charismatic leadership, but is more than that, as it
covers the competence to give vision and various incentive strategies and achieve success for the organization
and self-development for individuals (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Judge, Bono, Ilies & Gerhardt, 2002; Simsek et al.,
2015). Transactional and transformational leadership was often utilized in education later on. Furthermore, Bass and
Avolio (1989) extracted “incentive” from charismatic leadership and divided involving management into “positive
involving management” and “negative involving management” and further developed more complicated Multi
factor Leadership Questionnaire (8Y) with broader coverage. The three dimensions in the scale contained the
following factors, 1.transformational leadership styles: charisma, incentive, intelligence inspiration, and personal
care, 2.transactional leadership styles: contingent reward, positive involving management, and negative involving
management, and 3.non-leadership styles: laissez faire. Transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire leadership
styles are also applied in this research to analyze students’ participation motivation.
Bass (1985) indicated that transactional leaders played the role to have the members understand the work
contents and clarify the acquired result as well as give the members full confidence for necessary effort in order
to satisfy the needs. As a result, the expected effort of the members could be changed into anticipated work
performance. Avolio and Bass (2002) considered that transactional leadership stressed on transaction or exchange,
which often occurred among leaders, colleagues and members. Leaders discussed responsibilities and rewards
with other members, and the members would receive rewards after completing requested events. Lowe, Kroeck
and Sivasubramaniam (1996) regarded transactional leadership as the strategies leaders applied to consult,
compromise and bargain, a strategy timely applying rewards, punishment or obligation to urge the members to
work and satisfy the members’ needs, and a type of leadership strategy to control the achievement of expected
goal. Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson (2003) referred it as leaders perceiving subordinate s’ needs, giving affirmation
and rewards to subordinates, correcting subordinates’ deviant behaviors, and even giving punishment to have the
subordinates perceive the immediate feedback.
Sergiovanni (1996) regarded transformational leadership as the value-added leadership, which emphasized
high-level, intrinsic, ultimate moral motivation and needs; leaders would induce the members to induce intelligence
and exceed the original motivation and expectation. Such leadership presented cultural and moral meanings. In
other words, transformational leadership was related to self-esteem, autonomy, self-realization and high-level psy-
chological needs of virtue, justice, responsibility, and obligation. Van Knippenberg and Sitkin (2013) revealed that
transformational leadership allowed members enhancing ideal and moral value, encouraged members to present
larger effort and performance, and meanwhile, the members would be proud of being a part of the organization,
supported, enhanced the self-confidence, and be willing to and promise to achieve the leader’s vision. In other
words, transformational leadership influenced organizational members and changed the attitudes and premise in
order to establish the commitment to organizational mission or goal (Yukl, 1994; Tsai et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2014).
Whitford and Moss (2009) pointed out transformational leadership as an interactive process to promote the ambition
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of leaders and members to achieve the higher level and cooperatively make effort for the change. Avolio and Bass
(2002) considered that transformational leadership was expanded from transaction in which leaders would urge
others to invest in more effort than the original plan and even exceed the imagination. Such leaders would set
more challengeable expectation to enhance the members’ moral level, expand their interests as much as possible
and allow peers, members, and even supervisors intrinsically concerning about the group, organization, or society
so as to have the members achieve the best performance.
Laissez faire leadership style refers to leaders giving total freedom to the subordinates, without interference
or intervention. Basically, leaders do not provide any leadership, do not participate in organizational decision-
making and administrative operation, and do not offer suggestion and criticism, but allow the subordinates
making decisions and even independently solving difficulties occurred in the business execution (Avolio & Bass,
2002; Bass et al., 2003; Moriano, Molero, Topa & Mangin, 2014). Aiming at physical education exercise, Appleton
and Duda (2016) regarded laissez faire leadership style as leaders of physical education organizations indulging
the development of all affairs without interfering the participation, allowing the development and not giving any
feedback or making any effective decisions that all affairs were self-determined by the subordinates. According
to above literature discussion and review, it is considered that PE teachers’ leadership styles appear correlations
with students’ learning motivation.
H1: PE teachers’ transformational leadership presents positive and significant relationship with students’
learning motivation.
H2: PE teachers’ transactional leadership shows positive and significant relationship with students’ learning
motivation.
H3: PE teachers’ laissez faire leadership reveals positive and significant relationship with students’ learning
motivation.
Sample of Research
This study is surveyed of some universities and colleges in Sichuan Province and Shanghai Municipality in
China who studied in Sports College. This study totally surveyed 1000 questionnaires and 932 valid copies are
retrieved, deductions from incomplete questionnaires, this study used 871 valid ones. Among such valid copies,
total 683 students (about 78.4% of total samples) are male with the average age 21.4, total 391 students (about
44.9% of total samples) are from Sichuan Province and Shanghai Municipality, and total 738 students (about 84.7%
of total samples) exercise more than twice a week.
Leadership styles. Referring to Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (8Y) proposed by Avolio and Bass (2002),
leadership styles are divided to transformational, transactional and laissez faire leadership styles in this research.
The leadership style questionnaire is complied, according to the factors in each leadership style, for college PE
teachers. Transformational leadership style, total 12 questions, contains three dimensions of charisma, incentive,
and intelligence inspiration, with the Cronbach’s Α 0.87; transactional leadership style, total 16 questions, includes
three dimensions of contingent reward, positive involving management, and negative involving management, with
the Cronbach’s α 0.85; and, laissez-faire leadership style, total 7 questions, shows the Cronbach’s α 0.91. Learning
motivation. Referring to “Self-determination Theory” proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985), the definitions of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation in Self-determination Theory are modified to fit the college students’ physical education
motivation questionnaire. The learning motivation covers 12 questions and two dimensions of intrinsic motivation
and extrinsic motivation, with the Cronbach’s α 0.88. The basic data of respondents contain gender, age, year in
college, originated province, and average weekly exercise frequency.
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Data Analysis
The final SEM results show χ2/df 1.738, RMSEA =0.0739 less than 0.08, GFI =0.9632, AGFI=0.9761, NFI=0.9794,
and CFI=0.9819 higher than 0.95, and PGFI =0.632 also higher than 0.5. The above values show the favorable
fitness of the model, explaining that the modified model properly fits the samples, and the path coefficient could
reasonably and effectively reflect the causal relationship among latent variables that it could test the hypotheses
in this research. The operation is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Path analysis model.
What is more, the hypothesis test results can be viewed from Figure 1. Incentive (β = .22, p<.01) and intelli-
gence inspiration (β = .28, p<.01) in transformational leadership of college PE teachers present positive relationship
with the intrinsic motivation of student learning; and, charisma (β = .21, p<.01) shows positive relationship with
the extrinsic motivation of student learning that H1 is supported. In transactional leadership, contingent reward
(β = .19, p<.01) and positive involving management (β = .23, p<.01) show positive relationship with the intrinsic
motivation of student learning; and, negative involving management (β = .17, p<.01) also reveals positive relation-
ship with the extrinsic motivation of student learning that H2 is supported. Finally, college PE teachers’ laissez-faire
leadership style (β = .21, p<.01) presents positive relationship with the extrinsic motivation of student learning
that H3 is supported.
Discussion
Intrinsic motivation refers to students being able to learn new knowledge or contact with new affairs from
physical education and acquire fun and satisfaction in the participation process. According to the opinion of Deci
and Ryan (1985), autonomy-support environment similar to supportive choice, creativity, and understanding, would
better benefit the development of self-determined motivation than controllability environment, like dictatorship,
oppression, and order. Since “incentive” in leadership styles has positively encouraged the active participation,
“intelligence inspiration” mainly encourages the members treating problems with originality and creativity, re-
organizing problems, and trying to apply new methods to solve original situations and encouraged innovation
without blaming the mistakes (Avolio & Bass, 2002; Piccoloet al., 2012; Simsek et al., 2015). As a consequence,
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such leadership styles are similar to leaders creating supportive environment that students would perceive being
encouraged to innovate and do not fear of being punished because of mistakes, when PE teachers perform such
styles. The induced positive affection would have students participate in physical education and further enhance
the intrinsic motivation on physical education. Apparently, PE teachers often providing information and stimulating
student learning could inspire students’ thoughts and concepts and further identify PE teachers’ teaching to
enhance the intrinsic motivation on physical education. Furthermore, “contingent reward” is a kind of transactional
leadership style, where leaders offer “promised reward” and “essential reward”. “Promised reward” refers to leaders
guaranteeing the members in advance to provide desired rewards according to the performance, while “essential
reward” refers to leaders offering desired rewards according to the members’ performance (Avolio & Bass, 2002;
Stewart & Shamdasani, 2014). “Positive involving management” refers to leaders actively giving instruction to
students. Such leadership style is comparatively positive that students can more easily perceive the needs of
autonomy or sense of competence. In other words, it is to face students’ learning process so that it shows positive
effects on students’ intrinsic motivation.
What is more, “charismatic” leadership could positively predict students’ extrinsic motivation, possibly
because PE teachers’ charisma would invisibly reinforce students’ stress in physical education. Especially, physical
education at the college stage is not as emphasized as other subjects because of free will that students invisibly
tend to negative attitudes toward the participation in physical education. Nevertheless, some students, although
they are not extremely interested in the participation in physical education, would feel shamed or guilty of not
participating in physical education, when perceiving that PE teachers could be the model and are admired,
respected, and trusted. Moreover, the regression coefficients of laissez faire and negative involving management
are positive that students would enhance “extrinsic motivation” when perceiving PE teachers performing higher
laissez faire and negative involving management leadership behaviors. Extrinsic regulation refers to students who
do not attend physical education because of inner interests, but are controlled by external conditions, e.g. avoiding
punishment or grading. It is the motivation style without autonomy in extrinsic motivation as well as the most
negative regulation form in extrinsic motivation.
Surprisingly, the research findings reveal that PE teachers’ “laissez faire” leadership style would cause effects.
Laissez-faire leadership does not care about student performance in class, does not interfere in students’ activity
in the class, and would not offer punishment and rewards for class management; however, PE teachers in deed
still control students’ performance. Although PE teachers govern by doing nothing, students cannot control PE
teachers’ image, because of the large social distance and the dictatorship-like leadership, but merely concern about
the punishment on performance. It therefore forms higher tendency to extrinsic regulation motivation. Besides,
such leadership cannot form supportive environment that it would foster the development of motivation styles
without autonomy. “Negative involving management” mainly refers to PE teachers passively waiting for students’
mistakes or deviation behaviors to give guidance and persuasion. Such a leadership style aims to students’ mistakes
that it invisibly has students feel that PE teachers merely pay attention to mistakes or behaviors. It therefore
cultivates students’ stronger extrinsic regulation in the physical education activity. Furthermore, negative involving
management tends to control tactics and is not a supportive leadership style that it can foster the development
of motivation styles with low autonomy.
Conclusions
This research has four conclusions for different teachers' teaching style and students' motivation behavior. The
first, “Intelligent Inspiration” leadership style can positively affect students ‘positive motivation for physical educa-
tion, the main reason is that intelligent inspiration is a supportive leadership style, to meet the students’ autonomy
needs can also produce positive results for students in the impact, and thus be able to meet the needs of students
about the sense of ability. The second, “Negative intervention management” and “laissez-faire” leadership style is a
less autonomous motive type. The main reason is that passive intervention is a passive leadership, and laissez-faire
is a no leadership form. So these two leadership styles will cause students to negative motivation patterns. The
third, “Charisma” leadership will positively affect the external motivation, because that the leader of the charm of
members is a model of learning, admiration, respect and trust, it should cause students to have a positive impact
on learning motivation. And at last, “Laissez-faire” leadership will have a positive impact on the student’s external
motivation, the result may be due to physical education teachers do not interfere with the activities of students,
but to encourage students to form a more autonomous physical education in the form of motivation.
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It is suggested that PE teachers should create situations which could satisfy needs of autonomy, sense of
competence, and sense of belonging so as to enhance students’ positive motivation styles on physical education.
In order to foster students’ adaptive learning, effort, self-determined motivation, and well-being, PE teachers
should create the physical education environment which could satisfy basic psychological needs of autonomy,
competence, and sense of belonging. PE teachers should be able to adopt autonomy support dialogue, fully allow
students participating in activity planning, and affirm student performance to cater to student needs. Regarding
personal care in PE teachers’ transformational leadership style not being acquired, future research is suggested
to deeply understand the factor, e.g. understanding student perception of such leadership styles in the physical
education process through conversation with students. When such leadership styles exist, it is necessary to compile
proper questions for the analyses in future research. Otherwise, research on leadership styles would be restricted.
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Cheng-Bo Yang Chengdu Sport University, Sichuan 610041, China.

Min-Kai Dong Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai, 200433,
(Corresponding author) China.
E-mail: dong.minkai@mail.shufe.edu.cn
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AND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’
MODELING PROCESSES ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
Meng-Fei Cheng, Abstract. This research explores how scaf-

folding students’ reflections on scientific
Jang-Long Lin,
modeling criteria influence the students’
Shih-Yin Lin, views on scientific models, development of
Chi-Ho Cheng explanatory models, and understanding
of scientific models. This research recruited
treatment groups and comparison groups
in middle schools and high schools. The
treatment groups adopted a modeling cur-
riculum that was intended to help students
Introduction engage in scientific modeling by develop-
ing scientific models of magnetism while
Engaging students in modeling is essential in current science educa- considering scientific modeling criteria. The
tion. Nevertheless, the means of structuring the modeling process to assist comparison groups used the traditional
students in reflecting on their scientific thinking and in developing scientific curriculum, which offers students scientific
models has been under-investigated (Cheng & Brown, 2015). According to models of magnetism. The results show
existing surveys (Cheng & Lin, 2015, Gobert et al., 2011; Grünkorn, Upmeier that the modeling curriculum enhanced
zu Belzen, & Krüger, 2014; Park, 2013; Treagust, Chittleborough, & Mamiala, the students’ views on scientific models and
2002), we found current middle school and high school students have a naïve the students’ ability to develop explana-
understanding of the nature of scientific models and modeling, and the stu- tory models of magnetism and modeling
dents’ model-based reasoning is limited to the observable and fragmented criteria. Thus, the findings indicate that
level. Accordingly, the main purpose of the present research is to explore the modeling curriculum might serve as a
how to enhance middle school and high school students’ understanding of promising tool to facilitate teaching scien-
scientific models through the practice of scientific modeling. tific modeling to middle school and high
school students, and that the curriculum
Models and Modeling should be promoted as early as middle
school.
For decades, the essential role of models and modeling has been recog-
Keywords: scientific modeling, modeling
nized in scientific thinking and reasoning (Coll & Lajium, 2011; Gilbert, 2004;
curriculum, nature of models and mod-
Nersessian, 2008) and in science education (Coll & Lajium, 2011; Halloun, 2011;
eling, model development, model evalua-
NRC, 1996, 2007; NGSS Lead States, 2013). A scientific model is a simplified
tion, magnetism concepts.
abstract representation of ideas about the structure and the behavior or the
target phenomenon, which allow individuals to develop and examine their
explanations for the mechanism underlying scientific phenomenon (Brewer,
Meng-Fei Cheng, Jang-Long Lin,
Chinn, & Samarapungavan, 2000; Schwarz et al., 2009; Windschitl, Thompson, Shih-Yin Lin, Chi-Ho Cheng
& Braaten, 2008). National Changhua University of
Models are developed through modeling, in which inquirers construct Education, Taiwan
and manipulate explanatory representations, and such modeling is a funda-
207
(P. 207-217)
mental process for scientific inquiry (Schwarz & White, 2005). For scientists, modeling is also a process of inquiry in
problem solving and a means of developing new models or theories. Nersessian (2008) pointed out that concep-
tual innovation and change in science involve the process of building, critiquing, and modifying models. These
models not only support reasoning but also serve as working devices for reasoning and creating new conceptions
for theory building.
Model-Based Learning
In model-based learning, students are involved in a dynamic and recursive process of developing, evaluating,
and revising mental models of phenomena (Gobert & Buckey, 2000; Halloun, 2011; Louca, Zacharia, & Constantinou,
2011; Passmore, Stewart, & Cartier, 2009; Schwarz et al., 2009; Stewart, Cartier, & Passmore, 2005; Windschitl et al.,
2008). The objective of model-based learning is to help students develop integrated mental models that students
can employ in their reasoning (Buckley, 2000).
In model-based learning, there are diverse ways to engage students in the process of model building. In the
following, we discuss three approaches to modeling: teacher generation of models, teacher-student co-construction
of models, and student generation of models. Researchers use different perspectives to support students’ model-
based learning.
Teachers Generate Models for Students
Several researchers have focused on how models should be presented to students (Botzer & Reiner, 2005;
Dedes & Ravanis, 2009; Verhoeff, Waarlo, & Boersma, 2008) and how teachers can use strategies, such as analogies
or computer simulations, to help students understand the presented models (Baek, Schwarz, Chen, Hokayem, &
Zhan, 2011; Xie & Pallant, 2011). This research focuses on teaching models and how these models should be deliv-
ered to students or how different kinds of models (such as analogical models or scale models) can help students
build and manipulate their mental models.
Harrison and Treagust (2000) recognized the problems of student-generated models which are far from
scientific models. They suggested that teachers should select analogies to facilitate the connection between the
target model and the base analogy for students. Although teaching models were usually derived from students’
existing ideas (Dagher, 1995a; Gilbert, Boulter, & Rutherford, 1998), in these studies the teachers still controlled
the product and the process of model building. Teachers usually choose appropriate models and introduce them
to students or negotiate the models with students (Dagher, 1995b). In this way, students learn with the models,
but without controlling the product and the process of model building, the students do not have ownership of
the models as with self-generated models.
Teacher and Student Co-Construct Models
Rea-Ramirez, Clement, and Nunez-Oviedo (2008) proposed a model co-constructed by students and teachers.
During this process, the teacher and the students contribute ideas to build, evaluate, and modify the models. This
approach is a compromise between emphasizing teacher-generated models and emphasizing student-generated
models. Construction of the model is facilitated to progress from simple initial models that are evaluated and revised
to a series of more complex and sophisticated intermediate models, to eventually reach the target models. During
the co-construction process, cognitive dissonance is utilized to foster small changes in the models. Analogies are
used to build on students’ existing knowledge to construct and revise their models (Clement, 2008b; Clement &
Steinberg, 2002, 2008; Steinberg, 2008). The co-construction goal focuses on how teachers and students can co-
construct models by offering students appropriate analogies and producing cognitive dissonance.
Students Generate Models
Some researchers are interested in how students generate models. In these studies, model development is
facilitated by reading text, interacting with multimedia, or conducting observation and experiments (Acher, Arca,
& Sanmarti, 2007; Buckley, 2000; Louca et al., 2011). Students must generate models and regulate reasoning during
208
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(P. 207-217)
interaction with materials that are intended to provide the students with pieces of related information. Teachers
act only as discussion facilitators without intervening in the students’ model construction and guide the students
to construct appropriate target models. The results of these studies showed if students are merely offered pieces
of information, then only a few students are able to engage in the model-building process or develop scientific
models. In Boulter’s (2000) study, students were encouraged to construct models in a child-centered questioning
discourse. The results showed that the teachers had to guide the students to construct the appropriate models
and lead the students’ argument in certain ways. Louca et al. (2011) also showed that without teacher support
students faced obstacles moving from descriptive models that describe how something happens over time to
causal models that describe how an agent affects a physical process.
Accordingly, without designed activities and guided reasoning or discussion, students seem to have problems
monitoring their own reasoning and constructing consistent and coherent models. Without guidance, student-
generated models are not really similar to scientific models. In order to help students to practice the process of
model building and foster their abilities to self-generate scientific models without offering them appropriate
analogies or scientific models, or producing their cognitive dissonance, our works focus on how students’ can be
assisted to self-develop scientific models.
Our previous works have shown that scaffolding students with reflection on the scientific modeling criteria
during the students’ modeling process assists them to better evaluate and revise their models to become scientific
models than reflection on the students’ self-generated model evaluation criteria (Cheng & Brown, 2010, 2015).
Our curriculum designed for college students with a non-science major about introducing the nature of scientific
models and reflection with scientific modeling criteria enhances not only the students’ evaluation and revision of
their models toward more coherent and sophisticated models but also the students’ understanding of scientific
models (Cheng et al., 2014).
Nevertheless, whether there is a difference between this innovative curriculum, which scaffolds students’ self-
generation of models, and the traditional curriculum, which offers students scientific models directly, is unclear.
Therefore, this research focused on the adoption of this innovative curriculum in middle school and high school in
order to explore whether students’ understanding of scientific models, model development, and model evaluation
would improve more in comparison to the traditional curriculum. In the present research, the following primary
research question is answered:
Does engaging middle school students and high school students in modeling by introducing them to sci-
entific modeling criteria enhance the students’ understanding of scientific models, model evaluation criteria, and
the development of explanatory models?
Research Methodology
In this research, the students who participated in the modeling curriculum were guided through the cycle
of model generation, evaluation, and modification to develop a series of progressively more coherent, consistent,
and sophisticated explanatory models. The research used the magnetic domain model as a target model for the
students. During this process, students reflected on the scientific modeling criteria to help monitor their reason-
ing during their modeling processes. The innovative curriculum involves a series of inquiry activities for modeling
practice, an interactive computer simulation tool to facilitate students’ reasoning at the microscopic level, and an
introduction to reflection on scientific modeling criteria.
On the other hand, the students who participated in the traditional curriculum were guided to learn the
magnetic domain model directly from their instructors without having the opportunity to develop their own
models or learn the nature of scientific models and the processes of modeling. Both the modeling curriculum and
the traditional curriculum took around three sessions, ranging from 135 minutes to 150 minutes.
The treatment groups (which adopted modeling curriculum) were compared with the comparison group
(which adopted the traditional curriculum) in order to inspect whether reflecting on scientific modeling criteria
to self-develop models of magnetism would help students have a better understanding of scientific models, de-
velop better models of magnetism, and employ better model evaluation criteria than students who only received
scientific models directly from their instructors.
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Research Design
Participants and Instructors
To evaluate the impact of this modeling curriculum, the classes participating in this research were assigned
to either treatment or comparison groups. This research recruited two treatment groups (n = 59) and three com-
parison groups (n = 92) in middle schools, as well as two treatment groups (n = 40) and two comparison groups (n
= 33) in high schools. In the middle school and high school treatment groups, the instructors integrated computer
simulation tools and an introduction to scientific modeling criteria in the curriculum. This modeling curriculum
replaced the original traditional curriculum that had only asked students to observe magnetic phenomena and
remember scientific models of magnetism and scientific laws of magnetism. In the middle school and high school
comparison groups, the instructors taught students about magnetism using the original, traditional school cur-
riculum. The treatment and comparison groups in the middle school were taught by the same teacher, and the
treatment and comparison groups in the high school were taught by the same teacher as well.
For the modeling curriculum, the role of the instructors was to guide students’ observation of magnetic phe-
nomena and introduce the computer simulation tools in the activities, as well as facilitate the students’ reflection
on the scientific modeling criteria. The scientific models of magnetism were not delivered by the instructors to
the students.
Modeling Curriculum
In this modeling curriculum, the students engaged in model-based inquiry in which they were guided to
self-develop, evaluate, and modify their explanatory models of magnetic phenomena. This model-based inquiry is
perceived as similar to how experts solve an unfamiliar problem by employing repeated model construction cycles
(Clement, 2008c; Rea-Ramirez, Clement, & Nunez-Oviedo, 2008). Six main inquiry activities in the curriculum were
designed based on the goal of teaching student-centered and model-based inquiry. This curriculum was modi-
fied based on our previous curriculum for college students with a non-science major (Cheng et al., 2014). Due to
the students’ difficulty with the open-ended inquiry, we modified the original open-ended inquiry activity to a
semi-open-ended inquiry activity. Teachers employed the first three activities in the first class on learning about
magnetism; they employed the fourth activity in the second class, and the fifth and sixth activities in the third class.
The first class: Activate reasoning at the microscopic level. In the first activity, students observed the interaction
between two magnets. In the second activity, students used their observation of the interaction between the two
magnets to predict and explain what would happen when the magnet was cut into pieces. The students were
asked to examine whether they should revise the models to explain their observation. The third activity involved an
interactive computer simulation that prompted students to develop and examine their models at the microscopic
level and then select the models that best explain the observations. The simulation tool can be accessed on our
website (http://blog.ncue.edu.tw/mcheng2/doc/35148).
The second class: Introduction to the epistemology of the scientific model and modeling. The fourth activity in-
cluded a black box as a scientific phenomenon. The students had to guess what might be inside the box through
their observation of the outside of the box. This activity introduced the nature of models as a representation of
the students thought what might be inside the box, instead of the appearance of the box. Next, the instructors
introduced scientific modeling criteria by comparing solid and hollow earth models and then used this comparison
to elicit students’ ideas about scientific models and model evaluation criteria. Following this, the instructors intro-
duced the nature of the scientific model, modeling, and scientific modeling criteria to the students. At the end of
the class, students were required to use these criteria to evaluate and then revise their own models of magnetism.
The third class: Model-based inquiry with scientific modeling criteria. The fifth activity was a semi-open-ended
inquiry activity. The students had to use their models to predict and explain the arrangement of iron wires in a
box and the direction of the compass needle before and after a bar magnet was attached to the box. Then, the
students were asked to use scientific modeling criteria to reflect on the models. In the sixth activity, the students
continued the open-ended inquiry. They used materials such as disc magnets and several small bar magnets by
designing inquiry activities that examined the models. The students reflected on the scientific modeling criteria
and then revised the models.
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Reflection on Scientific Modeling Criteria
The current research revised some of the previously used criteria (Cheng et al., 2014) based on the students’
confusion about the use of the scientific criterion of consistency and the definition of models. After examining
the processes scientists use to construct models (Clement, 1989, 1994; 2003, 2008c; Nersessian, 1999, 2008) and
students use to construct models (Cheng & Brown, 2010; Clement, 2008a; Rea-Ramirez et al., 2008; Williams &
Clement, 2006), we proposed four criteria—explanatory and predictive power, as well as internal and external
consistency—as the scientific modeling criteria for the students to use when they discussed, evaluated, and re-
fined their models. The students were also asked to examine their self-developed models based on the definition
of models in this research. We prompted students to construct coherent and sophisticated explanatory models
similar to the “domain model” or the “atomic magnets model.” The reflective questions the students were required
to use to examine their constructed model are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Reflective questions to facilitate model construction and revision.
Criteria for reflection on explanatory models Reflective questions
Definition of model Can this model explain the hidden and non-observable mechanisms and the cause and
effect underlying the observed phenomenon?
Predictive power Can this model more accurately predict the phenomena?
Explanatory power Can this model better explain all findings?
Internal and external consistency Do the components of this model logically connect without contradiction? Is this model
consistent with what you already know or experience and with your assumption about
how the world works?
Data Collection
Before and after the curriculum was delivered, the students in the treatment and comparison groups com-
pleted a survey about the Understanding of Models in Science (SUMS; Gobert et al., 2011; Treagust et al., 2002),
explanations of magnetism, and justifications for the criteria the students employed to evaluate their explanations.
The assessment of the curriculum relied on quantitative and qualitative measures of these three dimensional
outcomes, in the form of pre- and post-surveys.
Assessing students’ views of the nature of the models. The SUMS survey (Treagust et al., 2002) was adopted to
investigate the change in the students’ understanding of the nature of models and modeling before and after
the curriculum was delivered. The SUMS is a five-point Likert scale assessment that evaluates students’ model
understanding in five aspects: “multiple representation of models” (MR), “models as exact replicas” (ER), “models
as explanatory tools” (ET), “use of scientific models (USM), and “changing nature of models” (CNM). The reliability
for the SUMS ranged from 0.71 to 0.84 in Treagust et al.’s study.
Assessing students’ explanatory models of magnetism. In the pre-test and the post-test, the students wrote
explanations for three magnetic phenomena: why the ends of the magnet attracted the iron nails, why originally
the iron nails did not attract other iron nails, and why the iron nails attracted other iron nails after they were stuck
to the magnet.
The students’ responses were coded according to five levels of explanations established by previous researchers
(Cheng & Brown, 2015; Cheng & Lin, 2015; Cheng et al., 2014) to examine whether the students developed models
to illustrate the underlying microscopic mechanism and coherently explain the observed phenomena. For Levels 1
to 3, the students’ explanations were classified according to whether they described observable events, visualized
unknown material, or visualized microscopic elements. For Levels 3 to 5, the students’ explanations were classified
based on whether they employed their microscopic models to explain one phenomenon, two phenomena, or all
three magnetic phenomena.
Assessing modeling criteria. The students were asked to record the criteria they used to evaluate their models
before and after the curriculum was delivered. In the pre- and post-tests, the students were asked about the model
evaluation criteria used to assess whether a model was a good scientific model.
The model evaluations were coded according to the levels of the students’ epistemic criteria, proposed by
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Pluta, Chinn, and Duncan (2011). The students’ proposed modeling criteria were classified into five levels. For Levels
1 to 3, the students’ modeling criteria classifications were based on whether the students proposed vague criteria
or misconceptions about scientific modeling, communicative aspects of modeling criteria that convey the meaning
of model, or primary criteria that are central to the practices of science. For Levels 3 to 5, the students’ modeling
criteria were classified based on whether they proposed one, two, or three of the primary criteria. Higher levels of
explanation revealed that the students possessed advanced understanding of scientific modeling criteria, which
is similar to how scientists evaluate models.
Data Analysis
To examine whether there was a difference before and after the curriculum was delivered, of the three dimen-
sions (understanding of the nature of models, sophistication and coherence of the explanations, and proficiency
of the model evaluation), the first dimension was assessed according to the rating on a 1–5 Likert scale. The sec-
ond and third dimensions were categorized into five-level rating scales. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was
conducted on the post-test scores with the pre-test scores as the covariates to determine the differences between
the treatment and comparison groups.
Results of the Research
Comparison of Middle School Treatment Groups and Comparison Groups
The middle school students’ scores on the pre-test and the post-test about their understanding of models in
science, explanatory models of magnetism, and modeling criteria were analyzed by comparing the treatment (n
= 59) and comparison (n = 92) groups. ANCOVA was used to equate the pre-test results when determining statisti-
cally significant differences in the post-test results.
The results in Table 2 show the statistical analysis of the students’ pre-test and post-test scores. This indicates
that there were statistically significant differences between the treatment and comparison student groups in the
five sub-factors of the students’ views of scientific models (FMR(1,148) = 10.21, FER(1,148) = 8.16, FET(1,148) =
12.13, FUSM(1,148) = 17.08, FCNM(1,148) = 22.85, p < 0.05), explanatory models (F(1,148) = 57.20, p < 0.05), and
modeling criteria (F(1,148) = 59.26, p < 0.05). The students who participated in the modeling curriculum improved
their understanding of scientific models and their ability to develop and evaluate models in comparison to the
students who were delivered only scientific models and laws of magnetism.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for middle school students’ understanding of models in science, and ANCOVA
test comparing pre-test and post-test results.
Pre-test Post-test
SUMS Research Group F
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
MR Treatment 4.24 (0.42) 4.31 (0.65) 10.21 (p = 0.02)*

