Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 30, 2011

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864
Volume 30, 2011
PANORAMA OF INTERNATIONAL
AND COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
RESEARCH – 2011
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

the associated member of Lithuanian Scientific Society and ICASE
(International Council of Associations for Science Education)
The articles appearing in this scientific collection are indexed and abstracted in EBSCO: Education Research
Complete (http://search.ebscohost.com), Copernicus Index (http://www.indexcopernicus.com), the Asian
Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/education_journals_index_P.php), SOCOLAR,
China Educational Publications Import & Export Corporation (http://www.socolar.com/?ver=en) and list of
Science Education Journals (http://homepages.wmich.edu/~rudged/journals.html)
Publisher
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the associated member of Lithu-
nian Scientific Society and International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE)
Editor-in-Chief
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic

��
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Dr., prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr., prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czechia
Dr., prof. Yuriy Pelekh, International University of Economics and Humanities named after
Academician Stepan Demianchuk, Ukraine
Dr., Raffaele Pisano, Cirphles École Normale Supérieure, France
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., prof. Nicos Valanides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Copyright of this scientific journal entitled Panorama of International and Comparative Education Research –
2011 is the property of Scientific Methodical Centre “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania. All rights reserved. No
part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the copyright holders.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal,
issued by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“.
Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: problemsofeducation@gmail.com
Phone: +370 687 95668
WEB page: http://www.gu.projektas.lt; http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/Problems_of_Education.htm
ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2011

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Contents
Editorial
THE SCIENCE EDUCATION TOOLS AND WAYS OF PRODUCING THEM IN THE

COOPERATION PROCESS
Vincentas Lamanauskas................................................................................................. 5
Articles
THE ROLE OF METACOGNITION IN EVERYDAY PROBLEM SOLVING AMONG

PRIMARY STUDENTS IN KENYA
Catherine M. Aurah, Setlhomo Koloi-Keaikitse, Calvin Isaacs, Holmes Finch.................................. 9
PROBLEMS INDUCED BY AMALGAMATION OF PEDAGOGICAL PROGRESSIVISM

AND EDUCATIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY: ORAL EXAMS WITH PRIOR PREPARATION
TIME IN NORWEGIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Eyvind Elstad, Are Turmo, Øystein Guttersrud....................................................................... 22
CRITICAL POINT IN FINANCIAL LEARNING PROCESS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL

CHILDREN IN SLOVENIA
Francka Lovšin Kozina, Tadeja Perčič, Verena Koch .............................................................. 35
KNOWLEDGE GENERATION IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: CASE OF SOUTH

AFRICA UNIVERSITIES
Liile L. Lekena, Anass Bayaga ........................................................................................ 47
ASSESSMENT OF PARTICIPATION OR MUSICALITY: PILOT STUDY AMONG

ESTONIAN MUSIC TEACHERS
Marit Mõistlik, Tiina Selker ........................................................................................... 51
FIGHTING FOR PEACE IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CLASSROOM: PEACE EDUCATION THE
MISSING LINK?
Vuyisile Msila .......................................................................................................... 74
DECENTRALIZATION OF EDUCATION: THE EXPERIENCE OF KENYAN

SECONDARY SCHOOLS
David M. Mulwa, Richard P. Kimiti, Titus M. Kituka, Elizabeth N. Muema ................................... 86
ILLITERACY AND VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS: THE CASE OF IGUEBEN

WOMEN IN NIGERIA
Matthew Osaigbovo Ovbiebo ......................................................................................... 97
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTIVES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION IN INDIA IN

THE 21st CENTURY
Sadhasivam Panchabakesan .......................................................................................... 113
МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНЫЙ ДИАЛОГ НА УРОКАХ РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА В

ОБЩЕОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ ШКОЛАХ ЛАТВИИ
Маргарита Гаврилина ................................................................................................ 123
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
ОБОБЩЕННЫЕ ХАРАКTЕРИСТИКИ ЯЗЫКОВОЙ ЛИЧНОСТИ ДВУЯЗЫЧНЫХ

УЧАЩИХСЯ (РУССКО-ЭСТОНСКИЙ БИЛИНГВИЗМ), ПОЛУЧАЮЩИХ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ
НА ЭСТОНСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ
Наталия Замковая, Ирина Моисеенко, Наталия Чуйкина ................................................. 133
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ........................................................................... 148
Journal of BALTIC Science Education ......................................................... 150
PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT IN THE 21st CENTURY............................................. 151

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
THE SCIENCE EDUCATION TOOLS AND
WAYS OF PRODUCING THEM IN THE

COOPERATION PROCESS
Vincentas Lamanauskas
University of Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt
The content of natural science education gives a chance to the dynamics and structure of
the educational process. However, the adaptation of natural science knowledge system depends
on both the teacher (choosing and applying teaching methods and forms, etc.) and the pupil
(the methods of learning, motivation, general abilities). The diversity of teaching and learning
content, forms and methods, activities are typical of natural science education. All that makes
the educational process effective: develop intellectual knowledge and skills, set out conditions
for intense pupils’ activities, shape thinking, foster aesthetic feelings, etc.
It is logical that the educational process should be promoted keeping in mind the following
regularities:
• the textbooks, workbooks and other sorts of teaching/learning material of natural
science profile, including observation and experimentation, should be creatively used
as an integral part of a balanced curriculum of the educational process. The course of
natural science education is mostly auspicious for the development of children’s quick
eye;
• pupils have to be provided opportunities and conditions to versatile research, raise
questions (general and problematic), to establish and define the main direction of
activities. Textbooks should be used to extend and improve knowledge;
• the integration of natural science material reading and individual experimentation is
suitably effective.
The natural science knowledge and skills gained by pupils in the educational process form
the content of teaching natural and world science. Anyhow, the process of natural science
education includes the teacher and children’s activity based on direct and indirect relations.
Children are interested in the classes of science when the content of the taught material is
comprehensible, attracts attention and imagination, encourages to intensively work and is
problematic. A highly effective component of natural science education is the presentation
and examining of problems. It can be expressed in three ways: 1) asking questions about the
relevant subject; 2) presenting demanding tasks; 3) facing serious problems.
Hence, the following fundamental moments can be emphasized:
• successful natural science education is a sample of the most important concepts of
natural sciences (natural science). They explain the main structure of natural sciences
and increases the learner’s natural science perception moving to the higher form;
• successful natural science education is a sample and discernment of the concepts that
deepen and broaden general natural science understanding;
• the understanding of concepts plays a leading role at school as well as in everyday life
as they create an opportunity for people to better understand each other, predicates
about verbal communication (Arends, 1998);
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
• in order to explain concepts and phenomena, primary school pupils’ thinking

peculiarities (ontogenetic aspect) definitely require picturesque specific cases. The
most advantageous way to reach an effect is practical children’s activities.
Secondary natural science education, first of all, is very complicated for the teacher. It is
concerned with teacher competence as well as with his/her motivation in terms of the interaction
with nature. Far more relevant aspect is that teachers arrange activities from the position of the
adult, i.e. they somehow ‘obtrude’ the opinion upon children.
Natural science education form is an intrinsic structure of the educational process. The
forms of natural science education depend on various factors such as:
• the number of the pupils in the classroom/group;
• an environment/place of the educational process;
• the contingent of the pupils agreeably to the parameters of psychophysiology;
• the applied teaching technology;
• the balance between the teacher and schoolchildren’s activities;
• a teacher’s natural science and general didactic competence;
• the style of a training process organization, etc.
Modern didactics highly recommends to apply the methods that make the teacher and
the pupil’s activity more heightened and intense. The following methods could be recommended:
netting, the volition-aversion method, interview, nine ribbed “diamond”, mixed priority, free
writing, the method I know-I want to know-I have learnt, the method of intensive specifying,
“The book of natural complaints”, the essays of variable length, etc. (Lamanauskas, 2001).
Work in groups and work with projects become particularly relevant.
Integrated natural science education creates theoretic and practic conditions because
(Lamanauskas, 2003):
• an integrated environment (content, process, forms, activities, etc.) helps pupils to
properly aware that human being and nature is a concern for a number of scientists of
different areas and that the concepts of the unity between nature and human being, the
majesty of nature, the limitation of universal perception are further formulated;
• the combination of natural science integration with the knowledge (in a broad sense)
of other areas (humanities, social, arts, etc.) creates conditions for pupils’ socialization,
makes their intrinsic world ecologic (the issue of the ecologic worldview and
ecologic consciousness formation), inspires warm feelings of love, duty, respect and
responsibility for nature (ecologic imperative);
• the forms of integrated natural science education (classes, excursions, conferences, etc.)
produce the media for expressing scientific, creative, spiritual, aesthetic components.
Every learner runs an opportunity to obtain interesting and useful information, to
express creativity and initiative, to more precisely acknowledge the world.
Interdisciplinary integration does not satisfy the requests of regular classes, and therefore
the teacher must look for distinct educational ways and methods. Interdisciplinary integration
seems to be the best way to develop schoolchildren’s thinking, astute observation, stimulate
interest, emotions, self-expression, wish for learning, etc. The teacher must know the following
algorithm of their activity:
• the decision has to be made in order to find out the kind of the applied model of
integrated natural science education (interdisciplinary, internal integration, etc.);
• the main didactic consistent patterns are evaluated (the hierarchy of the elements of
the educational system): educational objectives (Why to teach? What to teach?) →
educational content (What to teach?) → educational methods (How to teach?) →
teaching aids /resources (What is used for teaching?) → educational forms (Where
and when to teach?) → control and diagnostics (What are educational results?) →
Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS. The Science Education Tools and Ways of Producing them in the Cooperation Process
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
key insights for the future and improvements (What do you want and able to do in
the near future?);
• integrated natural science education curriculum is designed (it reflects the elements of
the educational system). Scrupulous attention should be directed to content sampling.
Content requires purposefulness (for example, ecologic – environmental protection
and value-based orientation of content);
• the curriculum of integrated natural science education is implemented and corrections
are made.
The integration of natural science education with other educational subjects should
present pupils the knowledge of natural sciences as well as the material produced in the
textbooks and workbooks that are linked with the current affairs of school, with the customs and
traditions of the schoolchildren and their relatives of the inhabited locality. The closest natural
objects such as the park, forest, lake, mound, etc. are not out of the way. Hereby, the learners
are encouraged to show interest in an environment of their inhabited locality, are stimulated to
know more and more, their thoughtful evaluation of nature is developed, etc. Integral natural
science education requires a different approach to the educational process itself.
The following forms of natural science education can be applied in school:
• a class/lesson;
• educational/sightseeing excursion (regional, ethnographic, biology studies, etc.);
• home tasks;
• practice;
• field research practice (research work in nature creates a considerable opportunity for
developing moral and psychophysical qualities: diligence, independence, humanism,
the delight of knowledge, practical research knowledge is acquired, etc.);
• extracurricular/coextensive training (coteries, sections, clubs, etc.);
• projects (local, regional, national or even international level);
• centres of interest, etc.
• advice.
The success of natural science education determines a well organized educational
process, properly produced didactic teaching/learning material as well as available teaching
resources (stock).
One of the main problems in science education is visualization. Students usually have
many problems understanding dynamic three-dimensional processes (Lamanauskas, Vilkonienė,
2008).
There are different strategies and methods for teaching science. Also there are many
different ways in which science teachers can effectively teach students. The problem consists
in that how to choose the most effective methods and strategy in each concrete situation. It is
obvious, that the information itself is known as the content; how that content is shared in a
classroom is dependent on the teaching methods. For example, lecture is a way of providing
students with basic knowledge. On the other hand it is well known that lecture has the least
impact on students as well as the lowest level of student involvement. It is not so good from
point of view of constructivistic teaching. The one of the main points of constructivistic
approach is to increase the level of impact and involvement for students. It is clear that
reflective inquiry has the highest level of student involvement. On the other hand, reflective
inquiry offers opportunities for students to use knowledge in a productive and meaningful way.
It is important to notice that teachers should recognize from their practice that inquiry-oriented
approach brings deeper understanding, better results of students and their higher motivation
and interest to study science (Nezvalova, 2011). Different methods can be effectively used
in science teaching: lecture, reading information, audio-visual presentation, demonstration,
observation, field trips, interviewing, brainstorming, small group discussions, experimenting,
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
problem-solving activities etc.
References
Arends R. J. (1998). Mokomės mokyti.Vilnius, p. 337-357.

Lamanauskas, V. (2001a). Gamtamokslinis ugdymas pradinėje mokykloje /Pasaulio pažinimo didaktikos
pagrindai/. Šiauliai.
Lamanauskas V. (2003). Natural Science Education in Comprehensive School. Siauliai: Siauliai University
Press, p. 514.
Lamanauskas, V., Vilkonienė, M. (2008). European Dimension in Integrated Science Education (Training
Material for Students). Olomouc: Palacky University Press.
Nezvalova, D. (2011). Coherence of Nature of Science and Inquiry in Science Instruction. Kn.
Gamtamokslinis ugdymas bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje - 2011 / Natural Science Education at a General
School - 2011 (XVII nacionalinės mokslinės-praktinės konferencijos straipsnių rinkinys, Vilnius, 2011
m. balandžio mėn. 29-30 d. / Proceedings of the Seventeenth National Scientific-Practical Conference,
Vilnius, 29-30 April, 2011). Šiauliai: MMC “Scientia Educologica”, p. 60-69.
Received: March 29, 2011 Accepted: April 30, 2011
Vincentas Lamanauskas Professor, Siauliai University, Natural Science Education Research Centre, 25-119
P.Višinskio Street, LT- 76351, Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 687 95668.
E-mail: lamanauskas@projektas.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.projektas.lt
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
THE ROLE OF METACOGNITION IN
EVERYDAY PROBLEM SOLVING AMONG

PRIMARY STUDENTS IN KENYA
Catherine M. Aurah, Setlhomo Koloi-Keaikitse, Calvin Isaacs, Holmes Finch
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA
E-mail: cmaurah@bsu.edu, smkoloi@bsu.edu,
ceisaacs@bsu.edu, whfinch@bsu.edu
Abstract
Metacognition is an important dimension of problem solving because it includes problem-relevant

awareness of one’s thinking, monitoring and regulation of cognitive processes, and application of
heuristics. This study investigated the effect of Metacognition on problem solving among 150 students
at Muraka Primary School, Kenya in June 2010. Students answered a 25-item self-report Metacognitive
Awareness Inventory (MAI), and a 1-item multiple choice Problem solving questionnaire (PSQ). Data were
analyzed using linear regression and ANOVA. Results indicated that metacognition is a good predictor
of problem solving ability. Students showed significant differences in problem solving based on grade.
There was also a significant difference in metacognition level based on grade. These results imply that
metacognitive ability develops with age, such that the higher the grade levels the higher the metacognitive
ability. Therefore, understanding the role of metacognition in children’s everyday problem solving may
lead to the development of more effective instruction, by teachers, which incorporates metacognitive
skills to help children improve in their problem solving skills and overall academic achievement.
Key words: cognition, metacognition, problem solving.
Introduction
Research on metacognitive development was initiated in the early 1970s by John

Flavell who is considered to be the “father of the field” and thereafter a considerable amount
of empirical and theoretical research dealing with metacognition can be registered (Brown,
Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 1993; Schneider & Pressley,
1997). From the very beginning, metacognition was broadly defined as any knowledge or
cognitive activity that takes as its cognitive object, or that regulates, any aspect of any cognitive
activity (Flavell et al., 1993, p.150). Moreover, it also includes executive skills related to
monitoring and self-regulation of one’s own cognitive activities. In a seminal article, Flavell
(1979) described three major facets of metacognition, namely metacognitive knowledge,
metacognitive experiences, and metacognitive skills, that is, strategies controlling cognition.
Later on, Flavell (2000) divided metacognitive theory into two areas of study: knowledge and
processes. Metacognitive knowledge includes understanding of how minds work in general and
how your own mind works in particular. The processes of planning, monitoring, and regulating
thoughts are generally known as executive processes, which involve the interaction of two
levels: At one level is the creative, associative, wandering mind and above it is the executive,
trying to keep it on task.
This theoretical framework of metacognition has been subsequently extended by
various scholars such as; Ann Brown (1987) who distinguishes between knowledge about
cognition, and regulation of cognition. Kluwe (1982) brought further definition to the concept
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
10 of ‘metacognition’ describing metacognitive activities as thinking whereby the thinking subject

has some knowledge about his own thinking and that of other persons; monitors and regulates
the course of his own thinking, and that the term ‘executive processes’ denotes both monitoring
and regulating strategies. Executive monitoring processes involve one’s decisions that help: (a)
to identify the task on which one is currently working, (b) to check on current progress of that
work, (c) to evaluate that progress, and (d) to predict what the outcome of that progress will
be. Executive regulation processes are those that are “directed at the regulation of the course
of one’s own thinking” and they involve one’s decisions that help (a) to allocate his or her
resources to the current task, (b) to determine the order of steps to be taken to complete the task,
and (c) to set the intensity or (d) the speed at which one should work the task (Hacker, D.J.,
1997). Considerable volumes of research findings advocate the positive impact of metacognitive
activity on student thinking skills (Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985; Perkins and Salomon,
1989). An extensive multiple-year cross-subject approach project in the field of Metacognition;
PEEL (Project to Enhance Effective Learning) in Australia, aimed at secondary school
students’ understanding and informed responsibility for their own learning (Gunstone, 1991).
The outcomes of the project revealed that metacognition can be promoted and it can facilitate
conceptual change (White and Gunstone, 1989). Significant research has also been presented
by the Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE) project in the UK. Its main
aim was to explore an approach that hopes to improve pupils’ ability to learn, and metacognition
was one of the main pillars of the intervention program employed (Adey and Shayer, 1994).
Students who participated in the CASE groups generally presented better achievement two
to three years after the intervention had ended, and ‘general’ because better achievement was
reported in widely different subjects (i.e. science, mathematics and English) (Adey, Shayer
and Yates, 1989). Further investigations have established the importance of metacognition in
the acquisition and application of learning skills in diverse domains of inquiry (Alexander,
Fabricius, Fleming, Zwahr & Brown, 2003). For example, Gardner, 1991 and Karmiloff-
Smith, 1992 found metacognition to be an important dimension of problem solving because
it includes problem-relevant awareness of one’s thinking, monitoring of cognitive processes,
regulation of cognitive processes, and application of heuristics (Hennessey, 1999, 2003). Most
researchers working on problem-solving (Dewey, 1910; Newell & Simon, 1972; Mayer, 1991;
to name a few) agree that a problem occurs only when someone is confronted with a difficulty
for which an immediate answer is not available. Schunk, 2000, defines problem-solving as
the effort required in achieving a goal or finding a solution when no automatic solution is
available. Everyday problems, which are often characterized as ill-structured, are emergent,
their solutions are unpredictable, and they require multiple criteria for evaluating solutions
(Jonassen, 2000). Although Hong, Jonassen, and McGee (2003) found that metacognition is
called for when solving ill-structured problems, research on the role of Metacognition in solving
ill-structured problems is scarce. Most research on understanding metacognition focuses on
classroom settings (Everson & Tobias, 1998; Schraw & Dennison, 1994; Sperling, Howard,
Miller, & Murphy, 2002) and little is known about the influence and impact of metacognition
on children’s problem solving ability in everyday settings. Metacognition becomes especially
important in ill-defined problems as the problem solver cannot rely as much on domain-specific
knowledge (Land, 2004). Thus, the focus on the problem-solving process becomes more
relevant. To reflect on this process leads to a deeper understanding of the problem and to a
more flexible and successful approach to solving the problem. For example, in the information
collection stage, Schmidt and Ford (2003) demonstrated that metacognitive activities go hand
in hand with more successful acquisition of relevant knowledge. They showed this using the
real world problem of creating web pages. Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann & Glaser (1989)
showed that successful problem solvers more often reflect on their own problem solving.
Experts compared to novices, for example, are more skilled in allocating their time during
Catherine M. AURAH, Setlhomo KOLOI-KEAIKITSE, Calvin ISAACS, Holmes FINCH. The Role of Metacognition in Everyday Problem
Solving among Primary Students in Kenya
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
problem solving and realizing when they make errors (Carlson, 1997; Glaser & Chi, 1988). 11
Engaging in metacognitive activities, problem solvers become aware of their strengths, but
also of their limitations (Bransford, Brown, & Cooking, 1999) and suppressing metacognitive
processes during problem solving can lead to a decrease in performance (Bartl & Dörner,
1998). Despite the multitude of studies about the role of metacognition in learning and teaching,
several gaps are apparent. First, while studies on the effects of metacognitive instructional
methods in reading and mathematics are relatively extensive, not much work has been done
in everyday problem solving. Second, most of the investigations and interventions about the
effects of metacognition in learning and teaching science have concentrated on secondary
schools, colleges, and universities, but studies in elementary schools are rare. Third, no research
has been done about the contribution of metacognitive instructional intervention in the schools
of developing countries, characterized by large classes, limited resources, hence content-based
teaching and learning. We argue that children’s everyday problems require metacognition
because such problem solving situations are highly variable and success criteria depend on how
the learner clarifies and reconciles competing solutions. According to Jonassen’s typology of
problems (2004, 2007), there are 11 kinds of problems that vary according to their structuredness,
complexity, and dynamicity. One of the problem types is decision-making, which is an everyday
part of children’s lives (Jonassen, 2000). Children make decisions in many situations including
and not limited to, time allocation (whether to do homework or to play), what to buy, and
social situations (how to facilitate friendships). They do so by considering the advantages and
disadvantages of alternative solutions and justify those solutions. In such a problem situation,
problem solvers need to identify the most relevant criteria. A lack of comparable studies in
elementary schools or in developing countries prompted this study of metacognitive awareness
and its impact on everyday problem solving. In this study, student participants were given an
everyday decision-making type of problem to solve, that asked them on how to select a bicycle
for purchase. The decision-making problem used in this study was adapted from one of the
scenarios used by Amsterlaw (2006). The researchers believed that when a student has a high
metacognitive awareness, he/she makes a better decision, and is better able to identify a set of
alternative courses of actions, identify the appropriate criteria, assess alternatives by criteria,
summarize information about the alternatives and self evaluate. The researchers hypothesized
that Metacognition is related to problem solving and that students who perform better on the
metacognitive awareness scale will be better at the decision-making problem. Furthermore, the
researchers believed that age is related to both Metacognition and problem solving.
Problem of Research
Metacognitive skills are a pre-requisite to problem-solving of both well and ill-defined

problems. When students have knowledge and control of their own cognitive processes,
learning is enhanced regardless of the domain of learning, whether reading, writing, science,
mathematics, or any other activity that involves thinking. Metacognition includes the awareness
about what one knows (Metacognitive knowledge), what one can do (metacognitive skills), and
what one knows about his own cognitive abilities (metacognitive experience). Over-emphasis
on rote-learnt content and terminology still characterizes much teaching and learning at primary
schools in Kenya, to the detriment of student learning yet we know that teaching and learning is
all about problem solving. Traditionally, problem solving is presented by teachers simply doing
the problem and then asking students to do similar problems, which more often than not is
mere regurgitation of what the teachers offer. According to Hobden, 1998, typical problems are
usually routine applications of formulae rather than real-life problems, and it has been assumed
that students will reach conceptual understanding just through sufficient practice at problem
solving. Furthermore, repetitive practice at problem solving makes students gain routine
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
12 expertise, but not adaptive expertise (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986), because they develop speed and
accuracy at routine problem solving, but fail to develop the ability to reflect on what they do or
to adapt to solving new problems in a flexible manner; which requires applying Metacognition.
It is with this background that this study was carried out. This study investigated the effect of
metacognition on everyday problem solving among primary school children in Kenya. The
following research questions were addressed: 1 Does metacognition predict students’ problem
solving ability? 2. Does problem solving vary with grade? 3. Does metacognitive ability differ
with grade level?
Research Focus
The purpose of this correlational study was to investigate the role of metacognition on
problem solving and to find out if age (grade level) has an effect on the metacognitive awareness
and problem solving ability.
Methodology of Research
General Background of Research
A correlational study was conducted to investigate the role of metacognition on everyday

problem solving, and how both metacognition and problem solving each differs with grade
level. In essence the researchers were interested in showing how students’ metacognitive
awareness predicts their problem solving ability. To show the effect of age, students from grade
5 through 8 participated in this study. The research questions were: 1 Does metacognition predict
students’ problem solving ability? 2. Does problem solving vary with grade level? 3. Does
metacognitive ability differ with grade level? The researchers hypothesized that students with
high metacognitive ability are good at problem solving and that students differ on metacognition
and problem solving ability based on grade level.
Sample of Research
A convenience sampling technique was employed to sample 150 students, which is the
total population for upper primary grades from Muraka primary School, Kakamega District,
Kenya. (Males = 69, Female = 81; ages ranged from 10 to 17 years and mean age = 12years; 5th
graders=42, 6th graders= 38, 7th graders= 31, and 8th graders=39) in the month of June, 2010. In
the Kenyan education system, primary school has 8 grades starting with grade 1 through grade
8. Grades 1 through 4 are collectively called lower primary, while grades 5 through 8 are the
upper primary. The sample (n=150) was 30.1% of the total school population. The school is
highly homogeneous in terms of ethnic groups (tribes). It is predominantly Luhya 492 (98.7%)
and other tribes 6 (1.2%). The total population is 498 students. This sample is representative
of the Luhya community in which 99% of the population is Luhya tribe and one percent non-
Luhya. Social economic status (SES) was sought from analysis of documents at the principal’s
office and it showed that Low SES= 98(65.3%), Middle SES= 42 (28%), and High SES= 10
(6.7%).
Instrument and Procedures
A Metacognitive Awareness Inventory Junior Version (MAI, Jr. Version) which was
developed by Sperling & Howard, (2002) and adapted by Chwee Beng Lee (2009) for use
in Asia (see Appendix) was used in the present study because it contains items that measure
how metacognition can predict everyday problem solving. Theory shows two components
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
of metacognition as being regulation of cognition and knowledge of cognition. These 13

components of Metacognition have the following subscales: For knowledge of cognition we
have: Declarative knowledge (DK), Procedural knowledge (PK), and Conditional knowledge
(CK). For regulation of cognition we have: Planning (P), Evaluation (E), and Monitoring (M)
The MAI is a self-reporting 25-item, 5-point Likert type scale whose responses ranged from
1=Strongly Agree, 2=Agree, 3=Undecided, 4=Disagree, to 5=Strongly Disagree. The Problem-
Solving Questionnaire (PSQ) was used to measure problem solving ability (see Appendix). The
PSQ is a single item multiple choice scale with four options ranging from option A to D. Option
A represents very high problem solving ability and option D represents low problem solving
ability. To evaluate how metacognition predicts problem solving ability, the composite score
of metacognitive awareness was computed and used as a continuous independent variable. To
explore the effect of grade level on problem solving ability, students were grouped into four
groups based on their score on the PSQ. Students who selected option A were classified as very
high problem solving level group; option B as high problem solving group; option C as average
problem solving group; and option D as low problem solving group. Prior to study, the lead
researcher visited the school to seek permission from the school principal to conduct the study.
Before administration of the instruments, the lead researcher and 4 teachers from the school
explained the purpose of the study to the students and informed them that participation was
entirely voluntary. The students were told that they were free to withdraw from the study at any
time without penalty. For the purpose of confidentiality and anonymity, students were assigned
identification numbers which were used instead of their names. Thereafter, the instructions
were carefully read to the students and they were told to feel free to ask for assistance on any
items that were difficult to understand. Both the MAI and PSQ were answered in 30 minutes.
Data Analysis
Prior to conducting analyses to address the main research questions, descriptive statistics
(mean and percentages) were conducted to check for data entry errors. Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient was used for internal consistency of the items as used on the Kenyan sample. To
investigate the structure of the MAI scale, Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted using
promax rotation to examine factor structure. The model tested was based on the hypothesized
6-factor structure by Lee, C., et al, 2009 and Akpinar, et al, 2009. To address the research
questions, linear regression and ANOVA analyses were conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity were conducted to test
whether the data were factorizable.
Results of Research
Descriptive Statistics
A total number of 150 primary students participated in this study. The distribution by
gender was male=69 (46%) and female= 81 (54%), and by grade we had grade 5= 42 (28%),
grade 6= 38 (25.3%), grade 7= 31 (20.7%), and grade 8= 39 (26%). Students’ age ranged from
10-14 years= 105 (70%) and 14-19 years = 45 (30%). Levene’s test of homogeneity was non-
significant (p=0.908), hence not violated. Skewness and kurtosis of the items were analyzed
and all items were found within normality criteria. Reliability analysis revealed an internal
consistency of α = 0.789. This is on average a good estimate of internal consistency. Item-total
statistical analysis revealed only one item (OPTIONS) was not very important because when
deleted from the analysis there was no variation in the cronbach’s alpha. For Exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) produced a 6-factor solution with eigenvalues greater than one that explained
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
14 47% of the sample variance. From the communality output the lowest explained variance by
the items was 33% while the highest was 64%. This meant that all the items in the MAI scale
were well explained for. The item loadings were all very high with a loading greater than
0.3 (Appendix 2). The six factors fall under the sub-scales: Planning (P), Monitoring (M),
Evaluation (E), Declarative knowledge (DK), Procedural Knowledge (PK), and Conditional
Knowledge (CK).
Table 1. KMO and Bartlett’s Test.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.651

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 689.341
df 300
Sig. 0.000
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy is 0.651 (see Table 1),
which is above the cut-off of 0.6, conventionally held as a critical value. Bartlett’s Test of
Sphericity is statistically significant [χ2 (150) = 689.341, p<0.0001] (Table 1), showing that
factor analysis was suitable for this data set, and the strength of the relationship among the
variables is fairly strong, given the relatively small sample size.
Question 1: Does metacognition predict students’ problem solving ability?
Linear regression was conducted and results showed that overall metcognition can only
account for 3.8% of variation in students’ problem solving skills indicating that there could
be other factors that could explain about 96% of variation in problem solving that cannot be
explained by students’ metacognitive abilities. The predictor model was significant p<0.05
indicating that the regression model used in this case predicts problem solving skills significantly
well.
Table 2. Summary Table of Linear regression.
Model Sun of squares df Mean squares F p-value.