Comparison 3.85 (0.63) 3.81 (0.66)
ER Treatment 3.31 (0.62) 3.08 (0.78) 8.16 (p = 0.01)*
Comparison 3.31 (0.64) 3.42 (0.69)
ET Treatment 4.16 (0.52) 4.32 (0.73) 12.13 (p = 0.01)*
Comparison 3.81 (0.69) 3.78 (0.66)
USM Treatment 4.26 (0.66) 4.46 (0.65) 17.08 (p ˂ 0.01)*
Comparison 3.83 (0.74) 3.85 (0.72)
CNM Treatment 4.32 (0.67) 4.57 (0.60) 22.85 (p ˂ 0.01)*
Comparison 3.93 (0.76) 3.90 (0.76)
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Pre-test Post-test
Explanatory models and
Research Group F
modeling criteria
Mean(SD) Mean(SD)
Explanatory models Treatment 1.59 (1.161) 2.46 (1.63) 57.20 (p ˂ 0.01)*

Comparison 1.09 (0.38) 1.00 (0.00)
Modeling criteria Treatment 3.00 (0.97) 4.03 (1.16) 59.26 (p ˂ 0.01)*
Comparison 2.08 (1.17) (1.25)
* p < .05
Comparison of High School Treatment Groups and Comparison Groups
To determine statistically significant differences between the treatment (n = 40) and comparison (n =
33) groups of high school students, ANCOVA was utilized on the students’ post-test scores of their under-
standing of models in science, explanatory models of magnetism, and modeling criteria with their pre-test
scores as covariates. This approach controlled for any differences in the pre-test scores for the treatment and
comparison groups.
The ANCOVA results, shown in Table 3, indicate that the high school students in the treatment group had
a statistically significantly better understanding of models in science in terms of MR, ET, and USM (FMR(1,69)
= 4.04, FET(1,69) = 18.00, FUSM(1,69) = 11.09, p < 0.05). However, no statistically significant differences were
found in the sub-factors ER and CNM (FER(1,69) = 0.21, FCNM(1,69) = 1.54, p > 0.05) compared to the students’
comparison group peers. Students in the treatment group also achieved statistically significantly better post-
test scores in developing explanatory models (F(1,69) = 11.02, p < 0.05) and modeling criteria (F(1,69) = 29.38,
p < 0.05). This means that the high school students who participated in the modeling curriculum improved
their understanding of scientific models in only three aspects (MR, ET, and USM), as well as their ability to
develop and evaluate models, in comparison to the students who were delivered only scientific models and
laws of magnetism.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for high school students’ understanding of models in science, and ANCOVA test
comparing pre-test and post-test results.
Pre-test Post-test
SUMS Research Group F
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
MR Treatment 4.17 (0.40) 4.45 (0.39) 4.04 (p = 0.04)*

Comparison 4.02 (0.35) 4.21 (0.36)
ER Treatment 3.09 (0.63) 3.09 (0.63) 0.21 (p = 0.89)
Comparison 3.11 (0.50) 3.12 (0.56)
ET Treatment 4.13 (0.41) 4.53 (0.55) 18.00 (p ˂ 0.01)*
Comparison 4.13 (0.43) 4.06 (0.45)
USM Treatment 4.20 (0.69) 4.70 (0.43) 11.09 (p ˂ 0.01)*
Comparison 4.12 (0.49) 4.31 (0.55)
CNM Treatment 4.50 (0.55) 4.68 (0.46) 1.54 (p = 0.22)
Comparison 4.09 (0.72) 4.37 (0.70)
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Pre-test Post-test
Explanatory models and
Research Group F
modeling criteria
Mean(SD) Mean(SD)
Explanatory models Treatment 3.15 (1.44) 4.00 (1.40) 11.02 (p ˂ 0.01)*

Comparison 2.67 (1.53) 2.79 (1.43)
Modeling criteria Treatment 3.35 (1.21) 4.40 (0.98) 29.38 (p ˂ 0.01)*
Comparison 3.12 (1.27) 3.09 (1.28)
* p < .05
Discussion
It has been suggested that constructing models is more productive than using models in learning,
because solving or answering conceptual questions requires learners to construct models as a foundation
for prediction, inference, reasoning, and experimentation. Moreover, when students construct their own
models, the students have ownership of the knowledge, which is vital for making sense of abstract concepts
and constructing knowledge (Jonassen, Strobel, & Gottdenker, 2005). The findings of this research support
this argument by revealing that when students were scaffolded to self-develop their own models through
the modeling activities, the students developed more sophisticated and coherent models than the students
who only received scientific models from their instructors.
Model building has been perceived to assist students to reflect on their modeling processes (Jonassen
et al., 2005). When students are asked to generate, evaluate, and modify models to explain scientific phenom-
ena, the students are more likely to self-generate models with more coherence or explanatory mechanisms
(Bamberger & Davis, 2011; Maia & Justi, 2009; Schwarz et al., 2009). Nevertheless, research has also indicated
that students often reflect on modeling with criteria related to their personal preference, instead of scientific
model evaluation criteria (Cheng & Brown, 2015; Pluta et al., 2011). Thus, our previous studies (Cheng & Brown,
2015) suggested a curriculum should be designed that explicitly scaffolds students’ reflection on scientific
modeling criteria.
Accordingly, a method for scaffolding students’ learning of modeling is implemented in the present re-
search and is found effective. In addition to asking students to generate, evaluate, and revise the models, this
method involves three essential elements: activities that provide the required concepts for modeling at the
microscopic level, introduction to scientific models and modeling, and scaffolding of students’ reflection on
their models with scientific modeling criteria. In this way, students not only learned how to develop scientific
models and how to evaluate and revise their models in a scientific way but also have a better understanding
of the nature of models and modeling.
Nevertheless, in this research, the target model in both the treatment and control groups was the domain
model of magnetism, a microscopic model in physics. Students in the treatment groups were asked to reflect
on the hidden and non-observable mechanism underlying their observed phenomena in this context. Hence,
the design of the modeling curriculum could not be applied to other types of models (e.g. macroscopic mod-
els). It could be possibly further applied to teach students about scientific models that require microscopic
reasoning, such as electricity, light, and gas. More research is required to design the modeling curriculum to
help students learn about other science topics.
Conclusions
This research showed that the modeling curriculum, which engages students in reflective thinking
with scientific modeling criteria at the microscopic level, enhanced middle school and high school students’
learning performance in terms of their views of scientific models, as well as developing explanatory models
of magnetism and modeling criteria, compared with the traditional curriculum. The middle school students
seemed to have a better understanding of scientific models than the high school students. Why this curricu-
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lum, which covers microscopic reasoning and learning the views of scientific models, benefits middle school
students more than high school students requires further investigation.
Our previous research pointed out the positive relationships between students’ understanding of scientific
models and their model development, as well as their performance and interest in learning science (Cheng
& Lin, 2015). The present research shows that the use of modeling curriculum enhances students’ views of
scientific models and model development, and may possibly encourage students’ performance and interest
in learning science in school.
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Windschitl, M., Thompson, J., & Braaten, M. (2008). Beyond the scientific method: Model-based inquiry as a new paradigm
of preference for school science investigations. Science Education, 92 (5), 941–967.
Xie, C., & Pallant, A. (2011). The molecular workbench software: An innovative dynamic modeling tool for nanoscience
education. In M. S. Khine & I. M. Saleh (Eds.), Models and modeling: Cognitive tools for scientific enquiry (pp. 121–139).
New York, NY: Springer.
Meng-Fei Cheng Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Physics, National

Changhua University of Education, No.1, Jin-De Road, Changhua
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: mcheng2@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Website: http://phys2.ncue.edu.tw/main.php
Jang-Long Lin Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Physics, National
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: Phljl@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Shih-Yin Lin Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, National
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: hellosilpn@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Chi-Ho Cheng Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, National
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: phcch@cc.ncue.edu.tw
217
THE EFFECTS OF COMBINING
INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING
WITH SCIENCE MAGIC ON THE
LEARNING OUTCOMES OF A
FRICTION UNIT
Abstract. This research used a quasi- Jang-Long Lin,

experimental method to explore whether Meng-Fei Cheng,
integrating Science Magic (SM) into 5E
Learning Cycle (5ELC) in the development
Shih-Yin Lin,
of teaching materials for a friction unit Jih-Yuan Chang,
would impact students’ learning outcomes Ying-Chi Chang,
and attitudes toward science. A total of Hsiao-Wen Li,
68 eighth-grade students were divided Deng-Min Lin
into experimental and control groups.
The experimental group was taught using
teaching materials and methods developed
using the SM-based 5ELC, while the control
group adhered solely to textbook-based
materials, which were also based on the
Introduction
5ELC but did not involve SM activities.
Two major findings were obtained in this
Magic is perceived as entertaining because of its surprising results, which
research. First, learning effects for the
contradict observers’ expectations. Many magic tricks are based on the rules
experimental group were significantly
of natural science, and incorporate ingenious designs and skillful acts to cre-
higher than the control group, especially in
ate false impressions that arouse audience curiosity. Consequently, magic
relation to characteristics of static friction,
and science are closely related in terms of the knowledge involved, and each
factors that affect friction, and relation-
trick’s underlying principle should conform to the laws of natural science. Hsu,
ships between frictional and normal force.
Huang, and Yang (2010) define Science Magic (SM) as a performance utilizing
Second, the experimental group showed
changes in natural phenomena to confound audience intuition. While SM is
significant improvements in their attitudes
based on scientific principles, it differs from chemistry or physics experiments;
toward science when juxtaposed with the
SM covers scientific principles uniquely and mysteriously to amaze observ-
control group.
ers. Interest in SM has recently increased, and numerous books concerning
Keywords: attitudes toward science, it have been published (cf. Magic Science: 50 Jaw-Dropping, Mind-Boggling,
friction concepts, inquiry-based teaching Head-Scratching Activities for Kids by Wiese; It’s Not Magic, It’s Science!: 50 Sci-
strategy, science magic. ence Tricks that Mystify, Dazzle & Astound by Buttitta, La Baff, and Lundgren;
and Science Magic Tricks by Shalit).
From a science education viewpoint the entertaining nature of SM can
Jang-Long Lin, Meng-Fei Cheng,
Shih-Yin Lin, Jih-Yuan Chang, be efficiently employed to arouse curiosity; effective learning activities can be
Ying-Chi Chang, Hsiao-Wen Li, developed by exploring the scientific principles and knowledge that underlie
Deng-Min Lin magic tricks. However, earlier applications of SM to teaching focused solely
National Changhua University of
Education, Taiwan on tricks and deciphering magic techniques. While the aforementioned ap-
proach is popular among students due to its entertaining features, research
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examining the integration of magic tricks into inquiry-based learning is lacking. It is preliminarily hypothesized
that the integration of multiple SM tricks and appropriate teaching strategies would significantly increase learning
effectiveness, as well as student attention, learning interest, and motivation to perform inquiry.
The 5E Learning Cycle (5ELC) was first proposed by Bybee and Landes (1988), who emphasized the active
construction of knowledge and divided the learning cycle into five stages: engagement, exploration, explanation,
elaboration, and evaluation. At each stage, students are encouraged to develop the uniqueness, fluency, flexibility,
and precision necessary for effective thinking. This research thus employs the 5ELC as a teaching strategy in design-
ing effective SM learning materials for a friction unit targeting junior high school students, while simultaneously
exploring SM’s effects on learning achievement and science attitudes.
Magic Performance in Science Education
Magic performances are built upon captivating audience attention and awareness in order to manipulate
observers’ beliefs and perceptions (Macknik, King, Randi, & Robbins 2008). Contemporary research investigating
magic from a scholarly perspective is abundant. For example, Kuhn, Tatler, Findlay, and Cole (2008) and Tatler and
Kuhn (2007) examine precisely how magicians deceive audiences. Demacheva, Ladouceur, Steinberg, Pogossova,
and Raz (2012) and Kuhn, Amlani, and Rensink (2008) explore the relationship between magic and cognitive psy-
chology, while Subbotsky (2011) compares people’s beliefs concerning magic to science.
Despite the research cited above, studies in science education exploring the integration of SM with certain
teaching strategies remain sparse. The limited research that does exist, however, indicates that combining teaching
with appropriately designed SM activities can arouse student interest in and concentration on science learning.
For instance, Fang and Liu (2008) suggest that SM performances captivate students, while also providing them
with greater scientific knowledge and an enhanced understanding of scientific concepts.
5E Learning Cycle
Classroom instruction in science education has shifted in the past few decades from a teacher to student-
centered approach; concurrently, the practice of scientific inquiry in the classroom has also increased (Bybee 2010).
Learning science through inquiry affords students opportunities to form questions and subsequently explore their
possible explanations. Hence, inquiry-based learning provides students with occasions to develop and acquire
scientific practices and knowledge respectively (Cuevas, Lee, Hart, & Deaktor 2005).
To implement inquiry-based learning efficiently and systematically, Goldman, Radinsky, Tozer, and Wink (2010)
advocate the implementation of inquiry cycles. The 5ELC is a popular cycle originally proposed by Bybee and Lan-
des (1988), and its effectiveness as a learning strategy has been documented in numerous studies (e.g., Bybee et
al. 2006; Lin & Hsu 2007). In the strategy of 5ELC, each phases stipulate that instructors develop and implement a
specific teaching goal in their teaching materials, which are specified below.
To benefit from the 5ELC during the first stage (engagement), it is important to pique student interest and
curiosity to ensure their involvement in learning activities, which entails conveying a sense of bewilderment in rela-
tion to the observed phenomena (Bybee et al. 2006; Bybee 2009). If students encounter a perplexing situation in the
engagement phase that cannot be solved through prior knowledge, they may seek equilibrium in the exploration
phase, during which students are allotted sufficient time to explore the objects and situations presented in the
learning activities. Based on their prior knowledge, students also utilize the exploration phase to independently
develop new concepts and skills.
During the next phase (explanation), students are prompted to formulate an appropriate explanation by dis-
cussing the conclusion they reached in the exploration phase with others. The elaboration phase offers students
a supplementary opportunity to apply new concepts and skills to unique situations and problems, thus clarifying
said concepts and skills. While the final phase (evaluation) does indeed focus on evaluation, self-assessment com-
prises all five phases: students are repeatedly asked to evaluate their learning, understanding, and skills. Likewise,
the teacher also assesses students’ learning outcomes.
Numerous studies (e.g., Ajaja & Urhievwejire 2012; Birisci & Metin 2010) indicate that learning activities based
on the 5ELC have a positive effect on science learning. Nevertheless, a well-designed activity suitable for inquiry
usually contributes to the success of inquiry-based learning (Edelson, Gordin, & Pea 1999). SM performances can
generate interest and curiosity in science learning, and its phenomena contradict students’ original expectations,
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thereby creating the cognitive disequilibrium typified by the engagement phase. Additionally, SM tricks afford
students opportunities to explore scientific concepts and develop thorough explanations. Moreover, when students
are challenged to decipher a new, yet similar SM trick, they have an opportunity to apply a previously acquired
scientific concept. This research intends to extend the 5ELC’s positive effects; accordingly, SM’s characteristics are
compared with the fundamentals of implementing the 5ELC and devised an innovate approach to integrating it
with SM tricks.
Friction Concepts
Friction is a difficult concept for students to acquire because their relevant preexisting ideas concerning it
are derived from daily experience. While some of these notions seem to be reasonable explanations of observed
ambient phenomena, others are attributable to misunderstandings or incorrect knowledge. Students hold several
common misconceptions concerning friction, such as a belief that static objects have no frictional force (Trumper
& Gorsky 1997); others assume that because friction causes heat, it is a form of energy rather than force (Kruger,
Palacio, & Summer 1992; Osborne, Schollum, & Hill 1981). Learners may also struggle to differentiate between an
object’s weight and its maximum static frictional force (Osborne, Schollum, & Hill 1981), or face confusion regard-
ing the direction of frictional force (Thijs 1992).
A few studies, however, suggest potentially effective methods for teaching friction-related concepts involving
analogical reasoning (Lin & Singh 2011), socio-cognitive teaching (Ravanis, Koliopoulos, & Hadzigeorgious 2004),
microscopic explanatory models (Besson & Viennot 2004; Corpuz & Rebello 2011), and hands-on activities (Enyedy,
Danish, Delacruz, & Kumar 2012). This research proposes a unique approach involving a series of SM tricks based on
the 5ELC to teach friction-related concepts in a conceptually connected and intriguing way, leading to a thorough
understanding at the macroscopic level.
Attitudes toward Science
In the past several decades, attitudes toward science have gained an increasingly important role in science
education (Craker 2006; Gardner 1975; Ramsden 1998). Gardner (1975) made a clear distinction between attitudes
towards science and scientific attitudes, whereby the former encompasses emotional responses related to scien-
tific learning and the latter involves one’s willingness to adopt a scientific approach. Moreover, Michaels, Shouse,
& Schweingruber (2008) note that attitudes provide a foundation for students to actively and productively learn
science in classrooms. This viewpoint is further reflected in the Taiwanese curriculum guidelines for grades 1-9
(Ministry of Education in Taiwan [MET] 2008), which specifically highlight the development of positive attitudes
towards science and scientific attitudes in general.
As discussed previously, since SM tricks could be effective activities of inquiry-based learning, teaching materi-
als combining the strategy of 5ELC with SM of a friction unit are developed in this research. Specifically, a series of
SM tricks are designed in accordance with the criteria of each phases of 5ELC to teach friction-related concepts. In
comparison with the teaching based solely on the 5ELC, the developed materials are taught to eighth-grade stu-
dents to determine whether integrating SM tricks into the 5ELC could significantly increase the learning outcomes
and attitudes toward science of students for a friction unit.
A quasi-experimental method is adopted in this research. The participants were divided into experimental
and control groups. The experimental group was taught using teaching materials and methods developed using
the SM-based 5ELC, while the control group adhered solely to textbook-based materials, which were also based
on the 5ELC but did not involve SM activities. For both experimental and control groups, the achievement test of
friction unit and the assessment of scientific attitudes were conducted before and after the teaching. Quantitative
covariance analyses were then carried out to determine whether there exist significant difference between the
experimental and control groups.
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Research Sample
Participants of this research were students from two eighth-grade classes at the same junior high school in
the central section of Taiwan. Students of this school were of mixed achievement levels upon entering the school
during the seventh grade, although their academic performance was later normalized. One class with thirty-seven
students comprised the experimental group, which included 19 boys and 18 girls, while another class with 31
students comprised the control group, which included 15 boys and 16 girls. The physical science achievement of
the two classes of students was about average for the eighth-grade level of their school.
Teaching Materials and Content for the Control Group
Conceptual content for both experimental and control groups was identical and consisted of: (1) the char-
acteristics of friction, static friction, and kinetic friction; (2) factors influencing maximum static friction (including
the relationship between maximum static frictional/normal force and between maximum static frictional force/
contact attributes); and (3) friction’s influence on daily life. The teaching for the experimental and control groups
comprised three lessons, each spanning 45 minutes. Both groups’ teaching materials were developed according
to the 5ELC, but utilized different activities: while the experimental group employed several magic tricks, the con-
trol group adopted examples related to real life experiences. Although different teachers taught the groups, both
teachings were adept at guiding students to perform inquiry and proficient in the 5ELC.
The control group’s teaching materials included examples from everyday life, and involved activities explor-
ing questions such as why a rolling ball stops after traveling a certain distance, what causes a blackboard eraser
to stick to the board after pressure is applied to it, why an empty bookcase can be moved more easily than a full
one, and why pushing an object across a rough rather than smooth surface is more difficult.
As the teaching process followed the 5ELC, the teacher initiated the lesson by discussing various life experi-
ences, which were designed to arouse student interest and forge connections between prior knowledge and the
learning activities that followed (engagement). Next, these life experiences were used as a foundation for students
to explore concepts related to frictional force (exploration). Students were then asked to share the conclusion they
reached regarding the problem posed during the exploration phase with others; following this, the teacher intro-
duced and explained relevant scientific concepts to students (explanation). A new life experience was then intro-
duced as students applied their freshly acquired concepts to a unique, yet similar scientific scenario (elaboration).
Teaching Materials and Content for the Experimental Group
As mentioned previously both groups adopted the 5ELC, although the experimental group integrated it with
SM-based activities. The following subsections describe some activities in detail.
The striving ring. For this activity (see Figure 1), one skillfully manipulates the frictional and restoring force
between a rubber band and ring to maneuver the ring so that it remains stationary, falls down, or moves upward.
At the engagement stage, the teacher begins the demonstration with an object hanging onto the tightened rub-
ber band; when the hands are inclined, the object will descend due to the force of gravity. Next, the striving ring
trick is performed; as the ring moves upward students’ expectations are contradicted, consequently piquing their
interest and curiosity. During exploration, students perform the trick independently using a paperclip rather than
a ring to explore why the ring stops on the string or moves upward. Finally, at the explanation stage, students are
encouraged to discuss their findings and ideas with others, and try to explain the phenomenon behind the trick.
After that, the teacher clarifies relevant concepts with formal scientific concepts and definitions.
Figure 1: The striving ring.
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Figure 2: The obedient ball. Figure 3: Inside the obedient ball.

The obedient ball. Figures 2 and 3 show the obedient ball and its internals respectively. A cotton thread
winds around the reel at the ball’s center and then exits. When the thread is pulled straightly (but not tightly), the
frictional force is reduced. In this state, the ball’s gravity is greater than the frictional force, and consequently falls.
Comparatively, when the thread is pulled tightly, the static frictional force between the ball and thread will then
be equal to the ball’s gravity. As a result, the ball stays affixed to the thread, and appears to follow the performer’s
instructions. Given that students cannot easily discern how the performer pulled the thread (i.e., whether straightly
or tightly), conceptual conflict arises. This trick is included in the elaboration stage, and with its introduction, new
questions are proposed to determine whether students’ conclusions are consistent with the trick’s underlying sci-
entific principles. Students are then encouraged to further explore factors that affect friction and the relationship
between frictional and normal forces by pulling the thread tightly.
The magical hanging carafe. For this activity one skillfully manipulates the frictional force between a pellet
and the mouth of a carafe, as well as a pellet and cotton rope (see Figures 4 and 5). This demonstration should be
initiated by showing students that the rope cannot hang from the carafe naturally. Next, the rope must be closely
wedged between the pellet and the carafe’s mouth; this may require one to place the carafe upside down and
pull slightly on the rope. At this point, the rope ought to fully support the carafe as it hangs in the air. This trick
should be employed during the elaboration stage, and its introduction prompts students to examine their learning
outcomes and propose reasonable explanations after learning about the activity’s underlying scientific principles.
Figure 4: The magical hanging carafe. Figure 5: Inside the magical hanging carafe.
More SM-based activities and the relevant designs for the integration of 5ELC were published elsewhere (Lin
et al., 2014; Lin et al., 2014).
Measurement Instruments
The measurement instruments implemented in this research comprised an achievement test to evaluate
learners’ understanding of the friction unit, and an assessment of their scientific attitudes. Learners belonging to
both the experimental and control groups completed the achievement test and assessment before and after the
teaching occurred.
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Achievement test. The achievement test was developed to evaluate students’ acquisition of friction-related
concepts, and comprised 25 multiple-choice tests. It encompassed concepts related to friction, static/kinetic fric-
tion, factors of friction, the relationship between frictional/normal force, and friction’s effect on our lives. To ensure
that items were properly constructed and relevant to the teaching materials, content validity was established using
a two-way specification table in conjunction with input from three experts, including a professor of physics and
two experienced junior-high-school teachers. The test’s Kuder–Richardson (KR-20) reliability was 0.878 based on
36 students who studied the unit previously.
Assessment of scientific attitudes. Assessment of students’ scientific attitudes was conducted in accordance
with a scale developed by Lin (2009), which comprised 41 items based on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Likewise, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient (0.868) was based
on Lin’s study. The instrument included four dimensions: “enjoys inquiry,”“takes pleasure in discovery,”“careful and
precise,” and “objective and pursues the final truth”; each of these competence indicators were derived from the
Taiwanese curriculum guidelines for grades 1-9 (MET 2008).
The “enjoys inquiry” subscale contained eight items with a coefficient alpha of 0.789, and its content involved
the enjoyment of inquiry and discovery, in addition to the enjoyment of practicing scientific ideas through activities
or experiments. “I feel that science knowledge learned from a textbook is sufficient, and that there is no need for
outdoor observations or experiments” and “When playing with a science toy, I want to understand its underlying
mechanisms” are two sample items from the aforementioned subscale. The “takes pleasure in discovery” subscale
contained eleven items with a coefficient alpha of 0.804. As for “careful and precise” and “objective and pursues the
final truth,” these subscales included twelve and ten items with coefficient alphas of 0.767 and 0.763 respectively.
Data Analysis
Quantitative data were analyzed through analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) using SPSS version 17.0. To de-
termine whether the groups were significantly different in their learning achievement, the achievement pre and
post-test scores were applied as the covariance and dependent variable respectively, while pedagogy was applied
as an independent variable. Furthermore, the pre and post-test science attitude assessment scores were applied
as the covariance and dependent variable respectively in order to identify changes in science attitudes between
both groups.
Results of Research
The SM-based 5ELC’s Effects on Learning Achievement
The mean pre-test achievement scores for the experimental and control groups were 13.05 and 13.93 respec-
tively. For the post-test, the experimental group’s mean score was higher (17.76) than the control group’s (15.45).
Table 1 provides a summary of the means and standard deviations for both groups. ANCOVA of the post-test
revealed significant differences between both groups (F=6.5, p<.05), thus demonstrating that the experimental
group (taught using the SM-based 5ELC) achieved superior results.
Table 1. Achievement test means and standard deviations for the experimental and control groups.
Pre-test Post-test
Group Number of students
Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation
Experimental 37 13.05 4.26 17.76 4.55

Control 31 13.93 4.63 15.45 5.39
*p<.05
To determine whether students’ conceptual understandings were significantly different for each scientific
concept following teaching, the six categories from the achievement test were also analyzed. The means and
standard deviations for both groups’ pre and post-test scores are shown in Table 2. The analytical results revealed
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no significant differences (p > 0.05) in terms of friction [F = .001, p = 0.918], kinetic friction [F = .609, p = 0.438], or
friction’s effect on our lives [F = .016, p = .900]. On the other hand, significant differences (p < 0.05) were present
in terms of static friction [F = 9.768, p = .003], factors of friction [F = 4.392, p = .040], and the relationship between
frictional and normal force [F = 3.732, p = .048]. Thus, the learning outcome of the experimental group was sig-
nificantly better than that of the control group in terms of static friction, factors of friction, and the relationship
between frictional and normal force.
Table 2. Achievement test means and standard deviations for the six item categories.
Pre-test Post-test
Number of
Item Group
Students Standard Standard
Mean Mean
deviation deviation
Friction Experimental 37 1.08 0.67 1.32 0.70

Control 31 1.16 0.51 1.32 0.53
Static friction Experimental 37 4.97 2.34 6.83 2.02
Control 31 5.09 2.49 5.29 2.47
Kinetic friction Experimental 37 0.84 0.79 1.49 0.59
Control 31 0.90 0.64 1.38 0.75
Factors of friction Experimental 37 1.16 0.91 2.21 0.77
Control 31 1.25 0.80 1.83 0.91
The relationship between Experimental 37 1.67 0.90 2.35 0.84
frictional and normal force
Control 31 1.96 0.93 2.00 1.13
Friction’s effect on our lives Experimental 37 3.32 1.23 3.40 1.49
Control 31 3.54 1.15 3.61 1.55
The SM-Embedded 5ELC’s Effects on Science Attitudes
Means and standard deviations of the total scores for the science attitude assessment are provided in Table 3.
The experimental group’s average pre and post-test scores were 157.73 and 167.54 respectively, while the control
group’s average pre and post-test scores were 151.52 and 151.32 respectively. Therefore, the experimental group’s
average science attitude assessment scores were higher than the control group’s. However, contrasting the pre and
post-test results between the same group reveals that the experimental group’s total science attitude assessment
score increased following teaching; in contrast, the control group exhibited almost no difference.
Table 3. Science attitude assessment means and standard deviations.
Pre-test Post-test
Group Number of students
Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation
Experimental 37 157.73 15.365 167.54 15.550

Control 31 151.52 16.868 151.32 15.804
To determine whether the groups’ science attitudes were significantly different, an ANCOVA was conducted
using pedagogy, the pre-test score, and post-test score as the independent variable, covariance, and dependent
variable respectively. The results revealed a significant difference (F = 24.119, p = .000<.001) between the experi-
mental and control group’s science attitudes. This indicates that the experimental group’s science attitudes were
significantly better than the control group’s, who did not adopt the SM-based 5ELC.
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Discussion
Enhancements of Learning Outcomes in Friction Unit
This research’s intent was to investigate the SM-based 5ELC’s impact on science learning. The first research
question examined whether there was a significant difference in learning achievement between the experimental
and control groups. The results revealed that, following teaching, the experimental group’s achievement test scores
increased and exceeded the control group’s; this indicates that the SM-based 5ELC enhanced students’ conceptual
understanding of friction. Specifically, students in the experimental group demonstrated a superior understanding
of static friction, factors of friction, and the relationship between frictional and normal force. This outcome sug-
gests that the teaching materials and pedagogies built upon the SM-based 5ELC significantly influenced students’
comprehension in these three commonly misunderstood areas.
Nevertheless, the experimental group did not show significant improvement in three categories: friction,
kinetic friction, and friction’s effect on our lives. Regarding friction and its effect on our lives, the scientific concepts
embodied in these categories are more concrete; consequently, students already possessed a fairly adequate
understanding of them during the pre-test. Furthermore, a shortage of examples concerning friction’s effects on
everyday life in the teaching materials made it difficult for students to actively solve problems related to this topic.
As for kinetic friction, although students were unfamiliar with phenomena involving kinetic frictional force prior to
the teaching, its concepts are relatively easy to understand. Thus, this particular result does not indicate significant
difference between either groups.
Enhancements of Science Attitudes
The research’s second question examined whether a significant difference existed in science attitudes between
the experimental and control groups. The findings revealed that the experimental group scored significantly higher,
thus indicating that SM used in conjunction with the 5ELC produced results superior to that of the traditional 5ELC
alone in this domain.
Lack of student engagement and motivation in practicing scientific inquiry is a known dilemma in science
classrooms, which has been documented by Edelson et al. (1999) and Furtak (2006). Furthermore, student attitudes
toward science often become negative during secondary school—albeit at a gradual rate (Barmby, Kind, & Jones
2008; George 2000; Potvin & Hasni 2014). SM activities (as form of inquiry-based learning) provide a solution to
the aforementioned problems, and enhance pupils’ attitudes toward science as they simultaneously acquire new
scientific concepts.
Contributions and Teaching Implications
This research proposes an effective approach to integrating SM into the 5ELC, thereby enhancing students’
science attitudes and their conceptual understanding of friction. The authors have not only clarified SM’s purpose
in teaching, but also provided resolutions to problems such as negative student attitudes toward science and
disinterest in practicing scientific inquiry. Consistent with Swarat, Ortony, and Revelle (2012), who indicated that
various activity types play an important role in determining student’ interest, this research suggests that SM activi-
ties can effectively contribute to the construction of an interesting learning environment. Moreover, SM should
entail more than magic demonstrations. In selecting tricks teachers should be mindful of SM characteristics, and
integrate them with the teaching process to ensure effective application. Therefore, additional research is needed
to investigate the effects of inquiry-based SM learning activities (covering a variety of scientific topics) on attitudes
toward science and student achievement.
Conclusions
In this research, the effects of integrating SM into the 5ELC in a friction unit were investigated. Specifically,
thoughtful 5ELC-based teaching materials were developed with SM tricks designed in accordance with the criteria
of each phases of 5ELC. A quasi-experimental method was then adopted to explore whether there exist significance
differences between the experimental group taught by SM-based 5ELC lessons and the control group taught
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by sole 5ELC ones. It is found in this research that learning effects for the experimental group were significantly
higher than the control group, especially in relation to characteristics of static friction, factors that affect friction,
and relationships between frictional and normal force. Furthermore, the experimental group showed significant
improvements in their attitudes toward science when juxtaposed with the control group. Although the efficacy of
SM-based 5ELC lessons was initially examined, additional research covering a variety of scientific topics is suggested
to deeper investigate the effects of SM-based inquiry lessons on attitudes toward science and student achievement.
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Received: January 23, 2017 Accepted: April 05, 2017
Jang-Long Lin PhD., Associate Professor, Department of Physics, National

Changhua University of Education, No. 1, Jin-De Road, Changua
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: phljl@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Meng-Fei Cheng PhD., Associate Professor, Department of Physics, National
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: m2cheng@gmail.com
Shih-Yin Lin PhD., Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, National
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: hellosilpn@gmail.com
Jih-Yuan Chang PhD., Assistant Professor, Center for Teacher Education, National
City, Taiwan.
E-mail: jihyuan67@gmail.com
Ying-Chi Chang PhD Student, Department of Physics, National Changhua
University of Education, No. 1, Jin-De Road, Changua City, Taiwan.
E-mail: T05666@webmail.ntct.edu.tw
Hsiao-Wen Li PhD Student, Department of Physics, National Changhua
University of Education, No. 1, Jin-De Road, Changua City, Taiwan.
E-mail: t16771@webmail.ntct.edu.tw
Deng-Min Lin PhD Student, Department of Industrial Education & Technology,
National Changhua University of Education, No. 1, Jin-De Road,
Changua City, Taiwan.
E-mail: lindengmin@cc.ncue.edu.tw
227
A LEARNING PROCESS BASED
ON CONCEPTUAL CHANGE
APPROACH TO FOSTER
CONCEPTUAL CHANGE IN
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Syuhendri Syuhendri
Abstract. The purpose of this research was
to investigate the effectiveness of concep-
tual change learning approach based on
conceptual change model over traditional
instruction on the improvement of phys-
Introduction
ics education undergraduate students’
conceptual understanding in Newtonian
Quality of education outcome is still one of the major problems in
mechanics. A quasi experimental research
Indonesia. Reports, such as by PISA and TIMSS, always put Indonesia in the
method with pre-test and post-test control
low ranking. Among the reasons of the low educational quality is the science
group design was employed. The sample
education tend to test-oriented and teachers teach the science as a product
chosen based on purposive technique
to recall (Ministry of National Education of Indonesia, 2007). Students are
sampling comprising of 73 students was
drilled to solve computational mathematics problems instead of under-
in two groups selected randomly each as
standing the concepts correctly. It is a consensus among the researchers and
experimental and control group. Predict-
science educators that students come to class with their own conceptions.
Observe-Explain-Apply (POEA) and using
These pre-conceptions are constructed based on their daily experiences far
Conceptual Change Texts (CCT) strategies
before school (Mann & Treagust 2010). Global studies have found that mostly
were implemented in the experimental
these pre-conceptions differ substantially from scientific views (Treagust,
group. The Force Concept Inventory (FCI) in
Mthembu, & Chandrasegaran, 2014). In this study ‘misconceptions’ term is
Indonesian was used to collect data before
used referring to this kind of conceptions. Traditional teaching approach
and after treatments. The results show that
in basic science, including in physics, course does not successful increase
the conceptual understandings of students
students’ conceptual understanding in the most basic concept (Pundak &
who were taught using strategies under
Rozner, 2008). The misconceptions are not only highly resistant to change
conceptual change approach was signifi-
(Clement, 1982) but also could sometime be an obstacle in learning (Mchunu
cantly better than those of the traditional
& Imelda 2013). Therefore, it needs special teaching approach to promote
approach. The research confirmed that
conceptual change and to dispel misconceptions. Hewson and Beeth (1993)
only learning based on conceptual change
defined teaching that explicitly aims to help learners experience conceptual
model could improve learners’ Newtonian
change learning and that follows guidelines of conceptual change model as
mechanics conceptual understanding.
teaching for conceptual change.
Key words: conceptual change approach, Newtonian mechanics is an important topic in physics because almost all
conceptual change texts, predict-observe- of other topics in physics depend on the concepts in this topic. Many studies
explain-apply, Newtonian mechanics. from many countries are focused in this area and those revealed abundant
misconceptions and low conceptual understanding and comprehension in
Newtonian mechanics. Among the massive misconceptions held by physics
Syuhendri Syuhendri education undergraduate students on Newtonian mechanics in Indonesia are
Sriwijaya University, Indonesia they think that 1) the heavier objects always fall faster, 2) mass of an object
can make it stop moving, 3) motion is caused by active force, 4) impetus is
supplied by hit, 5) circular motion is also influenced by impetus, 6) position
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 228-240)
indiscriminate with velocity, and 7) no motion of an object implies no force works on it. Their average conceptual
understanding score in Newtonian mechanics was also low, i.e.18.08%. This score is far below Newtonian mastery
threshold 85% even entry threshold to Newtonian physics 60% (Hestenes & Halloun, 1995). It is very important
to take misconceptions into account for students who have the score below the entry threshold (Hestenes, Wells,
& Swackhamer, 1992). This research examined the effectiveness of some conceptual change teaching strategies
based on conceptual change approach to foster conceptual understandings in Newtonian mechanics.
Problem of Research
Students’ conceptual understandings in Newtonian mechanics are low. They hold some misconceptions. Most
of physics education students at Universitas Sriwijaya confused when asked some questions such as 1) which one
of heavier and lighter objects will reach the ground first if they fall from the same height, 2) does mass of an object
make it stop moving, 3) does an object need a force to keep its motion, 4) is the velocity of two objects the same
when they are in the same position, 5) does impetus also occur in circular motion, 6) is the velocity proportional to
force and its direction always parallel to force direction, and 7) can a passive object exert a force. In this research, some
teaching strategies were used to promote students’ conceptual understanding and counter their misconceptions.
Research Focus
Focus of the research is to promote conceptual change in students’ mind in Newtonian mechanics by means
of developing their scientific thinking. The conceptual change can be shown by increasing of students’ conceptual
understanding toward the correct – scientific concepts and overcoming their unscientific misconception. POE
(Predict-Observe-Explain) and using CCT are among teaching strategies for conceptual change based on cogni-
tive conflict and existing idea (Scott, Asoko, & Driver, 1991). White and Gunstone (1992) proposed three tasks in
teaching, i.e. prediction, observation, and explanation to probe students’ understanding. Treagust et al. (2014)
stated that POE strategy is one of instructional strategies that take into account students’ pre-conceptions. These
pre-conceptions are an important aspect in conceptual change learning. Researchers have reported successful-
ness of these strategies to facilitate conceptual change in several science topics. Coştu, Ayas, & Niaz (2012) pointed
out that the POE strategy helps learners to achieve better conceptual understanding in condensation topic and
enables them to retain the replacing conceptions in their long-term memory. Sreerekha and Sankar (2016) found
POE strategy is effective in improving of students’ achievement in Chemistry for secondary school. Studies such
as by Özmen (2007), Baser and Geban (2007), Ozkan and Selcuk (2015), and Yürük and Eroğlu (2016) on the effec-
tiveness of CCT also found that it significantly improves students’ conceptual understanding. The objective of this
research was to examine the effectiveness of these selected strategies in improving conceptual understanding
and eliminating misconceptions in Newtonian mechanics. The result of the research can be utilized by lecturer of
basics physics course in undergraduate level or by physics teacher in upper class of senior high school to improve
conceptual mastery in Newtonian mechanics topic.
Increasing of students’ conceptual understandings or overcoming their misconceptions means to sift their
conceptual understanding from the wrong conceptions toward the correct conceptions. Based on paradigm of
theory of conceptual change by Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog (1982), a process in which learners’ central
concepts change from one set of concepts to another set that is not compatible with the first concepts can be
called as a conceptual change. The misconceptions are highly resistant to change (Clement, 1982), so that how the
conceptual change takes place is not a simple thing, and traditional instruction commonly fails to correct them
(Baser, 2006). It needs a learning become a process in which a new concept replaces the existing concept or be
remodeled from the stable concept that the student has constructed over many years (Clement, 1982).
Posner et al. (1982) explained a general model of conceptual change. They as initiators of Conceptual Change
Model (CCM) suggested four important conditions that must be fulfilled in order to conceptual change take place.
First, the existing concept must be dissatisfaction for student. Second, the replacing conception must be intel-
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ligible for student. Third, the replacing conception must appear initially plausible for student. Fourth, the student
should fill the replacing conception fruitful, have potential to open a new area of inquiry. Teaching approach in
conceptual change involves many strategies. Scott et al. (1991) have identified two major groupings of strategies
to promote conceptual change, i.e. 1) the strategies based on cognitive conflict and the resolution of conflicting
perspective, and 2) the strategies built on students’ existing ideas and extend them to a new domain through,
for instance, metaphor or analogy. POE and using of CCT which are selected as strategies in this research fulfill
these four requirements. In this research, POEA as a variant of POE was used. The additional of Apply (A) phase is
to strengthen the fourth step of Posner et al. condition. The relationship between POEA strategy and the require-
ment of conceptual change is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The relationship between POEA strategy and four conditions in the conceptual change model.
Sample of Research
The sample of the research chosen based on purposive technique sampling comprised of 73 first-year un-
dergraduate students (44 students in experimental group and 29 students in control group) of Physics Education
Program at Universitas Sriwijaya, Indonesia. One group was randomly assigned as the experimental group and the
other group was assigned as the control group. All the sample was graduates from high schools around Indonesia
and have had the same opportunity to enroll any class in undergraduate level, so that they were expected to have
the same pre-knowledge about Newtonian mechanics concepts.
A quasi experimental research with pre-test and post-test control group design was implemented to test the
effectiveness of the strategies to foster conceptual change. Data regarding students’ pre-conceptual understanding
and post-learning conceptual understanding was collected by an instrument the Indonesian translated of the FCI.
The FCI developed by Hestenes et al. (1992) is a standard conceptual test for kinematics, force and relevant concepts.
It was designed to be test of students’ conceptual understanding (Hake, 1998) and to probe their misconceptions.
This Indonesian version of the FCI have succeeded validation and reliability test process. In the experimental group,
the conceptual change approach was implemented. Treatment was conducted in seven lessons. Time allocation
for one lesson was 3 x 50 minutes. The pre-test was done one week before the first lesson and the post-test was in
the next week after the seventh lesson. The test was completed in 45 minutes. Two teaching strategies based on
the conceptual change approach, i.e. POEA and using of CCT were implemented as treatment in the experimental
group. A strategy was selected for particular topic based on the characteristic of the materials in the topic. The
Newtonian mechanics cover seven topics, i.e. 1) introduction, 2) Kinematics 1, 3) Kinematic 2, 4) Dynamics 1, 5)
Dynamics 2, 6) Work and Energy, and 7) Impulse and Linear Momentum.
In the control group, traditional instruction was implemented. The traditional strategies used generally by
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physics instructor in Indonesia class are: introduction to topic, derivation of equations, giving example for using
the equations, and practice computational physics problems. All conditions in experimental and control groups
such as time allocated, textbooks used, and assignment to do, were the same, except for the strategy implemented
in the learning process.
Data Analysis