Regression 7.544 1 7.544 5.829 0.017
Residual 191.530 148 1.294
Total 199.073 149
a. Predictors: (Constant), Overall metacognition score

b. Dependent Variable: How to choose right bicycle
Results (Table 3) show that overall students’ metacognition score makes a significant
contribution p<.05 to predicting problem solving skills. From the ANOVA Table 2, we see that
there is a linear relationship between how well students perform on a problem solving task and
metacognition (F=5.829, p= 0.017).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Table 3. Summary Table of Linear regression. 15
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t-value p-value

B
Constant B SE 9.720 0.000
Overall
3.805 0.391
Metacognition
-.017 .007 -.195 -2.414 .017
scor
Dependent Variable: Problem Solving
Question 2: Does problem solving vary with grade?
A One-way ANOVA was conducted (Table 4) and the results revealed statistically
significant mean differences in problem solving based on grade (p<0.0001, df= 3, at α=0.05).
After the significant results F (3, 150) = 7.724, p < 0.0001, a follow-up post-hoc Tukey’s HSD
test revealed that grades 7 and 8 were significant at α = 0.05 indicating that at higher grades
students tend to be better at problem solving.
Question 3: Does metacognitive ability differ with grade?
A One-Way ANOVA was also conducted (Table 4) and there was a statistically significant
difference in metacognition level based on grade (p=0.002, df=3 at α=.05).
Table 4. Summary tables for Analysis of Variance.
Outcome variable df F-ratio p-value

Problem solving 3 7.724 0.000
Level of Metacognition 3 5.161 0.002
Dependent Variables: Problem Solving and Metacognition
Similarly, following up the significant ANOVA results for metacognition, F(3, 150)
= 5.161, p = 0.002, post-hoc Tukey’s HSD revealed that grade 8 was the most statistically
significant, implying that at a higher grade level, students have higher metacognitive ability
than those at a lower grade level.
Discussion
This study contributes to the limited research on influence of Metacognition on everyday

problem solving in primary schools. Muraka Primary is a low-achieving school and the results
indicated that students with high Metacognition level were better problem solvers than those
with low Metacognition level. This is consistent with many studies (Gardner, 1991, Karmiloff-
Smith 1992, Hennessey, 1999, 2003, Hong, Jonassen, and McGee, 2003, Schmidt and Ford
2003, Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann & Glaser 1989, Bransford, Brown, & Cooking, 1999, Bartl
& Dörner, 1998, Amsterlaw 2006) that showed a similar trend.
It is encouraging to note that students who participated in the study all scored highly on
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
16 the MAI scale, with an average of 2.00 which translate to “Agree”, based on our Likert scale.
Results of how Metacognition predicts problem solving ability were statistically
significant and this can be interpreted in the context of broader metacognitive changes taking
place during middle childhood. Students at higher grade level were better at both metacognition
awareness and problem solving ability. This finding concurs with theory about metacognition
and development. Metacognition improves with age and therefore we expect older students
to score highly on a metacognitive scale than younger students and likewise older students
will be better problem solvers than younger students. Developmental and comparison studies
have shown that highly skilled and mature readers exceed poor and young readers in meta-
cognitive measurement (e.g. Garner, 1980; Paris & Jacobs, 1984). Some theories posit that
increasing Metacognition contributes to developmental change in decision making (reasoning)
(Kuhn, 2000b; Moshman 1998). Applied to present findings, children’s strategies of solving
of everyday problems, such as planning, monitoring, and evaluation may depend on them
having such knowledge in the first place. In theory, such a relationship makes sense because
when children encounter problems, they must really appeal to some metalevel knowledge
about how to arrive at a solution. Without this they would be unable to regulate their decision
making hence problem solving. Specifically, if we want our children to make better decisions
in dealing with non-routine everyday problems, then we might want to provide instruction
such as metacognitive strategy instruction as it has benefited poor and average decision-makers
(Batha & Carroll, 2007). Such an instruction focuses on drawing participants’ attention to the
importance of correct strategy use and explains when and how to use strategies. Metacognition
is undoubtedly an indispensable aspect of students’ learning about problem solving. Yet, perhaps
owing to lack of awareness of the importance of metacognition, or alternatively, the belief that
it is not the responsibility of teachers to foster metacognitive abilities, little research to this
point has addressed issues related to the role of metacognition in everyday problem solving.
Naturally, conducting a study with samples of convenience in natural educational
settings provides multiple threats to external validity that may hinder generalizability of the
results. The major limitation in this study was the size and nature of the sample used. The small
sample size (n=150) may hinder precision of the sample statistics, and more importantly, may
not be a representative of the population of interest, given that the sample was drawn from a
low-achieving school. While it is clear that, in general, metacognition contributes favorably
to everyday problem solving, many open questions abound. Some issues for future research
in problem solving are (i) how can metacognition best be promoted in learning (ii) how can
metacognitive aspects of problem solving best be assessed? (iii) How are the various aspects of
metacognition related to problem solving outcomes?
Conclusions
The results of this study provide supportive evidence for models that assert students
with high metacognitive ability are good at problem solving. The analysis and the comparison
of students’ metacognitive awareness self-report questionnaire with answers of their problem
solving question showed that the metacognitive ability is important in decision making. When
one has high metacognitive ability and knows how to apply it, there is a higher chance that
problem solving will be successful. In general, we consider that the findings of this study will
contribute important information towards the study of meta-cognition and specifically towards
the integration of metacognitive instruction in teaching and learning so as to promote problem
solving and hence academic achievement.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
17
Acknowledgements
This research was made possible by the permission from the Principal Muraka Primary
School, Kenya. The authors wish to thank Mwashi Betty and Khagali, Eunice, both teachers at
Muraka primary School, for their contribution to the administration of the instruments to the
participants.
References
Adey, P. S., Shayer, M. (1994). Really Raising standards: Cognitive Intervention and academic
Achievement. London, Routledge.
Alexander, J., Fabricius, W., Fleming, V., Zwahr, M., & Brown, S. (2003). The Development of
Metacognitive causal Explanations. Learning and Individual Differences, 13, 227-238.
Amsterlaw, J. (2006). Children’s beliefs about everyday reasoning. Child Development, 77(2), 443-464.
Batha, K., & Carroll, M. (2007). Metacognitive training aids decision making. Australian Journal of
Psychology, 59(2), 64-69.
Bartl, C., & Dörner, D. (1998). PSI: A theory of the integration of cognition, emotion and motivation. In
F. E. Ritter & R. M. Young (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Cognitive Modelling.
Thrumpton, Nottingham, UK: Nottingham University Press, p. 66-73.
Boekaerts, M. (1997). Self-regulated learning: A new concept embraced by researchers, policy makers,
educators, teachers and students. Learning and Instruction, 7 (2), 161-186.
Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious
mechanisms. In F. Reiner & R. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65-
116). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brown, A., Bransford, J., Ferrara, R., & Campione, J. (1983). Learning, remembering, and understanding.
In J. Flavell & E. Markman (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Cognitive Development, Vol. 3 (pp.
77-166). New York: Wiley.
Butterfield, E. C., Hacker, D. J., & Albertson, L. R. (1996). Environmental, cognitive, and metacognitive
influences on text revision: Assessing the evidence. Educational Psychology Review, 8(3), 239-297.
Carlson, R. A. (1997). Experienced cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations. How
students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science, 13, 145-182.
Confrey, J. (1995). Splitting, Covariation, and their role in the development of exponential functions.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26, 1, 66-86.
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. London: D. C. Heath & Company.
Everson, H. T., & Tobias, S. (1998). The ability to estimate knowledge and performance in college: a
metacognitive analysis. Instructional Science, 26, 65-79.
Flavell, J. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of
intelligence (pp. 231-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
18
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental
inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911.
Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculation about the nature and development of metacognition. In F. E. Weinert &
R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, Motivation and Understanding (pp.21-30). New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates
Flavell, J. H., Miller, P. H., and Miller, S. A. (1993). Cognitive Development (3rd Ed.), Prentice-Freeman
and Company.
Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York:
Basic.
Garner, R. (1980). Monitoring of understanding: An investigation of good and poor readers’ awareness of
induced miscomprehension of text. Journal of Reading Behavior, 12, 55- 64.
Gunstone, R. (1990). Constructivism and Metaacognition: Theoretical Issues and Classroom Studies.
In Reinders Duit, Fred Goldberg and Hans Niedderer (Eds.) Research in physics learning: Theoretical
Issues in Empirical Studies (Proceedings of an International Workshop held at the University of Bremen,
March 4-8). Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Hatano, G., & Inagaki, K. (2000). Domain-specific constraints of conceptual development. International
Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 3, 267-275.
Hennessey, M. G. (1999). Probing the dimensions of metacognition: Implications for: Implications for
conceptual change teaching-learning. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association
for Research in Science Teaching, Boston, MA.
Hennessey, M. G. (2003). Metacognitive aspects of students’ reflective discourse: Implications for

intentional conceptual teaching and learning. In G. M. Sinatra & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Intentional
conceptual change (pp. 103-132). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hong, N. S., Jonassen, D. H., & McGee, S. (2003). Predictors of well-structured and ill structured problem
solving in an astronomy simulation. Journal of Science Teaching, 40(1), 6-33.
Jonassen, D. (2000). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for critical thinking. Englewood
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1979). Problem solving construction and representations of closed railway circuits.
Archives of Psychology, 47, 37-59.
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. MIT

Press, Cambridge, MA.
Kluwe, R. H. (1982). Cognitive Knowledge and Executive Control: Metacognition. In D. R. Griffin

(Eds), Animal Mind-Human Mind (pp. 201- 224). Berlin: Springer- Varlay
Kluwe, R. H. (1997). Acquisition of knowledge in the control of a simulated technical system. Le Travail
Humain: A Bilingual and Multidisciplinary Journal in Human Factors, 360, 1, 61-85.
Kuhn, D., (2000a).Metacognitive Develpoment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 178-

181.
Land, S. (2004). A conceptual framework for scaffolding ill-structured problem-solving processes using
question prompts and peer interactions. Educational Technology, 52, 5-22.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
19
Mayer, R. E. (1991). Thinking, problem solving, cognition (2nd Ed.). New York: W. H.
Moshman, D (1994). Reasoning, Metareasoning, and the Promotion of rationality. In A. Demetriou

& A. Efklides (Eds), Intelligence, Mind, and Reasoning; Structure and Development (pp. 135-150).
Amsterdam: North-Holland/Elsevier.
Moshman, D. (1998). Cognitive development Beyond Childhood. In D. Kuhn & R.S. Siegler (Eds),
Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 2: Cognition, Perception, and Language Development (5th Edition,
PP. 947-978). New York: Wiley
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Nickerson, R., Perkins, D., & Smith, E. (1985). The Teaching of Thinking. Hillsade, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Paris, S.G. & Jacobs, J.E. (1984). The benefits of informed instruction for children’s reading awareness
and comprehension skills. Child Development, 55, 2083-2093
Schmidt, A., & Ford, J. (2003). Learning within a learner control training environment: The interactive
effects of goal orientation and metacognition instruction on learning outcomes. Personnel Psychology,
56, 405-419.
Schraw, G. (1994). The effects of metacognitive knowledge on local and global monitoring. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 19, 143-154.
Schraw, G. (2001). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. In H. Hartman (Ed.), Metacognition in

learning and instruction: Theory, research and practice (pp. 33-68).
Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 19, 460-475.
Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories – An educational perspective. New Jersey:
Sperling, R. A., Howard, B. C., Miller, L. A., & Murphy, C. (2002). Measures of children’s knowledge
and regulation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 51-79.
Sperling, R. A., Howard, B. C., Staley, R., & DuBois, N. (2004). Metacognition and selfregulated learning
constructs. Education Research and Evaluation, 10(2), 117-139.
White, R. and Gunstone, R. (1989). Metalearning and Conceptual change. International Journal of
Science Education, 11, 577-586.
Appendix 1:
Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI)
1 I think I know whether I have understood the problem well

2 I set a goal before solving the problem
3 I know what kind of information is most important when solving the problem
4 I ask myself how well I have solved the problem once I have finished
5 I know when each plan I use will be most effective
6 I find myself pausing regularly to check my understanding
7 I can solve the problem best when I know something about the problem
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
20 8 I ask myself if I have considered all options when solving the problem
9 I ask myself now and then if I am meeting my goal
10 I ask myself about the case before starting to solve the problem
11 I think I am good at sorting out the information presented in the problem
12 I consider several ways to solve the problem before I answer
13 I organize my time to best solve this problem
14 I know how well I did after solving the problem
15 I summarize what I have learned after solving the problem
16 I solve the problem better when I am interested in it
17 I ask myself if I have considered all options after I solve the problem
18 I am aware of the plans I use when solving the problem
19 I try to think in the ways that have worked in the past
20 I have a specific purpose for each plan I use
21 I ask myself whether I have considered carefully before I make a choice
22 I can make myself to solve the problem when I need to
23 I use different plans to solve the problem depending on situation
24 I find myself using helpful methods naturally when I solve the problem
After I had solved a problem, I ask myself whether there is an easier way to solve the
25
problem
Problem-Solving Questionnaire (PSQ)
Choose the option that best describes your decision in buying the bicycle.
Encircle the correct option. “Your parents decided to get you a bicycle for your birthday.
You went to the bicycle shop to pick one but there are many different bicycles to choose
from. Think about how you will pick the bicycle you want”.
A. I make a list of the things I want for my bicycle, and then go to the bicycle stores
to compare the bicycles in the stores to my list. I then choose the bicycle that is a closest
match to my list.
B. I make a list of the things I want for my bicycle, and then go to the store and ask
the store keeper whether the store has a bicycle that matches my list.
C. I ask my parents to go to the store with me and let them chose the bicycle for
me.
D. I ask my friends to help me list down the important things for a bicycle. I then go
to the store and find out whether the store has a bicycle that matches my list.
Appendix 2
Factor Structures of the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory for Kenyan Students (N = 150)
Items F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
1 .796
2 .458
3 .365
4 .546
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
5 .796 21
6 .599
7 .615
8 .417
9 .440
10 .675
11 .708
12 .826
13 .531
14 .537
15 .439
16 .646
17 .536
18 .688
19 .710
20 .483
21 .657
22 .422
23 .527
24 .390
25 .587
Note: F1=Factor 1 (Planning), F2= Factor 2 (Conditional Knowledge); F3=factor 3 (declarative

Knowledge); F4= Factor 4 (Evaluation); F5=Factor 5 (Procedural Knowledge), and F6=Factor 6
(Monitoring).
Advised by Tom J. McConnell, Ball State University, USA
Received: March 11, 2011 Accepted: April 02, 2011
Catherine M. Aurah Graduate Student, Department of Biology, Ball State University, 2217 W. Bethel Avenue,
Apt. 93, Muncie, Indiana 47304, USA.
Phone: +1 (765) 215 1649 or +1 (765) 214 0307
E-mail: cmaurah@bsu.edu
Website: http://cms.bsu.edu/
Setlhomo Koloi-Keaikitse Graduate Student, Department of Educational Psychology, Ball State University, 3712
North Tillotson Ave., Apt. 418, Muncie, Indiana 47304, USA.
E-mail: smkoloi@bsu.edu
Website: http://cms.bsu.edu/
Calvin Isaacs Doctoral Student, Department of Educational Psychology, Ball State University, 3556
North Tillotson Ave., Apt 206, Muncie, Indiana 47304, USA.
Phone: + 1-765-214-3045.
E-mail: Ceisaacs@Bsu.Edu
Holmes Finch Dr., Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, Ball State University, Muncie, In
47306, USA.
Phone: +1 (765) 285-3668.
E-mail: Whfinch@Bsu.Edu
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
22
PROBLEMS INDUCED BY AMALGAMATION
OF PEDAGOGICAL PROGRESSIVISM AND
EDUCATIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY: ORAL
EXAMS WITH PRIOR PREPARATION TIME
IN NORWEGIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Eyvind Elstad, Are Turmo

University of Oslo, Norway
E-mail: eyvind.elstad@ils.uio.no; are.turmo@ils.uio.no
Øystein Guttersrud
University of Oslo, Norway
E-mail: oystein.guttersrud@fys.uio.no
Abstract
The progressive movement in Norwegian education has had the hegemony among civil servants, politicians
and major groups of teachers. However, during recent years the assessment system has ��
moved towards
increased educational accountability based on performance measures (exams and national tests). At the
same time, progressivistic inspired assessment has remained: ��
oral exams with prior preparation time. The
pupils are typically given the topics 48 hours in advance and have the opportunity to prepare at home
or at school. They may take the exam individually or in groups. The teacher, who also asks the questions
during the exam, defines the topics. The grades are assigned by an external evaluator, but the subject
teacher should also take part in the assessment. This amalgamation of pedagogical progressivism and
educational accountability induces major challenges in education.
Key words: educational accountability, progressive school philosophy, oral exam, assessment.
Introduction
The progressive movements in education for centuries had the hegemony in Norwegian
education among bureaucratic officeholders (Skagen, 2004), educational researchers and major
groups of teachers, especially in primary schools. For instance, in July 2001, one of Norway’s
leading newspapers printed an article headed “Reform attempts in 700 schools” (Kluge, 2001).
Reformation of teaching methods was discussed. One of the top civil servants in the Ministry of
Education and Research, Director General Ole Briseid, condemned teacher-centred instruction
and emphasized progressive, student-oriented and activity-oriented teaching methods:
The Ministry has wanted to reform the teaching methods in schools (in Norway) for a long
time. Now this is finally happening. The Ministry has wanted this for a long time. He (Briseid)
wants more project work, less traditional teaching using the blackboard as a visual aid and more
problem-based teaching. To a larger extent, pupils will work independently and in groups with
topics they develop themselves. The teachers will be more like supervisors than lecturers, and
computer technology forces the development of new teaching methods (Kluge, 2001, p. 3).
This is an example of strong process steering after the millennium. This example il-
lustrates how the education policy in Norway was aligned with ideas linked to a progressive
Eyvind ELSTAD, Are TURMO, Øystein GUTTERSRUD. Problems Induced by Amalgamation of Pedagogical Progressivism and
Educational Accountability: Oral Exams with Prior Preparation Time in Norwegian Secondary Schools
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
school philosophy (abbreviated PSP). Briseid’s proclamation of steering work processes was 23
in accordance with the Labour Party’s governmental policy at the time (Skagen, 2001). The
self-satisfaction with the education policy was high (despite Norway in 1995 having the lowest
science-score of all European countries in Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS), Lie et al., 1997). Later in 2001, an educational county-director declared that,
“The Norwegian school has never been better” (Skrede, 2004, p. 7).
However, a turnaround in educational policy and management was initiated by a centre-
conservative government in 2002. The disappointing Norwegian results from the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Programme for International Student
Assessment — PISA 2000 — gave legitimacy to this turnaround (OECD, 2010), and during
the years that followed, the assessment system moved toward increased accountability based
on performance measures. The advent of educational accountability (abbreviated EA) after
the millennium has increased external pressure for improved performance, and performance
measures are used as indicators of goal attainment. However, progressivistic ideas and the edu-
cational zeitgeist of accountability are now embedded side by side in Norwegian assessment
policies for oral exams. This situation is referred to as the amalgamation of PSP and EA.
The purpose of this article is to discuss, interrogate and identify problems inherent in the
tensions between the ideals of PSP and precise and adequate measurements of pupil perform-
ance in the service of EA. These
��
tensions induced challenges and problems of Norwegian edu-
cation in the beginning of the 21st century. The analytical framework used serves the purpose
of seeking to understand the assessment practices as a consequence of diverging values, norms
and preferences.��
��
We constrain our study
��
to the exploration of oral assessment policies and
practices in Norwegian lower secondary education. More specifically, we explore the extent to
which grades from oral exams with prior preparation time may reasonably be used for account-
ability purposes, based on analysis of available grade statistics. To accomplish this we explore
the national results statistics from the years 2002-9.
Background of the Amalgamation of Progressive School Philosophy and

Educational Accountability
Norway was a latecomer in terms of applying accountability devices in education in

the 1990s (Elstad, Nortvedt & Turmo, 2009). The ��
OECD
��
produced test and assessment policy
recommendations for the Norwegian educational authorities in 1988 (OECD, 1988). Then, the
government secretaries of state replied in the 1990s by adjusting the balance of power in the
educational sector more in favour of central government (White Paper 37, 1990-91), using
regulations to oblige schools to implement project work and imposing process-descriptive
targets onto the elementary-school curriculum. The key attribute of progressivism is project
work (W.W.C., 1922). In connection with the Norwegian school reform in 1997 (KUF, 1996),
it became a legally binding regulation that at least 60 % of the time in lower primary school
and at least 30 % in upper primary school should be spent on theme-based teaching and
project work (Helgeland, 2001). This is an example of detailed control of schools’ teaching
methods (Tønnesen, 2004). The ��
ideal was the pupil-centred school tasks emphasizing pupils’
intrinsic motivation for learning. This philosophy emphasised the importance of giving pupils
opportunities to be involved in the choice of teaching methods and topics. The pupils should also
develop problems and seek relevant sources ��
(Sejersted, 2005; ��
Skagen, 2001��
)��
. The proponents
of this progressive school philosophy were hostile to use of external incentives such as grades
and examinations��
(Telhaug et al., 2006)��
. Grades and examinations may result in a sense of
humiliation and stigma, that is to say, experiences that could have a negative effect on the
pupils’ desire to learn. A theoretical underpinning was the emergence of the concept intrinsic
motivation (Deci, 1975) and how extrinsic motivation instigated by the teacher may crowd out
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
24 the pupil’s intrinsic motivation.

During the first decades following the Second World War:
The Scandinavian countries were particularly oriented towards international reform/

pedagogic theory, its appreciation of the child’s personal potential and the desire to place
the pupil at the centre (…) Scandinavian educational policy of the 1970s made a more
explicit attempt than ever before to implement progressive, pupil-centred and activity-
oriented teaching methods.��
(Telhaug et al., 2006, p. 254).�
In the 1990s, school documents maintained that the goal was “to create equality between
pupils and teachers in the democratic teaching organisation where the pupils set the terms and
make contributions” (NOU, 2003, p. 103). Progressivism also manifested itself in the way
learning objectives were expressed in the curriculum, and in the assessment criteria determined
by the civil service, such as “pupils are to work with numbers”, “learn to read at their own
speed”, and “work with some interesting numerical relations for instance numbers with special
properties, the role of numerology in certain cultures or the attraction of number riddles”
(Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 187). Assessment for learning was particularly emphasised in
this reform (Ministry of Education, 1998). Here, the subject’s core and distinctive characteristics
are given less emphasis than the pupil’s experience of something that is considered valuable
by progressive pedagogues (Telhaug
��
et al., 2006)��
. Another characteristic of the educational
efforts in the 1990s, which can also be linked to progressive ideas, is the introduction of the
open-book concept in connection with examinations, which is strongly linked to the topic of the
present article. This concept entails the pupil having access to all resources for some written
examinations, as well as preparation time and the opportunity for external help to solve previously
notified tasks for the oral exam. This idea originated from researchers (Eilertsen & Valdermo,
1997), and was tested in a pilot project, evaluated (Mathisen, 1997) and thereafter, introduced
as a norm for assessment practice. Part of the intention has been to achieve a greater degree
of authenticity in the examination situation. This idea must also be viewed in connection with
developing ideas concerning authentic assessment (Wiggins, 1990) and situated cognition and
the culture of learning (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). Preparation time for oral exams and
the opportunity to take useful resources into written exams are practices that have been in place
for some time, although in modified forms. The above indicates that the Norwegian educational
policies of the 1990s were different from the tendencies seen in many other European countries,
for instance England and the Netherlands (Christophersen et al., 2010).
Shortly before the publication of the PISA 2000 results in December 2001, Norway
attained a new centre-conservative government (in office 2001-2005), in which a representative
from the Norwegian Conservative Party (Høyre) became the Minister of Education and
Research. The PISA results gave her a flying start as a minister. Her Deputy Minister claimed
that the publishing of the PISA results set the scene for what he referred to as “a battle over
knowledge” in the Norwegian school system (Bergersen, 2006, p. 40-41) and gave the legitimacy
of a systemic shift towards performance controlled by the use of measurements (exams and
later national tests and school performance indicators). A novel educational discourse of result
orientation in education was established in Norway (Elstad, Nortvedt & Turmo, 2009), with the
advent of the new educational policy (assessment-based accountability) by the conservative-
conservative government.��
Norway was inspired politically by policy implementation in Great
Britain in making this turn legitimate (Christophersen et al., 2010).
Several studies suggest that assessment-based accountability policies may be effective
at raising pupil attainment (Hanushek & Raymond, 2005). Accountability systems in education
are designed to improve pupil attainment. The notion behind assessment-based accountability
is that assessment will provide pupils, teachers, and heads with an incentive to work harder, as
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
well as help to identify struggling pupils and schools. In ��

general, accountability systems have 25
not been approved for use in the Norwegian nationwide education sector, but accountability
thinking nevertheless influences how some of Norway’s local quality-assurance systems are
designed. Certain building blocks of an accountability system were, nevertheless, introduced in
2004 and later: performance controlled by the use of national tests and examinations, school-
contribution indicators based on tests and examinations, publication of average results by school,
among others.��
The Norwegian Parliament unanimously agreed to introduce testing, decentralize
responsibility for quality of schooling to municipalities, auditing and supervision, and new
curriculums with clearly defined goals emphasising basic reading, writing and arithmetic skills
(Ministry of Education, 2006). Teachers
��
were to give greater academic pressure in teaching
(White Paper 30, 2003-4) as part of an ambition to raise the level of knowledge in Norwegian
schools.
In Norway’s 2005 general election, a red-green coalition won the majority. The political
platform of the Ministers of Education and Research from Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk
venstreparti), initially opposed standardized national tests, and was in favour of removing
grades and examinations from lower and upper secondary education. However, the red-green
government has chosen to retain some of the features of educational accountability, but has
weakened the potential for accountability mechanisms. The responsibility for quality in schools
has been delegated to the governing bodies, but the extent to which counties and local authorities
have been able to relate to this type of delegated responsibility has varied (White Paper 31,
2007-8). The red-green government has made it possible for governing bodies to develop
local accountability systems (ibid). In a regime of assessment-based accountability, reliable,
acceptable and precise measurements of learning, carried out under controlled conditions, will
be a prerequisite for the appropriate functioning of the system.�
Tests and exams that serve accountability purposes need to be reliable, valid and fair. To
achieve these goals, the tests have to be standardized and objective. If stakes are not high, then
other considerations (e.g. the examinee being relaxed) may be pertinent. ��
A number of challenges
are related to the use of imprecise school accountability measures (Kane & Staiger, 2002). For
instance, prior pupil attainment can help increase the precision of measurements relating to
the school’s particular contribution to pupil progress. One problem related to the Norwegian
school system is that there are so few reliable and valid measurements of pupil performance
at different age levels that it is difficult to estimate value-added performance. It is, however,
not difficult to agree with “the need for more rigorous evaluation of the implementation of
(incentive) schemes in order that their design may be improved in a systematic way” (Propper
& Wilson, 2003, p. 265).��
However, such tenets in an accountability system for education may
be in conflict with PSP ideas about authenticity in the examination situation and that the pupil
actually learns something whilst the exam is being carried out. In this way, tensions arise
between deeply contradicting educational philosophies (PSP and EA) that both have positive,
but different intentions. In an educational system based on making school officials responsible,
these tensions will create challenges in terms of handling exam regulations. As mentioned, we
restrict ourselves to discussing these tensions in connection with oral examinations in lower
secondary education at year 10.
Oral Exams with Prior Preparation Time as an Incidence of Amalgamation
Powers and responsibilities have been devolved from national level to local levels. The
school owners –��
��
the local educational authorities –��
��
are responsible for implementing oral exams
in Norwegian secondary schools. Norway has a long tradition for school-leaving exams in both
lower and upper secondary school (Lysne, 2004; Jarning, 2010). Beyond 1997, oral exams with
prior preparation time have become common practice. Examinees are selected randomly for oral
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
26 testing. The examinees are typically given a specified topic 48 hours in advance of the exam.
During this time, the pupils may prepare at school or at home. Examinees may take the exam in
pairs or in larger groups. The rationale behind these exam procedures, as mentioned earlier, is
strongly related to the notion of implementing authentic situations in the examination.
Oral examinations with preparation time may be organised in different ways. The
pupil may, for instance, produce a Power-Point presentation with a 10-minute commentary.
Thereafter, the teacher asks in-depth questions (about 15 minutes) on the given topic. The pupil
then answers concrete questions covering another topic posed by the teacher (about 10 minutes).
The external evaluator does not ask the examinee direct questions, but can request that the
teacher ask specific questions. However, the external evaluator has the final word regarding the
grade assigned. We have briefly described to examples from Norway below.
One concrete example is from a year-10 oral exam in mathematics, where the pupils were
given 48 hours in which to imagine and present a mathematical story connected to a given topic,
for instance “going on a journey”. The evaluation criteria include “the ability to show creativity
in the form of the presentation”, “the ability to show interest and enthusiasm”, “the ability to
co-operate” and “the ability to show respect for the opinions of others” (Hansen 2004, p.24; our
translation). Another example includes oral exams in the school subject of Norwegian (Bakke
& Kverndokken, 2010). “Developments in Norwegian language in the period 1830 to 1917” is
an example of a topic. After the presentation, the pupils may be asked in-depth questions related
to, for example, “realism in Norwegian literature”.
One may argue that these examination procedures are authentic, testing the pupils’
skills in something approaching real-world settings, e.g., their ability to collect and structure
information from different sources, communicate a clear message. However, the reliability
and comparability of these oral exam results may be questioned, for several reasons. Firstly,
the teacher’s influence over the results may be rather strong, as the teacher, not the examiner
defines the tasks. This is in contrast to national centralised written exams, where the content
is unknown to teachers and pupils until the examination day. Secondly, the teacher is also
involved in the assessment and the assigning of grades in the oral exams, even though the
external examiner technically has the final word. Again, this stands in contrast to written exams,
where the grades are anonymously assigned by external evaluators. Finally, the pupils may
receive help from parents and/or other persons, and pupil access to cultural and social capital
during the examination process may be an important issue.
To what extent may grades from oral exams with prior preparation time (an idea
originated in PSP) reasonably be used for accountability purposes, based on the analysis of
available grade statistics? The purpose of this investigation is to explore the problems that arise
with the amalgamation of PSP and EA and to examine available grades statistics for year 10
/16-year-olds) to explore the following research questions:
1. How do oral exam grades compare to the corresponding teacher given grades and
written exam grades, and how stable are these relationships over time?
2. In relative terms, do oral exams favour one gender or any specific socio-economic
group?
The Education Act in Norway dictates that all local authorities have to implement oral
exams at year 10. Some local authorities may decide to implement oral exams with prior
preparation time, whilst others will not. It is not possible to distinguish between these groups of
local authorities in the available grade statistics. At present, however, an oral exam with prior
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
preparation time is by far the most common approach at the year-10 level. 27
In 2006, a new curriculum was implemented in Norwegian primary and secondary
schools, while its precursor was implemented in 1997. Official grade statistics for Norwegian
lower-secondary schools are available from 2002 and onwards, and exams only apply at the end
of year 10. All grade statistics at year 10 in the period 2002-2007 are based on a PSP- inspired
curriculum from 1997. Classical statistical test theory (Crocker and Algina, 1986) was used
in analysis of grade data. Data are available for all the subjects in which written exam apply:
Mathematics, English and Norwegian. Mean grades and averages for boys and girls, as well
as for students with different socio-economic status (SES), defined by parental education level
(International Standard Coding of Education, ISCED; UNESCO, 2006) were estimated and
compared. Differences between girls and boys (positive values in favour of girls) and between
the highest and lowest ISCED categories (positive values in favour of the highest ISCED group)
were focused.
Results of Research
Table 1 compares the average teacher-awarded grades with year-10 exam grades at the
national level in the period 2002-2007. Table 1 shows that in all subjects, the mean grades from
oral exams are higher than the other grade averages. Furthermore, the average written- exam
grades are the lowest among the grade averages in all the subjects in which written exams apply.
These tendencies are strongest in Mathematics.
Table 1 explicitly displays differences between mean grades between 2002 and 2007. In
most instances, the results show a weak “inflation” in mean grade level from 2002 to 2007. In
all subjects other than English, the oral exam results display the largest difference between the
two years. Again, Mathematics shows the strongest tendency. In 2002, the difference between
the oral and written exam grade averages was 0.57. In 2007, this difference had increased to
0.89.
The results regarding oral exams in Mathematics and Science are particularly interesting
when compared to the international comparative achievement studies’ results at the lower-
secondary level during this period (��
Martin et al., 2008; Mullis et al., 2008; OECD, 2007)��.
While the national oral exam results in these subjects show the strongest progress among all
subjects, the international test results show a strong decline in average performance. However,
the written exam results in Mathematics (no written exams apply in Science) show the same
trend as in the international studies.
Table 1. Mean grades in Norwegian lower-secondary schools (year 10) in the

period 2002-2007 (source www.ssb.no, N≈60 000). Oral exam results
highlighted. Diff. =difference between 2007 and 2002.
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Diff.