The students’ conceptual change is a shift of their conceptual understanding before and after a process or a
certain time. The effectiveness of the conceptual change approach in fostering the students’ conceptual under-
standing in Newtonian mechanics was measured by using the normalized gain scores (N-gain). The normalized
gain was calculated by equation (Hake, 1999):
% < 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 > − % < 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 >

< 𝑔𝑔 >=
100 − % < 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 >
The meaning of N-gain (<g>) values are determined by the criteria (Hake, 1998):
High (<g>)≥ 0.7

Medium 0.7 > (<g>) ≥ 0.3
Low (<g>) < 0.3
Furthermore, the statistical tests were conducted to investigate how significant the approach in promoting
conceptual change. The null-hypothesis is Ho: there is no significant difference of conceptual understanding
between students who were taught under conceptual change approach and students who were taught by using
traditional one for Newtonian mechanics and for each of six dimension of Newtonian mechanics. Test of the normal-
ity of data distribution was carried out by using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for α = 0.05 and the homogeneity
of data variance was investigated by using Levene’s test by F test for α = 0.05. The research hypothesis was test
by using independent sample t-test by two side with α = 0.05 and by Wilcoxon test or Mann-Whitney test for the
data distribution is not normal.
Results of Research
The analysis results of pre-test scores, post-test scores, and N-gain for the experimental group and the control
group are presented in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2: The mean scores of pre-test, post-tests and N-gain for the experimental and the control groups.
Figure 2 shows that the mean pre-test score for the experimental group was 19.77% and the mean pre-test
score for the control group was 15.52%. In the other hand, the mean post-test score for the experimental group
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was 66.29% and the mean post-test score for the control group was 14.70%. Therefore, the average N-gain for the
experimental group was 58.00% and that for the control group was -1.28%. These showed that there was an in-
crease percentage in the experimental group for students’ conceptual understanding toward the correct concepts
in middle category, while in the control group there was no increase at all toward the correct concept.
A set of statistical test was conducted to investigate whether the difference in the average N-gain between
the experimental and the control groups was significant or not. In the normality test for the experimental group
it was obtained Dcalc = 0.073 while Dtable = 0.1351, this meant that the data distribution was normal. The normality
test for control group obtained that Dcalc = 0.135 and Dtable = 0.161, which meant that the control group’s data was
normally distributed as well. The test of homogeneity showed the significance sig. = 0.588 > α = 0.05, this meant
that there was no difference of data variance for the experimental group and the control group or the data vari-
ance was homogeneous.
Because the data was normally distributed and its variants were homogeneous, the test of mean difference
was done by t-test, with two-tailed test and α = 0.05. The results were tcalc. = 22.189 and ttable = 1.994. So that tcalc.
was outside of the reception area of Ho. Thus Ho: there was no difference in the mean of increasing of conceptual
understanding of the experimental group and the control group was rejected. The conclusion was there was
difference for the means of increasing of conceptual understanding for the experimental group and the control
group. The resume of the statistical analysis for the pretest, post-test, N-gain, and conducted statistical tests were
shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Results of analysis of students’ conceptual understanding for the experimental and control groups.
Pre-test Post-test Homo-

Normality of t-test of
<g> geneity of p
<g> <g>
Group M (%) SD M (%) SD <g>
Experimental 19.77 2.69 66.29 2.87 58.00 0.073 0.135 22.189 0.0001*
Control 15.52 1.78 14.70 2.35 -1.28 0.135
*Significant (p < 0.025)
Table 1 shows that the average N-gain (<g>) of groups of students who were taught with conceptual change
learning and the average N-gain of those who were taught with learning that was not intended for conceptual
change with respect to the mastery of Newtonian concepts were significantly different. The significance value p
was less than α/2 = 0.025 (0.0001 < 0.025), it proved that this difference occurred significantly. The results also re-
vealed that for fostering conceptual change requires learning based on the conceptual change approach. Normal
learning, which was not based on the theory might increase knowledge of learners in the Newtonian mechanics
topic but could not change or improve their conceptual understanding toward the correct concepts.
Further results of improvement of conceptual understanding of Physics Education Program students on six
dimensions of Newtonian mechanics concepts are shown in Table 2 below. Each dimensional refers to several
specific item in the FCI.
Table 2. Mean scores and N-gain for each dimension of Newtonian concepts.
Dimensions Pre-Test Post-Test N-Gain Pre-Test Post-Test N-Gain
Experimental Group Control Group
Kinematics 31.49 60.71 41.85 18.23 20.69 1.60

First Law 20.71 60.61 49.15 20.69 19.92 -3.85
Second Law 19.55 34.55 15.98 17.93 13.79 -10.69
Third Law 10.23 97.16 96.59 9.48 8.62 -4.02
Superposition Principle 21.82 51.36 30.53 19.31 17.93 -4.25
Kind of Force 19.23 69.06 60.85 12.47 12.73 -0.65
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Table 2 shows that all dimensions for experimental group had positive N-gain with categories high, middle,
and low, while for the control group, five dimensions had negative N-gain and one dimension had very low N-
gain, namely 1.6%. In kinematics dimension, the mean scores for the experimental group increased two-fold from
31.49% to 60.71% and for the control group, a slightly increase occurred from 18.23% in the pretest to 20.69%
in the post-test. The only increase of the control group score was for this kinematics dimension. For the first law,
the N-gain for the experimental group was 49.15%, a middle category, while for the control group the N-gain
was negative. In the second law the mean scores of pre-test for the experimental group was 19.55%, while the
mean scores of the post-test increased to 34.55%. On the contrary, the control group decreased from 17.93% at
the pretest to 13.79% at the post-test, thus N-gain of control group was negative. The highest increase of mean
scores for experimental group occurred in third law, i.e. from 10.23% in the pre-test to 97.16% in the post-test.
When comparing with the other dimensions, the third law had the lowest mean scores in the pre-test, yet had the
highest mean scores at the post-test. Similarly, the pre-test of the control group for the experimental group had
also the lowest mean scores in the third law. However, like any phenomenon in the other dimensions and in the
Newtonian mechanics in general, there was no increase in the conceptual understanding for the control group.
The dimension of the third law showed no increase in mean scores from pre-test to post-test for the control group.
For the superposition principle there was an increase in the mean scores of the experimental group from 21.82%
to 53.36%, whereas those for the control group decreased from 19.31% to 17.93%. the gain of control group for
the superposition principle was the second lowest among the six dimensions of the Newtonian concepts. Kinds
of force dimension had the highest increase of gain for the experimental group, which was 12.67%. Kinds of force
dimensions had the second highest N-gain after the third law dimension.
Furthermore, a set of statistical tests was carried out to investigate the significant difference of the mean N-
gain between the experimental group and the control group for each dimension as displayed in Table 3. It shows
that the results of normality test gave normal distribution for the data for dimensional kinematics, first law, and
kinds of force for the experimental group and kinds of force for the control group. The rest data, i.e. the data for
second law, third law, and superposition principle dimensions for the experimental group and all the data for the
control group except for kinds of force were not normally distributed. The results of the homogeneity test showed
that data for the kinematic, the first law, the second law, the superposition principle and the kinds of force were
homogeneous, while the variance of the third law was not homogeneous. Based on this basic assumption, the
kinematics, the first law, the second law, the third law, and the superposition principle were administered the mean
difference test using the Mann-Whitney test, while for the kinds of force the t-Test was used.
Table 3. The results of statistical test for each dimension of Newtonian mechanics concepts.
t-Test or u-Test,
Normality Test, α/2 = .025 Homogeneity Test
α/2 = 0.025
Dimensions
P Explanation
p Expl. u or t values p
Exp. Con. Exp. Con.
Kinematics 0.091 0.000 Norm Not Norm 0.134 Hom. u=97.000 0.0001*
First Law 0.169 0.001 Norm Not Norm 0.853 Hom. u=51.000 0.0001*
Second Law 0.000 0.000 Not Norm Not Norm 0.278 Hom. u=358.000 0.001*
Third Law 0.000 0.000 Not Norm Not Norm 0.000 Not Hom u=2.500 0.0001*
Superpos. Principle 0.000 0.001 Not Norm Not Norm 0.248 Hom. u=234.000 0.0001*
Kinds of Force 0.200 0.029 Norm Norm 0.334 Hom. t=15.576 0.0001*
*Significant (p < 0.025)
Table 3 shows that the significance values for all dimensions were between 0.0001 and 0.001 or sig. < α,
which meant that Ho is outside the reception area. Based on the calculation of the value of t it was also obtained
the value of tcalc. = 15.576 was greater than ttable = 1.994, which meant that Ho was rejected. It could be concluded
that there were significant differences between the average N-gain of the experimental and control groups for all
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dimensions of mechanics. For the second law dimension, where the acquisition of N-gain was the smallest one for
the experimental group and the N-gain difference between the experimental group and the control group had the
lowest result, the result still yielded the significance of 0.001. In other words, there were differences improvement of
conceptual understanding to the correct concept for all dimensions of the Newtonian mechanics concepts between
the experimental group and the control group. It can be concluded that the conceptual change learning is more
effective in improving students’ conceptual understanding toward the correct concepts. More specifically, based
on the pattern of acquisition of N-gain of the experimental and the control groups, it can be concluded that only
the conceptual change learning can change students’ conceptual understanding towards the correct concepts.
Discussion
Students’ Conceptual Understanding and Dominant Misconceptions in Newtonian Mechanics
This research was conducted in three main steps, i.e. analyzing students’ conceptual understanding and
identifying their misconceptions, implementing conceptual change approach of learning, and analyzing students’
post-learning conceptual understanding. Based on the analysis of correct answer of the FCI items, the mean scores
of experimental and control groups were 19.77% and 15.52% (Table 1), respectively. These scores were far below
the entry threshold (see Hestenes & Halloun, 1995), so that students’ misconceptions must be taken into account
(Hestenes et al., 1992). Hake (1998) asserted that low score on the FCI indicates a lack of understanding of the basic
mechanics concepts. From the analysis of students’ wrong answers of the FCI based on Table of Taxonomy of Mis-
conceptions Probed by the Inventory (Hestenes et al., 1992, revision 1995), it was revealed students’ misconceptions
in Newtonian mechanics. The dominant misconceptions held by the students were 1) heavier objects always fall
faster, 2) mass makes object stop moving, 3) motion of object implies active force working on it, 4) impetus comes
from hit, and 5) impetus also exists in circular motion.
In the item 1 of the FCI, students were asked time taken to reach the ground by two metal balls that have the
same size but one weighs twice as much as the other dropped from the same height at the same instant of time. There
were 46.58% of the students chose option A: about half as long for the heavier ball as for the lighter one, 39.73%
chose D: considerably less for the heavier ball, but not necessarily half as long, 4,11% chose B: about half as long for
the lighter ball as for the heavier one, and 1.37% chose E: considerably less for the lighter ball, but not necessarily half
as long. It meant that 91.79% of the students held misconception that heavier objects always fall faster. Only 8.22%
of them had correct scientific concept that two balls take about the same time (option C). The reality found in this
research was the students had ability to solve computational problem in determining time it takes by an object
to fall from a certain height by using an appropriate equation easily. So, although the students may have been
drilled using the equation many times and have memorized it, but their understanding about the meaning of the
equation is still nonsense.
Misconception mass makes object stop moving was revealed by the FCI item 27, options A and B. There were
75.34% of the students who experienced this misconception. Students who held this misconception thought that
a large object moving at a constant speed being pushed by a person with a constant horizontal force will “immediately
come to stop” or “continue moving at a constant speed for a while and then slow to stop” instead of “immediately start
slowing to a stop”. Next, misconception motion of object implies active force was experienced by 63.01% of the stu-
dents. They believed that motion must be caused by active force such as a force being exerted by a person. This
was inferred from the students’ answer for item 5 when choosing options C, D, and E and item 27 when choosing
option A. An example of students’ answer for the FCI item that revealed this misconception was the answer for
item 27 that the large object will immediately come to stop if a person stops applying a horizontal force.
Misconception impetus comes from hit was revealed by four items, i.e. item 5 (options C, D, and E), 11 (options
B and C), 27 (option D), and 30 (options B, D, and E). The general statement believed by students was there is a
force working continuously on an object that sustains the object moving and this force was transferred from the
object’s environment by means of, for example, a hit or a throw. There were 59.93% of them had this misconcep-
tion. As an example, in item 30 “A tennis player hit a tennis ball with his racquet in a very strong wind. What force(s)
is (are) acting on the tennis ball after it has left contact with the racquet and before it touches ground?”, there were
89.04% of students thought that force by the hit also works on the ball, with detail: 8.22% chose force by the hit and
downward force of gravity; 10.96% chose force by the hit and a force exerted by the air; and 60.27% chose force by the
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hit, downward force of gravity, and a force exerted by the air. Moreover, this research found that the students held
impetus concept strongly because there was no any student who chose only a downward force of gravity work on
the ball. In conclusion, only 10.96% of the students held correct scientific concept that the gravity force and force
exerted by the air work on the ball.
Furthermore, the students also believed that there was impetus in circular motion. As many as 54.11% of them
held this belief. Items 5 (options C, D, and E), 6 (option A), 7 (options A and D), and 18 (options C and D) revealed
this misconception. The students thought that there must be a force works on an object in its direction of motion
in a circular path to sustain the object moving, and this force still work on the object even if after the object exits
the circular path. Item 5 is A ball is shot at high speed into a frictionless channel in the shape of a segment of a circle.
Forces exerted by the air are negligible. What force(s) is (are) acting on a ball when it is within the channel? There were
80.83% of students chose the answer containing phrase a force in the direction of motion that imply they believed
about existence of impetus in circular motion. These consisted of 41.10% of the students who chose answer a force
in the direction of motion and a downward force of gravity; 26.03% who chose answer a force in the direction of mo-
tion, a downward force of gravity, and a force exerted by the channel pointing from the ball to the center; and 13.70%
who chose the answer a force in the direction of motion, a downward force of gravity, and a force pointing from the
center to the ball. Moreover, as many as 39.72% of them chose the path of the ball after it exits the channel still
constructs a circular path.
Conceptual Change Learning Approach
This research was intended to investigate the effectiveness of conceptual change learning approach to in-
crease students’ conceptual understanding and overcome their misconceptions in Newtonian mechanics. General
flow of implementation of POEA strategy was, firstly, students were given two or three conceptual problems to
discuss in their groups. Then, they reported their answers and reasons in class discussion while teacher probed
deeply students’ reasons with question: why; why do you think like that; and so on. Next, teacher displayed real
demonstration or animation and students saw discrepancies between what they think and what happen. Teacher
used this condition to start the lesson and conveyed materials based on syllabus and was aware about students’
misconceptions. Whenever teacher arrived at a suitable moment she explained why this concept is correct. The
last, students were back to group to discuss two or three novel conceptual cases following by short final class
discussion. In this step they apply their new concept. In the end of learning, teacher checked students’ conceptual
understanding and gave conclusion and follow up. Similarly, general flow of using CCT strategy was almost the
same as POEA. The differences were two or three problems for group discussion were taken from CCT and the
correct answers were given by teacher when she arrived at suitable materials to explain the concept. In brief, the
instruction in the experimental group fulfilled the Posner et al.’s conditions.
Conceptual Change
According to Table 1, the students’ conceptual understanding after instruction for experimental group was
66.29%. It meant that the ability of this group, on average, was above entry threshold. In addition, it also inferred the
effectiveness of the instruction based on conceptual change approach by means of POEA and using CTT strategies
in promoting conceptual change. N-gain is a valid measure of instruction effectiveness in promoting conceptual
change (Hake, 1998). For the experimental group the average N-gain value was 58 (medium category). In contrast,
the students’ conceptual understanding for control group was still far below entry threshold after instruction. In
conclusion, the negative value (-1.28) of the average N-gain for control group indicated that the traditional ap-
proach was not effective in promoting conceptual change. Furthermore, the effectiveness of conceptual change
approach over traditional one was also proved by statistical test of mean score differences between two groups.
The finding about effectiveness of conceptual change learning in promoting students’ conceptual understanding
is supported by results of previous studies such as by Yürük (2007), Özmen (2007), Çetin, Kaya, & Geban (2009),
Ozkan and Selcuk (2015), Yumuşak, Maraş, & Şahin (2015), and Yürük and Eroğlu (2016). Table 4 shows the dominant
misconceptions that have been changed towards scientific concepts in this research.
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Table 4. Change of students’ misconceptions towards scientific concepts.
Exp* Con**
Conceptual Understanding Pre Post Pre Post
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Heavier objects always fall faster

1. Time taken by two metal balls that have the same size but one weighs twice as much as the
other to reach the ground:
Scientific Concept 11.36 100 3.45 10.34
two balls take about the same time.
Misconception
about half as long for the heavier ball as for the lighter one. 47.73 0 44.83 31.04
considerably less for the heavier ball, but not necessarily half as long. 36.36 0 44.83 48.28
other: considerably less for the lighter ball 4.54 0 6.90 10.43
2. If two balls above (point 1) roll off off horizontal table with the same speed, they will hit the floor
at a distance:
Scientific concept 13.64 95.46 6.90 6.90
approximately the same horizontal distance from the base of the table.
Misconception
the heavier ball hits the floor at about half distance than does the lighter ball. 22.73 0 17.24 13.79
the heavier ball hits the floor considerably closer than the lighter ball, but not necessarily at half 50.00 4.55 55.17 62.07
distance.
other: the lighter ball hits the floor considerably closer 13.64 0 20.69 17.24
Mass makes object stop moving
3. A large object moving at a constant speed because being pushed by a person with a constant
horizontal force. If the person stop applying the force, the object will:
Scientific Concept 25.00 29.55 13.79 17.24
immediately start slowing to a stop.
Misconception
immediately come to stop. 38.64 09.09 55.17 62.07
continue moving at a constant speed for a while and then slow to stop. 34.09 54.55 24.14 20.69
others: continue at a constant speed; increase then start slowing 2.27 6.82 6.90 0
Motion of object implies active force

Impetus in circular motion
4. A ball is shot at high speed into a frictionless channel in the shape of a segment of a circle.
Forces exerted by the air are negligible. Force(s) acting on a ball when it is within the channel is
(are):
Scientific Concept 6.82 86.36 13.79 6.90
a downward force of gravity and a force exerted by the channel pointing from the ball to the
center.
Misconception
a force in the direction of motion and a downward force of gravity. 43.18 0 37.93 44.83
a force in the direction of motion, a downward force of gravity, and a force exerted by the channel 31.82 4.55 17.24 34.48
pointing from the ball to the center.
a force in the direction of motion, a downward force of gravity, and a force pointing from the 11.36 0 17.24 10.34
center to the ball.
other misconception: only a downward force of gravity. 6.82 9.09 13.79 3.45
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Motion of object implies active force

5. A a large object moving at a constant speed being pushed by a person with a constant horizontal 38.64 09.09 55.17 62.07
force. If the person stop applying the force, the object will immediately come to stop.
Impetus comes from hit

6. A tennis player hits a tennis ball with his racquet in a very strong wind. Force(s) acting on the
tennis ball after it has left contact with the racquet and before it touches ground is (are):
Scientific Concept 6.82 18.18 17.24 0
a downward force of gravity and force exerted by the air.
Misconception
force by the hit and downward force of gravity. 9.09 9.09 6.90 13.79
force by the hit and a force exerted by the air. 18.18 0 24.14 34.48
force by the hit, downward force of gravity and a force exerted by the air. 65.91 6.82 51.72 51.72
other: only a downward force of gravity. 0 65.91 0 0
Impetus in circular motion

7. the path of ball above (point 5) after it exits the channel and move in frictionless horizontal table:
Scientific Concept
moving in the direction of its motion before exiting the channel. 54.55 93.18 34.48 20,69
Misconception
still constructs a circular path. 40.91 6.82 37.93 48.28
* Experimental Group **Control Group
Based on Table 4, all students in experimental group have changed their understanding towards scientific
concept that “time taken by two balls” (point 1) is about the same. For the problem “two balls roll off the table”
(point 2), there were 95.46% of them who have changed their conception to scientific concept that the ball will hit
the floor at the same distance from the table. Only 4.55% of them still thought that the heavier ball hit the floor
closer than the lighter one. However, this conception is better than conception before instruction where students
thought that the time taken as half to the heavier ball. At least, they do not think that the time is directly inversely
proportional to the weight. In learning activity they were challenged about the meaning of equation of falling
object t = √2h/g in which t (time) is not depend on weight of object. Thus, misconception heavier object always fall
faster have been changed dramatically to the correct-scientific concept. All students have developed their Aristo-
telian belief that speed of falling object is proportional to its weight toward Newtonian thinking. In contrast, most
students in control group still thought that the heavier ball takes time less than the lighter one either half as for the
heavier ball or not necessarily half as for the heavier ball. In other words, they still strongly hold Aristotelian belief.
For point 3 about “a person stop applying the force on object moving”, there were more students who have
had the correct concept in experimental group after instruction. Most of them have moved from understanding
the object “immediately come to stop” (09.09%) to “continue moving at a constant speed for a while and then slow
to stop” (54.55%). The first understanding is closer to misconception, whereas the second one is closer to scientific
concept that “the object immediately start slowing to stop”. So, there was also change of students conception
about mass makes object stop moving. On the other hand, for control group most students (82.76%) still had this
misconception. Furthermore, for misconception “motion of object implies active force” and “impetus in circular mo-
tion”, there were also incredible increase of students who hold scientific concept after instruction for experimental
group. As many as 79.54% of them have changed their understanding to correct belief that there is no force in the
direction of motion. Although there were 4.55% of them who chose option with phrase a force in the direction of
motion, but their choice did not strongly describe this misconception because there are two others forces in this
choice. In other words, students who still held misconception have developed better understanding. Misconcep-
tion impetus in circular motion have been also overcome dramatically as described in point 7 where 93.18% of the
students chose the ball will move in the direction of its motion before exiting the channel. In learning they were
also challenged to demonstrate where a ball goes if its string suddenly breaks when it is in a horizontal circular
path. Concept “impetus comes from hit” was also successful overcome. Only 15.91% of the students still held this
misconception after instruction in the experimental group. Although there were 65.91% of them who chose option
“only a downward force of gravity, however they have dispelled their impetus misconception.
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Finally, this research found that there is an increase of students’ conceptual understandings in the
Newtonian mechanics for a group taught by strategies based on conceptual change approach. The increase
might be caused by the implementation of conceptual change oriented instruction that fulfilled Posner’s et
al. (1982) conditions. Based on general flow of POEA, the first target of this strategy was to create cognitive
conflict and diagnose students’ thinking. Answering and giving reason to the ‘predict’ cases within discussions
helped students to review their prior knowledge and to re-examine their ideas. This does not only probe stu-
dents’ understandings but also induce them to discuss their insight (White & Gunstone, 1992). Then, students
who had alternative conceptions became dissatisfied as important condition to initiate conceptual change.
In the explaining phase, students gradually start getting the right concept. Fruitfulness of this new concept
began being felt by the students at the last discussion. Additional of Apply phase in POE strengthened the
fruitfulness of the new concepts. The effect of POEA was consistent with research by Sreerekha and Sankar
(2016) that found POE was effective in enhancing students’ achievement and Coştu et al. (2012) that found
modification of POE helps students to achieve better conceptual understanding.
There are some reasons why CCT was also successful in increase conceptual understandings. Firstly, it
was credible sources of information for the students. It informed various alternative conceptions that some
may be the same as the students’ ideas. These alternative conceptions remind students that their ideas are
wrong. Then the scientific explanations given that guarantee why the replacing conceptions are correct and
explain the consequences that occur if it is not as described make students aware that these are indeed the
new correct conceptions. Secondly, CCT was a powerful tool for large class sizes such as in Indonesia. Informing
all possible misconceptions and giving detailed explanations on CCT that can be read by the students repeat-
edly caused it become a potential resource to change readers’ conceptions. Thirdly, the flexible properties
of CCT made it became friendly learning resources that can be ‘asked’ by students anytime and anywhere.
Moreover, the differences in improvement of conceptual understanding between two groups might
also be caused by differences learning atmosphere. Based on the observations during learning, students in
experimental group seemed more active and interactive. Sreerekha and Sankar (2016) stated that POE can
motivate students. Then, collaborative use of the POE gives students opportunity to articulate, justify, debate,
and reflect on their own and peers’ science views and negotiate new and shared meanings (Kearney, 2004).
Mercer (2008) stated that a dialogue among students is a motor for conceptual change. He suggested that
to achieve the next equilibrium, discussing beliefs with classmates ought to be productive. In addition, ex-
planations and arguments of peers will be more easily understood by students as they discuss in “the same
language”. Bilgin and Geban (2006) reported that cooperative learning based on conceptual change conditions
was significantly better at mastering scientific concepts compared to the traditional teaching.
On the other hand, unsuccessful of traditional learning in improving the students’ conceptual understand-
ings because the instructor had not turned her attention to the importance of this approach, so that she did
not think about it further and did not attempt to implement it such as to probe students pre-conceptions.
Treagust et al. (2014) asserted that an instruction strategy will be effective only by considering students’ pre-
conceptions. Learning activity done by the lecturer who taught in the control group was, first the lecturer
wrote on the board or showed some derivation of equations on the projector; then explained them and
gave an opportunity to the students to take note. After the students finished taking notes, the lecturer gave
example of problem and explained how to solve the problem by using equations. Such kind of learning ap-
proach does never change students’ conceptual understanding to the correct concept. This study provides a
strong beneficial result that the traditional class did not obtain N-gain after instruction. It reinforces that to
change learners’ conceptions can only be done by applying conceptual change learning.
Conclusions
Conceptual change learning approach based on conceptual change model has been implemented in
this research. Conceptual change learning strategies, POEA and using of CCT, adjusted to the characteristics
of the subject-matter and the local conditions that have been implemented succeeded in helping students
to change their conceptual understanding and overcome misconceptions in Newtonian mechanics and its
six dimensional. The traditional learning being used apparently had no impact on the students’ conceptual
understanding.
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This research contributes to the development of research in field of learning to increase conceptual
understanding in Newtonian mechanics. However, the sample of this research was limited on the physics
education students. It needs to take a broader sample to obtain more general conclusions. Research to in-
vestigate whether the change of students’ conceptions is permanent or not and to see implementation of
POEA and CCT as general guideline strategies in improving development of students’ scientific thinking also
needs to complete this findings.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express sincere thanks to anonymous Reviewers who have given great sugges-
tions for improving this article. The author also thank all participants in this research.
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Received: February 22, 2017 Accepted: April 10, 2017
Syuhendri Syuhendri Ph.D., Senior Lecturer at Physics Education Department, Faculty of

Teacher Training and Education, Sriwijaya University (Universitas
Sriwijaya), Palembang, 30662, Indonesia.
E-mail: hendrisyukur@yahoo.com
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EDUCATION BASED ON
COOPERATIVE LEARNING ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
METHOD ON THE ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC
MOTOR SKILLS OF PRIMARY
SCHOOL 1ST GRADE LEARNERS
Abstract. The purpose of the research
was to determine the effects of 12-week
physical activities based on Cooperative
Learning Method on development of basic
motor skills of Primary School 1st Graders.
Mustafa Altınkök Pretest-Posttest Design, Semi-Empirical
Research Method and Unequaled Control
Group Methods were used in the research.
To determine the effects of physical activi-
ties based on Cooperative Learning Method
on the development of basic motor skills,
Introduction controlling the ball with feet, controlling
the ball with hands, running coordination,
The importance and necessity of movement education with the early agility, promptness and dynamic balance
childhood period has begun to be emphasized among the most important skill tests were used. According to the statis-
topics by parents and sports scientists. The individuals need qualified move- tical results, no significant differences were
ment processes in order to be able to sustain their life in a healthier and more detected in pretest average values of the
qualified manner. It attracts attention that children, who have reached the research and control groups in Independ-
ent sampling t-test; however, a signifi-
age of schooling, act in different forms when compared with the other age
cant difference was found in favor of the
groups. It has been reported that the lifelong movement education require-
research group in posttest averages. In the
ments, which are at the very basis of activity, are health, fitness, entertain- t-test for Dependent Variables, significant
ment, influencing and being influenced, aesthetics, shaping, performance, differences were found in pretest-posttest
self-confidence, adventure, sense of community, and recreation, etc. (Pan- averages in favor of the posttest values of
grazi, 2001; Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003; Johnson & Johnson, 2009; Kirk, 2013; Research Group. In pretest-posttest aver-
Altınkök, 2015; Altınkök, 2016). ages of Controls, negative significance was
It has also been reported that the issue of creating a medium is considered found in controlling the balls with hands,
among the duties of primary school teachers to ensure that the basic motor and no significant differences were deter-
skills, which form the infrastructure of future sportive activities in which the in- mined in other motor skills. We believe that
dividual will take part, are acquired by students. It is emphasized that throwing, students are active in application process,
and the long-term planned learning-teach-
catching, controlling the ball with feet and hands, and similar motor skills may
ing environments with physical activities
be acquired between the ages 6 and 7 at a mature level. It is also emphasized
based on Cooperative Learning Method
that teaching the skills are important in taking part in various games and sport- might contribute to the development of
ive activities in a successful manner (Hardin & Garcia, 1982; Dauer & Pangrazi, basic motor skills.
1992; Johnson & Ward, 2001). When the developmental stages of children are Keywords: physical education, physical
considered, we can observe that children start to know themselves and their activity, movement education, coopera-
environment by moving before anything else (Piaget, 1950; Slavin, 1980). tive learning, basic motor skills, lifelong
It has also been reported that regular systemic and qualified teaching- education.
learning media are needed to develop the motor skills of children, and the
exercises of children must be guided (Gallahue, 1989; Gallahue, 1993). In
the process in which the learning experiences are acquired, the methods Mustafa Altınkök
and techniques that ensure that students participate in the class actively Akdeniz University, Turkey
may ensure that students learn faster and better, and enjoy these processes
(Ward & Ward, 1996; Johnson & Ward, 2001; Dyson, 2001). The Cooperative
Learning Method, which is among the methods used in physical science, social
241
THE EFFECT OF MOVEMENT EDUCATION BASED ON COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHOD ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC MOTOR SKILLS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL 1ST GRADE LEARNERS
(P. 241-249) ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
sciences, mathematics, and physical education classes have different applications for each of these disciplines.
Cooperative Learning is a teaching strategy used successfully by applying many learning activities to small
groups consisting of students from different skill levels in order to make them understand certain subjects. The
Learning by Cooperation Approach is different from the other group activities like research groups, project groups,
laboratory groups and reading groups in that it requires the use of positive solidarity, individual responsibility,
face-to-face interaction, social skills and development of the group by self-assessment. The responsibility of each
individual in the team is not only learning what is taught, but also helping the other team members to learn, and
thus creating a success (winning together) atmosphere. It is reported that students feel responsible until the learn-
ing of the whole group is completed (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1994; Grineski, 1996; Dyson, 2001; Johnson,
Johnson & Smith 2006; Dyson, Linehan, & Hastie, 2010; Altınkök, 2012; Dyson & Casey, 2012). The Cooperative
Learning Method, which is used as a pedagogical method, has been used intensely in intra-class activities (Johnson,
Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon, 1981; Kagan, 1992; Slavin, 1995). With this research, the effects of physical
activity applications based on Cooperative Learning Method used in learning-teaching environments on acquisi-
tion and development of basic motor skills are investigated.
Problem of Research
It is considered that Movement Education must start at the early childhood period when the child feels
the need for movement and games; and this must be sustained as a lifelong activity based on Lifelong Learning
Principles. Because it is emphasized that it is extremely difficult to acquire some skills later in life once the critical
period is missed to acquire them. It is also emphasized by sports scientists that this deficiency will produce serious
negative results in lifelong learning process.
When the literature was reviewed, it was seen that the teaching activities based on Cooperative Learning
Method are mostly used in physical sciences, social sciences, and mathematics classes as well as physical educa-
tion classes. However, studies conducted on the application of Cooperative Learning Method in physical education
classes of Primary School 1st Graders are very few in number. In active curricula of Ministry of National Education, it
is seen that activities based on Cooperative Learning Method are emphasized. When the importance of the condi-
tions in our country and the movement education is considered, it is obvious that studies that will be conducted
to determine the effects of Cooperative Learning Method on academic success, are necessary. For this reason,
examining the effects of physical activities based on Cooperative Learning Method on the development of basic
motor skills of the Primary School 1st Graders is important in terms of the efficiency of investigating the effects of
physical activities based on Cooperative Learning Method.
Research Focus
With this research, the purpose was to determine the effects of physical activities based on Cooperative Learning
Method on the development of some basic motor skills of Primary School 1st Graders who were between 6-7 years
of age, and to contribute to the revision of games and physical activities classes applied in primary schools. For this
purpose, answers to the following questions have been sought for: 1. Can the Movement Education with Cooperative
Learning Method be applied to Primary School Children? 2. Is the Movement Education based on Cooperative Learning
Method effective on the development of basic motor skills of Primary School children? 3. Is it possible to ensure the
activity and socializing of children with the Movement Education based on Cooperative Learning Method? 4. Is there
a difference between the Research Group to which the Movement Education based on Cooperative Learning Method
has been applied and the Control Group to which this method has not been applied in terms of the development.
The Pretest-Posttest Design, Semi-Empirical Research Method and Unequaled Control Group Methods were
used in the research. The research was conducted in spring semester of the academic year. 12-week activities based
on Cooperative Learning Method on the development of some basic motor skills of Primary School 1st Graders
were applied to the research group. The effects of dependent variable, which is the physical activities based on the
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Cooperative Learning Method, on the independent variables like object control skills, running skills, agility, prompt-
ness and balance skills were investigated.
Sample of Research
For the purpose of the research, 38 students, who were selected randomly from the 1st graders in a primary
school in Istanbul, were included as the research group; and 36 students were included in the research as the control
group. 2 students were excluded from the research because they had health problems, 1 student was excluded
due to attendance problems, and 1 student was excluded because the number of the days on which he did not
participate in the research was high. 2 students in the control group were not included in the research because
they did not want to participate in the research. As the final status; 34 students (17 females-17 males) were included
in the research group and 34 students (17 females-17 males) were included in the control group, which made 68
participants in total. The research started after the parents were informed and the written consents of the parents
of the students and the necessary permissions were received.
Physical Education classes based on Cooperative Learning Method were performed by the author in classes in
free activity hall, in sports hall, and in school garden in agreement with the characteristics of the research and with
the active participation of the students after the necessary safety precautions were taken. “Test Results Registration
Form” was created in order to record the data of the research, and a separate form was used for each participant.
The basic motor skill test measurements were performed by the author of the research, a measurement assistant,
and three other people recorded the test results to the registry form.
In order to determine the effects of physical activities applied in learning environments designed with the
Cooperative Learning Method on basic motor skills, the skill test for controlling the ball with feet, controlling the
ball with hands, running coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic balance motor skill tests were used as the
data collection tools.
From the beginning of the research until the end of it, the experimental part of the research was completed
by applying a pre-application (1 week), applying the pre-tests (1 week), applying the physical activities based on
Cooperative Learning Method (12 week) and applying the post-tests (1 week).
Pre-Application
Before starting the research by forming the research and control groups, a pre-application was performed
to the whole of the research group in order to determine the time that would be spent for each basic motor skill
performance test, to examine the applicability of the tests, and to ensure that children would start motor skill tests
with the same proficiency.
Application of the Pre-test
The pre-tests were applied in a style that would follow each other in sequence in agreement with the charac-
teristics of the measurement tools for basic motor skill tests by giving adequate resting times within 5 working days.
1. Day; agility, 2. Day; controlling the ball with hands, 3. Day; controlling the ball with feet and promptness
tests, 4. Day; running coordination, 5. Day; dynamic balance tests were applied in this order.
Application of Physical Activities based on Cooperative Learning Method
The Physical Education classes based on Cooperative Learning Method were applied to the experimental group
by the author of the research in accordance with the contents to develop some basic motor and social skills. The
classes were applied as one day a week and two hours a day, and included activities that were intended to make
students acquire and develop the acquisitions in Primary School 1st Grade Curriculum.
On the other hand, the physical education classes were applied to the control group by the class teacher in
accordance with the curriculum with the supervision of the author of the research.
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The students were divided into groups, which is consistent with the nature of the Cooperative Learning Method.
There were 4 groups consisting of 7 individuals; and 1 group consisting of 6 individuals, i.e. 5 groups in total.
In each cooperation group, a dynamic group structure was adopted in which there was a president, a spokes-
man, reporter, a ball-boy, and a player. These duties were practiced by the students in turn. Later on, it was ensured
that the alternation of the duties was performed according to the duty-order among the groups. The learning-
teaching medium was prepared in accordance with the contents of the activity planned.
Before starting each activity, the general summary of the previous research sections was examined by the
cooperation groups with different dimensions in the introduction parts, and the clues, feedbacks, corrections and
reinforces were used both for the individuals and for the cooperation groups in the activities.
The values such as children’s supporting each other, attachment of them to each other in a positive way,
acting together in cooperation, their being aware of the smallest contribution to each other, the contribution of
each group member to the group, and their being the driving force in the success were given to the children by
the author of the research.
The Application of Post-test
The same test procedures used in pre-test process were valid in posttests. The same basic motor skill test
tools were used in this process.
Data Analysis
The statistical package program was used to make the analyses on the study data. The “Independent t” test
was used to find the difference between the pre-test and post-test values of the research and control groups;
and the “Paired Samples t” Test was used to find the difference between the pre-test and post-test values of the
research and control groups.
Results of Research
In this part of the research, the data obtained from the statistical tests have been analyzed, and the general
findings are given in the direction of the hypotheses and in the light of the development of motor properties,
which were observed during the application.
Table 1. The independent t test results of the pre-test; controlling the ball with feet, controlling the ball with
hands, running coordination, agility, promptness, dynamic balance variables of the experimental
and control groups
t Test
Variable Groups n ± SD
t p
Experimental 46.75 ± 11.42

Controlling the Ball with Feet 68 -1.844 .070
Control 51.75 ± 10.94
Controlling the Ball with Hands 68 -2.314 .124
Control 46.65 ± 10.34
Running Coordination 68 -1.516 .134
Control 5.87 ± 0.88
Agility 68 -0.407 .685
Control 8.05 ± 0.66
Promptness 68 1.217 .228
Control 4.90 ± 0.62
Dynamic Balance Tests 68 -0.642 .523
Control 21.62 ± 4.77
p>0.05 There is not a significant difference
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As it is observed in the table, according to the independent group t-test results applied to determine
whether there is a significant difference between basic motor skill tests of the experimental and control groups
in controlling the ball with feet, controlling the ball with hands, running coordination, agility, promptness and
dynamic balance basic motor skill test averages, it is determined that there are no significant differences between
the pre-test values (p>0.05). When the arithmetic averages are considered, it is understood that the basic motor
skill pre-test values were close to each other at first, and the initial levels of the groups were the same.
Table 2. The Paired Samples t test results of the pre-test and post-test; controlling the ball with feet, control-
ling the ball with hands, running coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic balance variables
of the control group.
t Test
Variable Test n ± SD
t p
Pre 51.75 ± 10.94

Controlling the Ball with Feet 34 6.056 .103
Post 53.98 ± 8.92
Pre 46.65 ± 10.34
Controlling the Ball with Hands 34 6.129 .001**
Post 52.78 ± 9.65
Pre 5.87 ± 0.88
Running Coordination 34 8.216 .321
Post 5.98 ± 0.89
Pre 8.05 ± 0.66
Agility 34 18.181 .051
Post 7.98 ± 0.99
Pre 4.90 ± 0.62
Promptness 34 6.139 .069
Post 5.76 ± 2.48
Pre 21.62 ± 4.77
Dynamic Balance Tests 34 -7.024 .077
Post 20.81 ± 4.38
p<0.01** There is a negative significant difference
As it is observed in the table, according to the Paired Samples t test results, which was applied to deter-
mine whether there is a significant difference between the controlling the ball with feet, controlling the ball
with hands, running coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic balance basic motor skills test averages of
the Control Group, it is determined that there are no significant differences in the pre-test and post-test values in
terms of controlling the ball with feet, running coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic balance motor skill
test averages (p>0.05). There was a negative significant difference between the controlling the ball with hands
motor skill test averages pre-test and post-test values at .001 level (p>0.01) against the post-test.
Table 3. The Paired Samples t test results of the pre-test and post-test; controlling the ball with feet, control-
ling the ball with hands, running coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic balance variables
of the experimental group
t Test
t p
Controlling the Ball with Feet Pre 34 46.75 ± 11.42 6.056 .001**
Post 40.02 ± 8.56
Controlling the Ball with Hands Pre 34 40.33 ± 12.09 6.129 .001**
Post 31.75 ± 9.86
Running Coordination Pre 34 5.55 ± 0.83 8.216 .001**
Post 4.75 ± 0.83
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t Test
t p
Agility Pre 34 7.97 ± 0.88 18.181 .001**

Post 6.77 ± 0.71
Promptness Pre 34 5.12 ± 0.85 6.139 .001**
Post 4.45 ± 0.56
Dynamic Balance Tests Pre 34 20.90 ± 4.49 -7.024 .001**
Post 26.12 ± 4.21
p<0.01** There is a significant difference
As it is observed in the Table, according to the Paired Samples t test, which was conducted to determine
whether there is a significant difference between basic motor skill test averages of the experimental group in con-
trolling the ball with feet, controlling the ball with hands, running coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic
balance, a positive significant difference was observed in pretest-posttest values at .001 level (p>0.01) in favor of
the posttests between the controlling the ball with feet, controlling the ball with hands, running coordination, agil-
ity, promptness and dynamic balance basic motor skill test averages. When the arithmetic averages are observed,
it is considered that the increase in the experimental group in favor of basic motor skills stems from the Physical
Education applications based on Cooperative Learning Method applied to the experimental group.
Table 4. Independent group t-test results of the posttest; controlling the ball with feet, controlling the ball
with hands, running coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic balance variables of the experi-
mental and control groups
t Test
Variable Groups n ± SD
t p

Controlling the Ball with Feet 68 -6.582 .001**
Control 53.98 ± 8.92
Controlling the Ball with Hands 68 -8.883 .001**
Control 52.78 ± 9.65
Running Coordination 68 -5.859 .001**
Control 5.98 ± 0.89
Agility 68 -2.395 .019*
Control 7.50 ± 1.62
Promptness 68 -3.000 .004*
Control 5.76 ± 2.48
Dynamic Balance Tests 68 5.095 .001**
Control 20.81 ± 4.38
p<0.01**, p<0.05* There is a significant difference
As it is observed in the table, according to the independent group t-test results conducted to determine
whether there is a difference between the controlling the ball with feet, controlling the ball with hands, running
coordination, agility, promptness and dynamic balance basic motor skill test averages of the experimental and
control groups, it was determined that there is a positive significance at a rate of .001 among the post-test, control-
ling the ball with feet, controlling the ball with hands, running coordination, promptness and dynamic balance
test averages (p>0.01). There is a positive significance at a rate of .05 between the agility test averages in favor
of the post-tests. When the arithmetic averages are evaluated, it is considered that the basic motor skill levels of
the experimental group being higher in the experimental group than the control group stem from the Physical
Education applications based on Cooperative Learning Method.
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Discussion
The development of basic motor skills of the 6-7-year-old 1st Grade Primary School students in the experimental
group, which received Physical Education classes with Cooperative Learning Method, was much higher than the
control group, and the difference between these groups was found to be significant in favor of the experimental
group. The results of the other studies supporting the present research are as follows.
Martin and Ward (1996), Grineski (1999), Reeves et al. (1999) and Vaughan (2002) conducted studies on
5-6-year-old preschool children and reported positive and significant results after examining the relation between
major motor skills, physical finesses, communication, and interaction of the children by using games based on
cooperative learning method. Although the test batteries and some variables used in the studies are various, the
results of the studies support the findings of the present research.
Jordan and La Metais (1997) and Weenman, Kenter and Post (2000) conducted studies on duty-orientated
and social skill situations in primary schools (being positive, positive solidarity, sharing, face-to-face interaction,
caring for the others, and equal success opportunities, etc.); Quinn (2002) conducted a research on decreasing
antisocial behaviors in primary schools; Penelope (1993), Anderson and Wintealt (1995), Smith, Markley and Karp
(1997), Polvi and Telama (2000), Dyson (2001) and Dyson (2002) conducted studies and reported that cooperative
learning at various educational levels developed interpersonal skills, positive physical communication, helping each
other, working together and learning together, not criticizing the individuals but criticizing ideas, respecting rights,
listening skills; and decreased negative communication and the dependency on the teacher; and reported that
physical education classes were an influential way to develop social skills. The results of these studies also support
the present research. Dyson and Michelle (1997) conducted a research and found that secondary school 5th and
6th Graders obtained goals like developing motor skills, working as a team, being funny, thinking and discussing
in a strategic manner together with team mates; and reported that learning with cooperation with the teacher
and students contributed to increasing the quality of physical education classes. Although the research group in
this research and the motor skills, which were investigated in the research, are different, the results of this research
support the findings of the present research.
When the studies and their results are examined, it is observed that Physical Education based on Cooperative
Learning Method developed the self-confidence, strategic thinking and discussion, strategic planning, assessing
the changes in the activities, assessing the group process, motivation and problem-solving and similar cognitive
processes (Martin & Ward 1996;, Grineski 1999; Dyson & Michelle 1997; Dyson 2002); and improved the conscious
of duty and responsibility, interpersonal skills, positive communication, helping each other, working and learning
together, not criticizing the individuals but criticizing the ideas, respecting rights, listening skill and similar social
skills (Anderson & Wintealt 1995; Smith, Markley & Karp 1997; Jordan & La Metais 1997; Weenman, Kenter & Post
2000; Polvi & Telama 2000; Dyson 2001) as well as developing basic motor skills, and helped in reaching the targets
and success in Physical Education classes.
Conclusions
In the light of the research purpose, the answers for the research questions are as follows : It was determined
with the research that the physical activities based on Cooperative Learning Method may be applied to primary
school children in an efficient manner; Children may be activated in the education processes with the physical
activities based on Cooperative Learning Method and they may acquire and improve basic motor skills; It is possible
to observe that children are active in physical activities based on Cooperative Learning Method, they contribute to
their groups, encourage and support each other in activities, increase social sharing with the activities, and have
the conscious of achieving success together with their friends; The basic motor skills of the children in the experi-
mental group in which the physical activities based on Cooperative Learning Method were applied developed
more than those in the control group, and there is a difference in the results in favor of the experimental group.
Depending on the research results, it is considered that primary school teachers should allocate more time for
physical activities based on Cooperative Learning Method in games and physical activity classes in order to support
the object control skills and visual perceptions of children by using major and minor muscles manipulating various
objects and using body coordination and basic motor skills. It may be recommended to the researchers that they
should conduct studies in which different teaching methods and techniques are tested to make children use their
major and minor muscles more, to make children become more active in educational programs in which physical
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activities based on Cooperative Learning Method are included and basic motor skills may be acquired. It is pos-
sible to claim that Cooperative Learning Method may contribute greatly to realize the acquisitions of education
and help to increase the quality of education provided in the learning-teaching process in our present day where
individual differences are cared for. This method is also helpful in sustaining lifelong and permanent learning. On
the other hand, it is possible to claim that when the individuals contribute to the group in accordance with their
skills and abilities; this will increase the learning level in the group. It is considered that great contributions will be
made to the learning process of each student in the class by using the Cooperative Learning Method in Physical
Education classes.
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Received: November 12, 2016 Accepted: April 15, 2017
Mustafa Altınkök Ph.D, Assistant Professor, Physical Education and Sports High
School, Department of Physical Education Teaching, Akdeniz
University, 07070, Antalya, Turkey.
E-mail: mustafaaltinkok@akdeniz.edu.tr
Website: http://aves.akdeniz.edu.tr/mustafaaltinkok/
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For humanization and
historicism: How WELL
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/ university students know
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/ and what they think about
chemical eponyms
Abstract. Chemical eponyms possess im- Uladzimir Slabin,