Mathematics, teacher, written 3.44 3.47 3.45 3.47 3.45 3.45 + 0.01
Mathematics, exam, oral 3.84 3.89 3.98 4.06 4.04 4.04 + 0.20
Mathematics, exam, written 3.27 3.26 3.22 3.12 3.11 3.15 - 0.12
English, teacher, written 3.70 3.73 3.73 3.78 3.77 3.78 + 0.08
English, teacher, oral 3.96 3.99 4.01 4.03 4.01 3.99 + 0.03
English, exam, oral 4.31 4.34 4.35 4.35 4.33 4.34 + 0.03
English, exam, written 3.52 3.53 3.58 3.59 3.64 3.64 + 0.12
Norwegian, teacher, written 3.79 3.83 3.85 3.86 3.88 3.87 + 0.08
Norwegian, teacher, oral 3.95 4.03 4.05 4.06 4.06 4.04 + 0.09
Norwegian, exam, oral 4.23 4.30 4.32 4.36 4.38 4.36 + 0.13
Norwegian, exam, written 3.60 3.60 3.67 3.64 3.65 3.66 + 0.06
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
28 Subjects in which written

exam does not apply:
Social studies, teacher 3.98 4.02 4.04 4.05 4.05 4.03 + 0.07
Social Studies, oral exam 4.19 4.21 4.29 4.33 4.31 4.32 + 0.13
Science, teacher 3.85 3.90 3.92 3.95 3.95 3.95 + 0.10
Science, oral exam 4.07 4.15 4.25 4.28 4.28 4.29 + 0.22
Religion and ethical studies,
3.93 3.96 3.99 4.01 4.01 3.99 + 0.06
teacher
Religion and ethical stud- 4.36 4.34 4.36 + 0.15
4.21 4.23 4.29
ies, oral exam
Table 2 shows mean grade averages for boys and girls, as well as for students with
different socio-economic status (SES), defined by parental education level (International
Standard Coding of Education, ISCED; UNESCO, 2006). Differences between girls and boys
(positive values in favour of girls) and between the highest and lowest ISCED categories
(positive values in favour of the highest ISCED group) are explicitly displayed. Results are
available for the subjects in which written exam apply: Mathematics, English and Norwegian.
Further, Table 2 shows differences in favour of girls for all grade types, the differences
in the subject Norwegian being the largest. In Mathematics, the largest difference in favour of
girls is found for oral exams and the smallest for the teacher-allocated grades. In English, the
difference for oral exams corresponds to the difference for written exams and teacher-allocated
oral grades. In the subject of Norwegian, the gender difference is the largest for oral exams
and teacher-allocated written grades. The difference between girls and boys for written exams
is smaller. In summary, in both Mathematics and Norwegian, the oral exam format seems to
favour girls relative to boys, when compared with the written exam format.
Table 2. Mean grades in Norwegian lower-secondary schools 2009 by gender

and student socio-economic status, source www.ssb.no (N≈60 000).
Parental education
ISCED Diff.
Diff. ISCED ISCED ISCED
All Boys Girls 5, (high-
gender 0-2 3 5, long
short low)
Mathematics, teacher,
3.5 3.4 3.5 0.1 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.3 1.6
written
Mathematics, exam, 4.1 3.9 4.2 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.8
0.3 1.5
oral
Mathematics, exam,
3.4 3.3 3.5 0.2 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.3 1.7
written
English, teacher,
3.8 3.6 4.0 0.4 3.2 3.6 4.1 4.5 1.3
written
English, teacher, oral 4.0 3.9 4.2 0.3 3.4 3.8 4.3 4.7 1.3
English, exam, oral 4.3 4.2 4.5 0.3 3.8 4.1 4.6 5.0 1.2
English, exam, written 3.8 3.6 3.9 0.3 3.1 3.6 4.1 4.4 1.3
Norwegian, teacher,
3.8 3.5 4.1 0.6 3.2 3.7 4.1 4.4 1.2
written
Norwegian, teacher,
4.1 3.8 4.3 0.5 3.4 3.9 4.3 4.7 1.3
oral
Norwegian, exam, 4.4 4.1 4.7 3.8 4.2 4.7 5.0
0.6 1.2
oral
Norwegian, exam,
3.4 3.2 3.6 0.4 2.9 3.2 3.7 3.9 1.0
written
Table 2 indicates that the difference between the extreme SES groups is the smallest in
Mathematics for oral exams and the largest for written exams. In other words, in this subject,
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
the oral exam format seems to be relatively more favourable to the low SES group. The same 29
tendency is established for the subject of English, although the tendency is weaker. In Norwegian,
however, the smallest difference is established for written exams. It has to be emphasised that
the contents of the written and oral exams in Norwegian are rather different.
Discussion
The main purpose of this research was to study the extent to which grades from oral
exams with prior preparation time (which originated in SPS) may reasonably be used for
accountability purposes, based on the analysis of available grade statistics. To accomplish this,
the national results statistics were explored, which conveniently enough are available from
2002. The analysis shows a number of interesting results, which will be discussed below.
Firstly, attainment goals in the subject curricula are identical in terms of written and
oral examinations (except for the subject Norwegian). Given the way in which goal statements
and the school assessment guidelines are designed, the question of written or oral examination
should be of secondary importance. This is definitely not the case, according to our findings.
The analysis shows that the exam format itself has clear significance for the measured results.
This phenomenon is regarded as an educational problem in that the grades achieved by the
pupil should provide information about the attainment of targets in the goals laid out in the
curriculum. When the type of assessment is significant for the result achieved, random elements
will affect the results’ statistics. For instance, a pupil with a given teacher allocated grade that
is randomly selected for an oral examination in Mathematics has a greater chance of achieving
a high grade than an equivalent pupil who is randomly selected for a written examination in
Mathematics. This contributes to an element of unfairness as pupils’ achieved grades have
consequences for whether they match upper secondary schools’ entrance levels. “Fairness” has
particular significance in those areas of Norway where students compete for approval to attend
certain schools.
It is – as shown in this study - generally advantageous to be selected for an oral exam,
whilst having written exams in subjects such as Mathematics will tend to lower average
grades, something that will be disadvantageous to the individual pupil who is in that position.
Mathematics is the subject with the greatest problem in this respect, whilst English appears
to be an anomaly in our material. In other words, this points to a weakness in the Norwegian
examination system’s tendency to be subject-dependent.
Secondly, when the above-mentioned weaknesses come into effect, the lower secondary
schools’ average grades in relation a certain subject become imprecise as a measure of the
pupil’s actual achievement. This weakness has particular consequences for the management
logic created by results-based systems. Norwegian local authorities have been criticised by
national bodies because the quality-assurance systems in their educational sector are inadequate
(OAGN, 2006). Consequently, the systems have been improved. The weakness that is seen in the
measured management data introduces the possibility that those involved may game the system.
What we are indicating here can be seen as problems with imprecise measurements of pupil
performance from a management perspective that places emphasis on accountability (Propper &
Wilson, 2003). When schools and teachers are held responsible for their contributions to pupils’
learning progress (Christophersen et al., 2010), any element of randomness and imprecision
weakens the value of the grades statistics as management information.
Oral exams are neither objective nor standardized; they suffer from biases related to the
examinee, the examiner, the interaction between them and the exam itself. In spite of their limi-
tations, they might be appropriate for specific populations in some cases (e.g. examinees with
learning disabilities) and certainly may be used for internal assessment by teachers, as they may
involve the assessment of skills that are not measured by written tests.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
30 The system of preparation time for oral exams in which parts of the examination content
are known in advance may contribute to reinforcing social differences, as pupils can receive
help during the preparation period. The data analysed does not give direct empirical support for
this hypothesis, but it cannot be simply swept aside. Further research should be able to deter-
mine whether this system has a discriminatory effect.
On the other hand, those who defend the present system for oral exams emphasise the
advantages in the pupil being able to learn whilst preparing for an exam (Dobson, 2009). This
assumption is grounded in a progressivistic educational philosophy. Advocates will also empha-
sise that when the pupil has access to helpful resources whilst preparing, the situation will re-
semble authentic learning situations outside the school gates (Wiggins, 1990). When pupils use
the preparation time well, they may actually gain knowledge while preparing for the oral exam.
This promotes the schools’ most important purpose – the pupils’ learning (Ercikan, 2006).
In the case of written exams, independent experts develop the tests and students respond
to them. In the case of the oral exams, it is the pupils’ own subject teacher who devises the tasks.
On one hand, a system like this may weaken the consistency in which oral exams are carried
out. On the other hand, the system can be defended based on progressivistic ideas about exami-
nations with a more personal approach. The teacher has another relation to the pupil besides
being an external examiner. Through their knowledge of the pupils, the teacher can persuade
them to perform well in a situation, which for many youngsters is full of nervousness and
excitement. The sense of mastering the final school exam can contribute to motivation to con-
tinue in education, in a society in which completed education is highly significant in terms of
subsequent employment opportunities. Drop-out from upper secondary school is a significant
problem in Norway (Markussen, 2009), and where the transition from lower secondary to upper
secondary schooling is based on a sense of mastery, this may help in maintaining the motivation
to continue. There are a number of other progressivistic inspired justifications in favour of the
current exam system.
The empirical results show that pupils with weak grades in Mathematics, combined with
a low socio-economic background, form a group that benefits the most from the system of oral
exams in Mathematics. A possible explanation is that this group of under-achievers is in a posi-
tion to re-capture something of what they have lost when the oral exam presses them to exert
effort over a limited period. In such a perspective, the actual amalgamation of PSP and EA ori-
entations can be viewed as a useful means of promoting learning processes. On the other hand,
this mechanism does not have validity for other subjects. We cannot escape the inference that
the ideals of precise and adequate measurements of pupil performance in the service of educa-
tional accountability can stand in opposition to the visions of progressivistic pedagogy. Those
who determine which systems should be used have the difficult task of weighing the advantages
and disadvantages created by the different alternatives of the different options. As researchers,
we have to be content with pointing out that our relationship to the tensions between different
orientations, each of which represent legitimate intentions, is essentially a matter of values and
priorities.
As with all similar studies, this study has certain limitations from a methodological as
well as conceptual perspective. Firstly, the data discussed in this paper was only available to us
at an aggregated level, i.e. it was not possible to compare different types of grades at the indi-
vidual student level. Secondly, we had to use pre-defined socio-economic classifications made
by Statistics Norway (the ISCED system), in which some of the ISCED categories were col-
lapsed. More fine grained and detailed analysis of the effects of socio-economic status was not
possible. Finally, the data available did not allow us to study potentially interesting interaction
effects between gender and socio-economic status. We acknowledge these limitations and argue
that they contribute to a foundation for future studies��
. This article serves as a starting point that
will stimulate further research. ��
More research is needed in order to come closer to inferences
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
about causality. 31
Conclusion
Despite its shortcomings, this study contributes to our initial understanding of the chal-
lenges of the amalgamation of EA and PSP. If the statistical inferences represent causal relation-
ships, our findings may have implications for practice. The main conclusion is that the ideals of
precise and adequate measurements of pupil performance in the service of educational account-
ability can stand in opposition to the visions of progressivistic orientation. According to EA, de-
cision-making should be based on high quality evidence (Kane & Staiger, 2002). This evidence
should include multiple items, formats (e.g. written tests, performance based), assessors and so
forth. If one does not wish to get rid of the oral exam, it could serve as one component of an
assessment system with pre-determined weights for each of its components.
References
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational
Researcher, 18 (1), 32-42.
Bakke, J. O., Kverndokken, K. (2010). Å vurdere muntlighet – fra et norskfaglig ståsted [Assessing oral
skills - a Norwegian language perspective] in Dobson, S. and Engh, R. (eds.) Vurdering for læring i fag
(Assessment for learning in school subjects). Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget.
Bergersen, O. H. (2006). Kampen om kunnskapsskolen (The fight for a knowledge based school). ��
Oslo,
Norway: Universitetsforlaget.
Christophersen, K. A., Elstad, E., Turmo, A. (2010). Is teacher accountability possible? The Case of
Norwegian High School Science, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 54 (5), 413-429.
Crocker, L., Algina, J. (1996). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Fort Worth: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. ��

New York: Plenum Publishing Co.
Dobson, S. (2009). Muntlig vurdering – utfordringer og muligheter (Assessing oral skills- challenges
and possibilities), in Dobson, S., Eggen, A. and Smith, K. (eds.) Vurdering, prinsipper og praksis – nye
perpektiver på elev- og lærlingvurdering (Assessment, principles and practice - new perspectives on
assessing students). Oslo: Gyldendal.
Eilertsen, T. V., Valdermo, O. (1997). Åpenbokvurdering: bidrag til bedre læring? (Open book assessment:
a contribution to better learning?). UNIKOM’s Report no. 1 Tromsø: University of Tromsø.
Elstad, E., Nortvedt, G. A., Turmo, A. (2009). ��

The Norwegian Assessment System: An Accountability
Perspective. Cadmo, 17 (1), 89-103.
Ercikan, K. (2006). Developments in assessment of student learning, in Alexander, P.A. & Winne, P.H.
(eds.) Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. ��
929-952). Lawrence
��
Erlbaum, Associates,
Mahwah, New Jersey
Hansen, R. G. (2004). Bør

��
økonomer kunne derivere? (Do economists need to know how to differentiate?).
Samfunnsøkonomen, No. 4/5.
Helgeland, G. (2001). Opplæringslova. Lov om grunnskolen og den vidaregående opplæringa av

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
32 17. juli 1998 nr. 61. Kommentarutgåve. (The Norwegian School Act: Version with comments). Oslo:
Universitetsforlaget.
Hanushek, E. A., Raymond, M. E. (2005). Does school accountability lead to improved performance?
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 24 (2), 297-327.
Jarning, H. (2010). Resultater som teller. – Kunnskapskontroll og resultater i skolens århundre (Results
that counts. Controlling knowledge and results in the school’s century)). ��
In E. Elstad & K. Sivesind (Eds.)
PISA – sannheten om skolen? ��
(PISA - the truth about schools?). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
Kane, T. J., Staiger, D. O. (2002), The Promise and Pitfalls of Using Imprecise School Accountability
Measures. Journal of Economic Perspectives 16 (4), pp. 91-114.
Kluge, L. (2001). Reformforsøk i 700 skoler (Reform trials in 700 schools), Aftenposten 5.7.2001, 4.
KUF (1996). Læreplanverket for den 10-årige grunnskolen (Curriculum for Primary, Lower and Upper
Secondary Education). Oslo:
��
Kirke, utdannings- og forskningsdepartementet. (R94 and L97). Available
at: http://www.utdanningsdirektoratet.no/templates/
Lie, S., Kjærnsli, M., Brekke, G. (1997). 9-åringers kunnskaper og holdninger i realfag i et internasjonalt
perspektiv (9 year olds’ knowledge and attitudes in science and mathematics seen from an international
perspective).TIMSS report no 25. Oslo:��
Department of Teacher Education and School Research,
University of Oslo.
Lysne, A. (2004). Karakterer og kompetanse. Kampen om skole. 1970-2000 Bind 2 (Grades and
competencies. The fight over school) Oslo: AVA.
Markussen, E. (2009). Videregående opplæring nesten for alle (High school for almost all). Oslo:
Cappelen Academic Publisher.
Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Foy, P. (2008). TIMSS 2007 International science report: Findings from
IEA’s trends in international mathematics and science study at the fourth and eighth grades. Chestnut
Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.
Mathisen, V. (1997). Evaluering av “åpen bok” eksamen i grunnkurs økonomi og informasjonsbehandling,

mekaniske fag og naturfag (Evaluation of ”open book” exams in Economy, Information management,
Mechanical subjects and Science)ØFReport no. 25. Lillehammer: Østlandsforskning.
Ministry of Education (1996). The curriculum for the 10-year compulsory school in Norway. Oslo: The
Royal Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs.
Ministry of Education (1998). Guidelines to t��

he Curriculum for the 10-year compulsory school in Norway.
(L97). Oslo:
��
The Royal Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs.
Ministry of Education (2006).Curriculum for the Knowledge Promotion. Provisional

��
printed version.
Oslo: The Royal Ministry of Education and Research.
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P. (2008). TIMSS 2007 international mathematics report: Findings
from IEA’s trends in international mathematics and science study at the fourth and eighth grades. Chestnut
Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.
NOU (2003). I første rekke. Forsterket kvalitet i grunnopplæring for alle (In first line. Enhanced quality
in a basic education for all) . ��
Report No. 16. Oslo: The Royal Ministry of Education and Research.
OAGN (2006). Riksrevisjonens undersøkelse av opplæringen i grunnskolen (The Office of the Auditor
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
General of Norway’s investigation of primary and secondary school), Document 3:10. Oslo: The Office 33
of the Auditor General of Norway.
OECD (1988). Reviews of National Policies for Education Norway. Paris: OECD.
OECD (2010). PISA 2009: Science Competencies for Tomorrows World. Paris: OECD.
Propper, C., Wilson, D. (2003). The use and usefulness of performance measures in the public sector.
Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 19(2), 250-267.
Sejersted, F. (2005). Sosialdemokratiets tidsalder (The area of the social democracy). Oslo: Pax Forlag.
Skagen, K. (2001). Pedagogikkens elendighet. Ukorrekte artikler på randen av litteratur.

Essaysamling om skole og pedagogikk (The tragedy of education. Essays on schooling and education).
Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget
Skagen, K. (2004). Det nye pedokratiet i skoleverket (The new “educracy” in the school system),
Utdanning April 2th, 2004
Skrede, S. (2004). Hvorfor er norske elever svake i fag og på topp i bråk? (Why
��
are Norwegian students
poor in school subjects and on top regarding noise and disorder?) Aftenposten, 20(12,) 11 (chronicle).
Telhaug, A. O. Mediås, O. A., Aasen, P. (2006). ��

The Nordic Model in Education: Education as part of
political system in the last 50 years. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 50 (3), 245-283.
Tønnesen, L. K. B. (2004) Norsk utdanningshistorie. En innføring med fokus på grunnskolens utvikling,

(Norwegian educational history). Høgskoleforlaget, Kristiansand.
UNESCO (2006). ��

International Standard Classification of Education. Paris: UNESCO.
White Paper No. 37 (1990-91). Mot rikare mål (Towards richer goals). Report to Parliament. Oslo: The
Royal Ministry of Education.
White paper No. 30 (2003-4). Kultur for læring (Culture for learning). Report to Parliament. Oslo: The
Royal Ministry of Education and Research.
White Paper No. 31 (2007-8). Kvalitet i utdanning (Quality in education). Report to Parliament. Oslo:
The Royal Ministry of Education and Research.
Wiggins, G. (1990). The case of authentic assessment. Downloaded from http://eric.ed.gov/

ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED328611
W.W.C. (1922). Editorials. Regulating the project. The Journal of Educational Research, 5 (3), 245-246.
��
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
34 Advised by Kaare Skagen, Oslo

��
University College��
, Norway
Received: January 22, 2011 Accepted: March 17, 2011
Eyvind Elstad Professor, Department of Teacher Education and School Research, University of Oslo.
Phone: + 0047 22855070.
E-mail: eyvind.elstad@ils.uio.no
Website: http://www.uv.uio.no/ils/personer/vit/eyvindel/index.html
Are Turmo Assoc. Professor, Department of Teacher Education and School Research, University of
Oslo.
Phone: + 0047 22855070.
E-mail: are.turmo@ils.uio.no
Website: http://www.uv.uio.no/ils/personer/vit/aret/index.html
Øystein Guttersrud Assoc. Professor, The Norwegian Centre for Science Education, University of Oslo.
Phone: + 0047 22855050.
E-mail: oystein.guttersrud@fys.uio.no
Website: http://www.naturfagsenteret.no
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
CRITICAL POINT IN FINANCIAL 35
LEARNING PROCESS OF PRIMARY

SCHOOL CHILDREN IN SLOVENIA
Francka Lovšin Kozina

University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: francka.lovsin@pef.uni-lj.si
Tadeja Perčič
Basic School Šenčur, Slovenia
E-mail: tadeja.percic@guest.arnes.si
Verena Koch
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: verena.koch@pef.uni-lj.si
Abstract
Financial literacy is very important because only financially literate individuals are able to identify the
pitfalls of money management. The objectives of the study were to observe how children perceive the
role of money in everyday life based on their opinions about possessing money, money management and
certain dilemmas about different possibilities to earn money. Expert writings reveal that many parents
frequently act as bad role models, because they themselves tend to be poorly informed about their own
personal financial issues and choices. Therefore, the best way to start teaching young people about
basic economic and financial facts and skills is to incorporate these issues into classroom lectures. The
following article features the analysis of a study in which 206 primary school pupils have taken part.
Allowance was provided to 130 pupils, which agree, that because they have allowance, are better money
manager. The majority of the pupils surveyed were of the opinion that they would be able to manage
their finances even better if their parents would talk to them about money more often, and if the parents
would also invest more time to convey a better perception of the value of money and things to them. The
greatest amount of influence on the pupils’ ability to manage money comes from their parents. School,
in the form of an educational institution, also bears a substantial amount of influence concerning this
particular matter. The Slovenian education system gives not enough attention to vital issues such as
money management and consumer protection. This study can be useful information for teacher about
critical point in children money management.
Key words: financial education, money management, pupils, Slovenia.
Introduction
The economic security of a family unit and consequently the economic development
of society depend on sufficiently informed and financially skilled individuals. An American
study has also revealed that youths and adults are lacking the basic skills which would enable
them to make good financial decisions (Holghert & Hogarth, 2003). An analysis of the stud-
ies undertaken in twelve OECD member states has shown that the level of financial literacy in
consumers is quite low (OECD Annual Report 2005). According to the social learning theory
(Bandura, 1986), parents provide their children with a behavioural pattern model. Today, chil-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
36 dren are regarded as a lucrative market segment. Advertisers target children with compelling
propaganda from very early on; they are aware of their direct influential power on the parents’
decision-making from a consumer perspective. Advertisers are also aware of the fact that a
substantial amount of children have a particular amount of money at their disposal which they
are allowed to spend as they please. Parents (about which studies have shown that they posses
limited financial and economic knowledge) are facing their own and their children’s’ desires, a
limited family budget as well as the question of how to explain the role of money in everyday
life to their children.
Research Problems
Jacob, Hudson and Bush (2000) are of the opinion that the contemporary level of financial
knowledge represents “an essential survival tool”. The fact is that the level of financial literacy
is quite low in adults and this fact demands for a stern deliberation on the appropriate strategies
for improving the financial literacy level of consumers. It is sensible to raise the financial
literacy level both in the adult population and within the confines of the education system alike.
Researchers define financial literacy as follows:
Hoggart (2002) states that being financially literate means that:
● one possesses appropriate knowledge and information about questions pertaining the
management of money and other assets, investing, debt, security and taxes,
● one understands the basic concepts of managing money and other assets, and
● one understands how to plan and execute financial decisions appropriately.
Otto et al. (2005) have focused on economic behaviour of children in their particular
study. Their premise was that children do not have to understand the economic world of adults
in order to develop saving-oriented behaviour themselves. They have found that children learn
to manage money in a formal manner between the ages of 9 and 12. 6-year old children had
not yet experienced the applicative value of saving and had been saving money because their
parents expected them to do so. On the other hand, older children had already been saving their
money for the sake of saving and to avoid the temptation to spend it.
In the process of economic socialisation the contact with reality represents a crucial aspect
for constructing predictable behaviour. In this context, the question if it is sensible for children
to handle a particular amount of money on their own is undoubtedly of crucial importance.
Arndt (1999) is of the opinion that children need allowance to learn how to efficiently allocate
their money throughout the whole month, to be able to begin to enjoy the rise of the level of
their independence and to also develop and sustain a sense of responsibility – even in the case of
wrong decisions. She is also of the opinion that the fact that children possess their own money
gives them a sense of equality in comparison to their peers. Fabian (2001) reasons that the
appropriate moment for presenting children with their first allowance may depend on their age,
but that we also have to regard the amount of experience a child has garnered in everyday life
through games which are intended especially for the particular money-managing purpose.
Parents definitely play the most important role in a child’s early stages of managing
money. Furnham, Kirkckaldi, Martin (2003) have compared the opinions of 238 German and
English parents about allowance as a means of education. Both the English and the German
parents were of the opinion that children should be given an allowance on a weekly basis from
the age of 5, with the amount being increased reciprocally with age. The parents encouraged their
children’s saving ambitions and were categorically against them either lending or borrowing
money. The idea about using money as a reward for helping with domestic chores was more
positively accepted by the English parents then in the case of the German parents. The majority
of the German parents were of the opinion that children should assist them with domestic
chores without the prospect of a financial incentive.
Francka Lovšin KOZINA, Tadeja PERČIČ, Verena KOCH. Critical Point in Financial Learning Process of Primary School Children in
Slovenia
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
The study has also shown that career-oriented parents put more emphasis on teaching their 37
children about saving and the principles of spending money in a sensible manner throughout
their childhood. Barnet-Verzat and Wolff (2002) have found that the higher the education level
of the parents, the more often they trust their children with a regular allowance in contrast to
wealthier parents. Regarding the question of why parents give their children an allowance in
the first place, they found that this was so because the parents were of the opinion that they
would thusly support their children’s needs, but at the same time they had also hoped that this
was they proper way to teach their children how to manage money responsibly. Zabukovec and
Polič (1998) have, based on their research of the economic socialization of children, proven
the fact that younger children express distinct realism, while older children already think more
abstractly and are also capable of applying theoretical economic knowledge in practice. They
have also found that the level of focusing on materialistic values increases with age.
Several researchers have studied the connection between the amount of effort put forward
by primary school children and the amount of their allowance. Kalenkoski, Pabilonia (2004)
and Wolf (2006) have found that the amount of allowance did not affect the level of effort put
forward by the children in the USA and in France in any way, while the children in Great Britain
would put forward less effort when getting an allowance just for the sake of it, without their
parents setting any terms for the children with the fulfilment of which they would be eligible
for an allowance in the first place (Dustmann & Micklewright, 2001). Money in the form of a
reward should thus consider both the effort invested in school work and the grade obtained by
the child. As there are differing opinions on the positive effects of using money as a means of
rewarding children for helping at home or for obtaining good grades, so there are also differing
opinions about withholding the allowance from children as a form of punishment. Jelenc (1968)
is of the opinion that this particular form of punishment is justified only when a child has stolen
goods or money.
In contrary to the authors who see allowance as a positive educational tool, Häberli-
Nef (1996) points out the harmful connection between money and the notion of friendship
since some children for example tend to use money to acquire “supposed” friends. Jelenc
(1968) similarly stresses the fact that money is also misused or falsely proclaimed as a form
of affection within interpersonal relations. Thus, it is very important that we take the time and
speak to children about money. The role of money has to be presented objectively, as a highly
important good. What is also important is to constantly emphasize all of the other values which
are not connected with money (Fabian, 2001).
Stanger (1997) states that individuals, who were privy to lessons in finance management
during their younger years handle their finances better in comparison to others, who were not
privy to become acquainted with money and finances in such manner. Breitbard (2003) is of
the opinion that children should be educated in financial literacy starting with kindergarten age.
Martin and Oliva (2001) think that raising awareness about the proper spending and consumer
behaviour from an early age could lead to individuals becoming more efficient consumers down
the line.
In Slovenia, the field of financial literacy is not represented by individual subjects in the
primary school curriculum, but are rather represented as topics included in the 5th and 6th grade
syllabuses of the subject of home economics. Some topics connected with financial literacy
we can found to a lesser extent in the following primary school subjects: Company, Civic
education and ethics (8. Grade; part of the market and money), Technique and technology
(economics view in the evaluation process of students products), Geography (content like
management, cost scheme, the family budget, planning holidays), Math (money as a measure
of value percentage, property and an inverse relationship). In general secondary schools subject
Economics is optional but some economic content we found in the subjects like are Sociology,
History and Geography. Vocational secondary schools give to the students’ economic content
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
38 through subjects Economics and Entrepreneurship. At the faculty level very few students meet
with the economic content. For adult population there are not programs based on the financial
literacy contents/goals. The problem is that neither pupils in higher primary school classes nor
secondary school students are educated in subjects that would upgrade and reinforce their skills
in the aforementioned fields. Therefore, integrating individual financial and consumer content
into the syllabus later on, when financial literacy has actually become of crucial importance from
a consumer’s stand point, depends on the knowledge and enthusiasm level of each individual
teacher. The purpose of the study presented in this article was to determine the role of money in
the everyday lives of the children surveyed, to find out what children themselves thought about
their own approaches towards managing money, to identify the factors which, according to the
opinions of the children surveyed, are helpful in the process of developing the skills to manage
money well, and to observe if the children surveyed had sensed the significance of formal
education regarding the money-managing context.
Research Methodology
The present empirical study seeks to identify critical point in money management
learning process of pupils:
● how pupils perceive the role of money in everyday life based on their opinions about
possessing money, money management,
● views of pupils about their own performance of money management,
● how pupils think about different possibilities to earn money,
● how pupils see the importance of school in developing the skills of the money
management.
Sample of Research
A total of 206 primary school pupils aged between 10 and 12 from two different Slov-
enian primary schools took part in the study, of whom 130 pupils had an allowance (Table 1).
Table 1. Demographic data on surveyd pupils.
Demographic variable f %
Age
10 45 21.8
11 94 45.6
12 67 32.5
Gender
Male 94 45,6
Female 112 54,4
Allowance
Yes 130 63
No 76 37
The mayority of participant are female (54,4%) , 69 (53,1 %) of them had an

allowance.
Instrument and Procedure
The questionnaire was comprised of multiple-choice questions primarily. To obtain the