portant didactic and axiological potential Vasili Krasitski
that can be utilized for implementation of
the principles of humanization and histori-
cism manifested in national educational
standards. This study focused on students’
knowledge and views of eponyms in the
light of history of science. 22 general
chemistry students of Belarusian State
University, 131 students of general and Introduction
119 students of organic chemistry of
University of Oregon, all different majors, Eponymy is a word of Greek origin made up of epi - over, and noma
were surveyed on their knowledge and - name. It means “giving name to something or naming after.” Eponymy is
views of eponyms using a 24-item online understood as denominating a phenomenon, law, theory, principle, invention
questionnaire. Mann-Whitney coefficients or procedure with the originator’s name. In this way, the name of a discovery
were calculated to establish significant is derived from the name of the person who discovered or described it in
differences and Pearson chi-square test the first instance (Fernandez-Cano & Fernandez-Guerrero, 2003). Commonly
was applied to find correlations. It was known eponyms include Fahrenheit scale, Pythagorean theorem, Parkinson’s
found that students’ knowledge and views disease, Petri dish, etc.
of eponyms are defined mostly by major: An alternative term is named (or name), e.g. named reactions, named
students majoring in teaching chemistry laws, named effects. Even though this term is widely used for particular items,
showed higher knowledge and expressed the generic two-word equivalent “named notion” is misleading and sometimes
more positive views of eponyms than those carries different connotation in contexts like: “These ideas that are acquired
majoring in non-teaching, non-chemistry by abstraction, are named notions, to distinguish them from the simple ideas
and especially non-science. Other factors
that they represent to the objects” (Ruiz, 2006).
include students’ learning experience
On the one hand, scientific eponyms have been fairly well researched
and study intensiveness. While didactic
on and inventoried. Manuals and dictionaries hold eponyms in chemistry
potential of eponyms is utilized anyway,
(Vatsuro & Mishchenko, 1976; Hassner & Stumer, 1994), medicine (Koehler,
utilization of their axiological potential
Bruyn, & Pearce, 2001), zoology (Beolens, Watkins, & Grayson, 2009), physics
depends on instructor’s willingness and
mastery and should not be exaggerated as
and mathematics (Ballentyne, Walker, & Marton, 1959), social science (Lawson,
vehicles for the principles of humanization 1984), psychology (Zusne, 1987), and eponyms in general (Manser, 1988;
and historicism. Beeching, 1989). They are available both as hard copies and as websites (En-
Keywords: chemical education, chemical ersen, 1994). In medicine, e.g., an app for tablets and smartphones has been
eponym, named reaction, humanization, developed (Yee, n.d.) to bring descriptions of thousands of both common
historicism, history of science. and obscure medical eponyms, and eventually biographies of “people who
discovered a disease, pioneered a treatment, or invented a test, and later had
their work named after them” (Paluzzi, 2010).
Uladzimir Slabin
University of Oregon, USA
Meanwhile, active research on eponyms continues. They are discussed
Vasili Krasitski in many aspects, such as linguistic (Slabin, 1995; Stepkina, 2011), historical
Belarusian State University, (Hoffman, 1987; Turnpenny & Pigott, 2001; Kanne, Rohrmann, & Lichtenstein,
Republic of Belarus
2006), philosophical (Bayer, 1987) and even gender studies (Allchin, 2011).
Numerous investigations focus on eponyms in the context of national history
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what they think about chemical eponyms
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of science, e.g. Spanish (Fernandez-Cano et al., 2003) and Italian (Papeo & Pulici, 2013), establishing or questioning
priority in a discovery or an invention (Felts, 1999; Turnpenny & Pigott, 2001; Drahl, 2010; Funk, 2013), ethical issues
arising from using Nazi physician eponyms (Sala & De Renzi, 2002; Woywodt, Matteson, & Whitworth, 2007), etc.
Eponyms are also researched from pedagogical prospective. Addressing educational implications of eponyms
in science education, Govindarajan and Rao (1993) mention anecdotal and historical merits of eponyms and argue:
“Learning of eponyms in science education can significantly enlighten the motivated as well as the disinterested
student to embark upon a diligent and productive endeavor in education, and to relate the knowledge to present
day life and society” (p. 340).
Eponyms possess two pedagogical potentials – didactic and axiological. The former is obvious: students
should study eponyms just because they are a part of the subject. Being a form of shorthand, they make profes-
sional communication easier because specialists quickly recall their content and understand the subject. Snieckus
(2010) points out this asset: “For organic chemists, there is a direct cerebral cascade among name reaction-chemical
structure mechanisms that, for many of us, continues to succeed in information retrieval without Googling” (p. 3).
The Merck Index (1952, 6th ed.) began including a section on named reactions, and since then dozens more books
and websites containing chemical eponyms have sprung up.
The axiological potential of eponyms lies in introduction of values, the component that nowadays science
and technology education overwhelmingly needs (Lamanauskas, 2015). Because every eponym can be unwrapped
into a history of discovery, through eponyms instructor can convey important values to students. The axiological
approach (Dvulichanskaya, 2011) puts up a principle of humanization in education, which implies that along with
subject knowledge, educational tasks should include additional information on human activity in various aspects
such as history and art. This approach holds for both secondary and higher education.
In national documents governing education, eponyms are usually not mentioned as such but they are present
in the discourse of history and nature of science. The US National Science Education Standards (1996) emphasize
the importance of history of science and individual scientists at all levels (K-4, K-8 and K-12) in content standard
G (history and nature of science): “All students should develop understanding of science as a human endeavor…
Many individuals have contributed to the traditions of science. Studying some of these individuals provides further
understanding of scientific inquiry, science as a human endeavor, the nature of science, and the relationships
between science and society” (p. 171). The US Next Generation Science Standards (2013) encourage “discussions
involving the history of scientific and engineering ideas, of individual practitioners’ contributions” because “…for
many students, these aspects are the pathways that capture their interest in these fields and build their identities
as engaged and capable learners of science and engineering” (p. xviii, Introduction).
Envisioning science as a human endeavor correlates with the aforementioned principle of humanization in
the Republic of Belarus Concept of Chemistry as a Subject (2009) that “implies demonstrated relationship between
chemical knowledge and human life” (p. 5). The principle of historicism “implies using history of chemical science as
well as biographies of outstanding chemists in the school course of chemistry” (ibid., p. 7). The Republic of Belarus
Standard of Chemistry as a Subject (2009) lists famous chemists (Lomonosov, Lavoisier, Dalton, Avogadro, Men-
deleev, Arrhenius, Butlerov, Kekule) along with their discoveries. In fact, the Standard describes chemical eponyms
without explicitly referring to them.
Since eponyms, with respect to their didactic and axiological potentials, are a part of history of science and
its teaching is in line with humanization and historicism, whether explicitly manifested or implicitly present in the
two countries’ national educational standards, the following research goals were set:
•• to estimate students’ knowledge of eponyms and to identify factors that define this knowledge;
•• to estimate students’ views of eponyms and to identify factors that define these views;
•• to study students’ views of history of science as a background and a context the scientific eponyms
are embedded in.
Aiming at a description of the existing situation with chemical eponyms at universities of the two coun-
tries, identification of the factors that cause this situation, and eventually finding correlations between the causes
and the effects, this research was combined descriptive, correlational, and causal-comparative. Consequently, it
employed methods typical for these types of educational research.
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Participants
The participants were students of University of Oregon (Eugene, USA) and Belarusian State University (Minsk,
Belarus). To get a more representative picture, it was decided to survey students taking: 1) regular and summer
courses of 2) general and organic chemistry in 3) two different countries – USA and Belarus, total of five groups.
Whereas regular course cycles in both countries last about 30 weeks in academic year, summer cycles last 12 weeks
and are taught in an accelerated way. The last circumstance makes summer cycles popular among students of all
years of study – science- and non-science majors, who choose chemistry to fill the requirement for a science class.
Thus, bringing summer students made the sample more representative.
Table 1. The participants.
Gender Major
Groups by Time of survey
university and coursea administration Social
Male Female Chemistryb Sciencec Total
science
University of Oregon Jun 2014

24 63 6 78 3 87
-regular general chemistry Sep 2015
-summer general chemistry Sep 2014 20 24 8 32 4 44
- regular organic chemistry Jun 2014 24 33 - 57 - 57
- summer organic chemistry Aug 2014 17 45 2 58 2 62
Belarusian State University

May 2014 10 12 20d - 2 22
- general chemistry
Note. The listed majors actually included groups of majors.
a
In subsequent tables and text, self-explanatory abbreviations are used: UO regular GenChem, UO summer GenChem, UO general
OrgChem, UO summer OrgChem, and BSU regular GenChem.
b
Also Biochemistry. cBiology, Environmental Studies, General Science, Geological Sciences, Human Physiology, and Physics. dChemistry
Teaching and Chemistry Scientific/Industrial.
All the courses consisted of lectures, seminars, quizzes, and exams. There were no laboratory classes. The
courses utilized textbooks with eponyms and sometimes related chemists’ images – general (Silberberg, 2012) and
organic chemistry (Bruice, 2014) for UO, general chemistry (Tretyakov, 2004) for BSU. No intervention to enhance
students’ views of eponyms was performed.
Strategy and Procedure
After the courses at participating university were over (2014 and 2015), a 27-item questionnaire (Slabin, 2014a)
was administered among students of the five groups. The questionnaire was mounted on Qualtrics, a platform for
online data collection. The questionnaire contained the following blocks (Table 2):
1. Estimation of students’ knowledge of 12 chemical eponyms studied in both the US and Belarus: Schrödinger,
Arrhenius, and Nernst equations; Pauli, Le Châtelier, and Heisenberg principles; Hess, Henry, Raoult, and Charles
laws; Rydberg and Planck constants:
•• question 1 aimed to estimate the knowledge by association: which chemical notions are associated with
which chemists at a mere recognition level. It suggested dragging the 12 aforementioned scientists’
names to four corresponding cells of the table: equations, principles, laws, and constants;
•• questions 2-13 aimed to estimate the knowledge by content: which chemists are associated with the
same 12 equations, principles, laws, or constants described without explicitly naming eponyms. It sug-
gested choosing the author from the list of four.
2. Estimation of students’ visual knowledge of 6 chemists (questions 14-19) studied in both the US and Belarus.
Students were asked to recognize chemists on the portraits borrowed from the textbooks UO and BSU students
used (Curie, Dalton, Gibbs, Lavoisier, Lewis, and Mendeleev). It suggested choosing the name from the list of four.
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3. Estimation of students’ perception and views of eponyms:

•• questions 20-23 aimed to estimate, on examples of students’ most and least known eponyms, whether
they only recall the chemical content of or go reflexive and recall the author, too, recall his/her image,
imagine communication with him/her;
•• question 24 asked to estimate on a 5-point (1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – neither agree nor
disagree, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree) Likert scale how student likes eponyms in chemistry and how
they are needed in and help study chemistry.
4. Collection of students’ personal data (questions 25-27): gender (M, F), major (chemistry, non-chemistry
science, social science), and grade for the course (expected or earned).
The questionnaire for BSU students was translated into Russian and adopted to match the reality in this
country (Slabin, 2014b):
•• in question 11 asking to name the author of one of gas laws (V/T=const), the correct option was replaced
by “Gay-Lussac” – by this name Charles law (US) goes in Belarus;
•• in question 14 asking to recognize the chemist (Curie), the wrong option “Aufbau” was replaced by
“Franklin” – the aufbau principle of filling energy levels in the atom is not referred to as such in Bela-
rusian chemical tradition;
•• in question 26 asking to indicate major, the options were changed for “chemistry-teaching”, “chemistry-
scientific”, and “non-chemistry science”.
In each of the two consecutive years, the link to the questionnaire was sent out via email to students during
the final week of the course, after they had received their grades. The students had one week to respond the ques-
tionnaire. In administering the survey, ethical issues associated with online educational research (Roberts & Allen,
2015) were considered and the necessary requirements were met: 1) the students’ participation was voluntary; 2)
the students had been informed about the risks (minimal), benefits, and facts before they made the decision to
participate; 3) wording and ordering in the questionnaire strived to eliminate any potential for bias; 4) precautions
were taken to ensure the privacy and confidentiality of the participants and their responses – the participation
was anonymous; 5) the potential harm of the survey was minimized not to mislead, humiliate, or embarrass the
participants or cause them psychological discomfort.
Table 2. The questionnaire.
N Itema
1 Drag the chemists’ names to the appropriate boxes.

- equation: [Schrödinger, Arrhenius, Nernst]
- principle: [Pauli, Le Châtelier, Heisenberg]
- law: [Hess, Henry, Raoult, Charles]
- constant: [Rydberg, Planck]
2 What scientist proposed it? EΨ = HΨ [Schrödinger]
3 What scientist formulated it? “No two electrons in the same atom can have the same four quantum numbers”
[Pauli]
4 What scientist introduced it? R = 1.096776 × 107 m [Rydberg]
5 What scientist formulated it? “When a chemical system in equilibrium is disturbed, it reattains equilibrium by un-
dergoing a net reaction that reduces the effect of the disturbance” [Le Châtelier]
6 What scientist invented it? k = A × e-Ea/(RT) [Arrhenius]
7 What scientist established it? ∆H = Σ(∆H°f, products) — Σ(∆H°f, reactants) [Hess]
8 What scientist established it? “The solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
above the solution” [Henry]
9 What scientist established it? Ecell = E°cell — RT/zF × lnQ [Nernst]
10 What scientist established it? “The vapor pressure of solvent above the solution is proportional to the mole fraction
of the solvent” [Raoult]
11 What scientist introduced it? h = 6.62606957(29) × 10-34 J • s [Planck]
12 What scientist established it? “It is impossible to know the exact position and momentum of a particle simultane-
ously” [Heisenberg]
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N Itema
13 What scientist established it? “At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute (Kelvin) temperature” [Charles]
14-19 Who is this chemist?
[Curie] [Dalton] [Gibbs] [Lavoisier] [Lewis] [Mendeleev]

20 From the list, pick a notion named after the scientist whose image and/or biography you know the most. [If you do not know anybody,
click the Next arrow.]
Schrodinger equation, Planck constant, Gibbs energy, Pauli principle, Heisenberg principle, Dalton theory, Rydberg constant,
Charles law, Coulomb law, Le Châtelier principle, Lewis acid, Henry law, Arrhenius equation, Avogadro number, Boltzmann constant,
Hess law, London force, Brønsted – Lowry theory, Graham law, de Broglie wavelength, Clausius – Clapeyron equation, Nernst equa-
tion, van der Waals radius, Henderson – Hasselbalch equation, Raoult law, van’t Hoff factor
21 How do you react when you happen to hear the named notion you chose?
[I only get chemical content; I imagine how this chemist would talk to me;
I recall that such chemist lived; I recall how this chemist looks like;
I imagine how I would talk to this chemist; I recall this chemist’s biography]
22 From the following list, pick a notion named after the scientist whose image and/or biography you know the least. [If you do not know
anybody, click the Next arrow.]
(the same list as in question 20)
23 How do you react when you happen to hear the named notion you chose?
[I only get chemical content; I imagine how this chemist would talk to me;
I recall that such chemist lived; I recall how this chemist looks like;
I imagine how I would talk to this chemist; I recall this chemist’s biography]
24 To what extent do you agree with the statements below about named notions in Chemistry like those you were asked about?
- I like them.
[strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree]
- They are needed in Chemistry.
- They help study Chemistry.
25 What is your gender? [M, F]
26 What is your major?
[chemistry, sciences but not chemistry, social sciences, humanities, other]
27 What is your grade for the class (earned or planned)?
[(A-, A, A+); (B-, B, B+); (C-, C, C+); (D-, D, D+); F]
Note. The questions are followed by the answers given in brackets.
Websites of Student Reviews
Because history of science is a natural discourse eponyms occur in, a preliminary study of how students
envision history of science and, eventually, related eponyms, was undertaken. International anonymous student
reviews of their instructors (teachers) were searched for on RateMyProfessors.com and RateMyTeachers.com by
queries “eponym”, “name”, “scientist”, “history of discovery”, and “history of science” and then analyzed.
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Data Analysis
IBM® SPSS® (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 24 for Mac) was used to calculate both descriptive
(means, variances, standard deviations and errors) and inferential (Mann-Whitney (U) and Pearson (χ2) coefficients
and standard scores (z)) statistics of the survey results.
Results of the Research
The results obtained on the base of data collected via the survey and Internet search are presented ac-
cording to the stated research goals.
Students’ Knowledge of Chemical Eponyms
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of students’ knowledge of the 12 selected chemical eponyms.
Mean
Correct Correct Standard
Groups by correct Standard % Correct
Count matches matches error of Variance
university and course per deviation matches
max actual mean
student
Knowledge by association
University of Oregon
87 1044 684 5.70 2.334 0.250 5.449 65.5
- regular GenChem
- summer GenChem 44 528 340 7.81 1.544 0.233 2.385 64.4
- regular OrgChem 57 684 469 8.00 2.044 0.271 4.179 68.6
- summer OrgChem 62 744 537 7.87 2.532 0.322 6.409 72.2
22 264 247 8.72 1.956 0.672 0.417 93.6
- regular GenChem
Knowledge by content
87 1044 588 6.76 1.765 0.189 3.115 56.3
- regular GenChem
- summer GenChem 44 528 296 6.73 2.161 0.326 4.668 56.1
- regular OrgChem 57 684 378 6.63 1.829 0.242 3.344 55.3
- summer OrgChem 62 744 418 6.74 2.769 0.352 7.670 56.2
22 264 204 9.27 1.386 0.296 1.922 77.3
- regular GenChem
As follows from Table 3, BSU regular GenChem students exhibit higher scores in knowledge of eponyms by
both association and content.
Mann-Whitney test revealed that:
1) in the knowledge of eponyms by association, UO regular GenChem students had significantly lower
mean score than:
UO summer GenChem: U = 720, z-score = -5.81621 at p < .01;
UO regular OrgChem: U = 1224, z-score = -5.12688 at p < .05;
UO summer OrgChem: U = 1176, z-score = -5.85566 at p < .01;
BSU regular GenChem: U = 276, z-score = -5.1375 at p < .01.
2) in the knowledge of eponyms by content, BSU regular GenChem students had significantly higher
mean score than:
UO regular GenChem: U = 255, z-score = -5.29604 at p < .01;
UO summer OrgChem: U = 316, z-score = -3.71844 at p < .01.
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Pearson chi-squared test revealed positive correlations between students’ knowledge of eponyms by asso-
ciation and their major (χ2 = 0.386 for UO regular GenChem at .01 level, χ2 = 0.368 for UO summer GenChem, χ2 =
0.253 for UO summer OrgChem and χ2 = 0.437 for BSU regular GenChem at .05 level) and grade (χ2 = 0.363 for UO
summer GenChem at .05 level and χ2 = 0.621 for BSU regular GenChem at .01 level). For calculations, majors “Social
science”, “Science” and “Chemistry” were assigned values 1, 2 and 3, resp.
Pearson chi-squared test also revealed positive correlations between students’ knowledge of eponyms by
content and their major (χ2 = 0.261 for UO regular GenChem at .05 level and χ2 = 0.340 for UO summer OrgChem
at .01 level).
The same data were used to find which chemical eponyms are more recognizable by association and by
content (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1: Recognition of chemical eponyms (6 of 12) by association in the five student groups.
Note. Words “equation”, “principle”, and “constant” are omitted.
Figure 2: Recognition of chemical eponyms (6 of 12) by their content in the five student groups.
Note. Words “equation”, “principle”, and “constant” are omitted.
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As seen from Figures 1 and 2: 1) some eponyms are recognized easier than others; 2) in recognition by as-
sociation and by description the chosen six eponyms follow the same order; 3) percentages of recognition by
association and by description are close but different in all the five student groups.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of students’ visual recognition of 6 selected chemists on portraits.
Mean
Correct Correct Standard
Groups by correct Standard % Correct
Count matches matches error of Variance
university and course per deviation matches
max actual mean
student
87 522 264 3.03 1.072 0.115 1.150 50.6
- regular GenChem
- summer GenChem 44 264 112 2.55 1.247 0.188 1.556 42.4
- regular OrgChem 57 342 153 2.68 0.869 0.115 0.756 44.7
- summer OrgChem 62 372 172 2.77 1.247 0.158 1.555 46.2
22 132 92 4.18 0.958 0.204 0.918 69.7
- regular GenChem
As follows from Table 4, BSU regular GenChem students exhibit higher scores in visual recognition of chem-
ists on portraits.
Mann-Whitney test revealed that in visual recognition of the six chemists the students of
1) UO regular GenChem had significantly higher mean score than:
UO summer GenChem: U = 1308, z-score = 2.95075 at p < .01;
UO regular OrgChem: U = 2061, z-score = 1.7076 at p < .05.
2) UO regular OrgChem had higher mean score than:
UO summer OrgChem: U=984, z-score = 0.03216 at p < .05.
3) BSU regular GenChem had higher mean score than students in each of the four remaining groups:
UO summer OrgChem: U = 254, z-score = -4.34921 at < .01.
Pearson chi-squared test revealed positive correlation between students’ visual recognition of chemists and
their major (χ2 = 0.401 for UO regular GenChem at .01 level and χ2 = 0.308 for UO summer OrgChem at .05 level)
The same data were used to find which chemists are more recognizable on their portraits (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Visual recognition of the 6 selected chemists on portraits in the five student groups.
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As seen from Figure 3, some chemists on portraits are recognized easier than others. Curie is recognized the
most and Lewis the least in all the five student groups.
Figure 4: Audial perception of chemical eponyms in the five student groups.
As seen from Figure 4, most students in all groups tend to get only chemical content of eponyms (especially
UO regular OrgChem) without recalling personalities behind them. The percentage of those recalling is lower and
those imagining communication with chemists is even lower. While the answers to the four first questions allow to
judge about students’ reflection, the last two questions (image or biography) tell only about students’ awareness.
Students’ Views of Chemical Eponyms
Table 5 shows students’ views of eponyms calculated as mean values on the 1-5 point Likert scale.
Table 5. Mean values of students’ responses reflecting their view of eponyms.
“Eponyms are needed in “Eponyms help study