Slovenia
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
opinions of students about money, charts positions were used. The majority of opinions were 39
obtained through individual questions based on a Likert scale.
Data Analysis
The results were presented as frequency distributions. To compare the figures by sex
and pupils’s age, the t-test and Chi-square test were used at the p < 0.05 level of significance.
Research Results
Importance of Money in Pupils Lives
The analysis of the results (Table 2) has shown that the pupils mostly preferred non
-material goods, ranking most of the material goods below money.
Table 2. Importance of goods according to the opinions of the pupils (N=206).
Total Total
Sort of Good Points Rank Sort of Good Points Rank
Health 2171 1 Travel 996 8
Time spent with parents 1965 2 Money 938 9
Friendship 1819 3 Fancy wear 929 10
Being loved 1608 4 Fancy dwelling 894 11
Honesty 1584 5 Fancy car or motorcycle 619 12
Righteousness 1360 6 Travel 996 8
Compassion 1242 7
The results (Figure 1) have also shown that a vast majority of the pupils to the age of 12 did
not categorize the aspect of coming from a wealthy family background as an important criterion
for choosing friends. Among the pupils, who had regarded a wealthy family background as an
important criterion for choosing friends though, we observed statistically significant differences
in both age and gender.
Figure 1: Characteristics expected in a friend (N=206).
A majority of the pupils, who were statistically significantly wishing for a wealthier
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
40 friend, were boys (χ2 = 4.652, p = 0.031, df =1) and pupils aged less than 12 (χ2 = 7.144, p =
0.028, df =2).
Money as a Reward
Parents often wish to instil particular behaviour in their children by promising them
money as a reward for work. 107 of the pupils surveyed (51.9%) thought it to be acceptable to
earn money by helping their parents with domestic chores. What was interesting was that the
majority of the pupils surveyed (57.3%) had answered that they did not find the prospect of a
financial incentive for helping with domestic chores additionally motivating.
104 of the pupils surveyed (50.3%) found earning money through obtaining good grades
to be acceptable, yet a total of 53.4% of the pupils surveyed had answered that the prospect of
a financial incentive for receiving good grades would not motivate them to put additional effort
into their school work. A more detailed gender-based analysis has shown that boys would rather
study more if they would be rewarded for it with money (χ2=8.171, df =1, p=0.004), but they
would not be prepared to help with domestic chores more despite the prospect of a financial
incentive. Regarding the girls, more of them had answered that they would be prepared to help
with domestic chores more if they would be offered more money to do so in comparison to the
number of girls that had answered that they would be prepared to learn more if being offered
more money for it.
Children View about their Money Management
The factors, which the pupils thought were the most important when it comes to learning
how to manage money appropriately were determined.
Table 3. Sources from which the children had obtained the idea about managing
money in a sensible manner (N = 206).
M Sig. (2-
I learned how to manage money sensibly … t
df tailed)
Boys Girls
... based on positive influence provided by my parents. 2.33 2.73 4.053 0.000
204
... in school. 1.46 1.64 1.922 204 0.056
... … based on positive influence provided by my siblings. 1.47 1.51 0.402 204 0.688
… based on positive influence provided by my friends. 1.38 1.52 1.419 204 0.157
… from the media (TV, radio, internet, magazines etc.). 1.38 1.42 0.379 204 0.705
Note: The mean concurrence value was determined based on a three-point scale, ranging from 1 to
3, with 1 referring to the statement “disagree,” 2 referring to the statement “partially agree” and 3
referring to the statement “agree.”
School for example has, beside the influence of the parents, been ranked quite high by
the children on the scale of sources from which they had obtained the idea about managing
money in a sensible manner (Table 3). The results had shown that important factors for pupils
in money management learning process are also influence provided by their siblings, friend,
and media.
Slovenia
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
114 ( 55.3%) of the pupils stated that they could allocate their money appropriately so it 41
would last throughout the whole month. 144 (69.9 %) pupils stated that if they decided to save
their money for a particular cause that they would not have any trouble with adhering to their
plan. A vast majority of the pupils 188 (91.3 %) stated that it does not occur often that they
would spend their money before the end of the month. A trend toward more frequent successful
saving and allocating money sensibly throughout the month is observed in older pupils. Older
pupils spend their money less frequently on sweets and other odds and ends, while they also less
frequently spend all of their allowance before the end of month.
The Role of Allowance in Process of Money Management Skill Development
The results have shown that an allowance was provided to 130 pupils from 206 pupils,
what represented 63% of the pupils surveyed. From the 130 pupils who had been given an
allowance regularly, 61 were boys and 69 were girls. The average allowance amount obtained
by girls was 15.88 €, while the average allowance amount obtained by boys was 24.92 €.
The difference is also statistically significant (t = - 2.349, df = 128, p = 0.020) A statistically
significant difference (t = 3,092, df = 204, p= 0.002) was also observed in the perceptions of
the appropriate amount of allowance between the pupils who had been obtaining an allowance
and the ones who had been not. The pupils who had been obtaining an allowance were of the
opinion that the appropriate amount of allowance would be 40.38 €, while the pupils who had
not been given an allowance were of the opinion that the appropriate amount of allowance would
be 21.25 €. There were statistically significant differences in the perceptions of the appropriate
amount of allowance between girls and boys. The boys were of the opinion that the appropriate
amount of allowance would be 43.62 €, while the girls were of the opinion that the appropriate
amount of allowance would be 24.69 € (t = 2.738, df =128, p = 0.007).
A positive influence from the parents on pupils money management was statistically
significantly more important for the girls than it was for the boys (t = 4.05, df= 128, p = 0.000).
A large statistically significant difference was observed regarding the possibility of individually
deciding about how one’s own money should be spent. The possibility of individually deciding
about how one’s own money should be spent was statistically significantly more important for
the girls than it was for the boys (t = 2.351, df= 128, p = 0.010). The girls have also found being
included into the process of deciding on what should be acquired and what could be left off the
grocery list as a statistically significantly more important factor in the process of learning how
to manage money appropriately, as compared to the opinions of the boys (t = 2.362, df= 128, p
= 0.019). In comparison to the boys, the girls have also ascribed statistically significantly more
influence on their money managing skills to the fact that their families had to rely on a carefully
calculated budget (t = 2.506, df= 128, p =0.019).
The majority of the pupils who had been obtaining an allowance (72.3%) stated that
the fact that they were obtaining an allowance lead them to be more cautious about spending
their money. The allowance has also encouraged 67.7% of the pupils to save. Positive effects
could also be observed regarding the aspects of handling property more carefully (49.2%) and
sensing a higher level of responsibility (46.9%). Approximately a half of the pupils stated that
they were encouraged to value their parents’ and other people’s labour more highly. 24.6%
of the children who had been given an allowance stated that they were more self-confident
because of the allowance, and 26.9% stated that the allowance made them feel more grown-
up and trustworthy. 7.7 % of the children were of the opinion that the allowance did not affect
them in any way whatsoever. Only 3.9 % of the pupils stated that the allowance lead them to
spend more money. 12.31% of the pupils stated that the allowance felt like a drug that made
them desire more and more money. While comparing the effects of allowance based on gender,
we observed a statistically significant difference only in the answers to the question regarding
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
42 self-confidence. A larger share of boys had answered that the allowance made them feel more
self-confident (t = - 2.051, df=128, p = 0.026).
The pupils were also asked about what they thought would help them to progress in their
money management skills.
Table 4. Factors which would, according to the opinions of the children, help
them to progress in their money management skills (N=130).
Answer Ratio (%)

Statement Gender Age (years)
Total χ2 p χ2 p
M F 10 11 12
If my parents would have
spoken more often to me
61.2 67.0 56.2 2.496 0.114 55.6 58.5 68.7 2.458 0.293
about money when I was
younger.
If I would have to earn the

52.4 47.9 56.2 1.438 0.230 51.1 50.0 56.7 0.748 0.688
money by myself.
If there would not be any

tempting advertisements
47.1 42.6 50.9 1.427 0.232 31.1 42.6 64.2 13.241 0.001
in the media (TV, internet,
radio, magazines).
If I would be surrounded
by friends, who would
serve as good role mod-
45.1 43.6 46.4 0.163 0.686 33.3 40.4 59.7 9.113 0.010
els (not spending their
money on sweets and
other odds and ends).
If I would have a better
idea about the value of 44.2 47.9 41.1 0.959 0.328 55.6 46.8 32.8 6.121 0.047
money and goods.
If my parents would
include my opinion when
41.3 42.6 40.2 0.119 0.730 33.3 48.9 35.8 4.270 0.118
buying food and other
essentials.
If I had more money. 40.8 41.5 40.2 1.262 0.532 53.3 36.2 40.3 5.218 0.266
If my siblings would set a

positive example for me 28.6 25.5 31.2 0.818 0.366 15.6 20.2 49.3 20.966 0.000
to follow.
If my parents would act
more consistently and not
give me additional money 26.7 27.7 25.9 0.082 0.775 26.7 24.5 29.9 0.579 0.749
should I have spent it too
quickly.
The majority (Table 4) of the pupils’ children surveyed were of the opinion that their
parents (61.2%) and their personal activity – work (52.4%) played the most important roles
in helping them to progress in their money management skills As we had expected, they had
also ascribed an important role to the influencing power of their friends and siblings. What is
interesting though is that almost a half of the children surveyed (47.1%) regarded the media as a
Slovenia
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
critical factor in the process of making good financial decisions, and that 44.2% of the children 43
surveyed have expressed that they had been aware of having had flawed ideas about the value
of money and goods.
Discussion
Fox, Bartholomae & Lee (2005) emphasize the importance of planning and implementing
financial concepts in practice. They also emphasize that each individual’s way of living
represents the base for making efficient consumer decisions. Several authors have studied the
aspect of money management in children; in the sense of their saving habits (Sonuga-Barke
& Webley (1993) as well as in the sense of their spending and borrowing habits (Freedman,
Pliner, 1991). A study conducted in Slovenia has shown that, similarly as abroad, a large share
of children have money at their disposal which they can spend as they please, yet with their
saving habits also being influenced by their parents’ expectations; also the saving behaviour
which develop with an age.
Children state close individuals (parents, siblings, friends), being exposed to concrete
experiences demanding sensible deliberation (a limited family budget, inclusion into the
grocery-list-composition process, accepting the consequences of personal decisions) and being
aware of their own personal limitations in perceiving the value of money and goods as important
factors in learning about the aspects of good financial practice. From the perspective of the
pupils, school represents the second most important factor in learning how to manage money
sensibly and appropriately, so it makes sense to use child’s curiosity in preventive (primary
schol) education.
Some authors (Häberli-Nef, 1996; Jelenc, 1968) also point out the harmful connections
between money and interpersonal relations. The objective of this study was not to thoroughly
analyse the connection between money and interpersonal relations, but rather to identify the
relations between the material and non-material values of a select group of children. The study
has shown that children between the ages of 10 and 12 prefer non-material values to material
values, and a larger share of the children wishing for a wealthier friend are of younger ages. The
study thus represents a basis for additional socioeconomic research in Slovenia with emphasis
on content related to children (e.g. the development of materialism etc.)
Conclusions
Teaching financial literacy is of crucial importance for individuals, families and society
in general. Today, each individual is exposed to countless financial instruments and faces
numerous financial decisions, which influence the quality of their lives and will continue to do
so in the future (e.g. saving money in order to maintain a decent quality of life in retirement).
Children are exposed to the role of money at a very early age and (initially) begin to learn about
its character by imitating their parents. If parents lack the appropriate financial knowledge or
set a negative example due to their bad consumer habits, a child might get a false impression
about “proper” money management. Admittedly, the Slovenian education system provides 5th
and 6th graders with a primary school subject containing the basics of financial management,
but the majority of the children start to shop on their own approximately around the age of 9,
embarking on a life as lucrative consumers. During this period, an individual faces a vast amount
of important decisions concerning saving, obtaining loans and credits, even mortgages, while
at the same time often being deprived of adequate information provided by the educational
institutions which could prevent them from making grave mistakes later in life. Our study has
shown that children are very much aware of the importance of influential conversations, that
they are very much aware of their personal limitations when it comes to understanding the value
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
44 of money and goods properly, and that they are also aware of the pitfalls thrown at them by the
media. We have also observed that older children save to a greater extent in comparison to the
younger children, what can be attributed to the fact that they have already learned from personal
mistakes and partially also to the fact that the twelve-year-olds have already been introduced
to educational content pertaining to money management and consumer protection. A challenge
for the educational field in the new millennium is thus represented by the questions of how to
reinforce the education system in the sense of integrating financially and consumer oriented
content along the whole educational vertical, and how to broaden the array of educational
methods, which also enable experience-based learning, by supplementing them with various
modern didactic approaches.
Note
We defined the term allowance as an amount of money which children had obtained
regularly on a monthly basis.
References
Arndt, K. (1999). Denar ne pade sam z neba. Kako naučimo otroke ravnati z denarjem. Ljubljana: Kres.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Barnet-Verzat, C., Wolff, F. C. (2002). ‘Motives for pocket money and family incentives’.
Journal of Economic Psychology, 23, 339-366.
Breitbard, S. H. (2003). Jump-starting financial literacy: CPAs can add the spark. Journal of Accountancy,
196(6), 56-60.
Caruana, A., Vassallo, R. (2003). Childrens perception of their influence over purchases: the role of
parental communication patterns. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 20 (1), 55-66.
Dustmann, C., Micklewright, J. (2001). Intrahousehold transfers and the part-time work of children. CEPR
Discussion Paper, 2796.
Elliott, R. (1999). ‘‘Symbolic meaning and post modern consumer culture’’. In: Brownlie, D.,Saren,
M.,Wensley, R. and Whittington, R. Eds. Rethinking Marketing. London: Sage Publications.
Fabian, C. (2004). A new look at consumer economics curriculum-practical reasoning. Journal of Family
and Consumer Sciences, 96(1), 70-71.
Fox, J., Bartholomae, S., Lee, J. (2005). Building the case for financial education. Journal of Consumer
Affairs, 39 (1), 195-214.
Freedman, J., Pliner, P. (1991). Children and money:Getting an allowance, credit versus cash, and
knowledge of pricing. Journal of Economic Psychology, 12, 27-25.
Furnham, A., Kirkcaldy, B., Martin, T. (2003). Parental attitudes towards pocket money, trait competitivness
and occupational stress. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 305-323.
Greenspan, A. (2001). “The Importance of Education in Today’s Economy” remarks at the Community
ffairs Research Conference of the Federal Reserve System, April 6. Available at:
http://www.federalreserve.gov/BoardDocs/Speeches/2001/20010406/default.htm Access:15.11.2010
Slovenia
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Häberli-Nef, U. (1996). Koliko svobode potrebuje moj otrok. Kres, Ljubljana. 45
Hilghert, A. M., Hogarth, M. J. (2003. Houshold Financial Management: The Connection between
Knowledge and Behavior. Federal Reserve Bulletin, July 2003, 309-322.
Hogarth, J. M. (2002). Financial literacy and family and consumer sciences. Journal of Family and
Consumer Sciences, 94(1), 14-28.
Jacob, K., Hudson, S., Bush, M. (2000). Tools for survival: An analysis of financial literacy programs for
lowerincome families. Chicago: Woodstock Institute.
Jelenc, Z. (1968). Otrok in denar. Cankarjeva založba, Ljubljana.
Kalenkoski, C., Pabilonia, S. (2004). Parental transfers, student, achievement, and the labor supply of
college students, mimeo. US Bureau of Labor Statistics Working Paper. 374.
Muniz, A. M., O’Guinn, T. C. (2001), ‘‘Brand community’’, Journal of Consumer Research, March.
27(4). 412-33.
Nacionalni program finančnega izobraževanja (2009). Medresorska delovna skupina za pripravo

nacionalnega programa finančnega izobraževanja. Ljubljana. Slovenija.
OECD (2005). Improving Financial Literacy: Analysis of Issues and Policies. OECD.
Otto, A. M. C., Schots, P. A. M., Westerman, J. A. J., Webley P. (2006). Children’s use of saving strategies:
An experimental approach. Journal of Economic Psychology, 27, 57-72.
Roedder, J. J. D. (1999). ‘‘Consumer socialization of children: a retrospective look at twenty-five years

of research’’. Journal of Consumer Research, 26 (3), 183-213.
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Webley, P. (1993). Children’s saving: A study in the development of economic
behaviour. NJ:Hillsdale.
Stanger, T. (1997). Future debtors of America. Consumer Reports, 62, 16-19.
Pocket money and child effort at school. Economics Bulletin, 13, 1-

Verzat, C. B., Wolff , F. C. (2008). ��
10.
Wolff, F. C. (2006). Parental transfers and the labour supply of children. Journal of Population Economics,
19, 853-877.
Zabukovec, V., Polič, M. (1994). Ekonomska socializacija po štirih letih. Psihološka obzorja, 45-56.
Advised by Nina Ponikvar, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Received: February 28, 2011 Accepted: March 18, 2011

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
46
Francka Lovšin Kozina PhD, Assistant, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva
ploščad 16, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: francka.lovsin@pef.uni-lj.si
Website: http//www.pef.uni-lj.si
Tadeja Perčič Teacher, Basic School Šenčur, Kranjska cesta 11, Kranj, Slovenia.
Phone: +386 04 25 19 250.
E-mail: tadeja.percic@guest.arnes.si
Website: http://www.os-sencur.si/default.aspx
Verena Koch PhD, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia.

Phone: +386 1589 212.
E-mail: verena.koch@pef.uni-lj.si
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
KNOWLEDGE GENERATION IN 47
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: CASE OF

SOUTH AFRICA UNIVERSITIES
Liile L. Lekena
University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
E-mail: liile.lekena@wits.ac.za
Anass Bayaga
University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa
E-mail: abayaga@ufh.ac.za
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate forms of knowledge generation in educational research in
South Africa in the periods 1995-1999 & 2000-2004. The study was a quantitative by approach. Data from
the universities in Gauteng region (South Africa) was extracted from 2340 bound theses database. The
results revealed that there are twelve sectors (forms) that have been identified for knowledge generation
in educational research.
Key words: educational research, knowledge generation, postgraduate research, South Africa
Introduction
In the new millennium, factories, land tools and machinery no longer constitute the
highest levels of wealth concentration (Carr & Hagel, 2008; Chisholm, 2004). Resourcefulness
of people, their skills, and knowledge are increasingly critical to the world of economy,
suggesting that human capital is becoming more important than physical capital. For this reason,
education, especially higher education, has consequently become a major political priority
(Pincus, 2006). On a global level, higher education is expected and believed to supply high
level human resource for the labour market. Even more importantly, higher education is also
entrusted with the responsibility of devising a well established and reliable research system.
The motive being that there is a general agreement among scholars that research adds new
knowledge, which has the potential of making the world a better place for all (Pincus, 2006;
Francis, Hemson, Mphambukeli, & Quin, 2003). Early work in 2000 in particular has been an
influence on this school of thought (The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, 2000).
The authors suggest that “...one of the most powerful arguments for a public interest in higher
education is the value to a country of a well developed system for research and generation of
knowledge” (The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, 2000: 42). It added that “...
this is of increasing importance within the emerging knowledge economy, allowing a country
not only to generate new knowledge, but also to engage in scholarly and scientific commerce
with other nations (The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, 2000: 42). This suggests
that improving higher education research and keeping track of what is happening is in every
country’s interest. In South Africa, a recap of primary trends and issues in educational research
has been brought together in significant publications as themes that have emerged over the
past decade in education discussions (Ratele, 2006). These publications include; gender equity
violence in schools, racial and class form, transformation, restructuring, change in policy
landscape (Nelson Mandela Foundation, 2005). These studies also describe the plight and
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
48 unequal development of rural communities, rural families and communities. They also called
for a reconsideration by the state with regards to its approach to rural livelihoods particularly
in the provision of basic health care (Balfour, et al. 2007). Undisputedly, the above-mentioned
publications provide a wealth of information for future directions in terms of research within
the higher education system. However, there is a growing concern amongst academics that is
gaining momentum that researchers at HEI, while forging new understandings and directions,
reproduce research not responsive to global or national prerogatives (Moore, 2004). Another
apprehension has to do with lack of emphasis and illumination of the fact that regional needs and
historic events do impact on the kinds of research conducted in different regions and different
eras (Moore, 2004). For instance, research in language issues in Lesotho may be predominantly
on bilingual agendas, because there are basically only two languages in Lesotho, while the
same kind of research in South Africa has a likelihood of dealing with issues of multilingualism
because of the fact that South Africa is multilingual (Snowball & Wilson, 2006). Even, research
within South Africa- has a likelihood of dealing with issues of multidisciplinary, because of the
fact that provinces are multilingual (Seekings & Nattrass, 2006). This suggests that different
provinces have different needs (Seekings & Nattrass, 2006).
On a similar note, the era that research is conducted has a tendency to mirror the typical
concerns of that time. Ever since Africa countries gained independence from colonial rule for
instance, language issues have taken centre stage in nearly every independent country (Robinson
& Diaz, 2006). A strong yearning towards the elevation of indigenous languages to the same
status of the language of the colonisers was in the sphere prominent in the immediate post-
colonial eras (Robinson & Diaz, 2006). At the same time, issues of race, class, multiculturalism
and ethnicity in relation to education were brought to the centre stage in educational research
(Seekings & Nattrass, 2006). The above example evidence that major historic events have a
bearing on the types of research conducted in areas affected by the events. During the apartheid
era, education in South Africa was always segregated along racial lines (Snowball & Wilson,
2006). That system of governance ensured that Blacks were denied equal access to non-Black
institutions in terms of quality education (Seekings & Nattrass, 2006). After 1994, the higher
education system in South Africa has been undergoing transformation and will for the foreseeable
future be under pressure to provide access and quality education for all the diverse people of
South Africa. By the same token, in South Africa, the socio-political transformation of 1994,
undoubtedly influenced knowledge production in the form of research in HEI (The Task Force
on Higher Education and Society, 2000). Research acknowledges that there are links between
the growth of mass higher education systems and the radical process of globalisation which
include not only round-the clock, round-the-globe markets and new information technologies,
but also revolutionary conceptions of time and space (The Task Force on Higher Education
and Society, 2000). Massification of institutions is thus one of the major results of democracy
within a global context and so is knowledge production as people are ‘freer’ and have a platform
to research on issues that are of concern to them. In the processes of massification of higher
education obviously student body becomes much more diverse as historically under-represented
people have relatively access to higher education either as students or as staff members (Francis,
et al., 2003).
Related Research
The conception of knowledge implies that knowledge ‘‘avoids’’ any attempt to define
or limit it (Chisholm, 2004). Following this, any attempt to group, define, categorise, etc.
knowledge will fail and not have any legitimacy outside the construction itself. Thus, we
cannot identify true and universally valid knowledge categories. The conception of knowledge
implies that knowledge is decoupled from morality, and has been interpreted as an argument
Liile L. LEKENA, Anass BAYAGA. Knowledge Generation in Educational Research: Case of South Africa Universities
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
for structuralism (Chisholm, 2004). Common to the literature mentioned is an emphasis on 49

knowledge and knowledge generation as a key force in economic development. However,
most knowledge generation processes will by definition be slower than the developmental
demands in their environment. This has many causes. Firstly, there are individual constraints,
due to limitations embedded in social structures and the social reality of the knowledge creators
(Guimond, 2006). Individuals do not normally change their perception of the world very fast.
Secondly, knowledge generation will be embedded in power structures, in cognitive frames,
in traditions and culture and in institutional norms, in other words the social reality that make
up the local practices of the knowledge creators (Guimond, 2006). This makes the study of
these processes difficult. When knowledge creation is interwoven with many other social
processes, it is difficult to distinguish between processes that lead to development of genuine
new knowledge, knowledge diffusion, and knowledge imitations. However, the focus of this
study goes beyond these more methodological difficulties. The researchers of this study suggest
that there are other forms to knowledge creation, and that these can partly explain the problems
we meet on a more practical level when trying to apply any approach.
Main Purpose
Based on these contestations, the purpose of the current research is an exploratory analysis
of issues and trends in Masters and Doctorate research in education in South Africa. The period
researched ranged from 1995 to 2004 in universities in the Gauteng region, namely Tshwane
University of Technology - TUT, University of Pretoria - UP, University of Johannesburg UJ
and University of Witwatersrand (UW).
Research Focus
The authors were particularly interested in the Gauteng region due to the fact that these
universities though in the same region and within close proximity to each other, have different
cultural and political heritages and thus exemplify the diversity in terms of research. The time
frame chosen for this study was due to the fact that the study was part of Project for Postgraduate
Education Research (PPER), a broader commissioned study in which the funders provided
parameters of which the time frame was one.
Objectives of the Research
Major Objective
The objective of this study was to investigate forms of knowledge generation in

educational research in South Africa.
Minor Objective
To identify sectoral analysis of postgraduate research production in Gauteng region in

the periods 1995-1999 & 2000-2004.
This study forms part of the 4th National progress report on the PPER in South Africa
(1995-2004). It is nevertheless the first report that offers a preliminary study of data that is
produced in HEIs in the Gauteng province. It uses the data gathered in 2007 and 2008 which
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
50 formed part of Phase 1 and 2 respectively. Initially, two universities were selected in Gauteng
for the purpose of the study. The selection of the two universities was based on preconceived
(and largely speculative) idea of the research output in education over the past decade in which
the institutions were located. These factors (output, region and history) were selected to gather
region specific information as well cover the breadth of research over a chronological period
characterised by rapid change. Thus, the University of the Witwatersrand and the University of
Johannesburg were selected in 2007 for Phase 1.

The Phase 2 added the University of Pretoria, Tshwane University of Technology, and
Vaal University of Technology. The latter is not yet visited. Phase 2 also included follow-up
visits to the University of the Witwatersrand and the University of Johannesburg where further
holdings had been identified that were not part of the Phase 1 data development.
Sample and Data Collection

A non-probability sampling technique (purposive sample) was used for selecting
participants. The first step in sampling was to systematically extract data that was relevant to
the study in terms of its objectives (cf. the objectives of study). Data from the four universities
in Gauteng: UT, UP, UJ and UW were extracted from a database using the university names as
search words. The current study used secondary data from the database established by the

PPER. This database comprised information about research in education done in eleven (11)
universities in South Africa and the data was stored in Excel spreadsheets. It has an archive of
over 2340 bound extracts. The bound extracts were made of sections that were copied, which
included the title page and acknowledgements page. This helped to determine the gender of
the author. It also included the abstract which would provide insight about the research process
and the findings of the study. The methodology and the concluding chapter were the other
sections that were copied helped in determining the trend on the choice of methodologies and
data collection methods. All this information was transferred into an end-note database for
consolidation, portability and user friendliness. The information captured into the database
included year of publication, gender, title and key words. The identified frequencies from
the theses were described and compared from institution to institution to describe what was
prevalent.
Results of the Research
In Phase 1 a total of 949 (UJ- 659; Wits- 290) theses was captured and in Phase 2,
an additional 157 (UJ- 47; UW- 110) theses was captured from the revisited institutions
participating in Phase 1. The total number of theses captured to date in Phase 1 institutions is
thus 1106. The Phase 2 consists of 330 (UP- 305; TUT- 25) new theses that was captured from
institutions which had not been identified in Phase 1 activities. This makes the total number of
theses captured in Gauteng region to date to 1436 (UJ- 706; UP-305; Wits-400; TUT-25) (cf.
Figure 1). Noting that this figures do not take into account the Vaal University of Technology
(VUT); this institution is to be visited in Gauteng region later as aforementioned. In comparing
the National data of 3260 theses with the Gauteng data of 1436 theses, it is noted that Gauteng
region has produced the majority of education theses. Despite that VUT data is not yet available
and that University of South Africa (UNISA) is excluded from the analysis of this province,
Gauteng still constitutes 44% of the theses that are produced in the country. This dominance
could be influenced by a number of factors such as the establishment of the universities, the
��
Tshwane University of Technology - TUT, University of Pretoria - UP, University of Johannesburg UJ and Uni-
versity of Witwatersrand (UW).
��
Project for Postgraduate Education Research (PPER)
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
establishment of education faculties within the universities, and the history of education research 51
within the universities.
Figure 1: Number of education theses per institution in Gauteng.
Figure 1 shows that Tshwane University of Technology produced only 1.7% of the
theses produced in Gauteng, while University of Pretoria and Wits shared approximately
equal number of theses with 21% and 28% respectively. What is significant to note is that the
University of Johannesburg produced almost 50% of the theses in the Gauteng Province. This is
in contrast to previous assertion that the majority of research publication output is concentrated
in five universities (University of Cape Town, University of Kwazulu Natal, UP, Stellenbosch
University and UW) (Robinson & Diaz, 2006). However, research on HEIs focuses on all
faculties not just education (Hemson, 2006). It is not yet known whether the five universities
have been active in education research.
Gauteng Year by Year Report: From 1995-1999 & 2000-2004 Periods
The analysis of year by year theses production provides a clear picture of progress
for each institution over a ten year period. The data (cf. Figure 2) shows that UJ is the only
institution that has been generally productive and has actively increased the production of their
theses from the first six years as compared with other institutions. It is noted that TUT and
UW produced a high number of theses between 2002 and 2003, however UJ continued to
produce higher number of theses than the former two institutions (cf. Figure 2). UP data shows
a decrease in research output from the second year to the last year of the study, when compared
with the 1995 theses production.
Figure 2: Gauteng theses on database produced year by year.

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
52 When the data was divided over the first

��
and second halves of the research period, the
former half appears to be more productive than the latter half. The overall number of theses in
the first and second half is 773 and 640 respectively. While, the number of theses decreased
for three institutions in the second half of the research period, TUT increased the number of
theses they produced (cf. Table 1).
Table 1. Gauteng theses on database produced in the periods 1995-1999 &2000-

2004.
Periods 1995 - 1999 2000 - 2004 *NK Total

UP 174 117 14 305
Wits 213 182 5 400
TUT 1 22 2 25
*NK - Not Known
Gender and Race

��
Profile over the ��
Decade
The data revealed that over the entire decade, females (840) produced more research
than males (551) in the three universities with the exception of TUT, where males dominated
research production (cf. Table 2). Regarding the data on gender identification, the study used
acknowledgement section in the theses and the names, which resulted to high subjectivity.
Consequently, there were number of unknown (Not Known- NK) gender especially at UP and
WITS. This could be because, researchers working on this data were unfamiliar with either
English or Afrikaans names. Although, females are generally dominant in research, it could be
interesting to know the dominant race amongst the genders.
Table 2. Gauteng gender profile of database thesis authors across institutions.
University Female Male NK Total

Pretoria 190 87 28 305
Wits 248 142 10 400
Tshwane 5 18 2 25
Johannesburg 397 304 5 706
Total 840 551 45 1436
The race issue has been dominant in post-apartheid period in relation to access to
institution of higher learning. The enrolment of Black, Indians and Coloureds shows some
increment since 1994. However, little information exists on the participation of these races in
research in general and specifically in education. To capture the race of the researcher (thesis), the
current study used Black, White, Indian and Coloured. For the identification of the researcher’s
race, acknowledgement section and the names were again used, with an acknowledgement
of high subjectivity. While, capturing the race of the researcher, data capturers experienced
challenges in determining Coloureds names as they were common with White names. Despite
these challenges, the study deemed it important to ��
identify the racial profile of the postgraduate
education researchers. In Gauteng region, although not surprising, trend emerged whereby in
almost all the universities, White students (722) are dominant researchers, with the exception
of UJ where Black students are dominant. They have been followed by Black (598), then Indian
(66), and lastly Coloured (21) students. Of importance is that data capturers could not identify
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
the race of 28 researchers in different institutions. The data indicate that although UJ has a high 53
number of Black students’ researchers, however it also has a high number of White students
(282) followed by Wits (229) and UP (205) with the least from TUT (6). The Indians and
Coloureds are the least researchers in all four institutions respectively. The data shows that
Tshwane University is dominated by Black researchers with no identified Indian and Coloured
researchers.
Descriptions of Theses
In line with National Research Foundation (NRF), two degrees, the Masters degree and
the Doctoral degree, are included in the definition of postgraduate research for the current
study. The data indicate a high number of Masters degrees produced in all Gauteng universities.
However, the study did not differentiate between full thesis and half thesis. In the Gauteng region,
there are 1201 Masters theses and 226 Doctoral theses on the database in total. The analysis of
individual institution indicates that UJ (706) and Wits (400) universities have produced more
theses as compared with UP (305) and TUT (25) universities respectively (cf. Table 3).
Table 3. Gauteng theses on database by degree.
Degree UP Wits TUT UJ Total

Doctorate 94 32 0 100 226
Masters 207 366 25 603 1201
NK 4 2 0 3 9
Total 305 400 25 706 1436
Furthermore, the data clearly shows that UJ (100) and UP (94) have produced more
Doctorate theses as compared with Wits (32) and TUT (0). It is worth mentioning that the
latter institution is a merger of two Technikons, which is possibly the reason why they have not
produced Doctorate theses within the period of the 1995-2004.
Description of Theses by Language
Language of written theses: South Africa has been dominated by two languages prior
1994, which were also used in institutions of higher learning. Based on the Gauteng theses,
these languages, namely English and Afrikaans, continue to be dominantly used for the writing
of theses in the study period 1995-2004. The data show that in all Gauteng universities English
is favourably used for the writing of theses (1148), while Afrikaans (288) is used in some
universities (cf. Table 4). UW is the only institution that does not have a thesis written in
Afrikaans, which is possibly shaped by the history of the institution, thus predominantly
Whites.
Table 4. Gauteng theses on database by languages.
Language UP Wits TUT UJ Total

English 194 400 22 532 1148
Afrikaans 111 0 3 174 288
Total 305 400 25 706 1436
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
54 Gauteng Database Analysis by Sector Definitions
The following section focuses on the data produced on educational research during
the period 1995 – 2004 within the different sectors in Gauteng region. Twelve sectors were
identified. There were 81 (5.6%) theses, which could not identify the sector in where the
postgraduate theses were conducted, and these were recorded as nil. Some of the sectors were
not reported as they are numerically insignificant as the year by year break down showed there
were no theses within those sectors.
Sectoral Analysis of Postgraduate Research Production in Gauteng Region
The authors used the categories in the NRF report (Guimond, 2006). However, the re-
searchers identified sectors not documented in the aforementioned report which shall be discuss
later in this study. Table 5 shows the distribution of the educational sector per university in
the Gauteng region. The analysis of the education postgraduate data shows that schooling has
been the main focus of research in all four Gauteng universities. Johannesburg University has
the highest number of theses in schooling followed by Wits and Pretoria respectively. Even
though, Tshwane University has not produced many theses, but their main focus has also been
on schooling. Tertiary and Adult Basic Education Training (ABET) followed schooling with
high number of theses respectively. There has been researching focus on government and mixed
(research across educational sectors) research respectively, with early childhood education as
the least being researched.
Table 5. Disaggregation of theses on the Gauteng region per institution by sec-

tors.
Sector UP Wits TUT UJ Total

ABET 10 17 0 19 46
Civil Society 0 4 0 1 7
Continuing Ed 0 10 0 10 21
ECE 0 6 1 2 9
Government 2 19 0 5 27
Mixed 0 11 0 10 2
Nil 3 38 0 40 81
Parastatal 0 1 0 0 1
Post Secondary 0 2 2 12 16
Private Sector 2 6 0 7 15
Schooling 134 185 15 463 797
Service Provider 5 13 0 2 20
Tertiary 63 56 3 33 153
Figure 3 reveals that schooling and tertiary sectors are the most researched in the Gau-
teng region. When compared the ‘national’ data sets with the Gauteng regional sector trends,
the region accounts for over 40% of each of the sectors researched ‘nationally’.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
55
Tertiary 153
20
Schooling 797
15
Post Secondary 16
1
Sector
Nil 81
22
Government 27
9
Continuing 21
7
ABET 46
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Number of theses
Figure 3: Sector trends for theses over 10 year study period.
Description of Theses with a Post-secondary Focus
The first five years in the ten year study period revealed significant interest in the research
conducted in the post-secondary sector than in the latter years. Thirteen out of sixteen (81%)
theses focused on this sector was conducted in the first five years. The heightened interest in
the post-secondary education immediately after democracy might have to do with restructuring
higher education by the government during this period.
Description of Theses with Tertiary Focus
The analysis of Figure 4 shows a consistent interest in tertiary education over the ten
year period with a peak in the second year of study (1996) and the last, but one year of study
(2003). However, there was a drastic change of interest in postgraduate research within the
tertiary sector in 2004. When comparing the ‘national’ and the Gauteng regional graphs on
tertiary sector as a focus, they follow the same pattern.
Figure 4: Theses pertaining to tertiary focus.

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
56 Description of Theses with Schooling as a Focus
Schooling is the most researched sector by far. It constitutes 74% (887) of the total
sectors 1196. This is understandably so as the postgraduate theses are in education and are
mostly conducted by practicing teachers. Also, the period of study was marked by policy
changes in education after 1994. The postgraduate theses on schooling sector varied in the
issues researched, for example 191 theses focused on leadership and management topics, 142
focused on curriculum in which 30 paid attention to policy matters and 4 on democracy. The
next section addressed description of theses with the private sector as a focus. Only 3 theses
focused on civil society sector. These theses covered areas such as training needs for national
land committee, rural groups and workshops for managers of policy services. There were 14
theses focusing on private sector on the Gauteng data base. The postgraduate studies tackle
issues such as ‘spiritual fulfillment in the corporate world’, and the ‘impact of fire walk as a
learning intervention.’ The description of theses with ‘service providers’ as a focus was also
considered. The regional data base had 20 theses focusing on service provider as a sector. The
20 theses focusing on this sector are evenly distributed over the ten year period of the study
with approximately 2 theses per year except in the year 2000, there were 6 and in 2004 none.
Some of the areas researched in this sector included ‘the role played by the Assembly of God
Church in the development of the Ndengeza Community in Rural Giyani’ and ‘environmental
education offered by Delta Environmental Centre.’ Additionally, theses with Adult Basic
Education and Training (ABET) as a focus was addressed. There were 46 theses in the Gauteng
region pertaining to ABET. The results are similar to the analysis of the national data set. In fact,
Gauteng region accounts for 71% (46) of the ‘national’ theses (65) within the ABET sector. This
is evident in the year 1999 where research interest in this area peaked at 11 theses in the region,
while the ‘national’ peaked at 13 theses. The distribution of the theses within the ABET sector
in the Gauteng region is shaped as a bell curve known as normal distribution.
Theses with focusing on Early Childhood Education (ECE) was next. The number of
theses within the ECE sector is negligible. Only 9 theses out of 1436 dealt with issues in the
National qualification Framework (NQF) level 1. It was observed that five out of ten years in the
study period there was no (0) theses that dealt with ECE. This empirical evidence supports the
outcry in education that ECE is a neglected area of focus, while Matric issues preoccupies most
people in education (e.g. Department of Education - DoE). Lastly, the researchers addressed
theses with government as a focus. Each year within the ten year study period, there was at
least 1 thesis in the Gauteng region that focused on the government sector unlike in the other
unpopular sectors where in some years there was no thesis focused on them. There were 26
theses focusing on the government sector in the Gauteng region within the study period.
Discussion of Research
With regards to the objectives of the study, the focus was to give an account of the main
demographic categories of postgraduate education research in Gauteng region. The Gauteng
province has four universities and two universities of technologies namely University of Pretoria
(UP), South Africa (UNISA), Witwatersrand (Wits), Johannesburg (UJ), Tshwane (TUT) and
Vaal (VUT) respectively. Although, UNISA is part of Gauteng province, it excluded in this
Gauteng region study due to postgraduate education research that is conducted both nationally
and internationally. Consequently, it is analysed as a stand alone institution. In addition, VUT
is not yet part of the sample because, based on their website, it was noted that education did not
feature in their department/schools. Based on this information, it was excluded from the study.
In December 2008 the current study identified that VUT has some education theses and decided
that it will be visited within the first semester in 2009 as part of Phase 3 data gathering. Taking
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
into consideration the number of Gauteng regions’ theses, if some theses are found at VUT this 57
will increase the number of theses in this region. Although, this region has produced a high
number of theses, however there is a glaring disparity in the number of theses produced by the
universities and universities of technology. The data shows that learning/teaching practice (266)
are highly researched. This could be because of the concerns about the standards of and intentions
to improve teaching and learning in the classroom. The management (232) and curriculum
(206) have also been prioritised, possibly because of the concerns with school management and
the implementation of the curriculum in the schools. The perceptions seem to be that improving
school management might influence school success. It is of interest that HIV/AIDS seems not
to have been the priority of research taking into consideration the serious emphasis on teaching
about HIV/AIDS in schools (cf. Figure 5) (Stern, Frohna & Gruppen, 2005). This also goes
with language issues as aforementioned (cf. results) which have caused contention and debates
in relation to the use of African languages as part of medium of instruction.
Figure 5: These pertaining to disciplinary area in Gauteng (part 1).
The second part of disciplinary area indicated that special needs/inclusive education (89)
and community (53) research have received high attention. Although schooling and learning/
teaching practice have dominated research areas, however this data indicate that early childhood
education has not receive much research attention (cf. Figure 6). Values and law/legislation
have received less research attention respectively.
Figure 6: Disciplinary areas of theses produced in Gauteng.

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
58 In addition to research areas that are identified by NRF, other research areas have emerged
from this data (see Figure 7). The data shows that high numbers of theses are produced on race/
desegregation (147) and higher education institutions (116), which could be influenced by the
transitional period in South African society and in institutions of higher learning. Of interest is
that when issues on democracy and violence have been debated in education, however only 55
and 15 theses are written on these topics respectively.
Figure 7: Disciplinary area identified by PPER (Gauteng).
There are 20 theses in the Gauteng region within the study period which focused on
continuing education. These theses dealt with a wide range of in-service and workplace related
training such as developing teachers in the internet to form virtual communities of practice.
Disaggregation of theses over the ten year study period showed that there were theses focusing
on continuing education in the first two years.
Conclusion
The results revealed that there are twelve sectors (forms) that have been identified for
knowledge generation in educational research. This study has aimed to show that knowledge
generation is unsatisfying. Working with the aim of developing new knowledge in practice
quickly reveals that the process of knowledge development is interwoven with many other social
processes. Our argument is that the knowledge generation at the present stage in development
is not able to sort between work processes. This limits the perspective when we try to enhance
workplace development and innovation. Hence, knowledge generation is a common approach
in all theories, they are probably not as consistent and mutually compatible as it might seem.
Furthermore, the contextual dimension in knowledge development has to be taken into account,
that is, we need to do more research into what happens in the transformation processes in
different contexts. We need to, in our developmental work, aim at understanding knowledge
generation in other ways.
References
Balfour, R., Moletsane, R., Karlsson, J., Pillay, G., Rule, P., Nkambule, T., Davey, B., Lekena, L.,
Molefe, S., Madiya, N., Bengesai, A. and Goba, B. (2008). Project Postgraduate Educational Research
in Education: Issues, Trends and Reflections. Faculty of Education-UKZN: KwaZulu-Natal.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Carr, R., Hagel, P. (2008). Students Evaluation of Teaching Quality and their Unit Online Activity: An 59
Imperical Investigation: Proceedings Ascillate Melbourne 2008. Retrieved on 21 August, 2010. http://
ascillate.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/carr-r.pdf
Chisholm, L. (Ed). (2004). Changing Class: Education and Social Change in post-apartheid in South
Africa: Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council.
Francis, D., Hemson, C., Mphambukeli, T., and Quin, J. (2003). Who are we? Naming ourselves as
facilitators. Journal of Education, 31, 136-150.
Guimond, S. (Ed.). (2006). Social Comparison and Social Psychology: Understanding Cognition,
Intergroup Relations and Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hemson, C. (2006). Teacher Education and the Challenge of Education in South Africa. Cape Town:
Human Sciences Research Council Press.
Moore, R. (2004). Education and Society: Issues and Explanations in the Sociology of Education.
Cambridge: Polity Press.
Nelson Mandela Foundation (2005). Emerging Voices. Pretoria: Human Science Research Council
Press.
Ratele, K. (Ed.). (2006). Inter-group Relations: South African Perspectives. Cape Town: Juta and
Company LTD.
Pincus, F. L. (2006). Understanding diversity: An introduction to class, race, gender & sexual orientation.
London: Lynne Reinner Publishers.
Robinson, K. H. and Diaz, C. J. (2006). Diversity and Difference in Early Childhood Education. New
York: Open University Press.
Seekings, J. and Nattrass, N. (2006). Class, Race, and Inequality in South Africa. Pietermaritzburg:
University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
Snowball, J. and Wilson, M. (2006). What Matters in Large Class Teaching and Learning? A case Study
of an Introductory Macroeconomics Course in South Africa: Journal of College Teaching and Learning,
3(11), 59-70.
Stern, D. T., Frohna, A. Z. and Gruppen, L. D. (2005). The Prediction of Professional Behaviour. Medical
education, 39(1), 75-82.
The Task Force on Higher Education and Society (2000). Higher Education in Developing Countries:
Peril and Promise. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
60 Advised by Laima Railienė, University of Siauliai, Lithuania
Received: January��
��
20��
, 2011 Accepted: February 15, 2011
Liile L. Lekena Evaluations Consultant, University of Witwatersrand, ��

1 Jan Smuts Avenue,
Braamfontein 2000,��
Johannesburg, South Africa.
E-mail: liile.lekena@wits.ac.za
Website: http://www.wits.ac.za/
Anass Bayaga Lecturer, Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare, P.O. Box 7426, 50
Church Street, 5201 East London, South Africa.
Phone: +27 (0) 43 704 7076.
E-mail: abayaga@ufh.ac.za
Website: http://ufh.ac.za/
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
ASSESSMENT OF PARTICIPATION OR 61
MUSICALITY: PILOT STUDY AMONG

ESTONIAN MUSIC TEACHERS
Marit Mõistlik, Tiina Selke

Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia
E-mail: moistlik@gmail.com, tiina.selke@tlu.ee
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to analyse what Estonian music teachers assess in music lesson and to
what extent is it connected with their notion of musicality. A questionnaire was used to collect the data,
which was compiled by the authors of the current study, the results of which were quantitatively analysed.
Altogether 61 music teachers from all over Estonia participated in the study. It was found that music
teachers primarily consider characteristics of musicality: sense of rhythm, ability to sing, and other
traditional musical skills and their development. In addition, creativity is highly appreciated, but treated
more like a slogan and in fact teachers do not know what they are assessing under the banner of creativity.
It is also important to notice that music teachers assess visible musical activities as output giving evidence
of musicality (“I assess what I see”). That means that receptive musical activities (i.e. listening to music)
and general responsiveness to music are left aside when assessing pupils’ musicality. The current study
proved the necessity to understand musicality more widely in socio-cultural context than solely musical
skills and highlighted the need for harmonising the assessment criteria and notions among teachers.
Key words: assessment, classroom activities, music lesson, music teacher, notion of musicality.
Introduction
Music teachers’ role in children’s education is very versatile. Different authors and
times have highlighted different aspects of the role music plays in education. From pedagogical
aspect, aesthetic, expressive, cultural, personal, social, therapeutic, functional and recreational
values are distinguished, which is why music education has established a firm position in the
curricula of the majority of countries (Goleman, 2000; Hodges, 2005; Selke, 2007). Thus, on
the one hand, music teachers open up the path to the world of music, on the other, they have to
assess children’s musical development.
Historically, musical ability or musical aptitude has been conceptualised in relation to
aural abilities and has been handled as a part of musicality (Gruhn & Rauscher, 2008; Hallam,
2006b; Hargreaves, 2005; North & Hargreaves, 2008). Many researchers consider the concept
of musicality rather as a linguistic construct than a musical concept (Hallam, 2006b; Hargreaves,
2005; Ross, 2007). The tests in music and expressing musicality could be historically
distinguished into three types, including both musical, cognitive and social aspects: (1) tests of
ability (individual’s potential for music learning); (2) tests of achievement (knowledge, skills);
(3) tests of attitudes (interests, preferences, taste and sensitivity) (Hargreaves, 2005, p. 25).
Ruddock & Leong (2005) characterise musicality through seven aspects which are
ordered according to where musicking takes (or does not take) place:
Musical as...
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
62 (1) a competent performer sings or plays privately and in public

(2) a performer at home or non-public place sings or plays privately
(3) a social performer with others at home or sings or plays privately with others
non-public place
(4) an appreciator listens or appreciates
Not musical as...
(5) a solo performer in public does not sing or play by oneself in public
(6) a non-public performer does not sing or play privately at home or other
non-public venue
(7) an appreciator does not listen or appreciate
A similar situation to traditional societies where capacity for musical activities is expected
of all its members prevails in contemporary Western societies – individuals are generally
expected to have the capacity to listen to music with a degree of appreciation (Cross, & Morley,
2010, p. 72). Every human being has an innate musicality and it is part of our ongoing expressive
and communicative life. Musicality, in that sense, is not about being ‘musically talented’ but as
neuroscientists have observed and documented that humans are born with an innate musicality
which is expressed in the very earliest exchanges with our parents (Herkenrath, 2005, p. 150;
Pavlicevic, 1997, p. 118; Perret, 2005, p. 16). Even more – musicality of social interaction
perspective refers that human social interaction is organised musically. This musicality is what
linguists call “speech prosody” i.e. speaking and listening behaviour is performed in real time
in patterns of regular rhythm, and pitch and volume changes in addition to visible aspects of
musicality, this is prosody of gestures (Erickson, 2009, p. 449). This kind of musicality can
be considered a foundation for the pedagogical process-interaction in the classroom. All the
abovementioned sub-divisions and characteristics cover different kinds of aspects from music
making and composing to music appreciation. It concerns the meaning of the musicality in this
article.
Research Problem
Both in Estonia and elsewhere in the world, musicality has been interpreted as musical
skills, primarily the ability to sing (Hallam, 2006b; Päts, 2010; Rannap, 1977). Today musicality
is viewed from a considerably wider perspective (Hargreaves, 2005; Kangron, 2003, p. 15;
Sloboda, 2005). In connection with the emergence of new forms of music making, such as
stomp, beatbox, computer music, etc, which instead of traditional musical ability require certain
knowledge, skills and creativity, this view could be further revised on the basis of cultural
context and time. Lehmann, Sloboda & Woody (2007, p. 6) emphasise that musical skills
(musicality in a narrower sense) are culture-specific, they vary across time and space and share
characteristics with other skills.
Teaching music is a subject where a teacher has to assess pupils. The assessment/grading
is based on the guidelines which are drawn from the assessment of pupils’ musical development,
which usually means the development of pupils’ musicality. Since concepts of musicality
differ, the assessment is also different and teachers grade different aspects (from carrying a
tune to general responsiveness to music). In that case another question is the assessment of
pupils’ musical skills, their musicality. Many studies confirm that music teachers’ preconceived
attitude has an effect on pupils’ skills (Sloboda, 2005; Swanwick, 2001). Different views on
music and musicality between generations may be one of the reasons for a decrease in the
interest in music. That fact has been underlined by many researchers (Green, 2008; Juvonen,
2006; Kruuse, 2004; Maasild, 1994; Marnauza, Kriumane & Gzibovskis, 2006; Mõistlik, 2009;
Marit MÕISTLIK, Tiina SELKE. Assessment of Participation or Musicality: Pilot Study among Estonian Music Teachers
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Selke, 2007; Simson, Sõitja & Niilo, 1992). If the definition of musicality were narrow, would 63
teachers assess only musical abilities in lessons?
Pursuant to education source documents the assessment of children’s musical development
is based on fixed criteria (Järv, 1997, p. 14-17; Muusika, 2002; Sepp, 2005, p. 23-24). These
are mainly the criteria we usually call musical skills or in a wider sense, musicality. To test
musicality usually traditional musical skills are checked: ability to sing (carry a tune), rhythm
and melody memory and sense of harmony. On the same basis pupils are admitted to music hobby
groups of general education schools and music schools (Koolist, 2009; Sisseastumiskatsete
2009; Vastuvõtt, 2009).
Eventually, Whidden (2008) suggests that students, who have been labelled as non-
singers by one whom they deemed as a musical expert, internalise this judgement and allow it
to curtail future singing endeavours throughout adolescence and adulthood. Such students in
later life may become adult non-singers.

Research Focus
The aim of this study was to ascertain music teachers’ notions of musicality and
assessment criteria in music lessons. We also set out to investigate whether and how teachers’
assessments are related to their view of singing, playing musical instruments and other music
lesson activities, proceeding from their notion of musicality.
This study attempted to map:

1) What do Estonian music teachers appreciate under the banner of musicality in music
lesson?
2) What is music teachers’ notion of musicality in Estonia?

Research Methodology
General Background of the Research
A questionnaire was filled individually to collect the data, which was compiled by ��the
authors of the current study, that consisted of two sections: Section A aimed to map music
teachers’ notion of musicality and the objective of Section B was to get an overview of music
teachers’ assessment criteria for singing, playing instruments and other music lesson activities.
Sample of the Research
The study involved general music teachers – all females (N = 61), what is approximately
15% of music teachers of basic and upper-secondary Estonian-speaking schools in Estonia (Selke,
2007, p. 97). Respondents were aged between 26 and 63, of whom 75% had higher education
and 25% secondary specialised education as music teachers and came from all thirteen counties
of Estonia with the highest proportion (28%) from the capital Tallinn and its surroundings).
Questionnaire was sent personally via e-mail to all music teachers through Estonian Basic School
network. For 34% of the teachers the questionnaire was shared personally in the supplementary
courses in December 2009. Every
��
respondent could get additional instruction personally or by
e-mail if this was needed��
. About 10% of the respondents used this possibility.
Instrument and Procedures

The questionnaire was carried out between December 2009 and January 2010. The data
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
64 was collected by conducting the questionnaire during a music teachers’ training course (34%)
and electronically (66%). To the respondents who filled in the questionnaire during the training
course the meaning of the terms beatbox, stomp, sampling, etc. was explained when necessary.
Respondents who filled in the questionnaire electronically had an opportunity to consult about
the problems arising by e-mail or phone. From 210 questionnaires 61 (29%) were returned.
The musicality section of the questionnaire (Section A) consists of questions on the topic
“To what extent do the following options show musicality?” and it includes 30 indicators,
which point out different aspects of musicality: (1) musical ear, pitch discrimination; (2)
sense of rhythm; (3) sense of harmony; (4) ability to improvise and create music; (5) ability
to sing; (6) ability to interpret music; (7) ability to communicate through music; (8) ability
to co-operate musically; (9) ability to express ideas, emotions through sounds; (10) musical
memory; (11) various musical complex skills; (12) ability to distinguish timbres; (13) sense of
coherence in music; (14) creativity; (15) musical literacy; (16) ability to play an instrument;
(17) interest in musical activities; (18) commitment to music, devotion; (19) technical skills
(vocal, instrumental); (20) emotional reactions to music; (21) ability to create sounds with
non-common sound sources; (22) understanding structure of music; (23) sampling in order
to express ideas; (24) good co-ordination; (25) appreciation of music; (26) knowledge about
music; (27) interest in handling computer sounds; (28) ability to estimate both traditional and
computer music; (29) skill of creating computer music; (30) physical reactions to music (see
Figure 1).
In Hallam and Prince’s (2003) study participants’ responses to the question “Musical
ability is...” seemed to describe overall music ability as combinations of various music-specific
skills and general qualities (Reynolds & Hyun, 2004; Hallam, 2006a). These categories and
factors served as a model and an example in the formulation of the indicators in the current
study.
To find out about assessment criteria, teachers were asked three questions with multiple-
choice in Section B:
1) When assessing a pupils’ singing, I primarily assess: (a) courage to perform, (b)
knowing lyrics by heart, (c) carrying a tune, (d) rhythmically accurate chanting of the song, (e)
singing the song to the end in spite of errors, (f) clear resonant voice”;
2) When assessing a pupils’ playing musical instruments, I primarily assess: (a) correct
way of holding the instrument, (b) rhythmic accuracy, (c) ability to listen to fellow-pupils (i.e.
maintaining a balance in sound intensity), (d) playing to the end in spite of errors, (e) selecting
an instrument with appropriate timbre (e.g. to accompany a concrete song), (f) new, non-
traditional playing techniques;
3) When assessing other musical activities in the lesson, I primarily asses: (a) active
participation in the given activity, (b) availability of implements and learning materials, (c)
creativity, expressing fantasy, (d) maintaining peaceful lesson atmosphere, behaviour, (e)
development of musical skills, (f) musical knowledge (see Figure 2).
This means the general assessment of sub-skills that numerical grading is based on and
also a numerical grade for each concrete musical activity.
Since in Estonia singing is the most widely used activity in music lessons besides
playing musical instruments (Kruuse, 2004; Mõistlik, 2007, 2008; Selke, 2007; Sepp, 2005,
p. 23), these two formed separate blocks in Section B. In the third block in addition to other
music lesson activities also two organisational aspects of assessment of the lesson (peaceful
lesson atmosphere and behaviour; availability of learning materials) were included because
the curriculum (Sepp, 2005, p. 23) and research have proved that in practice these aspects get
often assessed as well (Järv, 1997, p. 14-16; Marnauza et al., 2006; Mõistlik, 2009; Ruismäki &
Ruokonen, 2006). According to praxial philosophy of music education (Elliott, 2005a, 2005b),
listening to the music as reflective activity was not separated from singing and instrumental
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
activities. 65
All blocks of Section B also provided an opportunity for an open answer. There was
a space at the end of the questionnaire where respondents were able to write their comments:
“Beside singing, playing musical instruments and other musical activities I also assess:”
Responses to the whole questionnaire were on a five-point Likert scale: “strongly agree”, “tend
to agree”, “neither agree nor disagree”, “tend to disagree”, “strongly disagree”. For the better
overview (in the results and figures) the scale was reduced to three point scale.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics (SPSS 14.0) was used to describe the data: weighted averages and
frequency distributions were applied. Correspondence and different characteristics were found
by means of correlations, cross tables and Chi-square test (χ2-test). Frequency characteristics
have been complemented with explanatory comments written by respondents.

Research Results
Section A of the questionnaire revealed that musicality is primarily viewed as sense

of rhythm, pitch perception, and sense of harmony (Figure 1). Three distributions of notions
of musicality can be distinguished in the Figure: (1) high rating (85.2-98.4% of respondents
“strongly agree/tend to agree”); (2) average rating (67.2-83.6% of respondents “strongly agree/
tend to agree”); and (3) is not considered important (23-60.7% of respondents “strongly agree/
tend to agree”).
"To what extent do the following options show musicality?"
Respondents answers "strongly agree" and "tend to agree" compounded.
sense of rhythm 98,4
musical ear, pitch discrimination 96,8
sense of harmony 91,8
ability to interpret music 91,8
ability to improvise and create music 88,5
ability to communicate through music 88,5
ability to sing 88,5
musical memory 88,5
various complex skills 88,5
ability to co-operate musically 86,9
ability to express ideas, emotions through sounds 85,2
ability to play an instrument 83,6
ability to distinguish timbres 82
musical literacy 75,5
sense of coherence in music 73,8
creativity 70,5
interest in musical activities 68,9
technical skills (vocal, instrumental) 67,2
commitment to music, devotion 60,7
emotional reactions to music 60,7
ability to create sounds with non-common sound sources 55,8
understanding structure of music 54,1
appreciation of music 44,2
knowledge about music 39,3
ability to estimate both traditional and computer music 37,7
good co-ordination 36,1
sampling in order to express ideas 32,8
intrest in handling computer sounds 24,6
skill to create computer music 24,6
physical reactions to music 23
Figure 1: Estonian music teachers’ notion of musicality (Section A).

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
66 It would be interesting to point out that more than 30% of answers “strongly disagree”/
”tend to agree” went to the following options: emotional reactions to music (31.1%), sampling
in order to express ideas (32.8%), ability to create sounds with non-common sound sources
(34.4%), understanding structure of music (36.1%), ability to estimate both traditional and
computer music and good co-ordination (both 39.3%), interest in handling computer sounds
(40%), skill of creating computer music (41%), appreciation of music and knowledge about
music (both 45.9%) and physical reactions to music (62.3%).
More that 10% of answers “neither agree not disagree” went to options commitment to
music, knowledge about music and physical reactions to music (all 14.7%), ability to estimate
both traditional and computer music (23%), good co-ordination (24.6%), sampling in order
to express ideas, interest in handling computer sounds and skill of creating computer music
(34.4%).
Section B of the questionnaire revealed that teachers assess in the main active participation
in the given activity, development of musical skills and creativity in their lessons (Figure 2).
"When assessing pupil's in the lesson, I primarly assess..."