“I like eponyms”
Groups by chemistry” chemistry”
Count
university and course
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
87 3.21 0.966 3.79 0.966 3.66 0.998
- regular GenChem
- summer GenChem 44 3.64 0.780 3.73 1.065 4.00 0.747
- regular OrgChem 57 3.26 1.173 3.68 1.227 3.37 1.144
- summer OrgChem 62 2.65 0.704 2.81 1.185 2.77 1.193
22 3.55 0.912 3.18 1.368 3.55 1.101
- regular GenChem
As follows from Table 5, in aggregate, students are mostly unsure, with a slight shift to affirmative, about
whether they like eponyms, whether eponyms are needed in chemistry and whether they help study chemistry.
Mann-Whitney test revealed that:
1) summer general chemistry students at UO “like eponyms” more than
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2) UO summer OrgChem students “like eponyms” less than
UO regular GenChem: U = 1665, z-score = 3.97245 at p < .01;
3) UO summer OrgChem students believe that “eponyms are needed in chemistry” less than
4) UO summer OrgChem students believe that “eponyms help study chemistry” more than each of the
four remaining groups:
5) UO summer GenChem students believe that “eponyms help study chemistry” more than
UO regular OrgChem: U = 876, z-score = -2.5855 at p < .01.
Pearson chi-squared test revealed positive correlations between students’ agreements with all the three
statements in most groups:
•• “I like eponyms” – “Eponyms are needed in chemistry”: χ2 = 0.532 (UO regular GenChem), χ2 = 0.468 (UO
regular OrgChem), χ2 = 0.349 (UO summer OrgChem), all at .01 level;
•• “I like eponyms” – “Eponyms help study chemistry”: χ2 = 0.319 (summer GenChem UO) at .05 level; χ2
= 0.364 (UO regular GenChem), χ2 = 0.485 (UO regular OrgChem), χ2 = 0.733 (BSU regular GenChem)
at .01 level;
•• “Eponyms are needed in chemistry” – “Eponyms help study chemistry”: χ2 = 0.830 (UO regular GenChem),
χ2 = 0.468 (UO summer GenChem), χ2 = 0.581 (UO regular OrgChem), χ2 = 0.711 (UO summer OrgChem),
χ2 = 0.627 (BSU regular GenChem), all at .01 level.
Eponyms and History of Science in Student Reviews
100 international students’ reviews from RateMyProfessors.com and RateMyTeachers.com were selected and
analyzed. Although no occurrence of “eponym(s)” was found, students mentioned “names of scientists”. Both posi-
tive and negative feedback was provided for instructors and teachers of history of science and of other courses
where they introduced elements of history of science. Table 6 provides characteristic examples of students’ reviews.
Table 6. Students’ reviews of their instructors where they mention eponyms and/or history of science.
History of science was a taken course: History of science was incorporated in a non-history course:
“If you have any interest at all in philosophy or history of “He is helpful, interesting, and engaging. My class was taught by him as well as three
science, you will enjoy him”; other professors, who alternated days of lecture. Although I am less interested in his-
tory of science that the other sections, I always find what he has to say interesting”;
“Fun class, history of science and technology is a class that “I’m an art major but he made me love Geology. He made the concepts and even just
should be taken by all who are interested in how society got the definitions and names of scientists very interesting and easy to remember”;
to where it is”;
“Doc is a moderately tough teacher, history of science has a “He is a very nice guy, and seems knowledgeable on the subject, however his tests
lot more science than his other classes so if that is a strong are awful and only on the history of chemistry. The math that we do in class is never
suit it will help you in the class. I got an A with a minimal applied on the tests”;
science background“;
“He was versed in every topic of discussion. If you like the “Asks the most random questions on midterms like the history of chemistry instead of
history of science and want to read Newton, Galileo, Aristo- more important stuff that actually has a chance of being on the final”;
tle, Heisenberg, Copernicus, and others, this is the course!”;
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History of science was a taken course: History of science was incorporated in a non-history course:
“I recommend this class if you like history and science. It’s “Worst teacher and most unhelpful, does not care about students’ grades. Over 15
more the history of science than anything else. Loved the percent of your entire microbiology grade depends on how you remember the names
class!”; of scientists, most of which you learn on your own time”;
“One of the best classes I’ve had. Professor has a passion “Do not take a class with him if you don’t have to. He is more interested in the history
for the history of science that is easily transferred to attentive of the material than the material itself”;
students“;
“The subject matter makes this course inherently difficult, “Awful teacher. Doesn’t explain anything well. He’s more concerned about the history
so only take it if you are truly interested in the history of of chemistry rather than the actual concepts”;
science!”
“He teaches the history of science, and knows little about “He cares more about the history of chemistry and comics than his actual lectures. If
history or science. Does not think outside of the box, but at all possible, I would not sign up for his class”.
treats his selected texts like the Bible”.
The following student’s account shares a funny eponym story (fig Newtons are a sort of pastry):
“Brought in fig newtons for the first lecture but said we could only have some if we knew the name of the scientist
the cookie was named after. Someone said “Isaac Newton” and he proceeded to say that was wrong and threw them
away [sic]”.
As follows from Table 6, in case of history of science as separate courses negative reviews relate to the instruc-
tor’s qualification and teaching style. In case of non-history courses negative reviews relate to the fact of introducing
eponyms and history of science to replace scientific information.
Discussion
On the one side, the obtained results reflect the current situation – how successfully the implementation of
the principles of humanization and historicism at University of Oregon and Belarusian State University goes. On the
other hand, they help to estimate the extent to which one can rely on eponyms in implementing the two principles.
Knowledge of Eponyms
The comparison of study results shows an essential difference in UO and BSU students major breakdown:
whilst UO groups enrolled students majoring in chemistry, non-chemistry science and social science, BSU group
was almost entirely chemistry (90.9%) with the only adjustment of teaching chemistry vs. scientific/industrial
chemistry. This factor suggests why BSU students were more motivated to study chemistry at all its fancy details
and for this reason outscored their American peers in knowing eponyms by both association and content as well
as in visual recognition of chemists on portraits. Furthermore, most BSU students (72.7%) were pursuing teaching
career and were expected to embrace the mentioned principles of humanization and historicism that emphasize
eponyms (Republic of Belarus Ministry of Education, 2009). Better motivation to study eponyms resulted in better
knowledge of them.
Likewise, UO summer general chemistry group that had three times more chemistry majors demonstrated
higher score in knowledge of eponyms by association in comparison with UO regular general chemistry group. The
correlation between major and performance was statistically confirmed, even though the major does not seem
to be the only factor. Organic chemistry students with no or very modest percentage of chemistry majors, both
regular and summer, showed higher scores in knowledge of eponyms by association than their general chemistry
peers. This can be explained by the fact that organic chemistry is an advanced course taken by experienced and
knowledgeable students who already studied general chemistry with eponyms.
As for the correlation between students’ grades and knowledge of eponyms, one should conclude that it does
not have a causal nature. More likely, it is a reflection of general performance in chemistry and knowledge of the
subject that includes eponyms.
In general, the results indicate that students’ scores of knowledge of eponyms by association are higher than
those by association. Obviously, the former is an easier cognitive task: it is about recognition rather than retrieval
of the associated concept. Interestingly, the order of students’ knowledge of the six selected eponyms remains
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the same for both association and content (Figure 1). There can be numerous reasons for this phenomenon. E.g.
Le Châtelier principle can be most recognizable simply because the chemist’s name is associated solely with the
principle he formulated and with nothing else. On the contrary, Heisenberg principle can be least recognizable
because the eponym is also often referred to as “uncertainty principle.” Another explanation can be easiness of
readability or complex mechanisms of learning novel words with selective sharpening orthographic representa-
tions (Glezer, Kim, Rule, Jiang, & Riesenhuber, 2015).
It is apparently the factor of majoring in chemistry that made BSU general chemistry students the champions
in visual recognition of chemists on portraits. It outweighed the factor of their textbook (Tretyakov, 2004) that
offered merely two images of chemists in – Lomonosov and Mendeleev. The organic chemistry textbook for UO
(Bruice, 2014) was no better – about ten images of people (not only chemists; part of them being sculptures) includ-
ing the author herself on 1290 pages. The general chemistry textbook for UO (Silberberg, 2012) did not provide
images of any of the six chemists mentioned and was of no help for UO general chemistry students to outscore
other surveyed UO groups in visual recognition of chemists.
Scarcity of chemists’ portraits in textbooks suggests why no chemist on portraits was 100% recognized, and in
case of Lewis the recognition did not even reach 50%. Moreover, compared to the 6th edition of the general chem-
istry textbook, its 4th edition (Silberberg, 2006) had 25 (notably more) images of chemists including the six images
the students were tested on. The situation is getting worse within the trend of decreasing incorporation of history
of science in the teaching of science. There prevail “views that science history is no longer a legitimate subject in
science education, that science history does not contribute to learning the technical aspects of science, or that it
is difficult to fit into the topic loads of current science classes” (Rasmussen, Giunta, & Tomchuk, 2008, p.79). While
some educational activities include portraits of scientists and other famous people (Mesimumm, 2010; National
Endowment for the Humanities, 2010; Russian State Herzen Pedagogical University, 2013), actual knowledge of
them can be far from ideal. Manvelian (n.d.) shares a story of how she once asked a group of seniors of College
of Physics and Technology at Russian Armenian University to name physicists in the portrait gallery but only two
students were able to answer correctly.
Just like with eponyms themselves, there can be numerous factors defining which chemists are more recogniz-
able on their portraits. It can be the style of portrait. Lewis was recognized the least by the students in our research
presumably due to the style of his portrait: a chemist with a piece of glassware in hands (partly shadowed by it) – a
stereotypic posture, about which Schummer (2009) argues that “before chemists assumed it [this posture] as their
professional icon, the motif, originally representing uroscopy, was first an icon of medicine and then became a
symbol of quackery and imposture” (p. 5). Curie turned out to be recognized the most, probably, because before
entering the university students frequently saw her widely portrayed at high schools as a female scientist and a
twice Nobel prize laureate. Mendeleev could be more recognizable because style of his portrait makes spectator’s
eyes follow, a phenomenon described long ago (Wollaston, 1824).
Perception and Views of Eponyms
The fact that after hearing an eponym, most students get only its chemical content seems natural. The need
for related chemists’ images and biographies seldom arises in the chemical laboratory; this knowledge is not nec-
essarily practical. Moreover, normally it is not required for exams and quizzes. For this reason, UO regular organic
chemistry students “only get chemical content” more than any other surveyed group. They have to learn plenty
of named reactions, compounds, rules, effects, and laboratory glassware and neither time nor obligation to go
beyond these eponyms. Because knowing chemists’ images and biographies as well as readiness for more reflective
perception of eponyms is desirable for teacher’s profession, BSU students more often “recall that such chemists
lived” and imagine their communication with them.
Possibly, UO summer general chemistry students “liked eponyms” more than their peers enrolled in summer
organic chemistry for the following reason: eponyms in their course were not so abundant. Further, they “liked
eponyms” and believed that “eponyms help study chemistry” more than regular general chemistry students because
their course lasted only three months and students did not develop tiredness. In contrast, during the same three
months UO summer organic chemistry students had to master an overwhelming number of eponyms – more and
quicker than any other group. Sure enough, this group less than any other believed that “eponyms are needed in
chemistry.” So to the factor of major (high percentage of those who “liked eponyms” in BSU were chemistry/teach-
ing majors) one should add the factor of study intensiveness (number of eponyms per study period).
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The results reflect a broader picture of today, where not only participants of this research but also scientists
have various views of eponyms, their necessity in and ability to help study science. Medd (1953) passionately
defends eponyms: “There is a dark movement gaining ground which teaches that the names of diseases should
be descriptive and not eponymous… I like names that have a ring of history, names that recall those who were
mighty physicians in palmier days... Let us condemn dull impersonal names, utility names in a utility age” (p. 1274).
Anticipating the principle of humanization in education, Robertson (1972) describes an imagined dialog between
an old physician and a young intern. He comments: “As a member of the old school, I have long worshipped the
eponym as one of the last vestiges of humanism remaining in an increasingly numeralized and computerized soci-
ety” (p. 1278). Advising replacement of eponyms with “more relevant nomenclature”, Coleman (2006) nevertheless
recognizes: “Do anatomy and histology students really need to know eponyms? The answer is probably still yes…
Terminological expressions and concepts that have endured centuries are difficult to abandon... Perhaps the main
reason is the convenience involved for both teachers and students” (p. 242).
Other researchers are not so positive. Kishore (2000) reports his experience studying eponyms for medical
students and remarks: “Eponyms do serve a useful function in some instances, but in clinical practice most trainees
would prefer not to use them because they are confusing… For reasons of accuracy in communication it is time to
move towards descriptions and classifications which are relevant to treatment, prognosis and research” (p. 426).
Wallisch (as cited in Collier, 2012) lists disadvantages of eponyms but at the same time he does not suggest a good
alternative: “Eponyms are not descriptive. Many are not universal… They can be ambiguous or cumbersome… Sci-
ence needs a precise language that reflects the relationship between the underlying principles that governs nature,
and naming scientific discoveries after people in no way furthers our understanding of the physical world” (p. 1879).
Eponyms and History of Science
The research findings on the Internet, anonymous students’ reviews of their instructors mentioning eponyms
and history of science, did not include data about their major. However, to explain the observed difference in
perception of history of science when it goes as a separate course vs. its elements incorporated in a non-history
course, one can suppose that major here plays an important role. Students majoring in history more often take
history of science than those majoring in science. But here a problem arises: history students have to know some
science enough to understand inventions and discoveries. Busotti (2015) from his teaching experience testifies
that “there was a big problem: most of the students did not have a sufficient knowledge of the mathematics used
by Ptolemy and Copernicus… Therefore, I am convinced that history of astronomy is a particularly suitable subject
for a history of science course conceived for students who have historical and philosophical interests, which go
beyond science…” Based on students’ Internet reviews, however, one can suppose a fairly modest percentage of
those majoring in science and having “historical and philosophical interests”.
Just like among students, the perception of eponyms as a part of history of science differs among scientists,
too. Rasmussen et al. (2008) sound positive and list eight important roles history of science plays in science edu-
cation including two mentioned in educational standards: humanization of the subject matter of science and
contribution to understanding the nature of science. Speaking of eponyms in the aspect of humanization, Seker
(2012) considers them on two levels: scientist as a person and image of scientist. Govindarajan et al. (1993) state
that “scientific eponymy particularly harbors a rich storehouse of anecdotes that could motivate the young learner
of science” (p. 340) and puts up a two-step technology of studying eponyms: on the first step teacher searches
anecdotal records of eponyms and recall them to students, on the second step students document each anecdote
using a special format and a hands-on library.
On the contrary, Bent (1977) somewhat sarcastically provides “spectrum of uses” of history in teaching
chemistry: “A sense of history is useless in taking the GRE exam, seldom useful in teaching engineering students,
sometimes useful in teaching chemistry majors, frequently useful in teaching liberal arts students, always useful
in writing texts” (p. 462).
Regardless of how high scientists value the role of history of science in teaching science, they all complain
the lack of time. Pepper (1949) admits that “however sympathetic the teacher may be, he seldom finds the time
to discuss new terms encountered, or to explain the origin which so often adds color, significance, and historical
interest not only to the word but to the subject” (Foreword). Govindarajan et al. (1993) confirms that even though
the classroom teacher of science often finds eponyms to be of interest to students, the time involved in researching
for the information may be both demanding and taxing on the teacher. Reviewing historical vignettes for hooking
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students’ attention, Clary & Wandersee (2015) point: “Not only must the history be interesting, but it must also align
with the required… content teachers are mandated to teach… and require minimal… classroom time” (p. 311).
Whereas didactic potential of eponyms (as a shorthand for chemical content) is obvious and utilized anyway,
their axiological potential is utilized only if teacher purposefully does it. Francl (2012) argues that “eponyms work as
historical nanolessons only when students are curious enough to dig out the related biographies (or at least read
the sidebars in their textbooks), or when staff are scrupulous in drawing attention to them” (p. 957). In turn, how
instructor’s intention to utilize the axiological potential will be met, depends on students’ major (history-related
or science-only).
Conclusions
It was found on example of University of Oregon and Belarusian State University that students exhibit better
knowledge of chemical eponyms by association than by their content. Students’ knowledge and views of eponyms
are defined mostly by major: students majoring in teaching chemistry exhibit higher knowledge and express more
positive views of eponyms than those majoring in non-teaching, non-chemistry and especially non-science. While
students majoring in science seldom exhibit positive views of eponyms and history of science incorporated into
science courses, students majoring in history appreciate history of science in history courses. Major also defines
students’ performance to visually recognize chemists on portraits in their study courses. Other factors include
students’ learning experience: more experienced students exhibit better knowledge; study intensiveness: students’
in more intensive (time wise and eponym wise) courses exhibit less positive views of eponyms.
While didactic potential of eponyms is utilized anyway, its axiological potential is utilized depending on
instructor’s willingness and mastery, available time in auditorium and the above listed factors. For this reason, the
axiological potential of eponyms in the light of principles of humanization and historicism manifested in national
educational standards should not be exaggerated. Being convenient shorthand for the history of scientific dis-
coveries, chemical eponyms nonetheless cannot be recommended as universal vehicles for these two principles.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Deborah Exton, Dr. Thomas Greenbowe and Dr. Gregory Williams, faculty
of the University of Oregon Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, for their assistance in administering the
survey for this research.
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265
CLOSING THE SCIENCE
PROCESS SKILLS GAP
BETWEEN STUDENTS WITH
HIGH AND LOW LEVEL
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Abstract. Science Process Skills (SPSs) are Baskoro Adi Prayitno,

fundamental skills to mastering science. Duran Corebima,
To nurture students’ SPS, inquiry based
learning and student-center activities
Herawati Susilo,
may work effectively. This study aims at Siti Zubaidah,
analyzing: How Inquiry-based Learning Murni Ramli
and Student Team Achievement Division
(INSTAD) affects science process skills
compared with inquiry-based learning,
Student Teams Achievement Divisions
(STAD), and conventional learning method.
The participants were 136 grade 7 students Introduction
from 27 public middle schools in Surakarta,
Indonesia. They were divided into 68 stu- Science comprises aspects of scientific product, process, and attitude.
dents with higher academic (HA) achieve- Products of science include concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Scientific
ment and 68 students with lower academic process occurs when science process skills possessed by scientists are per-
(LA) achievement. A nonequivalent control formed in conducting scientific works to invent a science product. Science
group design with pretest and posttest process skills are categorized into basic process skills and integrated skills.
were applied to get data on SPSs using a Basic science process skills include the skills of observing, inferring, classifying,
sort of essay test. The result indicates that: communicating, measuring, and predicting. Integrated science process skills
(1) While the outcomes of INSTAD and in- include the skills of controlling variables, defining operationally, formulat-
quiry-based learning are comparable, they ing hypotheses, interpreting data, experimenting, and formulating models.
are significantly different compared with Scientific attitudes refer to the behavioral natures expected in individuals
the outcomes of STAD and conventional who intend to become successful scientists, which include honesty, consci-
learning. (2) Students in HA group have entiousness, responsibility, and critical-mindedness (Hamilton & Swortzel,
higher SPS than students in LA groups. (3) 2007; Hartikainen & Sormunen, 2003; Mei, Kaling, 2007).
INSTAD, on an equal level with inquiry- To teach science ideally means teaching all three aspects of scientific
based learning, significantly increases the product, process, and attitude to students. The three aspects will be learned
students’ SPSs. Compared with other three optimally when the learning process is process-oriented. Process-oriented
methods, INSTAD was confirmed the most science learning encourages students to practice conducting scientific works
effective in closing the science process skills and invent scientific products like a real scientist. Through scientific activi-
gaps between students in HA group and ties, students can improve their science process skills and develop scientific
LA group. attitudes (Hartikainen & Sormunen, 2003; Karsli & Şahin, 2009; Rambuda &
Keywords: inquiry-based learning, IN- Fraser, 2004).
STAD, STAD, science process skills. Science teaching in Indonesia mostly focuses on memorizing science
concepts. The success of science teaching is generally measured by how many
Baskoro Adi Prayitno scientific products (concepts, theories, and laws) are successfully recognized
Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia
Duran Corebima, Herawati Susilo, and memorized by students. Students do not get adequate opportunities to
Siti Zubaidah develop their science process skills. Students learn in teacher-centered class-
State University of Malang, Indonesia rooms in which the teacher is the main knowledge resource who retains full
Murni Ramli
Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia control of the classroom and its activities (Prabowo, 2015). Science learning
that emphasizes on merely memorizing science products will result in low
266
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 266-277)
science process skills and scientific attitudes of the students. By learning science process skills, students will get
used to thinking logically and systematically and will be able to solve problems that they frequently face in their
daily lives (Orhan, 2008; Mei & Kaling, 2007; Lumbantobing, 2005; Tifi, Natale & Lombardi, 2006).
Many studies show that the science process skills of Indonesian students are remarkably low (Deta, Suparmi,
& Widha, 2013; Prabowo, 2015; Rusmiyati & Yulianto, 2009; Ambarsari, Santosa, Maridi, 2013). Data from PISA (Pro-
gramme for International Student Assessment) indicated that in 2000, Indonesia ranked fourth worst for science
process skills among 41 surveyed countries. In 2006, Indonesia ranked 50th of 57 countries and ranked 60th of 65
countries in 2009 (Kurnia, Zulherman, & Fathurohman, 2014).
In addition, the apparent science process skills gaps between students with different academic achievement
need to be addressed immediately. Students’ academic skills might be classified into high academic (HA) achieve-
ment and low academic (LA) achievement (Ozden, 2008; Ozguc & Cavkaytar, 2015). Students’ academic achievement
vary due to frequent nonlinearity in their age and intelligence (Corebima, 2007). Students’ academic achievement
is not only determined by their academic ability, but also by many other factors including study duration (Ozden,
2008). Academic achievement gaps between students with HA and LA achievement can be reduced if students
with LA achievement are given sufficient time to study tailored to their need and ability (Corebima, 2007). In
classrooms, all students have the same period to study, which creates academic achievement gaps. Therefore, a
teaching model that can address this issue is greatly needed.
Science process skills can be taught through learning methods that focus on scientific work (Gormally,
Brickman, Hallar, & Armstrong, 2009). An appropriate method is the inquiry-based learning. The syntax of inquiry-
based learning is developed based on the procedures of scientific method (Douglas & Chiu, 2009; Leech, Howell,
& Egger, 2004). Inquiry-based learning has been proven effective in improving students’ science process skills
(Brotherton & Preece, 1996; Deta et al., 2013; Mei, Kaling, Xinyi, Sing, & Khoon, 2007). To reduce the gaps between
the science process skills of HA and LA students, cooperative learning method can be implemented (Corebima,
2007). Cooperative learning has been proven effective to optimize the scaffolding used for HA students to be
adapted for teaching LA students through discussion, tutorial, and peer teaching. Optimized scaffolding will move
students progressively toward stronger understanding and better learning outcomes (Murray & Arroyo, 2002) so
that the skills gaps between HA and LA students can be reduced. In addition, optimized scaffolding gives LA stu-
dents adequate study time (Bodrova & Leong, 1998). A meta-analysis conducted by Corebima (2007) on students’
theses, final projects, and dissertations in Malang State University, Indonesia shows that cooperative learning can
successfully reduce the academic achievements gaps between HA and LA students.
Integrating inquiry-based learning and Student Teams Achievement Divisions (abbreviated as INSTAD) is
assumed essential to reduce the science process skills gaps between HA and LA students. Implementation of
inquiry-based learning without combining it with Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) is thought to be
less effective in reducing the gaps because inquiry-based learning does not facilitate the scaffolding of HA stu-
dents to be used by LA students as effectively as STAD does. On the contrary, implementation of STAD without
inquiry-based learning does not sufficiently support students to practice science process skills, because unlike
inquiry-based learning, STAD is not developed to teach science process skills to students. INSTAD, as a combination
of inquiry-based learning and STAD, has the characteristics of both strategies. The feature of inquiry-based learn-
ing is that it teaches science process skills. STAD has a strong characteristic with scaffolding that has been proven
successful in reducing the science process skills gaps between HA and LA students. The INSTAD model is seen as
a potential strategy to reduce science process skills gaps between HA and LA students more effectively compared
with inquiry-based learning and STAD alone.
Existing studies concerning the application of science process skills mostly discussed a single learning model,
such as inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning, or project-based learning (Lu, Hong, & Tseng, 2007; Kus-
demir, Yusuf, & Tüysüz, 2013; Probosari, 2015; Siew, Chong, & Lee, 2015). According to Ozden (2008), if a group of
students with fairly balanced academic skills is given the exact same learning method and period, the learning
outcomes will form a normal distribution curve. The gaps between the learning outcomes of HA and LA students
can be reduced if the amount of time provided to LA students to learn is tailored to their needs. The implementa-
tion of a single learning model may lead to science process skills gaps between HA and LA students because the
period of learning is not different. INSTAD is considered as a potential learning strategy to solve the problems of
time through scaffolding and peer-tutoring activities due to its cooperative feature.
Based on the explanation above, it is necessary to conduct a study to determine whether INSTAD can signifi-
cantly reduce the science process skills gaps between HA and LA students, and more effective than inquiry-based
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learning, STAD, and conventional learning. INSTAD is developed to reduce the science process skills gap between
HA and LA students. The aims of research are to find out: (1) how INSTAD affects science process skills compared
with inquiry-based learning, STAD, and conventional learning; (2) what the influence of academic skills on science
process skills; and (3) whether INSTAD can close the science process skills gaps between HA and LA students more
effectively than inquiry-based learning, STAD, and conventional learning.
General Background
The research is a quasi-experimental study conducted through nonequivalent control group design. The data
were compared using pre-test and post-test. The research samples were treated for a period of six months starting
from January to June 2012, and the scientific process skills were measured at the end of the treatment. In order to
eliminate the variation of original scientific process skills among research samples, the pre-test scores were used
as covariates. The research design is illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1. Research design.
Group Class Pre-test Experimental Variable Post-test
G1 Class1 SPS X1YI SPS

G2 Class2 SPS X1Y2 SPS
SPS: Science Process Skills, X1: Inquiry-based learning, X2: STAD, X3: INSTAD, X4: Conventional learning, Y1: Higher Academic Achieve-
ment Students Y2: Lower Academic Students
Research Sample
The research population was seventh-graders of 27 public middle schools in Surakarta, Indonesia. Eight schools
of low and high quality schools had been selected by stratified random sampling method, in which random samples
were taken from two groups: higher quality schools (4 schools) and lower quality schools (4 schools). The quality
of the schools was determined by the students’ average scores of primary schools’ national examination. National
Examination for all schools in Indonesia is conducted every year. The data of primary school national examination
score was taken from the Educational Board of Surakarta Regency with permission from the Board.
The participants in each school were grouped into two categories: higher academic achievement (HA) and
lower academic achievement (LA) students. The total number of research samples were 136 students consisting
of 68 HA students and 68 LA students. The students were classified according to their academic skills, which were
based on their primary schools’ national examination scores. The research sample is illustrated in Table 2.
Table 2. Sample distribution.
School Class Σ Students Σ HA Σ LA Learning Model National Examination Score
School A VII A 36 17 0 Inquiry-based HA: 26,15-27,40

School B VII C 36 0 17 (34 students) LA: 20,20-21,35
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School Class Σ Students Σ HA Σ LA Learning Model National Examination Score
School C VII A 36 17 0 STAD HA: 25,95-27,25

School D VII A 37 0 17 (34 students) LA: 19,20-21,00
School E VII D 36 17 0 INSTAD HA: 26,30-28,50

School F VII D 36 0 17 (34 students) LA: 20,00-22,40
School G VII D 36 17 0 Conventional HA: 25,70-28,00

School H VII C 35 0 17 (34 students) LA: 21,30-22,35
Total 288 68 68 136 students