Respondets answers "strongly agree" and "tend to agree" compounded.
active participation in the given activity 98,4
development of musical skills 98,4
creativity, expressing fantasy 98,4
singing the song to the end in spite of errors 93,4
rhythmic accuracy (when playing) 91,8
ability to listen to fellow-pupils (when playing) 90,2
musical knowledge 90,2
correct way of holding the instrument 86,9
courage to perform (when singing) 86,9
rhythmically accurate chanting of the song 85,2
playing to the end in spite of errors 83,6
clear resonant voice (when singing) 73,8
knowing lyrics by heart (when singing) 68,8
availability of implements and learning materials 67,2
carrying a tune (when singing) 67,2
maintaining peaceful lesson atmosphere, behaviour 57,4
selecting an instrument with appropriate timbre 52,5
new, non-traditional playing techniques 42,6
Figure 2: Music teachers’ assessments in music lessons in general music (Sec-

tion B).
It would be interesting to point out that more than 30% of answers “strongly disagree”/
”tend to agree” went to the following option maintaining peaceful lesson atmosphere,
behaviour (34.4%). And more that 10% of answers “neither agree not disagree” went to options
rhythmically accurate chanting of the song (11.5%), knowing lyrics by heart (13.1%), selecting
an instrument with appropriate timbre (e.g. to accompany a concrete song) (29.5%), new, non-
traditional playing techniques (34.4%).
That was also outlined in the comments added, which appreciated “generally active
attitude and interest”, “contribution to performances”, “working together, willingness”; “...
understanding music, attentive listening to music, ability to express one’s opinion”; “pupils’
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
own initiative to explore something, learn, find in addition to what the teacher has asked to”, 67
“willingness to make music and do it with joy (without any coercion)”, “it is very important to
have interest, willingness and belief in oneself, the knowledge that I can do it.“
The χ2-test of Section B with respondents’ place of residence showed that teachers from
Harjumaa county (including capital Tallinn) rate peaceful lesson atmosphere and behaviour
much higher than all other teachers: χ2(4, N = 61) = 10.78, p = 0.029. On the other hand, they
rate musical knowledge lower than other respondents: χ2 (4, N = 61) = 10.36, p = 0.035.
The χ2-test with age revealed a tendency that respondents aged 26 to 35 and above 55
rated new techniques in playing musical instruments higher than the rest of the sample. The χ2-
test of the ratings of Section B with education demonstrated a slight tendency that respondents
with secondary specialised education rated carrying a tune while singing lower than respondents
with higher education. A respondent’s comment: “If a child does not carry a tune, I will not give
him or her poor grade for that. I think it is especially important in primary school, to maintain
children’s joy of singing. My experience is that in three or four years quite many of the children
have started carrying a tune. “
In order to compare relations between the two sections of the questionnaire, part of the
30 characteristics of musicality in Section A were grouped into three new characteristics, which
were selected on the basis that they would reflect the music lesson activities set out in Part B
of the questionnaire:
(1) traditional characteristics of musicality (sense of rhythm, pitch perception, ability to
sing, musical memory, sense of harmony);
(2) general characteristics of musicality (sense of timbre, instrumental skills, sense of
coherence, musical knowledge);
(3) characteristics of creativity (ability to improvise, creativity, ability to express ideas
and emotions through sounds).
The relations between the three new characteristics and Section B, where teachers rated
activities in music lessons, allowed us to find some new statistically significant correlations.
A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship
between the following characteristics:
1) a positive correlation between traditional characteristics of musicality and rhythmic
accuracy of playing an instrument, r = 0.356, p = 0.007;
2) a positive correlation between general characteristics of musicality and musical
knowledge, r = 0.468, p = 0.001;
3) a positive correlation between characteristics of creativity and musical knowledge, r
= 0.342, p = 0.008.
The characteristics of creativity weakly correlated with the characteristics of expressing
creativity and fantasy in Section B, r = 0.270, p = 0.036.
Statistically significant correlations also occurred between individual assessment criteria
of Section B. A correlation related to singing: carrying a tune correlated with rhythmically
accurate chanting of the song (r = 0.395, p = 0.003). Correlations related to playing an instrument:
new instrument playing techniques strongly correlated with playing to the end in spite of
errors (r = 0.504, p = 0.001). Ability to listen to the fellow-pupils correlated with selecting an
instrument with appropriate timbre (r = 0.416, p = 0.006) as well as with correct way of holding
the instrument (r = 0.347, p = 0.009). In other musical activities musical knowledge correlated
with expressing creativity and fantasy (r = 0.552, p = 0.001) and the availability of learning
materials with peaceful lesson atmosphere and behaviour (r = 0.592, p = 0.001).
Discussion
As characteristics of musicality music teachers rated highly skills assessed at music

school entrance test (sense of rhythm, pitch perception, sense of harmony, ability to sing). They
primarily appreciate the ability to sing, carry a tune, and other traditional musical abilities and
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
68 their development (see Figure 1). There may be two reasons for that: (1) historical tradition
(music education as the teaching of singing in Estonia); (2) little awareness of social and
psychological aspects of music (as a means of self-development and self-regulation), which
became topical in connection with the spread of the idea of music therapy in Estonia at the
beginning of the 1990s (Rüütel, & Tamm, 1995; Selke, 2007). When assessing the development
of musical skills (Figure 2), teachers to a great extent still assess musical knowledge, although
they do not consider it important as a characteristic of musicality. Here lies a conflict: on the
one hand, the aim is to support the development of pupils’ musical skills, but on the other hand
there is the framework syllabus with its compulsory load of formal knowledge.
Teachers also give high ratings to social skills (Figure 1: ability to cooperate musically,
ability to communicate through music) both as characteristics of musicality and also when
assessing pupils in the lesson (Figure 2: ‘ability to listen to fellow-pupils while playing an
instrument’, to some extent also ‘being active in the lesson’). A new feature is teachers’
high average rating of the ability to improvise and ability to understand and interpret music.
Surprisingly though, respondents do not associate musical creativity (ability to improvise,
ability to express ideas and emotions through sounds, ability to perform/interpret music) with
general creativity, which receives relatively low ratings as a characteristic of musicality (Figure
1). That is demonstrated by the fact that assessing new instrument playing techniques, which
can be related to expressing creativity and fantasy, has also received low ratings from teachers.
At the same time teachers claim that they give high grades for creativity in the lesson (Figure
2). The reason for the above conflict may lie in the fact that musical creativity and general
creativity are viewed as separate. A similar tendency also occurred in the population survey
(Selke, 2007), where the word “creativity” was not associated with musical creativity.
A tendency occurred that respondents aged 26 to 35 and 55< rated new techniques in
playing musical instruments more highly than the rest of the sample. That tendency is consistent
with the study of musicality (Selke, 2009) that also involved music teachers (N = 28), which
indicated that the most innovative respondents were of the same age. That may be explained
by the fact that older teachers have achieved pedagogical peace and are feeling secure in
methodology. Young teachers are more open to the new (including new playing techniques)
and they continue enjoying experimentation.
When assessing pupils in the lesson (Figure 2), teachers prioritise active participation,
development of musical skills, creativity along with singing the song to the end in spite of errors,
rhythmic accuracy, ability to listen fellow-pupils (when playing), and musical knowledge. The
principle of active participation is one of the basic goals of the music lesson valued by majority
of researchers (Elliott, 1995; Green, 2008; Lehmann et al., 2007; Päts, 2010; Swanwick, 2001)
as well as curriculum designers (Muusika, 2002, 2010). On this point curriculum designers and
music teachers share the same value. Comparison with Section A of the questionnaire, however,
shows, that musical knowledge as a characteristic of musicality is not considered important
(Figure 1, position 24 on the scale of 1 to 30). It deserves attention that music teachers working
outside Harjumaa county rated musical knowledge very highly (93% of the responses strongly
agree/tend to agree). Compared to the responses by the teachers from Harjumaa county (incl.
capital Tallinn) (82% of the responses strongly agree/tend to agree) there is a statistically
significant difference (p = 0.035).
The other statistically significant difference concerned the assessment of peaceful lesson
atmosphere and behaviour as other musical activity. Teachers of Harjumaa county (incl. capital
Tallinn) rated it highly (77% of the responses strongly agree/tend to agree). The comparison
of that to the responses of teachers working outside Harjumaa county (50% of the responses
strongly agree/tend to agree) reveals that the statistical difference is significant (p = 0.029). That
may indicate the occurrence of discipline problems, which makes teachers deal with educational
issues most of the time. Maintaining peaceful atmosphere in the lesson is a precondition for
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
achieving better academic results and knowledge. Other studies have also categorised rural 69
schools as considerably more child-centred (freer from tension, fear and stress) (Sarv, 2008, p.
196). In the comments on peaceful lesson atmosphere and behaviour teachers have pointed out
the fact that “for behaviour and availability of learning materials there is a separate diligence
and behaviour grade” and “I think that when assessing musical activity, it is not possible to
grade behaviour at the same time”.
The χ2-test of the ratings of Section B with education demonstrated a slight tendency that
respondents with secondary specialised education rated carrying a tune while singing lower
than respondents with higher education. Earlier studies on the activity of music teachers (Selke,
2007, p. 142) show that teachers with secondary specialised education do not set very high
criteria in individual activities but rather tend to develop children’s general musicianship.
Correlations revealed a correspondence between traditional characteristics of musicality
(sense of rhythm, pitch perception, ability to sing, musical memory, sense of harmony) and
rhythmic accuracy of playing an instrument. That correspondence is very natural (Figures 1,
2), although singing ability is of little importance for playing a musical instrument. Correlation
between general characteristics of musicality (sense of timbre, instrumental skills, sense of
coherence, musical knowledge) and musical knowledge is also natural. Surprising and somewhat
questionable is correspondence between characteristics of creativity (ability to improvise,
creativity, ability to express ideas and emotions through sounds) and musical knowledge. A
similar connection also occurred in the correlation of individual assessment criteria of Section B
with musical knowledge and expressing creativity and fantasy. This contradiction may be related
to a linguistic problem due to which respondents do not understand the meaning of the word
“creativity”. That is confirmed by a weak correlation between characteristics of creativity and
expressing creativity and fantasy. At the same time, relying on McPherson’s research, a positive
correlation has been found between the ability to read music (musical knowledge), ability to
improvise (creativity), ability to play by ear and to play the learned repertoire (Lehmann et al.
2007, p. 21-22). This means that pupils with good musical knowledge are also more creative.
The problem of emotion is interesting: from the aspect of musicality teachers do not
attach importance to emotional reactions to music, and also physical reactions to music where
pupils are in the role of passive listeners (Figure 1, characteristics with the lowest ratings). At
the same time, expressing emotions in music where pupils are active music makers is considered
an indicator of musicality. Since listening to music is a part of music lessons, a question
arises, whether Estonian music teachers do not think this activity supports the development
of musicality (musical skills). Music psychology and philosophy of music education consider
listening to music an active mental activity that is a skilled musical activity (Elliott, 2005b, p.
7, 11; Lehmann et al., 2007, p. 19). However, singing and courage to perform as expressions of
emotion (Figure 2) where pupils are active doers, are rated highly by teachers.
For wider generalisation of the results this study should be repeated with a larger
sample. Also because all respondents were female teachers and it could influence the results
of current research. It was also revealed by this study that the concept of creativity needs more
clarification. The study should help music teachers to acknowledge that s/he should be flexible
in his/her notion of musicality in order to give objective feedback and grades to the musical
activities of pupils.
The results of the research may be of interest to institutions training music teachers and
providing complementary and in-service training courses for music teachers. As only 29% of
music teachers responded to the questionnaire sent to them, it may be important for future
researchers to find out about the underlying factors of that behaviour and whether it is (or
is not) directly connected with the subject of musicality among Estonian music teachers. It
would be very interesting to know whether in countries with the education system and historical
background like Estonia, the results would be similar.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
70 Conclusions
Based on upon the results, music teachers primarily assess as musicality the sense of
rhythm, pitch perception and other traditional musical abilities and their development. Beside
that teachers also assess the social aspect of music. In addition, teachers highly appreciate
creativity but do not understand its nature very well. This paradox may derive from the fact that
creativity is currently treated as a buzzword. While teachers say that they appreciate creativity,
the questionnaire B shows that this is more a slogan and in fact they do not know what they
are assessing under the banner of creativity. This needs further investigation because one of the
links between musicality and participation is creativity. And if the music teacher does not know
how to assess it in her/his lesson, then it may refer to shortcomings in teacher training.
Music teachers mainly give grades for active participation in the lesson, which does
not necessarily contradict the prior, but renders all preceding aspects subordinate. It is also
important to notice that music teachers assess visible musical activities as output evident of
musicality (“I assess what I see”). But then, receptive musical activities (i.e. listening to music)
and general responsiveness to music is left aside when assessing pupils’ musicality.
The current study proved the necessity to understand musicality more widely in socio-
cultural context than solely musical skills and highlighted the need for harmonising the
assessment criteria and notions among teachers.
In order to create effective music lesson and to confirm pupil’s musicality, music teachers
should broaden and correct their understanding and notion of musicality. If the music teacher
thinks of musicality as one form of communication which is innate, then both singing and
music-making could form a common musical bond and teachers no longer need to assess the
musicality and participation separately. In this case musicality will express in participation.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all the music teachers participating in our study. We are also very
grateful to Eha Rüütel and Linda Pallas for their good advice and assistance.
References
Cross, I., & Morley, I. (2010). The evolution of music: Theories, definitions and the nature of the
evidence. In S. Malloch, C. Trevarthen (eds.), Communicative musicality, (61-82). Oxford, New York:
Oxford University Press.
Elliott, D. (1995). Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Elliott, D. (2005a). The Praxial Philosophy: An Overview.

Retrieved from http://www.davidelliottmusic.com/musicmat/overview.htm
Elliott, D. (2005b). Introduction. In Ed. D. J. Elliott (Ed.) Praxial Music education. Reflections and
Dialogues (pp. 3-19). New York: Oxford University Press.
Erickson, F. (2010). Musicality in talk and listening. A key element in classroom discourse as an
environment for learning. In: S. Malloch, C. Trevarthen (eds.), Communicative musicality, (449-464).
Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
Goleman, D. (2000). Emotsionaalne intelligentsus [Emotional intelligence]. Väike Vanker.
Green, L. (2008). Music, Informal Learning and the School: A New Classroom Pedagogy. UK: Ashgate.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Gruhn, W., & Rauscher, F. R. (2008). Neuroscences in Music Pedagogy. New York: Nova Biomedical 71
Books.
Hallam, S. (2006a). Conceptions of musical ability. 9th International Conference on Music Perception and
Cognition. Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, August 22-26
Hallam, S. (2006b). Music Psychology in Education. Institute of Education, University of London.

London: Bedford Way Papers.
Hallam, S., & Prince, V. (2003). Conceptions of Musical Ability. Research Studies in Music Education,
20, 2-22.
Hargreaves, D. J. (2005). The Developmental Psychology of Music. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Herkenrath, A. (2005). Encounter with the Conscious Being with People in Persistent Vegetative State.
In D. Aldridge (ed.), Music Therapy And Neurological Rehabilitation: Performing Health, (139-160).
Jessica Kingsley London.
Hodges, D. A. (2005). Why Study Music? International Journal of Music Education, 23(2), 111-115.
Juvonen, A. (2006). Problems in Finnish music education: The teacher’s point of view. In A. Juvonen &
M. Anttila (Eds.), Challenges and visions in school music education, (77-101). ��
Joensuun Yliopisto.
Järv, H. M. (1997). Hindamine. Muusikaõpetuse aineraamat. Õppekava [Assessment. ��

Subjec handbook
for music education. Curriculum]. Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Haridusministeerium, 14-17.
Kangron, E. (2003). Relatiivsest noodilugemisest ja muusikalisest kirjaoskusest [Relative music reading

and musical literacy]. Muusika ja kunsti õpetamisest. [Teaching music and art]. Riiklik Eksami- ja
Kvalifikatsioonikeskus. ��
Tallinn: Argo, 15-22.
Koolist. (2009). Nõmme Muusikakool. Sisseastumistingimused. [Nõmme Music School. Entrance

requirements] Retrieved from http://www.nmkool.ee
Kruuse, A. (2004). Muusikaliste väärtushinnangute kujundajad üldhariduskooli 9. ja 12. klassides

[Factors influencing the development of musical values in forms 9 and 12 of general education schools].
(Master’s thesis), Tallinn: Tallinn University.
Lehmann, A. C., J. Sloboda, and R. H. Woody. (2007). Psychology for Musicians. Understanding and
Acquiring the Skills. Oxford University Press.
Maasild, R. (1994). Mürsikute ainehuvi dünaamika. [Dynamics of teenagers’ interest in a subject].

Haridus, 1, 42-47.
Marnauza, M., T. Kriumane, and Gzibovskis, T. (2006). Music education in Latvia. In A. Juvonen & M.
Anttila (eds.), Challenges and visions in school music education, (155-200). Joensuun Yliopisto.
Muusika. Põhikooli ja gümnaasiumi riiklik õppekava [Music. National curriculum for basic and upper-
secondary school]. (2002).
��
Vabariigi Valitsuse 25. jaanuari 2002.a määruse nr 56 lisa 18.
Muusika. Põhikooli riiklik õppekava [Music. National

��
curriculum for basic school]. (2010). Vabariigi
Valitsuse 28. jaanuari 2010. a määruse nr 14 lisa 6.
Mõistlik, M. (2007). Muusikateraapia elementide rakendamise võimalikkusest üldhariduskooli 6. klassi

muusikaõpetuses. [Feasibility of elements of music therapy in a public school’s 6th grade music teaching
praxis]. (Master’s thesis), Tallinn: Tallinn University.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
72 Mõistlik, M. (2008). Teraapiline muusikatund üldhariduskooli 6. klassis [Therapeutic music lesson in a

public school’s 6th grade]. Haridus, 5-6, 42-45.
Mõistlik, M. (2009). Connection between music lessons and involvement with music after leaving school.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 18, 115-127.
North, A., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2008). The Social and Applied psychology of Music. Oxford: Oxford
University Press
Pavlicevic, M. (1997). Music therapy in context: music, meaning and relationship. London & Philadelphia:
Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Perret, D. (2005). Roots of musicality. Music Therapy and Personal Development. Jessica Kingsley
London
Päts, R. (2010). Muusikaline kasvatus üldhariduskoolis [Music education in general education school].
3rd ed. Tallinn: Valgus.
Rannap, H. (1972). Muusika eesti perekonnas ja rahvakoolis [Music in the Estonian family and public
school]. Tallinn: Eesti Raamat
Reynolds, A., M., & Hyun, K. (2004). Understanding Music Aptitude: Teachers’ Interpretations. Research
Studies in Music Education, 23, 18-31
Ross, J. (2007). Kaksteist loengut muusikapsühholoogiast. [Twelve lectures on music psychology.] Tartu:
Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus.
Ruddock, E., & Leong, S. (2005). ‘I am unmusical!’: the verdict of self-judgement. International Journal
of Music Education, 23, 9-21
Ruismäki, H., & Ruokonen, I. (2006). Roots, current trends and future challenges in Finnish school music
education. In A. Juvonen & M. Anttila (eds.), Challenges and visions in school music education, (31-76).
Joensuun Yliopisto.
Rüütel, E., & Tamm, S. (1995). Thoughts about music therapy realities and possibilities in Estonia. Music
Therapy Perspectives, 13(1), 51 – 52.
Rüütel, E., & Pill, E. (2008). Õpilase elu-olu 1998–2007. Küsitluse KOOLITUGI kokkuvõte. [Students’
life and milieu. Summary of survey SCHOOL’́S SUPPORT] Tallinn: Tallinna Ülikool, Tallinna
Haridusamet.
Sarv, E. S. (2008). Õpetaja ja kool õpilase arengu toetajana. ��

Õpetaja enesest ja koolist [Teacher as a
supporter of pupils’ development. Teachers about themselves and their school]. Tallinn: Tallinna Ülikool
Selke, T. (2007). Suundumusi eesti üldhariduskoolimuusikakasvatuses 20. sajandi II poole ja 21. sajandi
alguses [Music Education in Estonian Comprehensive School: Trends in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century,
at the Beginning of the 21st Century]. (PhD diss.), Tallinn: Tallinn University.
Selke, T. (2009). Musicality, beliefs and a changed musical environment. Problems in Music Pedagogy,
4-5. Daugavpils University: Saule, 18-26.
Sepp, A. (2005). Mõtteid muusikaõpetusest 4.-6. klassis [Thoughts about teaching music in forms 4 to
6]. Muusika ja kunsti õpetamisest [Teaching music and art]. Riiklik Eksami- ja Kvalifikatsioonikeskus.
Tallinn: Argo, 23-25.
�� Kainikute loovus ja muusikahuvid väljaspool kooli.

Simson, L., Sõitja, K., and Niilo, A. (1992).
[Extracurricular creativity and music interests in younger school age]. In L. Simson (ed.) Algõpetuse
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
aktuaalseid probleeme IV. Algklassiõpilaste loovuse ja esteetilise suunduse seostest, (30-37). Tallinn: 73
Tallinn Pedagogical University,
Sisseastumiskatsete nõuded [Entry requirements]. (2009). Dokumendid. Saue Muusikakool. [Documents.

Saue Music School]. Retrieved from http://www.sauemk.edu.ee
Sloboda, J. (2005). Exploring the Musical Mind. Oxford University Press.
Swanwick, K. (2001). A Basis for Music Education. London: Routledge.
Vastuvõtt kooli [Entry to the school]. (2010).

��
Tallinna Muusikakool [Tallinn Music School]. Retrieved
��
from http://www.muusikakool.haridus.ee/
Whidden, C. (2008). The injustice of singer/non-singer labels by music educators. GEMS –Gender,
Education, Music & Society, 4, 1-15. Accessed online at www.queensu.ca/music/links/gems/whidden5.
pdf
Advised by Heikki Ruismäki, University of Helsinki, Finland
Received: February��
23��
��
, 2011 Accepted: March 20, 2011
Marit Mõistlik MA, PhD Student and Lecturer, Tallinn University, Lai 13, Tallinn, 10133, Estonia.
E-mail: moistlik@gmail.com
Website: http://www.tlu.ee/muusika
Tiina Selke PhD, Associate Professor and Head of Music Department, Tallinn University, Lai
13, 10133 Tallinn, Estonia.
E-mail: tiina.selke@tlu.ee
Website: http://www.tlu.ee/muusika
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
74
FIGHTING FOR PEACE IN THE SOUTH
AFRICAN CLASSROOM: PEACE
EDUCATION THE MISSING LINK?
Vuyisile Msila
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
E-mail: vmsila@uj.ac.za
Abstract
The post-apartheid education in South Africa is based on the Constitution of the Republic (Act 108 of
1996). Among its aims are to heal the divisions of the past and improve the life of all citizens. The policy is
also intent on preparing the learners to live in a free non-racial and democratic country. This curriculum
is ideal; with learner-centred approaches, learners are expected to act in the interests of a society that
respects human dignity and morality. Schools are seen as institutions that could instill the democratic
ideals in a country that is still trying to address the past ills left behind by the apartheid damage. However,
years after the attainment of the democratic society, there are a number of challenges that schools face:
drug abuse, sexual violence and hate crimes are among these. Recently, South African children have
witnessed widespread xenophobia meted by society against black African foreign nationals.
This article explores Peace Education, an aspect that the current system is hardly emphasizing. Effective
Peace Education goes beyond building peaceful citizen; it yearns to develop citizens that can enhance
democracy and social justice. There is a need to create proactive citizens who will be creative peace
soldiers, who manage conflicts effectively, showing respect for fellow human beings. Teachers and schools
can play a vital role in the creation of these future citizens. Some critics perceive Peace Education as a
contentious and value-laden approach; however, the society needs strategies to act against the threat of
violence that has brought the culture of learning and teaching almost to a standstill in many schools.
Key words: peace, peace education, human rights, Ubuntu
The Quest for Peace
Many might argue that there is much need for Peace Education in South African schools.
Like the majority of African countries that experienced violent wars; the apartheid war was
very violent as many who witnessed its atrocities from the past will attest. Yet it seems as if
Peace Education is not a distinct part of the South African national curriculum. The society is
experiencing a number of despicable events on school grounds. The xenophobia against black
African foreign nationals has also not made schools better and safer places. Many learners have
internalized the hatred of the society; after all, schools are the microcosm of the society.
The premise or thesis of this article is that democracy cannot be attained in its fullest
without the introduction of Peace Education in the school curriculum. This claim can be true
for all nations that have been ravaged by war and oppression. Striving for democracy in an
unpeaceful world is as good as looking for water in a dry desert. Peace Education should be
high on the agenda of schools, especially within new democracies. The reconciliation and peace
model in South Africa is usually said to be among the best in the world. The perpetrator and the
victim testified in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC). Some (the perpetrators),
were pardoned for past demeanors, yet others (victims), were left forlorn and destitute for
they maintained that they did not receive any justice in the process. The direction in which
peace and reconciliation has taken is also questioned by some. The chair of the Human Rights
Vuyisile MSILA. Fighting for Peace in the South African Classroom: Peace Education the Missing Link?
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Commission, Kollapen, was quoted questioning the manner in which reconciliation took place 75
in South Africa:
My own view was that the reconciliation process was at the expense of transformation.
I also argued that and I continue to argue that in terms of transformation hardly anything
was asked of white South Africans. ..What the TRC didn’t do is to begin a conversation
between you and me… we never spoke, we never spoke about what apartheid meant
for you and about what it meant for me. I think the challenge is to transcend the sense
that we have over our blackness and our whiteness…I think it requires ordinary people
to speak to each other.
(Mail and Guardian, 2008: 3)
In this regard, schools have a huge task on their doors. Among others, they need to
ensure that black learners and white learners speak to one another; there needs to be more
understanding and communication as they interpret history. The new generation needs to be
built on foundations of peace.
The national education curriculum in South Africa is based on sound principles of the
Constitution of the Republic. The Constitution provides a basis for curriculum transformation
and development. The Preamble of this document states that its aims are to:
• heal the divisions of the past and establish a society based on democratic values, social
justice and fundamental human rights;
• improve the quality of life of all citizens and free the potential of each person;
• lay the foundations for a democratic and open society in which government is based on
the will of the people and every citizen is equally protected by law; and
• build a united and democratic South Africa able to take its rightful place as a sovereign
state in the family of nations.
(DoE 2002:1)
Despite these noble foundations, Peace Education emphasis is not very pronounced in the
curriculum. Arguably, schools can be an opportune starting point to teach society about peace.
Some writers do not perceive Peace Education as homogeneous. Tandon (1985:56-57) cites
Okamoto who deliberates four types of Peace Education developed since the 19th century:
• Peace Education as a criticism of war. This is related to humanitarian and religion-
based peace organizations. It took the form of anti-war movements.
• Peace Education as liberation education. The objective here is the liberation of the
human being. It deals with human rights, political oppression, racial discrimination,
solution of problems of poverty
• Peace Education as a learning process. This seeks to help individuals embrace qualities
of tolerance and creativity.
• Peace Education as a lifestyle. This emphasizes the lifestyle of individuals and people
have to be changed so that peace can be brought about.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
76 In addition to the above, Tandon cites Kekkomen who lists seven sections for Peace
Education:
(i) Cultural Education
(ii) Environmental Education
(iii) Human Rights education
(iv) Disarmament Education
(v) Equality Education
(vi) Development Education
(vii) Moral Education
Various peace researchers have defined concepts in this area in a number of ways. Peace
research for example, is said to have emerged as a distinct field in the late 1950s (Duczek
1988:7). Duczek contends:
Critical Peace Research regards peace as more than the absences of war; peace is seen
as something which still has to be created and constantly recreated through individual
and collective action. Thus, peace becomes not only a goal but also a process. From
this standpoint, Peace Education cannot mean educating for peace as such, but rather
educating for a ‘peace capacity’.
Similar arguments are found in Tandon’s definition. He defines Peace Education as:
…education for changing violent or non-peaceful relationships into non-violent or
peaceful relationships. It is education for attaining not only negative but also positive
peace as defined above. Peace Education is action-oriented. It is meant to animate
people, make them active and enable them to struggle and contribute to the achievement
of positive peace.
Brock-Utne (1989) states that Peace Education is a controversial concept, which is
regarded as political and even endangering the security of the country. Brock-Utne also avers
that the field of Peace Education is difficult to treat in a scholarly manner because it can have
so many different political interpretations. Usually the term is intentionally made to be open
to various interpretations and accommodate various viewpoints. Furthermore, Brock-Utne
(1989:77) differentiates between education for peace and education about peace.
The division of Peace Education into various subfields like human rights education,
disarmament education, and development education may be looked at as an attempt
to make the unwieldy Peace Education field somewhat easier to handle analytically.
Roughly speaking, those who place most emphasis on the structural violence part of the
peace concept would also like to see development education as the most central part of
Peace Education.
Looking at this complexity, it is not easy to promote Peace Education for as some
discussions above illustrate, it can be contentious. In many schools around the world, there is
persisting violence from teachers towards learners that is still used as a disciplinary method
(Brock-Utne, 1989). In South Africa corporal punishment in schools was abolished in the early
1990s, although there are still reported incidents of violence in many schools. Brock-Utne also
highlights that even in countries where corporal punishment is outlawed, there is direct violence
going on in schools, especially among boys at recess. She also points out that many learners get
scars for life; mostly of a psychological nature. Some unexpected factors such as competition
in classrooms can be very disconcerting to learners’ well being. Rohrs (1983) cites Galtung
who avers that it is difficult to teach peace in a classroom where competition is supported.
When there is competition among learners, there tends to be a hidden curriculum; a certain
percentage of learners will get bad grades. The latter is an example of structural violence. “The
children who get the lowest grades often, also get deep psychological wounds, they lose their
self esteem, and the esteem of teachers and parents, often also of school mates. Some of these
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
children try to fight back by misbehaving and downgrading the values of the school” (Brock- 77
Utne, 1989). According to Hull (2002) competition is a necessity in today’s classrooms for the
learners need to be prepared for the world competition which awaits them after their school
career. Schools might be a good place to prepare the learners for this future out there.
However, competition needs to be controlled and it is crucial that the learners should
know when to compete and when competition hurts their effectiveness (Hull, 2002). For the
attainment of Peace Education though, learners need a cooperative goals structure. Furthermore,
Hull (2002) avers that the ideal should be a cooperative classroom where learners work together
with other learners to gain rewards, for in this environment a learner’s success depends on the
comparable success of other learners. In a cooperative classroom everyone is encouraged to
succeed. John and Johnson (1989) contend that in competitive environments the norms make
it undesirable to help others within the group to succeed, and this traditional classroom often
develops anti-academic norms. However, cooperative learning produces harmony among
learners and it minimizes tensions and conflicts. Effective cooperative learning has two major
components: positive interdependence and individual responsibility (Johnson & Johnson,
1996). The latter is effective for Peace Education. In a schooling system where learners learn
to be interdependent, there is likely to be harmony and cooperation; and both are necessary
elements for peace.
This article explores how these and other concepts can manifest themselves in South
African classrooms. At a time when there is apparent moral decay among learners (see the
newspaper headlines cited above), many have argued that South African schools need to go
back to the basics and teach morality; Peace Education can be a crucial concept in addressing
some of the challenges experienced in schools. It encompasses some of the values necessary in
education.
Values in Education: Do they Matter?
What needs to be taught in schools is usually contentious among stakeholders in

education. For example, Labaree (1997) contended that the central problems with education
are not pedagogical, organisational, social, or cultural in nature but are fundamentally political.
Furthermore, he argued that it is not because people do not have solutions to educational
problems, but that they are fighting among themselves about what goals schools should pursue.
In a rather similar argument, DeLany (1998) argued that schools are continually scrambling
for order in a rather disorderly world. DeLany also aptly referred to schools as “organised
anarchies” because (among others), while providing opportunities for different choices of
schools, educational changes open up the possibility of institutionalising collective turbulence.
Societal expectations further enhance the turbulence in schools. Whenever there are problems,
be they drug abuse, morality, the decline of economy or joblessness, it is frequently schools that
are blamed for these societal ills. The society sometimes expects schools to achieve the most
ambitious of goals; hence Labaree (1997) raises an argument that schools occupy an awkward
position at the intersection between what people hope society will become and what they think
it really is, between political ideals and economic realities.
The issue of values will then be very controversial because of the various views that
stakeholders might have. Peace Education is about values and some of these are highlighted
above. Ling and Stephenson (1998) cite Hill, who points out that people know what they
want from education until they are asked to spell it out. Spelling out the goals of education
can be daunting. The South African media today covers many sensational stories of incidents
happening on school grounds daily. The following are some of the recent headlines from local
newspapers:
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
78 SCARED AT SCHOOL: SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS

PLAN TO STOP VIOLENCE AT SCHOOL
RAPE GAMES PLAYED AT SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS
ALCOHOL ABUSES PLAGUES SCHOOLS
THERE’S LOT OF ANGER IN SA SCHOOLS
Many critics argue that the moral code is waning and that teachers have become
impotent. Yet, “the responsibility of schools is acknowledged to be present in all societies and
the school is traditionally seen as a tool in alleviating social problems” (Ling & Stephenson,
1998). Furthermore, these writers perceive formal schooling process as constituting the
common vehicle for the development and reinforcement of basic social, moral, political and
economic values; that it is pertinent that such examination of the internationalization of values
begins at the schooling and teacher education level. Some have argued though that teaching
values in schools can be detrimental because it is not objective. Peace Education, as highlighted
above might also be contentious in that some may see it as value-laden. Indeed, Harris (1988)
argues that Peace Education, like all curricula in schools contains certain values; values of
non-violence and social justice. In a 2001 Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy
Conference hosted by the South African Ministry of Education, values were debated at length.
The working group from this conference highlighted six qualities that the education in South
Africa should actively promote: equity, tolerance, multilingualism, openness, accountability
and social honour (DoE, 2001). The document also explains ideals and concepts of democracy,
social justice, equality, non-racist and non-sexism, ubuntu, an open society, accountability, the
rule of law, respect and reconciliation in a way that suggests how the Constitution can be taught
as part of the curriculum. Furthermore, the DoE (2001: iv) document contends:
The Manisfesto recognizes that values, which transcend language and culture, are the
common currency that makes life meaningful, and the normative principles that ensure
ease of life lived in common. Inculcating a sense of value sat school is intended to help
young people achieve higher levels of moral judgement. We also believe that education
does not exist simply to serve the market, but to serve society, and that means instilling
in pupils and students a broad sense of values that can emerge only from a balanced
exposure to the humanities as well as the sciences enriching the individual in this way is,
by extension, enriching the society too.
Peace as a Value in Education
Brenes-Castro (2004) writes about an Integral Model of Peace Education and states
that it embraces certain principles that jointly express “a spirit of community”, a core value
for peace. The Integral Model Peace Education (IMPE) is based on the postulation that there
are universal values that shape a culture of peace (Brenes-Castro, 2004). This Model assumes
a holistic vision of reality and perceives the universe as a dynamic totality characterised by
diversity and interdependence between all beings. Furthermore, he states that ideal human
community would be characterised by the following:
• Membership in such a community allows for the satisfaction of vital needs for all its
members.
• There is commitment on the part of all its members towards the mutual protection,
enhancement, and promotion of the common good of the community.
• The idiosyncrasy of each member is valued and her/his contributions are synergistically
integrated within the diversity of the group.
• All members participate in the making of those decisions that affect the common well-
being.
These are all crucial when one looks at the prominence and need for Peace Education
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
currently. 79
Pertinent to the arguments above is the nature of peace as a medium of ecological balance.
As mentioned above, definitions of peace have been extended beyond the notion of negative
peace that is absence of war (Wenden, 2004). Furthermore, Wenden (2004) points out that some
definitions of peace include the notion of peace with Nature, for example ecological balance as
one that should underpin any definition of peace. Wenden (2004) cites Sloan who avers that a
peace that ignores ecological destruction is unsustainable. Wenden (2004) also cites Reardon
and Nordland who state that ecological violence is part of the context and motivating force
for Peace Education together with the violence of armed conflict and the structural violence
of oppression and poverty. At a time when there is much violence happening in schools,
peace research has become very crucial. Pulkkinen (1989) cites Helenius who points out that
Peace Education’s meaning can be sought by relating it to similar concepts such as education
for international understanding and disarmament education. Peace Education embraces the
teaching of basic human rights and familiarization with development problems (Pulkkinen
1989:88). Hinde and Parry (1983) concur when they point out that Peace Education has been
interpreted in a narrow sense and they argue that education for peace needs to start in the home
and should then move over to the classroom teaching as this is pivotal for people throughout
life. In a country where conflicts lead to bitter battles there is a strong necessity to take Peace
Education seriously. Education for peace must seek to influence the goals towards which pro-
social and cooperative behaviour are directed and to expand social conscience beyond national
frontiers (Hinde & Bateson 1989:13). Galtung (1982) also highlights the problems of peace can
be divided into three: the depletion of raw materials, the pollution of nature and of ourselves
and the population problem. Peace Education is seen by many as an aspect that is linked with
other factors in life. Democracy, politics are some of the terms that can be linked to Peace
Education. Peace Education cannot be only about peace; it has to be peace-day-to-day practice
developing out of school reality, not only words that easily are covered with dust and equally
easily forgotten (Galtung, 1982).
Peace Activists in South Africa
The history and heritage in South Africa has an endless list of people who developed their
philosophies based on peace. The first Nobel peace prize winner and former President-General
of the African National Congress, Chief Albert Luthuli condemned the apartheid legislation as
degrading yet he preached non-violence and was optimistic that whites would one day accept a
shared society. Luthuli dreamt and spoke of a unified Africa and in his Oslo speech where he
accepted the peace prize he said, “ our vision has always been that of a non-racial, democratic
South Africa, which upholds the rights of all who live in our country to remain there as full
citizens, with equal rights and responsibilities with all others” (Luthuli, 1980). Then there was
Mahatma Gandhi who, although he was not born in South Africa, had great connection with
the country. After settling in South Africa in 1893, he was to be exposed to ill-treatment from
the white government for being an Indian. Gandhi was soon to develop a philosophy of non-
violence and devotion to the truth; the satyagraha.
Gandhi had ambitions of bringing about world peace, and many saw him as a real fighter
for justice. Martin Luther King Jr. was later to be quoted saying, “if humanity is to progress,
Gandhi is inescapable. He lived, thought and inspired by the vision of humanity evolving
toward a world of peace and harmony”. Patel (2009) online highlights Gandhi’s 5 teachings to
bring about world peace:
• Power is of two kinds. One is obtained by the fear of punishment and the other by
acts of love. Power based on love is a thousand times more effective and permanent
than the one derived from fear and punishment.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
80 • Learning the power of non-violence. What difference does it make to the dead, the
orphans and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name
of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?
• The greatest noble cause is to display our desire to bring about peace in this world
by our own sacrifice and not that of those who oppose our views.
• An eye for an eye will only make the world blind. Our cultural, religious and political
differences should not provide the backbone to invoke conflicts that can only bring
sorrow and destruction to our world.
• We must become the change we want to see in the world. We should not discriminate
amongst ourselves based on faith, caste, creed or any other differences.
The “New” Human Rights Culture in South African Education
McQuoid-Mason, O’ Brien and Greene (1991) argue that the roots of human rights can
be found in most of the world’s religions and philosophies. In some societies the individual
is emphasized while in other societies communalism is valued more. Yet even despite these
differences, human rights have become very important in the 21st century around the world.
The agenda for human rights became more pronounced after the fall of apartheid in the 1990s.
During apartheid human rights for black Africans in particular were curtailed by law. Yet the
new Constitution of the Republic of South Africa emphasizes the human rights. McQuoid et
al. (1991: 14) state that human rights are universal moral rights and they are also referred to
as natural rights that belong to people simply because they are human; “they do not have to
be earned, bought or inherited. People are equally entitled to them regardless of their sex, race
colour, language, national origin, age, class or religious or political beliefs.”
Peace Education needs to be made part of the post-apartheid education policy, which
was intent on ensuring that South African education policy is based on democratic values. The
new human rights culture in South Africa needs to prepare the youth for peaceful future and
political stability. The previous youth (pre-1994) experienced a no-peaceful atmosphere inside
and outside the school, particularly black African learners who had none of the state priviledges
that their white counterparts enjoyed. The history in South Africa shows that children became
assertive fighters for a just education and a democratic South Africa. Before the 1990s, the
quality of education in the majority of black African schools was affected by the politics of the
day as these schools “became key sites in the struggle against apartheid resulted in a deterioration
in the quality of black education as school boycotts, strikes, and other forms of resistance took
their toll on ‘normal’ schooling processes” (Pampallis, 2003).
Christie (1988:219) also writes:
June 1976 was a high point in the history of black resistance in South Africa. The
opposition of these school students to Bantu Education and the apartheid system has
become a landmark in South African history. It was also the beginning of a new era of
resistance in education…There is in fact a long and continuing history of resistance by
black people to the schooling system. 1976, 1980 and 1984 are part of a long process of
boycotts, protest and opposition in schools.
Then in 1985 and 1986, a decade after the 1976 uprisings explained above, black
learners were demanding “liberation before education”. More student activists were detained
nationwide. As the soldiers occupied school yards, tension mounted in all black schools (Human
Awareness Programme, 1990). Bantu Education for black South Africans had been a means of
restricting the development of the learner by distorting school knowledge to ensure control over
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
the intellect of the learners and teachers, and promulgating state propaganda (Kallaway, 1988). 81
Education for black South Africans was a way of maintaining the blacks in a permanent state
of political and economic subordination. School children under apartheid became aware that
the education system had been an obvious instrument of control to protect power and privilege.
The resistance to apartheid education conscientised the black learners and made them to be
aware of the need to strive for a better system of education. Peace Education will be relevant
and very apt in redressing these past injustices. It can be a relevant tool in the creation of good
and responsible citizenry.
We can see some propinquity between Peace Education and democracy; both of these
are crucial in the making of a conscientious citizen, especially in a country that has a history
of violence and injustices. Schoeman (2003) argues that learners, as citizens of the future have
to be prepared for their future responsibilities as citizens of a democratic society. Furthermore,
this writer adds that schools are not only needed for educational but also political reasons.
Public schools function as cradles of democratic education.
The post-apartheid curriculum embraced in South Africa was supposed to lead to nation
building. Wood (1998:193) asserts that the curriculum should be structured to embrace the
values of democratic life. Furthermore, Wood avers that these include the essential values of
equality, liberty and community. The Report of the Working Group on Values (2001) motions
that there are two primary ways in which human rights culture can establish mutual respect
between teachers and learners; the first has to do with what is taught and the second has to do
with how this is taught. According to the UNESCO recommendation, Peace Education is a
component of “education for international understanding”, as are the teaching of basic human
rights (Pulkkinen, 1989). Furthermore, Pulkkinen draws educational objectives, although he
points out that Peace Education will stall in many countries because there is reluctance among
teachers; many perceive it as a political propaganda.
Ubuntu and Peace Education
Among other calls for a new philosophy of education is a need for an African philosophy
of education. Seepe (2004) contends that a radical restructuring of education in Africa,
which makes education relevant to African challenges, cannot be complete without a serious
consideration of the contribution of indigenous knowledge systems (IKSs). Furthermore, Seepe
points out that IKS is about re-opening crucial files that were closed in the chaos and violence of
colonialism in which the cultural, scientific and economic life of the colonized was subjugated
and crushed. Msila (2008) writes about the need to use ubuntu in schools to bring about peace.
He found that if learners were to be taught ubuntu ideals, they might be receptive to Peace
Education.
Ubuntu way of life is concerned about the collective rather than the individual.
Humanness, communalism, belonging are some of the concepts linked to an ubuntu way of life.
Whenever people talk about an African experience of life, African philosophy, IKS, they are
likely to shed light on ubuntu. Van Wyk and Higgs (2004:203) state:
According to Letseka (2000) the importance of community to traditional African life
cannot be overemphasized. This is because community and belonging to a community
of people constitute the very fabric of traditional African life. Unlike the Western liberal
notion of the individual as some sort of entity that is capable of existing and flourishing on
its own, unconnected to any community of other individuals, not bound by any biological
relationships or socio-economic, political and cultural relationships, obligations, duties,
responsibilities and conventions that frame and define any community of individuals.
Peace Education will be compatible to ubuntu because this African philosophy
is about morality and concern for others. Sincere peace building is about these qualities. “I
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
82 cannot live, if you cannot live”, “I cannot eat alone when you have nothing on your plate”.
No philosophy can be more amenable to real peace than this. This is the kind of humanism
that learners in schools need to learn. In Africa, it was natural and spontaneous behavior of
being human to display ubuntu. Ubuntu was a way of celebrating the life of a fellow human
being; it celebrated the interdependence of humanity. However, colonialism destroyed this as
African people soon learnt that they could compete for many things, including food, shelter
and wealth. When this crept into their psyche, selfishness and wars started. The cultural bond
and distinct communalism embedded in Ubuntu needs to be restored in African classrooms.
This can enhance peace initiatives in society. Ntuli (1999) points out that the spirit of ubuntu
has long disappeared and he states that it is for this reason that we need an African renaissance.
Furthermore, Ntuli opines that in the face of the present cultural and moral collapse in South
Africa, there is a need to strive for a rebirth. Yet, Dandala (1996) states that ubuntu requires
a great deal of learning and sharing and institutions can achieve this through the training of
people to practice greater interaction. Schools and the societies around them need to learn the
values of ubuntu.
Concluding Remarks
Despite the complexities associated with Peace Education within the vast political arena,
there is an immense and uncharted area suitable for study and practice of Peace Education
(Gan, 2009). The South African education system will arguably not be complete without a
clear, formal programme on Peace Education. The current hatred growing in the South African
society against foreign nationals will soon teach the learners to be violent; to be more prone to
conflict. School curriculum needs to consciously negate the hatred that saw Ernesto Alfabeto
Nhamuave from Mozambique, burnt alive in the East Rand of Gauteng for being a non-South
African. The same can be said about the current persecution of Somali traders in various parts
of the country. South Africa defeated the evil of history in apartheid, and schools need to sustain
this through meaningful Peace Education. Gan (2009:87) also contends that peace studies need
to show that politics must be about process not outcome. Only principled nonviolence teaches
that lesson. Educators should uphold nonviolentist’s principles; they need to model this life
showing the learners qualities based on principled nonviolence. Peace Education can never be
achieved without this belief and practice in principled nonviolence.
Peace Education can be one of the potent parts of the South African curriculum. Given
the history of the country; arguably there are still people who have not outgrown the hatred of
the past. In fact, some parents might still be instilling the past hatred, shattering the “rainbow
nation’s ideal” of a diversity that lives in harmony. However, as Hinde and Bateson (1989) argue,
education for peace must seek to influence the goals towards which prosocial and cooperative
behavior are directed and to expand social conscience beyond national frontiers. Children need
to be brought up in less aggressive ways. Xenophobia against Africans mainly from north and
West Africa are worst examples any society can teach its children. In his Steve Biko Memorial
Lecture in Cape Town (2006), the Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu, was quoted as saying
that South Africa is in danger of losing its moral direction. Furthermore, he argued that the
country has failed to sustain the idealism that ended the apartheid era (Tutu, 2006). Among other
factors that are a challenge to ubuntu, are this xenophobia and the lack of respect that exists
among people. In his lecture, Tutu maintained that South Africans need to fight and oppose
xenophobia. The rise of xenophobia in society has exerted many challenges on the existence of
ubuntu. Harris (2002) states that the shift in political power in South Africa has brought about
a range of new discriminatory practices, and one such victim is “The Foreigner”. Some justify
this by stating that resources are scarce and the foreigner is competing in an environment where
the locals are also battling. However, some would argue that violence would not solve such
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
dilemmas; moreover, the society is setting bad examples for its young people. Yet, ubuntu, as 83
discussed above, is still seen as a beacon of hope that will create a peaceful society. There is
just a need to return to this ideal society. Maybe this is where the rebirth of society Ntuli argues
about above becomes so necessary. It is within this broad context that this article supports the
need to introduce a highly effective Peace Education programmes in South African schools.
School can instill the positive climate necessary in today’s mostly negative society.
Schools continue to be a microcosm of society and it is the picture of negativity that people
need to change through Peace Education. Education for peace will not completely transform all
ills of the society. Moreover, Chubb and Moe (1990) state that there are no panaceas in social
policy. Plank and Boyd (1994:276) support the latter although they put it differently; they state
that democratic governance is not a panacea for the problems of educational system. However,
Plank and Boyd (1994) also recognise the importance of democracy’s role. Education for peace
is a brick in the building of democracy. It is apt to finally conclude this discussion by quoting
Hinde and Bateson (1998: 16):
But it is important to emphasize that the aims of educating for peace must be more
positive than mere removal of current threats. It must seek to build a world in which the
causes of civilisation’s discontents are minimized, and the potential of individuals to live
fulfilled lives is more fully achieved.
References
In A.L. Wenden. (Ed). Educating for a

Brenes-Castro, A. (2004). An integral model of Peace Education. ��
culture of social and ecological peace. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Brock-Utne, B. (1989). Feminist perspectives on peace and Peace Education. New York: Pergamon
Press.
Christie, P. (1988). The right to learn: the struggle for education in South Africa. Braamfontein: Ravan.
Chubb, J., Moe, T. M. (1990). Politics, markets & America’s schools. Washington DC: The Brookings
Institutions.
Dandala, H. M. (1996). Cows never die: Embracing African cosmology in the process of economic
growth. In R. Lessem and B. Nassbaum (Eds). Sawubona Africa: Embracing four worlds in South African
management. Sandton: Zebra.
Department of Education (DoE) (2001). Manifesto on values, education and democracy. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
DeLany, B. (1998). The micro-politics of school, teacher and student failure: Managing turbulence. When
children don’t learn: student failure and the culture of teaching. Columbia: Teachers College.
Duczek, S. (1988). Peace Education: insights from peace research and experiences from practice. In J.
Thacker (Ed). Peace Education, Perspectives II: 6-19.
Gan, B. (2009). The relation of peace studies to nonviolence. In T.A. McElwee., B. Welling., J. Liechty
and J. Garber (Eds). Peace, justice and security studies: A curriculum guide. London: Lynne Rienner.
Harris, I. M. (1988). Peace Education. Jefferson: McFarland & Co.
Hinde, R. A., Bateson, P. (1989). Some goals in education for peace. In R.A. Hinde and D.A. Parry.
Education for Peace. Nottingham: Spokesman.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
84 Hull, C. (2002). Is competition in the classroom helpful for kids? Retrieved from www.helium.
com/.../968627-is-competition-in-the-classroom-helpful-for-kids. Accessed on 2011/01/16.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. (1996). The role of cooperative learning in assessing and communicating
student learning. In T.R. Gusky (Ed). ASCD Yearbook: Communicating student learning. Alexandria:
ASCD.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. (1989). Leading the cooperative school. Edina: Interaction.
Kallaway, P. (1988). From Bantu education to Peoples Education. Cape Town: University of Cape
Town.
Labaree, D. (1997). Public Goods, Private Goods: The American Struggle over Educational Goals.
American Educational Research Journal, 34 (1): 39-81.
Ling, L., Stephenson, J. (1998). Introduction and theoretical perspectives. In J. Stephenson., L. Ling., E.
Barman and M. Cooper (Eds). Values in Education: 3-19.
Luthuli, A. (1980). Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech. In A.L. McLeod and M.B. McLeod (Eds).
Power Above Powers; Representative South African Speeches; the Rhetoric of race and Religion. Mysore:
University of Mysore.
Mail and Guardian (2008). March 11. Racism ‘alive and well in South Africa: pg 3.
McQuoid-Mason, D., O’Brien, E. L., Greene, E. (1991). Human Rights for all: Education towards as
rights culture. Claremont: David Phillip.
Msila, V. (2008). Ubuntu and school leadership. Journal of Education 44: 67-84.
Ntuli, P. (1999). The missing link between culture and education: are we still chasing Gods that are not
our own? In M.W. Makgoba (Ed). African Renaissance. Cape Town: Mafube.
Pampallis, J. (2003). Education reform and school choice in South Africa. In D. Plank and G. Sykes (Eds).
Choosing choice: School choice in international perspectives. New York: Teachers College.
Patel, S. (2010). Mahatma Gandhi’s 5 teachings to bring about world peace. Retrieved from zenhabits.
net/mahatma-gandhis-5teachings-to-bring-about-world peace. Accessed on 2011/01/16.
Plank, D. N., Boyd, W. L. (1994). Antipolitics, education, and institutional choice: the flight from
democracy. American Educational Research Journal, 31(2): 263-281.
Pulkkinen, L. (1989). Progress in Education for Peace in Finland. In R. Hinde and D. Parry. (Eds).
Education for Peace. Nottingham: Spokesman.
Ramose, B. (2004). In search of African Philosophy of education. South African Journal of Higher
Education, 18 (3): 138-160.
Rohrs, H. (1983). Peace-an educational task. Ideas and reality in Peace Education. Agenter Pendersen:
Westermann.
Schoeman, S. (2003). Democracy’s next generation-education for democratic citizenship in South African
public schools. Educare, 32 (1&2):36-60.
Seepe, S. (2004). Editorial. South African Journal of Higher Education, 18 (3): 9-16.
Tandon, Y. (1989). Militarism and Peace Education in Africa. Nairobi: AALAE.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
85
Thacker, J. (1988). Editorial. In J. Thacker (Ed). Perspectives II. Peace Education. Exeter: University of
Exeter.
Tutu, D. (2006). Steve Bantu Biko Memorial Lecture. Delivered at the University of Cape Town.
September.
Van Wyk, B., Higgs, P. (2004). Towards and African philosophy of higher education. South African
Journal of Higher Education, 18(3): 196-211.
Waghid, Y. (2004). African philosophy of education: Implications for teaching and learning. South African
Journal of Higher Education, 18 (3): 56-64.
Wood, G. H. (1998). Democracy and the curriculum. In L.E. Beyer and M.W. Apple. The curriculum-
Problems, Politics, and possibilities. New York: State University of New York.
Advised by Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė, Vilnius Pedagogical University, Lithuania
01��
��
Vuyisile Msila PhD, Associate Professor, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006,
South Africa.
E-mail: vmsila@uj.ac.za
Website: http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Pages/home.aspx
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
86
DECENTRALIZATION OF EDUCATION: THE
EXPERIENCE OF KENYAN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
David M. Mulwa
Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Machakos, Kenya
E-mail: davimulwa@yahoo.com
Richard P. Kimiti, Titus M. Kituka, Elizabeth N. Muema

Machakos Teachers College, Machakos, Kenya
E-mail: prickimiti@yahoo.com, tkituka@yahoo.com, muemaelizabeth04@gmail.com
Abstract
Kenya has undertaken several educational reforms since independence in 1963. Several committees,
commissions and task forces have been set up over the years with the mandate to make suitable
recommendations on how to overcome the ever rising challenges facing the Kenyan education. The
necessary legal and policy guidelines have also been prepared to guide the administration, management
and governance of education, in line with the country’s educational philosophy. The latest educational
reform of 2005 was geared towards decentralization of education. For this paper, decentralization is
limited to the transfer of decision-making authority to stakeholders at the secondary school level. This
paper therefore gives a brief history of educational reforms in Kenya, discusses the challenges facing the
Kenyan education, the concept of decentralization and the limitations of secondary schools to promoting
it. Lastly, it makes recommendations on what should be done for secondary schools to fully embrace the
concept of decentralization in Kenya.
Key words: challenges, decentralization, democratization.
Introduction

Prior to independence, the education system in Kenya was under the colonial government
and missionaries. Reading and practical subjects were introduced to spread Christianity
and prepare the indigenous African communities for blue and technical jobs. “The colonial
education system was based on a model of segregation, which saw the establishment of separate
educational systems for Europeans, Asians and Africans, a factor that perpetuated inequalities
in accessing education more so for the African population” (Keriga & Bujra, 2009, p. 2).
Immediately after independence in 1963, Kenya took steps to restructure the education
system, so as to align it to the national needs and the aspirations of the country. The concerns
then were “the training of more human resources to enhance economic development, equitable
distribution of national income, and closer integration to bring national unity and address the
national disparities” (Ministry of Education, 1964, p. 16). The Kenya Education Commission
(Ominde Commission) was therefore set up with the mandate to make recommendations for
the most suitable education to meet the needs of the newly independent country (Republic
of Kenya, 1964). The commission proposed an education system that would foster national
unity and creation of sufficient human capital for national development. Despite this earlier
restructuring, other national and educational challenges came up in subsequent years. Thus,
David M. MULWA, Richard P. KIMITI, Titus M. KITUKA, Elizabeth N. MUEMA. Decentralization of Education: the Experience of
Kenyan Secondary Schools
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
other commissions, committees and task forces were set up in order to address these challenges. 87
Examples of these commissions and task forces include those chaired by (a) Gachathi (1976),
which recommended the establishment of locally supported (Harambee) secondary schools to
widen educational opportunities, (b) Mackay (1981), which recommended the establishment of
a second university and the restructuring of education system to 8:4:4 (eight years of primary
education, four years secondary and four for university education), (c) Kamunge (1988),
which recommended cost sharing between the government, parents and communities, and (d)
Koech (1999), which recommended on the totally integrated quality education and training
(Institute of Policy Analysis and Research-IPAR, 2008). The findings of these commissions,
committees and task forces have not been used as expected and recommendations have either
been completely ignored or implemented only partially. Therefore, this paper was meant to
discuss the challenges facing the Kenyan education, the concept of decentralization, limitations
of secondary schools to promoting such education, and what needs to be done for schools to be
fully decentralized.
Challenges Facing the Kenyan Education System
The current education system, the 8:4:4 was recommended by the Mackay commission
(1981) and implemented by the government of Kenya in 1985. The following are the challenges
that have faced the 8:4:4 system of education over the years:
• Political interference: Educational programming has been a major challenge to the

current system of education in Kenya. At independence, Kenya placed great value on
education and this could be witnessed by the many scholarships that were facilitated
by the government for secondary and even higher education (IPAR, 2008). Today this
is not the case, as the political class seems to have lost interest in education. This has
consequently led to very inadequate funding. In fact during the last decade, research
and development activities have received only 0.6% of the Gross Domestic Product (the
total market value of all goods and services produced over a specific period of time in a
country) funding from the government (Republic of Kenya, 2005).
• Poor learning environment: The current learning environment is so poor, so that
children have no spare time to engage in activities that promote creativity, development
of social skills and cognitive growth. In most schools, there is a widespread disrespect
for teachers and the teaching profession, bullying and violence in the form of students’
strikes, especially in secondary schools and colleges.
• Weak early child development and education (ECDE) program: Early childhood
education is necessary for the acquisition of concepts, skills and attitudes that lay the
foundation for lifelong learning. “Once a child fails to receive sufficient educational
stimulation from those responsible for her or him in the vital early years, the lost ground
is hard to be recovered” (IPAR, 2008, p. 4). In Kenya, the ECDE level faces severe
coordination and financing challenges. There is a likelihood that the learning difficulties,
socialization and problem- solving challenges facing a number of learners in the country,
result from gaps created in the formative years, when important aspects in life, such as
concept formation and socialization, should have been inculcated into learners.
• Inadequate coverage of the school formal curriculum: In some schools, colleges and
even universities, the curriculum is not fully covered. Normal school programs are
disrupted and learning time is wasted by shortage of teachers, students’ riots, and recently
political instability. Inadequate teaching and lack of learning facilities make the learners
to be frequently idle and bored, making them highly irritable, and any little provocation
of such students is likely to lead to violence. In many schools, “whenever teachers are
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
88 agitating for industrial action on issues affecting their welfare, such as higher salaries,
students’ violence does occur” (Siringi, 2000, p. 16).
• Lack of appropriate counseling and career programmes in schools: There is no
appropriate policy, and no suitably experienced and qualified personnel for counseling
and career guidance, and these programs in schools are not effective. There are many
challenges facing students in Kenya, such as, HIV and Aids, drugs and substance abuse,
societal violence, rapid urbanization and family breakdown, which will always require
counseling to cope up with them (IPAR, 2008).
• Poor employer motivation and poor administration: The poor working environment
has discouraged teachers from making efforts to improve student performance, and this
affects students, who may vent their anger by destroying school property or even harming
fellow students and teachers, just to attract the attention of the authorities. Teachers are
generally demoralized, because of poor pay, mockery by other professionals and inhuman
school working environment.
• Autocracy in schools’ governance: Despite emphasis on democracy in the modern
world, school administrators have remained autocratic in the way they manage their
institutions. Schools look like isolated cases of autocratic leadership in an environment
that is fast embracing democracy in managing public affairs (Sifuna, 2000). In many
schools, students hardly have any opportunity to express themselves and, in extreme
cases, they are treated as simple objects; hence, they are constantly looking for ways of
releasing stress generated through continuous oppression in schools that do not allow
any dialogue.
• Poor school management practice: Most members of the school management bodies,
especially boards of governors (BOGs) and parent’s teachers’ association (PTAs), are
not able to adequately monitor the daily activities of the school. It is worthy to note
that “some of these members do not have the basic skills to understand the dynamics of
curriculum implementation, let alone school management” (IPAR, 2008, p. 4). Some
of the members, especially in primary schools, lack the basic literacy and are not able
to firmly articulate management issues. In many schools, principals take advantage of
the ignorance of these management boards to misappropriate school funds. Normally,
students’ reaction to cases of mismanagement of funds, usually in disguise of poor food,
poor accommodation, inadequate sporting facilities and others, result to violence. There
are also cases where parents and other stakeholders have held demonstrations against their
schools’ principals or the school management committees, because of mismanagement
of funds.
• Challenges within the school system especially in secondary schools in Kenya. The
context of school environment has changed so much and fast than the management can
really comprehend (Fullan, 2003). Changes are experienced in the kind of students who
join secondary schools, who are more enlightened about their rights by the mass media,
human rights bodies, and the emergence of information technology. Teachers too are
more knowledgeable and are more qualified staff than ever before. In many schools,
where the principals have not embraced these changes, there have been conflicts and
unnecessary tension, which in some cases result in violent behavior.
• Search for democratization: This is especially true for students, teachers and other
interested parties, who want to play more active roles in school decision making than
they have done before. The post election violence in Kenya in early 2008 has created
a new lot of students in secondary schools, who are hardened and would go to any
extent to ensure that their grievances are listened to. It is not uncommon to get students
chanting haki Yetu, a kiswahili term meaning our right, an implication that they are
able to differentiate their rights and privileges in school, and the kind of services they
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
should receive from them. Teachers too are bolder in pressuring for their grievances and 89
demands to be heard, and met respectively.
As can be noted, the challenges that have faced the education system over the years
are either political, governance or economic in nature. The students, parents, teachers and
other stakeholders’ reactions to these challenges have been strikes and demonstrations, as a
way of communicating their grievances to the authorities. These challenges are not unique to
Kenya, but they are common across the world. In order to address the challenges facing the
8:4:4 system of education, the government has over the years come up with legal and policy
guidelines, which are meant to improve educational management and school governance. One
of the most notable and current policy guideline is the transfer of decision-making authority to
the stakeholders at the secondary school level. This is broadly referred to as decentralization of
secondary education.
Decentralization of Education in Kenya
Decentralization refers to devolution of the centralized control of power and decision

making from government into private initiatives at state, provincial, local government and
school level (Bray, 1985; Uwakwe, Falaye, Emunemu & Adelore, 2008). It is also defined as
the dispersal of decision-making power to the lower levels of an organization (Hannagan, 2004).
Therefore, decentralization in education is to give authority for making important educational
decisions at the school level to educational stakeholders (Head teachers, Teachers, Students,
Parents and the community). The reasons for educational decentralization tend to be associated
with four distinct objectives; democratization, regional or ethnic pressures, improved efficiency
and enhanced quality of schooling. It is argued that “the proponents of decentralization, who
borrowed heavily from modern management in industrial and commercial organizations in the
1980’s, believe that all stakeholders of schools should share the decision-making power at the
school level” (Samad, 2000, p. 187). In school based decision-making process, which functions
under decentralization, the school is the major decision-making unit, ownership is the major
requirement of school reform, and concerned members participate fully in decision making.
Many countries have reformed their educational systems, due to the repeated failure
of centralized structures, to inspire the school personnel and foster the pre-requisite attitudes,
opinions and behaviours that are necessary for generating educational improvements. It should
be pointed out that “a school improvement impetus and authority emanating from outside the
school do not produce the responsibility and commitment necessary to sustain consequential
improvement” (Majkowski & Fleming, 1988, p. 2). Under external control management, school
members have little autonomy or commitment, because the administrators make decisions
without involving them. Decentralization promotes democratization in the education sector,
and gives broad opportunities for educational stakeholders in schools to participate in the
management of educational programs, and, to a great extent, eases the central government
burdens (Indriyanto, 2005). The rationale for decentralization of education in many countries
(Samad, 2000) is based on the following:
1. The school is the primary unit of change
2. Those who work directly with the students have the most informed and credible
opinions, regarding what educational arrangements will most benefit those
students.
3. Significant and lasting improvements take considerable time, and local schools are
in the best position to sustain improvement efforts over time.
4. The school principal is a key figure for school improvement
5. Significant change is brought about by students, staff and community participation
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
90 in project planning and implementation