Note: HA: Higher Academic Achievement Students, LA: Lower Academic Achievement Students
Among eight schools, there was one low quality school which the number of LA students were 17. In order
to equate the sample in each school, researcher decided to use 17 as the amount of HA and LA students in each
school. All students in each school have been treated together, however data were analyzed from 17 selected
students. Prior to the treatments in all selected schools, researcher had discussed the plan of the participating
students and role teachers, as well as took permission from the Educational Board of Central Java Province, and
Educational Board of Surakarta Regency as the representative of The Ministry of National Education of Republic
of Indonesia in the regional level, school management, role teachers, and students.
Instrument and Procedure
The science process skills of the students were measured through essay assessment. Science process skills
include basic process skills and integrated skills. Ability to observe, classify, communicate, measure, and predict
were used as the indicators of basic process skills mastery. Ability to identify variables, control variables, make op-
erational definitions, form hypotheses, design and conduct experiment, and draw conclusions are the indicators
of integrated process skills mastery.
Before beginning the assessment, the validity and reliability index of the assessment were tested. The validity
test was conducted through an expert analysis and empirical test. Three experts were involved in testing whether
the assessment was appropriate for measuring the science process skills indicators and whether it was consistent
with the learning material. After analyzing, the experts stated that the assessment was valid with a validity index
of 3.65. An empirical test was conducted following the expert analysis. The assessment was given to 34 grade 8
students of a public middle school in Surakarta, Indonesia as a trial. The result of the empirical test indicated that
the assessment was valid with a validity index of 0.43-0.85. The reliability index of the assessment was tested using
Cronbach’s alpha formula. The result showed that the assessment was highly reliable with a reliability index of 0.83.
Before the research began, cooperating teachers participated in a training to have the proper knowledge
of how to implement the learning model consistently. The implementation of the syntax of learning model dur-
ing the study was controlled by three observers based on observational instruments to check the consistency of
model’s implementation.
INSTAD and STAD learning model were applied by considering the criteria of grouping method. Groups in
each treatment class were divided into six, each with five members. Two or three students of HA achievement
were put together with LA students, in order to provide peer scaffolding between HA and LA students. Whilst, in
inquiry and conventional learning model, heterogeneous grouping system was applied, in which students were
put randomly in each group.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using an analysis of covariance with the pre-test scores as covariates. Before conduct-
ing the analysis of covariance, a parametric statistical test as a prerequisite to measuring the data normality and
the homogeneity of variance were conducted. The data normality was measured using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov
test. The result of the test indicated that the pre-test data was 0.085 and the post-test was 0.203, higher than alpha
level of 0.05. This means that the data sample did not deviate from the normal distribution. The homogeneity of
variance was tested using Levene’s test and it showed that the homogeneity of variance was 0.304, higher than
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0.05 alpha level or it means the research data was homogenous. The differences in the average value of the variable
were measured using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test. The statistical calculations were measured using
SPSS version 16.0 with a significance level of 0.05.
Results of Research
The new learning model called INSTAD is developed through several steps and procedures. Inquiry-based
learning is integrated to STAD group works. The repetition phase of inquiry-based learning is used to strengthen
the procedures of the STAD model. This phase is placed before individual assignment and group recognition. The
outline of INSTAD procedures are: (1) phase I: problem orientation, (2) phase 2: inquiry work in STAD groups, (3)
phase 3: class presentation, (4) phase 4: individual assignment, and (5) phase 5: group recognition. The procedures
in INSTAD model are visualized in Table 3.
Table 3. Procedures of INSTAD model.
Step Teacher’s Activity Students’ Activity
Problem orientation •• The teacher forms heterogenic groups. •• The students participate in groups formed by
•• The teacher presents inquiry problem. the teacher
Inquiry work in STAD •• The teacher leads the students to find out and formulate the •• The students find and formulate the problems.
groups problems. •• The students formulate a hypothesis.
•• The teacher guides the students to formulate a hypothesis. •• The students design experiments to collect data.
•• The teacher helps the students design experiments to collect data. •• The students analyze the data and test the
•• The teacher leads the students to analyze the data and test the hypothesis.
hypothesis. •• The students draw a conclusion.
•• The teacher guides the students to draw a conclusion.
Class presentation •• The teacher asks each group to present the group’s discussion •• Members of each group present the discussion
result in front of the classroom. result in front of the classroom.
Individual assignment •• The teacher hands out individual assignment. •• The students work on the individual assignment.
Group recognition •• The teacher gives recognition to each group. •• Each group receives the teacher’s recognition
for their hard work.
The results of the analysis of covariance of the science process skills data on the learning model, academic
skills, and the interaction between learning model and academic skills can be seen in Table 4. Table 4 indicates the
significance of learning model variation as p<0.0001, less than the value of alpha = 0.05 (<0.05), which means that
implementing different learning models significantly affects the students’ science process skills.
Table 4. Analysis of covariance of the effect of different learning models on science process skills.
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p
Corrected Model 21813.285a 8 2726.661 58.341 0.001

Intercept 26731.859 1 26731.859 571.967 0.001
SPS Pre-test 275.464 1 275.464 5.894 0.017
Model 15608.696 3 5202.899 111.324 0.000
Academic Model* 344.772 3 114.924 2.459 0.066
Error 5935.566 127 46.737
Total 589743.750 136
Corrected Total 27748.851 135

a. R Squared = 0.786 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.773)
The role of each learning model in improving the students’ science process skills based on the LSD test is
shown in Table 5. Table 5 indicates that the effect of INSTAD significantly differs from that of inquiry-based learning,
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and the effect of STAD significantly differs from that of conventional learning method. In addition, it can be seen
that INSTAD and inquiry-based learning have similar results but are better than STAD and conventional learning
in improving science process skills. The STAD model is believed to be effective in improving the students’ science
process skills compared with conventional method.
Table 5. Science process skills in different learning models.
Learning Model XSPS YSPS Difference SPSCor Notation
Conventional 18.382 48.529 30.147 48.741 a

STAD 17.206 58.677 41.471 59.243 b
Inquiry-based 20.221 73.603 53.382 73.258 c
INSTAD 20.515 76.324 55.809 75.890 c
Note: XSPS: The average result of science process skills pre-test, YSPS: the average result of science process skills post-test, SPSCor: The
average corrected science process skills.
Based on Table 4, the significance of academic achievement variation is sig. = 0.001, less than the level of
alpha = 0.05 (<0.05), which means that the students’ academic achievement significantly influences their science
process skills. The average corrected score of science process skills in different academic skills is shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Science process skills in different academic skills.
Academic Skill XSPS YSPS Difference SPSCor
Low (LA) 15.846 59.007 43.161 59.985

High (HA) 22.316 69.559 47.243 68.581
Table 6 indicates that the average corrected score of science process skills in HA students is 68.581 and in LA
student is 59.985. The skills owned by HA students are different from the ones owned by LA students. HA students
have better science process skills than LA students do.
Based on Table 4, the influence of the interaction between different learning models and the students’ academic
achievement and the effect on their science process skills is sig. = 0.066, higher than alpha level of 0.05. This means
that there is no significant effect of the interaction between different learning models and the students’ academic
achievement on their science process skills. The interaction between learning models and academic achievement
and how it affects the students’ science process skills is indicated by the LSD test result presented in Table 7.
Table 7. Interaction between teaching model and academic achievement and its influence on science process
skills.
Model Academic XSPS YSPS Difference SPSCor Notation
Conventional Low (LA) 15.441 41.471 26.030 42.571 a

Conventional High (HA) 21.324 55.588 34.264 54.910 b
STAD Low (LA) 13.529 54.559 41.030 56.237 bc
STAD High (HA) 20.882 62.794 41.912 62.250 c
Inquiry-based Low (LA) 16.470 66.912 50.442 67.701 d
INSTAD Low (LA) 17.941 73.088 55.147 73.433 e
INSTAD High (HA) 23.088 79.559 56.471 78.348 e
Inquiry-based High (HA) 23.971 80.294 56.323 78.816 e
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Table 7 shows that the outcomes of inquiry-based learning model applied to HA students and INSTAD model
applied to HA and LA students are significantly different from the outcomes of inquiry-based learning model ap-
plied to LA students, STAD model applied to HA and LA students, and conventional learning model applied to HA
and LA students.
The outcomes of inquiry-based learning model applied to LA students are significantly different from the
outcomes of STAD model applied to HA and LA students and conventional learning model applied to HA and LA
students. The outcomes of STAD model applied to HA students are significantly different compared with the out-
comes of conventional model applied to HA and LA students. The outcomes of STAD model applied to LA students
are significantly different compared with the outcomes of conventional model applied to LA students but only
slightly different with the outcomes of conventional model applied to HA students. The inquiry-based model applied
to HA students and INSTAD model applied to HA and LA students have a comparable effect on students’ science
process skills. The outcomes are better than inquiry-based model applied to LA students, STAD model applied to
HA and LA students, and conventional model applied to HA and LA students. The inquiry-based model applied to
LA students helps improve the students’ science process skills more effectively than conventional model applied
to HA and LA students. HA and LA students were seen to have improved their science process skills after learning
using STAD models. For LA students, STAD model seems to improve their science process skills more effectively
than conventional model. STAD model successfully improved the science process skills of LA students at the same
rate as conventional model improved the science process skills of HA students.
Discussion
Table 4 indicates that there is a significant influence of teaching model on science process skills. Table 5 shows
that INSTAD and inquiry-based improve students’ science process skills more effectively than STAD and conventional
model. INSTAD and inquiry-based model have equal efficiency in improving science process skills. The STAD model
has better efficiency than conventional model in improving science process skills.
STAD model is proven effective in teaching higher-order thinking skills (Nasir & Zaheer, 2010; Zakaria & Iksan,
2009). Students who have higher-order thinking skills are believed to have better science process skills than students
who do not. This is in line with the argument of Adey (1999) and Lu et al. (2015) that using higher-order thinking skills
for example problem-solving skills, inquiring skills, reasoning skills, communicating skills, and conceptualizing skills
will positively contribute to a student’s achievement and science process skills. (Adey, 1999; Edwards & Briers, 2000)
argued that analytical, logical, and rational thinking are necessary to help students master science process skills.
Conventional teaching model forces students to memorize all knowledge they receive, which restrict the
development of their science process skills. Edwards & Briers (2000) stated that science process skills could be
mastered by students who have developed higher-order thinking skills. For this reason, students who learn through
conventional model tend to have lower science process skills than students who learn using the STAD model. Un-
fortunately, there have not been many reports about the qualities of the STAD model that may lead to integrated
science process skills improvement. The STAD model was not developed to teach science process skills. Instead, it
was expected to improve and maintain students’ existing science process skills better than conventional method
(Corebima, 2007; Moraga & Rahn, 2007).
Inquiry-based learning improves science process skills better than the STAD and conventional model. Inquiry-
based method is developed to teach science process skills to students (Gormally et al., 2009; Wenning, 2007). There
are five steps in this method, which include: (1) Phase I, identifying and scoping problem. (2) Phase II, formulating
hypothesis. (3) Phase III, collecting data. (4) Phase IV, interpreting data. (5) Phase V, drawing conclusion. The steps
in inquiry-based learning are adopted from the procedures of scientific works (Douglas & Chiu, 2009; Leech et al.,
2004; Marimuthu, Jusoh, & Ismail, 2003; Nelson & Ketelhut, 2007). Inquiry-based learning method has been proven
effective in improving science process skills (Umar & Maswan, 2007; Wenning, 2007).
Compared with the STAD and conventional model, the INSTAD model is more effective in improving science
process skills. Even when compared with inquiry-based, STAD and conventional models, INSTAD leads to the best
result. INSTAD is an integration of inquiry-based model and the STAD model. Therefore, it has the characteristics
of both inquiry-based and the STAD model. One of the features of inquiry-based method is that it teaches science
process skills effectively. The character of STAD is effective in providing scaffolding during inquiry-based learning
group activities. The STAD model enables students to work together and help each other through peer tutoring
in order to comprehend the learning material (Gok, 2014).
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The INSTAD model requires the students to perform inquiry-based learning in STAD groups. Inquiry-based
activities in STAD groups facilitate the teachers in teaching integrated science process skills more effectively com-
pared with inquiry-based and STAD model. The character of inquiry-based learning model that is able to teach
science process skills is supported by the character of STAD that facilitates the scaffolding applied to HA students
to be implemented to LA students. The scaffolding in the INSTAD model is more effective because it is performed
by the teacher as well as the HA students. The character of inquiry-based learning in the INSTAD model requires
the teacher to guide the inquiry of the students. The character of STAD in the INSTAD model requires HA students
to provide peer tutoring to LA students. This way, both HA and LA students will be highly motivated throughout
the learning process (Škoda, Doulík, Bílek, & Šimonova, 2015). Scaffolding by both the teacher and the HA students
leads to the success of all students to improve their science process skills (Bodrova & Leong, 1998).
Table 4 illustrates a significant correlation between academic skills and science process skills. Table 6 indicates
that HA students have significantly higher science process skills compared with LA students. Students in conven-
tional classrooms have different talents, diligence, and capability in understanding the lesson. The differences are
mainly caused by aspects such as family, school, and psychosocial factors. Family support, competitive classroom,
and low social self-esteem can contribute to the diversity. The students’ talents, diligence, and capability in the
classroom are represented as a normal distribution. Under this condition, if all students receive the same teaching
model, learning material, and study period, their academic achievement will be normally distributed. The students
will be categorized into two groups: low academic achievement and high academic achievement. HA students
have a better capability of responding to and understanding the lesson compared with LA students. With the skills
and capabilities, they possess, HA students will understand the lesson better, and thus their science process skills
are significantly higher than that of LA students.
In the classroom, HA students successfully comprehend the learning materials, while LA students need extra
assistance in order to understand the lesson. LA students can understand the lesson better when they receive
scaffolding from both the teacher and their classmates. Scaffolding from the teacher, as well as the classmates,
encourages LA students to be able to enter the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Lu, Hong, & Tseng, 2007).
Learning models that do not facilitate scaffolding make it less feasible for LA students to enter the ZPD, which lead
to apparent science process skills gaps between HA and LA students.
Table 4 indicates the deviation of the average science process skills scores between pretest and posttest. The
science process skills of LA students increased by 272% and the science process skills of HA students increased by
212%. The statistical test result indicates that while the science process skills of HA students are significantly bet-
ter than that of LA students, the science process skills potential of LA students is elevated more highly than that
of HA students. LA students are able to improve their science process skills better than HA students. Peer tutoring
and the teacher’s guidance play an important role as scaffolding for LA students. HA students who have already
mastered the integrated science process skills give peer tutoring to LA students who have not. As a result, the sci-
ence process skills of LA students successfully improved.
Scaffolding through peer tutoring provides more study time for LA students (Lu et al., 2007). Adequate time
to study can improve the academic achievement of LA students. The academic achievement improvement can be
observed from the improved science process skills score from pretest to posttest. The improvement shows that
the learning outcome of LA students is more optimal than that of HA students.
Table 4 also presents that learning model is not related to academic achievement. The LSD test as presented
in Table 7 indicates that the STAD model applied to HA students is equally optimal compared with the STAD model
applied to LA students. The STAD model can reduce the science process skills gaps between HA students and LA
students since it facilitates the scaffolding appropriately. The scaffolding in the STAD model is performed through
peer tutoring. HA students who already mastered science process skills give tutoring to their LA classmates to
help them enter the zone of proximal development. It can be determined that peer tutoring effectively improves
students’ academic achievement (Gok, 2014; Shi, 2013). Peer tutoring provides a longer study period based on
the need of LA students.
Table 7 shows that inquiry-based model is more effective to improve science process skills when applied to
HA students. In addition, inquiry-based model cannot reduce the science process skills gaps between HA and LA
students. Inquiry-based model does not facilitate scaffolding as well as the STAD model. When applied to conven-
tional group, the learning situation becomes highly competitive. The learning process did not go very well because
the students were required to compete with their classmates to be the best. Due to the atmosphere of competition,
the positive synergy of the group did not develop. The competitive state caused HA students to be reluctant to
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give peer tutoring to their LA classmates. Therefore, LA students did not enter the zone of proximal development
successfully, which leads to the science process skills gaps between HA and LA students.
In addition, Table 7 indicates that the INSTAD model applied to HA students is equally effective compared with
the INSTAD model applied to LA students. The INSTAD model successfully reduced the gaps of integrated science
process skills between HA and LA students. Since INSTAD is an integration of inquiry-based model and the STAD
model, it has the characteristics of both inquiry-based and the STAD model. Inquiry-based method is developed
to teach students to master science process skills. Therefore, when combined with the STAD model, it successfully
improves the students’ science process skills. One of the characteristics of the STAD model is that it is designed
to train the scaffolding of the students. The STAD model requires students learn by teaching each other (Adesoji
& Ibraheem, 2009), so when combined with the inquiry-based model, it successfully reduces the science process
skills gaps between HA and LA students.
Inquiry-based activities in the INSTAD model are conducted in STAD groups. The INSTAD model teaches sci-
ence process skills to students through the characteristics of inquiry-based model. The process of teaching and
learning science process skills is conducted in STAD groups, where HA students who have mastered the integrated
science process skills must provide scaffolding to LA students who have not. Thus, the science process skills of HA
students are not significantly different from that of LA students.
Table 7 also indicates that the INSTAD model is the most effective model to teach science process skills to
both HA and LA students compared with inquiry-based model applied to LA students, the STAD model applied
to HA and LA students, and conventional method applied to HA and LA students. This finding points out that the
INSTAD model is proven effective in improving the science process skills of HA as well as LA students compared
with inquiry-based model applied to LA students, the STAD model applied to HA and LA students, and conventional
model applied to HA and LA students.
The advantages of the INSTAD model are determined by the characteristics of both inquiry-based and the
STAD model. The syntax of inquiry-based model is proven effective to teach science process skills in STAD groups,
which facilitates the students to study together and teach each other. The process of teaching science process
skills in the INSTAD model is performed through inquiry-based assistance from the teacher and peer tutoring from
the HA students. The effective method to teach science process skills has placed the INSTAD model number one
in improving science process skills in HA and LA students.
Table 7 shows that conventional model improves science process skills better when applied to HA students
than LA students. Conventional model does not optimally reduce the science process skills gaps between HA and
LA students. This model places the teacher as the main source of information throughout the learning process. It is
dominated by transfer knowledge between the teacher and the students. Conventional model does not facilitate
students to improve their science process skills because the teaching and learning process is conducted in classi-
cal classrooms with competitive and isolated atmosphere. This atmosphere prevents the students from working
together and teaching each other, which creates science process skills gaps between HA and LA students. HA stu-
dents are able to master science process skill better than LA students. Conventional model was implemented to the
traditional group. The students are grouped randomly, regardless of their diverse academic skills, understandability,
and academic needs. As a result, HA students will be able to master science process skills better than LA students.
The findings of this research is in line with the research of (Bilgin, 2009), which stated that inquiry-based learning
model managed in collaborative groups is proven more effective to improve learning outcomes compared with
inquiry-based learning model in traditional groups.
Conclusions
Inquiry-based Learning combined with Student Team Achievement Division is the most effective method in
increasing science process skills. High Academic students have higher science process skills than lower academic
ones. It can be argued that inquiry learning integrated with cooperative learning will effectively close the science
process skills gap between high and low academic achievement students.
There are two points that must be considered when teacher applies the model: guarantee that the cooperative
learning, and the inquiry process work. The cooperative learning can be confirmed by grouping strategy, which
should focus on how scaffolding and peer-learning will be smoothly run. Randomly grouped students in the class will
might be put only high academic students in one group, as well as the low academic students. Therefore, grouping
should not be pure heterogeneous or random, but have to consider the academic level of students. However, some
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unexpected condition might happen during the process, such as the high academic students do not eager to be
tutors for their peer. To solve this problem, grouping should be based not only by the academic achievement, but
also the engagement or motivation of students to do scaffolding. Moreover, inquiry process must be guaranteed
that it precisely occurs in each cooperative group. This process needs an extra effort of teacher to actively check
the learning process in all groups. Before the model is practiced, practitioners have to surely know what the inquiry
process is. Future research should pay more attention on studying the grouping strategy to certainly close the gap
of achievement and skills in the classroom.
Low academic skills students can improve their science process skills to catch up with high academic achieve-
ment students if the learning process facilitates them to study through peer tutoring. Cooperative learning, either
individual or integrated with other learning models are recommended to be applied in the science classroom to
improve the academic achievement or science process skills of lower attain students, instead of applying compe-
tition-based learning which can create a gap between high and low academic achievement students.
Acknowledgement
The researchers would like to thank the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of the Republic
of Indonesia for funding this research. In addition, the researchers also credit all members of the Biology Education
Research Group, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, for their constructive criticism
and useful suggestions throughout the research.
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ojs/index.php/eudoxus/article/viewArticle/448
Baskoro Adi Prayitno Dr., Lecturer, Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta,
Indonesia, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36 A Kentingan Surakarta, Central Java,
Indonesia.
E-mail: baskoro_ap@fkip.uns.ac.id
Website: http://baskoro.staff.uns.ac.id
Herawati Susilo Ph.D, Professor, Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematic and
Natural Science, State University of Malang, Indonesia. Jl. Semarang 5
Malang, East Java, Indonesia.
E-mail: herawati_susilo@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.um.ac.id
Duran Corebima Ph.D, Professor, Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematic and
E-mail: duran.corebima.fmipa@um.ac.id
Siti Zubaidah Ph.D, Professor, Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematic and
E-mail: siti.zubaidah.fmipa@um.ac.id
Murni Ramli Ed.D., Lecturer, Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta,
Indonesia,
Jl. Ir. Sutami 36 A Kentingan Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia
E-mail: mramlim@staff.uns.ac.id
Website: http://dosen.fkip.uns.ac.id/data/index.
php?prodi=P18&id=1971071401
277
INFORMATION
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For chapters within books: Bjork, R.A. (1989). Retrieval Inhibition as an Adaptive Mechanism in Human Memory. In: H.L. Roediger III & F.I.M. Craik
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Vol.16, No.

The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Published since 2002 Address:

ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/

SCIENTIFIC EPONYM IN EDUCATIONAL UNIVERSE

EFFECT OF 5E TEACHING MODEL ON PRIMARY SCHOOL PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’

PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ CONCEPTIONS OF THE “CONDUCTION OF HEAT

SCIENTIFIC COMPETENCIES: A MECHANISM TO FAVOUR THE INCLUSION OF WORKING

A STUDY OF VOLUNTEERS’ SCIENCE SERVICE SATISFACTION IN RELATION TO THEIR SELF-

A STUDY OF THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TEACHERS’ TEACHING STYLES AND STUDENTS’

SCAFFOLDING MIDDLE SCHOOL AND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ MODELING PROCESSES

THE EFFECTS OF COMBINING INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING WITH SCIENCE MAGIC ON THE

A LEARNING PROCESS BASED ON CONCEPTUAL CHANGE APPROACH TO FOSTER

THE EFFECT OF MOVEMENT EDUCATION BASED ON COOPERATIVE

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

SCIENTIFIC EPONYM IN EDUCATIONAL UNIVERSE

Table 1. Resemblance between components of real and educational Universes.

Field (gravitational or electromagnetic): Educational conception as a field:

Table 2. Resemblance between chemical elements and knowledge elements.

Figure 1: Formation of an eponym (right) as a VB metaphor of chemical bond (left).

Figure 2: Formation of an eponym (right) as a MO metaphor of chemical bond (left).

Received: March 05, 2017 Accepted: March 25, 2017

Uladzimir Slabin Ph.D., Research Associate, Center for Advanced Technology in

Abstract. The purpose of this research was Çiğdem Şahin,

General Background of Research

Instrument and Procedures

Figure 1: An example of a concept cartoon.

The studies where the alternative

The studies where the alternative

Development of Teaching Materials and Their Implementation Process

Work sheets To examine the preliminary knowledge of the PSPTs 10 30 Engage

Table 7. The findings obtained from concept cartoons about meteor.

Yeşim The meteors form a pit where they fall. 83 1 6 90 - -

Can To me, it is the most correct figure. 42 44 4 40 45 5

To me, the celestial bodies exist like

*Bahri No, they exist like that. 34 50 6 46 39 5

Received: June 28, 2016 Accepted: February 23, 2017

Çiğdem Şahin PhD, Assistant Professor, Giresun University, Department of

SOLIDS” ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/

Abstract: There has been various research-

General Background of Research

The Context of the Research

Participants of the Research

Reliability, Validity and Ethical Issues

Table 1. PSTs’ responses to interview.

Codes Sub-codes Sample statements

Ct. Examples of student statements Fr.( %) Sn. ( %) Th. ( %) Ft. ( %)

Ct: categories, A:complete understanding, B: partial understanding, C: misconception, D: no response/unrelated response

Two stage Two stage One stage

Sn44 Fr49 Sn61

Heating of a tea spoon Heat exchange Heating of a metal bar

Sn21 Th28 Sn4

Phase Transition Heating of solid objects Filled point

Fr30 Fr32 Fr46

Figure 4: The examples of continuous drawings and point-based drawings by PSTs.

Items used in the conceptual understanding test

Received: December 21, 2016 Accepted: March 02, 2017

Market professionals ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/

Abstract. Institutions of Higher Education

The Scientific Competencies

Perspectives about the Scientific Competencies

Findings… Students require to develop their

Training for Research

Development 0.56* 0.66*

* р<.001 р<.01* р<.05