6. Decentralization supports the professionalism of the teaching profession and vice-
versa, which can lead to more desirable outcomes.
7. Decentralization structures keep the focus on schooling where it belongs - on
achievement and other students’ outcomes.
8. Alignment between budgets and instructional priorities improves under decentralized
systems.
There is growing evidence that more inputs are not enough to make schools work
better. One important reason why education systems are failing to provide children with solid
education is the weak accountability relationships among policy makers, education providers,
and the citizens and students whom they serve. It is not surprising then that the transfer of
some decision-making power to stakeholders has become a popular reform over the past decade
(Osorio, Fasih, Patrinos, & Santibanez, 2009, p. 1).
In the United Kingdom, educational reforms began in the mid-1980s (Samad, 2000).
These reforms combined both decentralization of management and decision making in schools,
and stronger centralization of control over curricula and the monitoring of educational standards.
In the United States of America, the approach to educational reforms has been more piecemeal
and decentralized. This could be attributed to the fact that delivery of educational services
is placed upon the local governments unlike the situation in the UK where the delivery of
educational services lies upon the national government. In Malaysia, schools have “shifted
from a traditional centralized system of education to a relatively decentralized system of self
managing or school-based management to develop school initiatives and meet changing needs
since the early 1990’s” (Samad, 2000, p. 183). In Indonesia, the idea of decentralization was
introduced in 1974. However in practice, the mission of the decentralization, which has been
introduced, is merely a political rhetoric or as other people would call it, ‘decentralization
centralism’ governance (Indriyanto, 2005).
Prior to decentralization of education in Kenya, major decisions pertaining to daily
secondary school activities were made at the Ministry of Education headquarters and very
little by the principals and boards of governors (BOGs) at school level. The BOGs, whose
secretary is always the principal, had been delegated some power by the minister for education,
as stipulated in the Education Act of 1968 (Republic of Kenya, 1968). After decentralization
in 2005, decision making on issues relating to policy development, quality assurance and
standards, curriculum design and overall responsibility falls under the Ministry of Education.
Issues relating to day-to-day operations, local supervision and resource mobilization to support
education and training, as well as counseling students and staff, have been decentralized and
allocated to local stakeholders at the districts and schools, both with backstopping services
from the ministry and other national level actors (Ministry of Education, 2005). The source of
decision making has been widened, and all the educational stakeholders in secondary schools
are supposed to be active participants in making decisions at school level. In the decentralized
secondary school system, the principal’s role is expected to change from that of the ‘boss’
to that of a ‘chief executive officer.’ Instead of enforcing the ministry of education policies,
which is the role of the principal as the ‘boss,’ the principal ‘chief executive’ works with all
stakeholders and shares with them the decision-making authority. All decisions in management
task areas within the school level are supposed to be shared among all the stakeholders. This
is in an effort to overcome the different challenges and a way of democratizing other public
entities. Decentralized decision making, when effectively implemented, results in higher
student performance, more efficient use of resources, and increased skills. Other benefits are
satisfaction in school administrators, teachers and students, and the greater involvement of the
community and business for supporting schools.
In a decentralized system of decision making, stakeholders are expected to participate
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
personally or through representation by democratically elected representatives. In Kenya, there 91

have been attempts to empower secondary school students through their representatives, by
sensitizing them on their roles and other efforts to reform students’ leadership from prefects to
students’ councils. Teachers and school management boards have been ‘empowered’ through
capacity building in various aspects of management. Head teachers, in both primary schools
and secondary schools, have been sensitized and trained to act as facilitators of participatory
decision making. However despite all these efforts to reform the education sector through
decentralization, problems of secondary school strikes and demonstrations, which are the
students’ and other stakeholders’ reactions to the challenges, seem to be on the rise.
Limitations of Secondary Schools to Full Decentralization
As pointed out earlier, in a decentralized school system, stakeholders are supposed to be

active participants in decision making on various management tasks in their schools. However,
this seems not to be the case in Kenyan secondary schools. Some of the limitations to effective
decentralization of education in Kenyan secondary schools include:
Conflicting Legal and Policy Guidelines
The Education Act of 1968, which is the fundamental law governing education in Kenya,
mandates the Minister for Education to delegate power to appointed boards of governors
(BOGs) who have the responsibility to manage secondary schools. Over the years, this is the
legal document that has empowered BOGs and the head teachers (who are the secretaries to
the BOGs) to make decisions in all aspects of school management. Due to the incompetence
of the BOGs, they make at times very unpopular decisions, which may be contested by other
stakeholders, such as, parents, students and teachers, often in form of demonstrations and
strikes. Some of the head teachers take advantage of the incompetence and ignorance of the
BOG members to embezzle school funds. Decentralization of education in Kenya is governed
through the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on Policy Framework for Education, Training and
Research. The Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005 was adopted through a sector wide approach to
programme planning (SWAP). SWAP is a process of engaging all stakeholders in education
in order to attain national ownership, alignment of objectives, harmonization of procedures
and approaches, and a coherent financing arrangement (Manani, 2007). The Sessional Paper
No. 1 recommended, among other things, the devolution of education to the districts and
decentralization of decision making to the school level (Ministry of Education, 2005). Then,
there is the Public Procurement and Disposal Act of 2005, which was implemented on the
1st of January, 2007 (Republic of Kenya, 2005). The Public Procurement and Disposal Act of
2005 was aimed at enhancing openness, transparency, fairness, good governance and reduction
in corruption in public institutions, including schools. The Act granted teachers the power to
control the tendering and procurement process in secondary schools (Wanderi, 2008). It is
through this Act that ordinary teachers were mandated to be members and even chair tendering
and procurement committees, and generally make decisions for the secondary school financial
management. These legal and policy documents are concurrently applied in secondary school
administration and management in Kenya. It remains a matter of choice for the administrators
to decide on which is the more appropriate and favourable way to act at a given time.
Students’ Governance
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), which has been
ratified by the government of Kenya, gives young people rights on a wide range of issues
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
92 including “the right to education, the right to be free from violence, exploitation and abuse,
the right to food and shelter, the right to play, and the right to have their voice heard on issues,
which affect them” (Initiative Africa, 2003, p. 16). Students’ involvement in decision making is
likely to lead to better decisions, to strengthen a commitment to and understanding of democracy
and better protect students. A study by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and
the ministry of education in Kenya in 2006 revealed that student participation in the daily
running of the school was directly linked to better academic performance and less school strikes
(Karanja, 2010). It is out of these benefits and pressures that the government through the policy
on decentralization ought to involve students in decision making. Students are not just the
beneficiaries of the school programmes, but they are co-interested parties in raising the quality
of their academic programmes.
A major limitation for effective and meaningful students’ participation in decision making
has been the lack of appropriate structures. The students’ councils are the governing structures
established in secondary schools, where students have been given a voice to make decisions and
be heard. In Kenya, there is no however clear policy on students’ representation; therefore, most
of the schools are likely to have the colonial prefects system, where the members are appointed
by teachers. Most African countries inherited authoritarian school structures, through systems
that encouraged unquestioning loyalty to authority (Sifuna, 2000). “The colonial state in Africa
did not only want an ‘educated native,’ but a ‘loyal educated native as well’ (Sifuna, 2000,
p. 221). One aspect of the inherited school structure and organization that has been heavily
criticized as contravening democratic values is the existence of the prefect system. Most
secondary schools in English speaking African countries “have some form of prefect system,
where the duty of the prefects normally is to act as general agents of social control, checking
lateness, reporting misbehavior to teachers, organizing the tidiness of the school compound,
and generally acting as messengers of the staff” (Sifuna, 2000, p. 222). In most cases, prefects
are appointed by the school administration, usually a small group comprising the principal,
his assistant, the dean, the discipline master and few other teachers. Thus, the prefect system
is aimed at satisfying the authorities rather than the student population. In several studies done
on students’ governance in Kenya, it was found that the prefect system is the main structure
used in students’ participation in decision making in Kenya, while teachers include students in
decision making to mainly encourage compliance (Jwan & Ongondo, 2000; Ouma, 2007). It
was also found out that student leaders were often handpicked by teachers, and this resulted to
resentment in the rest of the school body (Kenya Female Advisory Organization, 2003). In a
democratic and participatory school management, there should be in a school a students’ council
consisting of representatives from all classes, who should be elected by students themselves. In
any school, an effective students’ council should have an “executive committee with an elected
president and vice president and its function should be to organize co-curricular, cultural and
social activities within the school” (Chaube & Chaube, 1995, p. 196).
During the second national secondary student leaders’ conference in 2010, it was
reported that from then on, students would be consulted when important school decisions were
being made in schools. Commenting on this proposed change, the vice president of Kenya,
Hon. Kalonzo Musyoka, applauded the bold move to engage students in school governance.
He further said that “when student leaders in particular, and students in general, participate in
decision-making, they feel valued” (Muindi, 2010, p. 4).
Financial Management Skills
For effective decentralization of decision making and services, the government came up
with the Public Procurement and Disposal Act of 2005. This Act empowers other stakeholders
(other than the chief executives and the organizational boards) to participate in making decisions
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
pertaining to tender and the procurement of goods and services (Republic of Kenya, 2005). 93
The Public Procurement and Disposal Regulations, 2006 (Legal Notice No.174) gives the
composition of the tender committees in secondary schools as: the deputy head teacher as the
chairman, the deputy chairman as the officer in-charge of finance, at least six heads of department
or teaching staff, including the matron or officer in-charge of boarding facilities appointed
by the principal, while the secretary is the officer heading the procurement unit (Republic of
Kenya, 2006). The procurement committee has a membership of six, and among them at least
three teachers should be included. The regulations clearly state that all these members of the
committee must be appointed in writing by the principal. Therefore, the principal plays a crucial
role in determining who should become member of these committees, and, except in a few cases
where it is dictated by the regulations, he/she can easily appoint people whom he can easily
manipulate. Again, most of these committee members do not have the basic skills on finance,
procurement and tendering procedures. It has been found out that head teachers of secondary
schools in Kenya have inadequate knowledge of policies and regulations regarding finance
and budgeting (Okech, 2005). Teachers and other stakeholders may be the worst members,
since there has not been any serious emphasis on financial management during any training of
teachers in Kenyan universities and colleges.
What Needs to Be Done?
1. Unless the legal and policy documents are harmonized to make up one comprehensive
document regarding a decentralized educational management, it may not be very easy
to fully and effectively decentralize the secondary school education in Kenya. Some
stakeholders, especially head teachers and BOGs in secondary schools, are likely to cling
on to the Educational Act of 1968, which gives them mandate to make some important
decisions in secondary school governance. Some corrupted head teachers may not want
to easily give up their active role in making decisions on tendering and procurement,
since this may be a lucrative source of their ‘deals’ and some personal benefits. A legal
document, probably to replace the Education Act of 1968, would be very appropriate
(since it cannot be easily legally challenged), unlike policy documents, which can
easily be legally challenged. A comprehensive legal document should be aligned with
democratic governance, decentralization of decision making and services, and should
also embrace information technology as a tool for instruction and administration amongst
other things.
2. Students should be practically involved in decision making through democratically

elected students’ councils. The introduction of the students’ council might help Kenyan
democracy in the long run by teaching the students a few things about civic duty and
peaceful competition for elected office. This is also likely to inculcate into the students
the virtues of political competition at an early age, which might help reduce cases of
violence in elections for students’ body representative at Kenyan universities. If students
are involved in decision making, they are likely to support and own any decisions and
ideas, which will in the long-term be beneficial to the school.
3. The role and capacity of the stakeholders should be well defined and developed,
respectively. All the stakeholders need to be trained on their role in a decentralized
system. Teachers should acquire the necessary skills and attitudes through induction and
re-training and, where possible, some skills such as financial management should be
emphasized on during training in colleges and universities.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
94 4. The ministry of education headquarters should thoroughly play its role in decentralization
especially on policy development, and quality assurance and standards. Where possible,
the ministry can occasionally contract independent auditors to reduce collusion that
sometimes take place between some corrupted head teachers and the auditors of the
ministry of education.
Conclusions
The Kenya government has a noble idea and plan of education decentralization in
the 21st century, which is aligned to democracy, openness and transparency in all the public
institutions in the country. Transfer of decision making to secondary schools (decentralization),
when effectively implemented can result to higher student performance, more efficient use
of resources, increased skills and greater community support for the school. Many countries
have tried to decentralize their education, with the hope of reaping the benefits associated
with it, but, due to many limitations, they have not succeeded. Kenya has not been spared of
these limitations, and the country should strive to overcome any limitations towards effective
decentralization, especially in secondary schools, so that it may enjoy such benefits.
References
Chaube, S. P., Chaube, A. (1995). School Organization. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd.
Fullan, M. (2003). The moral imperative of school leadership. California: Gorwin Press.
Hannagan, T. J. (2004). Management concepts and practice. London: Pearson Educational Ltd.
Indriyanto, B. (2005). School-based management: Issues and hopes towards decentralization in education

in Indonesia. Retrieved on June 15, 2010, from http://www. worldedreform. com/intercon3/third/f-
bumbang.pdf.
Initiative Africa. (2003). Student representation, motivations, perceptions and challenges. NASSP Journal.
Retrieved on October 20, 2009, from http://nasspblogs/org/convention.
IPAR. (2008). Radical reform for Kenya’s education sector: Implementing policies to vision 2030. Policy
View Issue, 4, 2008. Retrieved on June 15, 2010, from http:// www.ipar.or.ke/Documents/Policy-view-
4.pdf
Jwan, J. O., Ongondo, C. O. (2000). Students’ participation in the decision- making process in

secondary schools of Kenya. A paper presented during the Kenya Association of Education Administration
and Management Conference (2007). Retrieved on February 12, 2010, from http://kaeam.or.ke/
abstracts/57.htm.
Karanja, M. (2010, April 10). Move over teachers, students in charge. Nairobi: Saturday Nation.
Kenya Female Advisory Organization. (2003). Gender concern: Equity and equality. Retrieved on May
8th, 2010 from http://kefeado.co.ke/rolemodellingp2.php.
An evaluation and profile of education in Kenya. Nairobi. Development

Keriga, L., Bujra, A. (2009). ��
Policy Management Forum. Retrieved on August 22, 2010 from http:// www. dpmf.org/dpmf/downloads/
Evaluation%20&%20Profile%20of%20Education.pdf.
Majkowski, C., Fleming, D. (1988). School-site Management: Concepts and approaches. Andover, MA:
The Regional Laboratory for Educational Improvement of the Northeast and Islands.
Manani, H. K. (2007). Accelerated learning: New opportunities for children at risk Seminar. Nairobi:

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Kenya Institute of Education. Retrieved on June 14th, 2010, from http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/ 95

library/241473/mananiAcceleratedlearningNo.2pdf
Ministry of Education. (1994). Information handbook. Nairobi: Ministry of Education
Ministry of Education. (2005). Kenya education sector support programme 2005-2010. Nairobi: Ministry
of Education.
Muindi, B. (2010, April 7). Students vote to end reign of school prefects. Nairobi: Daily Nation.
Okech, I. W. O. (2005). The budgetary process in public secondary schools in West Pokot district in
Kenya: Degree of involvement of teachers by Head Teachers. Retrieved on May 13, 2010, from www.
uonbi.ac.ke/faculties/turntopdf.php?project
Osorio, F. B., Fasih, T., Patrinos, H. A., Santibanez, L. (2009). Decentralized decision making��
in schools.
The theory and evidence on school based management. Washington, D.C: The World Bank.
Ouma, J. J. (2007). Students’ voices in the decision-making process in Secondary Schools of

Kenya. Education and social Change in Eastern and Southern Africa. Retrieved on 29th January, 2010,
from http:/ecas2007.aegis-eu.org/view Abstract.aspx.
Republic of Kenya. (1968). Education Act, Cap 211. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya. (1964). Kenya Education Commission. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya (2005). Public Procurement and Disposal Act. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya. (2006). The Public Procurement and Disposal Regulations, 2006 (Legal Notice No.
174). Nairobi: Government Printer.
Samad, R. (2000). School-based management: A survey on the extent of principals’ knowledge and
implementation. Journal Pendidikan, 2000. University of Malaya. Retrieved on March 06, 2010, from
myas.fsktm.um.edu.my/5440.
Sifuna, D. N. (2000). Education for democracy and human rights in African schools: The Kenyan
experience. Africa Development, Vol. XXV, Nos. 1&2, 2000. Retrieved on May 13, 2010,
from http://ajol.info/index.php/ad/article/viewfile/22114/19401.
Siringi, J. (2000, June 14th). Teachers support industrial action. Nairobi: Daily Nation.
Uwakwe, C. U., Falaye, A. O., Emunemu, B.O., & and Adelore, O. (2008). Impact of decentralization
and privatization on the quality of education in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Nigerian Experience. European
Journal of Social Sciences, 7(1). Retrieved on September 12, 2010 from www.eurojournals.com/ejss_7_
1_14pdf
Wanderi, C. (2008). Management of education in Kenya: Ministry has failed. The African Executive,

10-17 September 2008. Retrieved on August 12, 2010 from http:// www.africanexecutive.com/modules/
magazine/articles.php?article=35

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
96
��
07��
David M. Mulwa M. Ed, Lecturer, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box
1264-90100, Machakos, Kenya.
E-mail: davimulwa@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.mmust.ac.ke/
Richard P. Kimiti M. Ed, Lecturer, Machakos Teachers College, P. O. Box 124, Machakos, Kenya
E-mail: prickimiti@yahoo.com
Titus M. Kituka M. Ed, Lecturer, Machakos Teachers College, P.O. Box 124, Machakos, Kenya.
Email: tkituka@yahoo.com
Elizabeth N. Muema M. Ed, Lecturer, Machakos Teachers College, P. O. Box 124, Machakos, Kenya.
Email: muemaelizabeth04@gmail.com
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
ILLITERACY AND VULNERABILITY TO 97
HIV/AIDS: THE CASE OF IGUEBEN

WOMEN IN Nigeria
Matthew Osaigbovo Ovbiebo
University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
E-mail: attitude_altitude@yahoo.com
Abstract
It is believe that Knowledge is power and if literacy has to do with knowledge, then to be illiterate means
one lacks power. Since most women lack reading and writing skills in this area, they are powerless when it
comes to accessing written information, and this could make them vulnerable to the spread of HIV/AIDS.
In this study, the findings supported the literature that women’s vulnerability is strongly influenced and
tied to illiteracy. Women’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS is real and needs to be addressed for there to be
any positive progress in the fight against HIV/AIDS. If HIV vulnerability (illiteracy) is not acknowledged
and fought, women will continue to succumb to the disease overwhelmingly and Igueben will eventually
disintegrate as it will be full of sick people intensifying underdevelopment. This study sought to explore
the relationship between illiteracy and the spread of HIV/AIDS infection among rural women. Fifteen
(15) illiterate women were purposively selected from the area to participate in this explorative study. The
research approach was qualitative. The research was undertaken within an interpretavist framework in
the sense that it is a communal process, informed by participating illiterate women, and sensitive to the
role of context (Alvermann, D.E., & Mallozzi, C.A. 2010). The design type used in this study is a case
study. Data was collected by means of interviews. The interview schedule consists of 10 open-ended
questions focusing on various aspects of their views on how illiteracy contributes to their vulnerability
of HIV/AIDS. The interview was tape recorded and transcribed verbatim, and the analysis was done by
means of constant comparative method (Merriam 1998).
Key words: HIV/ADS, illiteracy, vulnerability, knowledge, women, relationship.
Introduction
HIV/AIDS was first discovered in humans during the 1980s. It has since then become a
nightmare and a pandemic, affecting humans of all races and socio-economic positions, both
male and female, throughout the world. This virus, which has no cure, knows no bounds or
limits. People who are rich, poor, powerful, powerless, educated, illiterate, rural, urban, ugly
or beautiful all can fall prey to this dreadful disease. Both developed and developing countries
use every available means to educate their citizens about the virus. The continual spread of
HIV/AIDS in Igueben despite the awareness and prevention programs led the researcher to
carry out this exploration. That HIV/AIDS is more complex than was initially assumed is no
doubt. Levels of literacy and education are critical to determining who can get infected with
HIV/AIDS. If, however, one woman has better access to literacy and other educational services
than another woman at the same income level, in the same area then the two cannot be said to
be equally vulnerable.
The specific objectives of the study were the following:
1. To update and expand our understanding of illiteracy and HIV/AIDS vulnerability in
Igueben.
2. To assess the role and impact of basic services and the anti-HIV/AIDS programs of
the Government of Igueben in protecting the vulnerable and facilitating improvements in the
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
98 education-well-being of the illiterate.

In Igueben communities in Nigeria, for example, because of the high illiteracy levels, the
written medium may not be suitable for educating adults about the disease.
The need to educate people (formally, informally or non-formally) about HIV/AIDS
in order to stem its tide has become a priority in all countries of the world. The conventional
approach of using medical treatment alone has not been able to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS
in the developing world, particularly in Africa. It is for this reason that a multiple approach is
needed to tackle the pandemic.
Confirming this view, UNAIDS (2002:33) points out that medical science alone cannot
overcome AIDS. Tools to control the spread of HIV and prolong life for people with AIDS do
exist, yet, in 2010 UNAIDS estimate d that there are 33.3 million people living with HIV,
including 2.5 million children. During 2009 some 2.6 million people became newly infected
with the virus and an estimated 1.8 million people died from AIDS. The common tools to
control the spread of HIV include the use of condoms, provision of information in newspapers,
magazines, advertisements on radio, and posters. These means of educating people may be good
but only to those who are literate more than those who are illiterate. In rural Africa, illiterate
people constitute the majority of the population and this makes it difficult to access written
information. Thus the existing media cannot be effective in combating the AIDS pandemic in
rural areas because of the high levels of illiteracy.
AIDS, which was officially recognized as a disease in 1981, is caused by the virus known
as HIV. This virus can be spread through blood, semen, breast milk and vaginal secretions.
Unprotected sexual intercourse is the most common route of HIV transmission. AIDS can kill
because the infected individual’s immune system is unable to fight infections (WHO, 2006:23).
There are numerous books, articles and pamphlets which explain the nature of HIV and AIDS
and also assist in promoting awareness or prevention of HIV/AIDS. These means of education
does not however benefit illiterate adults. Irwin, A., Millen, J. and Fallows, D. (2003) for
instance argue that prevention efforts are under-funded and seem to rely, in the absence of a
vaccine, on barrier methods requiring male consent. In order to fight this pandemic on a global
scale, there is a need for a massive international campaign which is able to pressurize political
and economic power-holders into taking AIDS seriously, to sustain such commitment until the
pandemic is brought under control. Medical and public health communities cannot attempt to
lead such a campaign on their own. Nor is it reasonable to expect those who are already gravely
ill with the complications resulting from HIV infection to do it alone (Irwin, et al 2003).
AIDS remains complex and incurable, and has devastated individuals, communities
and countries (UNAIDS, 2005:5). The rate of new HIV infections continues to climb every
year, with an estimated 4.9 million people having been infected in 2004 (UNAIDS, 2005:7).
It is for this reason that humankind should fight the pandemic from all angles – classrooms,
homes, communities, churches, technological media and discussion forums. The approaches
for fighting the spread of the disease must be various and contextualized.
One of the greatest hindrances to a large mobilization against HIV/AIDS is misinformation
about the pandemic. To be able to fight the pandemic effectively, people must have sound
knowledge about it. Accurate knowledge can make a sense of urgency about global AIDS
and enable effective action to be taken. The researcher believes that no single book, material
or method can dismantle all the myths and mystifications that surround HIV/AIDS, and this
becomes increasingly true as AIDS myth change over time. It is for this reason that other ways
must be explore in making the message of AIDS reach all people, no matter where they live or
their circumstances. Education is the key.
Matthew OSAIGBOVO OVBIEBO. Illiteracy and Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS: The Case of Igueben Women in Nigeria
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Background to the Problem 99
Nigeria is a large country in West Africa. It has a population of about 140,000,000 (one
hundred and forty million) (BBC News, 2006). The population consists of people who are
culturally and linguistically diverse. Nigeria is the tenth largest country in Africa (HIV Sentinel
Survey, 2003), a democratic federal republic consisting of 36 states with a federal capital territory
(FCT). The states and the FCT are organized for political administration and are further divided
in to 774 local government areas. The states are been grouped, on the basis of geographical
proximity or ethnic homogeneity and other political considerations, into six geo-political
zones. The zones differ from each other in terms of size, population, ecological characteristics,
language, culture, settlement patterns, economic opportunities and historical background. It is
estimated that about 70% of Nigerians are poor, the majority of which are women. The Human
Development Report of 2000 ranks Nigeria as the 151st out of 174 countries, and among the 20
poorest countries in the world (HIV Sentinel Survey, 2003).
Nigeria is divided into six geo-political zones: North East, North West, North Central,
South West, South East and South- South. Edo State is in the South- South zone –often referred
to as the Niger Delta - which comprises six states. According to the 2006 census, the Edo State
population was about 3,218,332 million people (National Population Commission of Nigeria).
The state is both urban and rural, and the literacy level is below 35%.
In Benin City of Edo State, where the researcher grew up, an HIV/AIDS awareness
campaign through the use of teaching aids such as pamphlets, leaflets, newspapers, magazines
and the distribution of condoms is a good idea, although it may not have any significant impact
on rural communities. This is because the majority of the adults in rural areas cannot read, speak
or understand English language – even if it is written in their home language, they cannot read
in order to learn about the disease (Goldburg 2004).
The sharing of information about condoms, pamphlets and discussions are the methods
most commonly used by awareness campaigns of NGOs and government departments, who
have not been able to drive home the message as expected. The written media they employ
do not get the message to many adults. Even if one talk with them in their mother tongue,
the message may not be taken seriously because they cannot see the extent of the damage the
pandemic may do to people. However, if developing their skills and educating them on how
to read and write could be used to first catch their attention, as well as interest, then every
other approach used will be successful (Goldburg, 2004). It is obvious that when people are
educated or literate they tend to be different from those who are not both in attitude, behavior
and perception because they gain knowledge and get information.
In the Edo State of Nigeria, the use of media such as written text, in teaching people
about HIV/AIDS does not seem to be effective because most of these women cannot read
nor write to assess information, and tradition still has a strong hold over people, despite the
spread of Christianity. The traditional perception is that HIV/AIDS sufferers are people who
are unfaithful to their partners and/or those who have defiled the land or ignored the warnings
of the gods. The disease is therefore regarded as a punishment for sin. This is why the campaign
against this cultural perception has made it difficult to contain the disease in the Edo State of
Nigeria. With this in mind, the use of condoms and pamphlets to make people aware of the
disease seems to be a waste of time (Ojieabu et al, 2008). This is why literacy becomes very
vital. Adult education which could vividly teach the adult population in the rural communities
has not yet been used in the fight against this pandemic in this area.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
100 Problem Statement
In the history of HIV/AIDS and the fight against the disease, there have been quite
a number of programmes by various organizations and the organizers responsible for such
awareness programmes. Awareness programmes are conducted through the use of different
teaching aids, but have still not achieved the desired objectives in the Igueben municipality of
Edo State in Nigeria.
Against the above background the researcher became more curious to investigate this
apparent paradox – governmental and non-governmental organizations employing various
media to inform the people of Edo State about the HIV/AIDS pandemic and yet community
members have not changed their behaviour or taken precautions. In considering the above
paradox, the researcher wondered whether developing the skill of these women and teaching
them how to read and write, cannot be employed in addition to those already existing media.
The problem for this study may therefore be expressed as follows: Is there a relationship
between illiteracy and HIV/AIDS in the Igueben area?
According to the National Strategy for Behaviour Change Interventions and
Communications (NSBCC: 2006) for HIV and AIDS, HIV infection is influenced by several
factors; like environmental, institutional and personal factors. Patterns of infection and underlying
causes are dynamic and complex. The fact that HIV transmission involves sexual intercourse
adds yet another layer of complexity in the search for solution. While there is no cure for HIV
and AIDS, there are some factors that can be targeted to reduce the risk of infection in this area.
This paper tries to look at illiteracy as one of the major factors linked to HIV among women in
Igueben. HIV vulnerability is prevalent in cultures and environment where women are illiterate
and have little power in the family (Gupta, 2000). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005 defined
illiterates as persons who declare that they cannot read or write a simple statement on their
everyday life. The report also added that any person who ‘can with understanding both read and
write a short simple statement on his everyday life’ should be considered literate. According
to UNESCO (2005), a functionally illiterate person is one who cannot engage in all those
activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his group and community
and also for enabling him to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his own and the
community’s development. That means a literate woman might thus be defined as a person who
possesses sufficient knowledge of reading, writing and arithmetic to guarantee an improvement
in the quality of her own life and that of her family, and to facilitate her full participation in the
development of the group and community. Women of this area were less likely to be literate
than the men based on the culture practice here; where the place of women is often seen to
be the kitchen. Therefore, educating the girl child who will later become a woman is seen as
a waste of time. If literacy is accepted as one of the weapon to fight HIV/AIDS, then to have
women who are not literate means they are vulnerable to the pandemic. According to World
Bank (2002), Vulnerability implies the susceptibility of individuals, households or communities
to the negative impact of events or shocks. Vulnerability can vary geographically, depending
on the nature of risks and resources available locally. According to Watts and Bohle (1993:46),
“vulnerability is a multi-layered and multi-dimensional social space defined by determinate
political, economic and institutional capabilities of people in specific places at specific times.”
Vulnerability thus implies some form of external dimension that may increasingly predispose
people to risk (Chambers 1989).
Illiteracy has been said to play a major role in HIV vulnerability. In sub-Saharan Africa,
women are at the bottom in terms of education. Illiteracy and ignorance are two major obstacles
in curbing HIV/AIDS (Sesay 2010).
Nigeria has made enormous strides in educating girls. However women are still largely
under-represented in education. Statistics indicate that many girls are enrolled to go to school in
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
the primary level, but few women seem to enroll at the secondary level. In addition males seem 101
to enroll more than females (King, 1993) in (Sesay 2010). Browne and Barrett (1991) in Sesay
(2010) proposed that girls go to school in lesser numbers than boys, although considerable
variations exist, making it difficult to generalize rates of participation and educational
attainment. There are various explanations for this inequality in school enrollment between
boys and girls in Igueben, for one, traditional attitudes place more emphasis on the education of
boys, and parents continue to encourage boys to enroll in secondary schools. Secondly, when a
family member becomes sick, girls are the first to leave school so that they can take care of the
family obligations. In this respect, girls tend to grow up to be illiterate and dependent on men
for information. Lack of education for women results in low exposure to HIV/AIDS education
messages (NACC, 2002). Women with education are more likely to understand how HIV is
transmitted and thus how to protect themselves. Conversely, illiterate women are less likely to
have the education and knowledge of the disease, how HIV is transmitted, and how to prevent
it. Limited information can be concluded to have a significant contributing factor in the spread
of HIV.
When women are less educated, they have less knowledge, and do not possess ways
of protecting themselves against AIDS. Education inequality affects women’s ability to take
informed decisions on risk reduction (Sesay 2010). Thus, low levels of education may be related
to higher levels of vulnerability (Fleischman, 2003). If HIV/AIDS is to be reduced in all its
varied dimensions, then it is crucial to develop an understanding of how these factors work both
individually and in relation to each other. Similarly, if programs are to be effectively designed
to promote awareness, prevention and reduce stigma attached to the sufferers of the pandemic,
then the processes that cause these women to descend irreversibly into pain and frustration of
the pandemic must be better understood.
Theoretical Framework
It is necessary to note here that theories and conceptual models are the primary means
of providing a conceptual context of a study. The framework for this study is the Health Belief
Model (HBM) even though it is a medical model. The reason was because of its relevancy to the
study. It is also because it provides explanation of people’s health related behavior. According
to Butler (2001:242-253); Glanz, Rimer & Lewis (2002:3-17) and Gao, X, Nay, DP, Rosebluth,
SA, Scott, V & Woodward, C. (2000:387), the model is developed to provide a framework
to explain why some people take specific actions to avoid illness, while others fail to protect
themselves. In line with this, the researcher sees the model as appropriate for health care actions
that uses the need to stay away from negative consequences as the main instinct. The use of this
model evaluate how HIV/AIDS patients’ perceive, understand and beliefs regarding the disease
and its prevention programmes provide some reasons influencing the adherence to preventive
effort of the spread of the pandemic in Edo State. It is used as major theoretical or organizing
framework for explaining and predicting adherence to medical care recommendations and since
HIV/AIDS is a medical problem, the researcher found it necessary to apply the model.
The choice of method of research depends on the type of information to be collected.

In this study, the researcher chooses to use qualitative methods. In essence; the use of the
techniques is for the researcher to be able to collect relevant data. From the explanation of
Parahoo (2006:59) qualitative research focuses on the experiences of people as well as stressing
the dynamism and uniqueness of individuals. Thus the paradigm of qualitative method in a real
sense is the research that elicits participants’ account of meaning, perception and experience.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
102 The presence of the researcher in the field is an advantage. This is because the researcher’s
presence in the field makes the findings valid in the sense that he could see their reactions, have
one on one discussion with them as well as see their experience. The researcher understands
some behaviour by been in the field, he is able to get more detail information due to follow-ups
made. The reason for using this kind of method is because it is empirical in nature; that is, the
research is based on observation. Another reason was because of the nature of the kind of data
needed. These data were in the form of words both structured and unstructured interview.
Ethical and Practical Considerations
For any research findings to be accurate and acceptable, the aspect of reliability and
validity need to be examined. According to Babbie and Mouton (2001:121) the researcher must
ensure, however, that the questions possess the information the researcher wants to obtain and
that they will be willing to answer those questions. It is on this note that the researcher decide
to evaluate its instruments.
According to Polite and Beck (2006) it is a code of behaviour considered correct. Ethical
considerations are fundamental to the design of any research that involves human being to try
and protect the right of the research participants. On these bases the study had to be conducted
with fairness (Burns & Grove 2005). During this study, the following ethical issues were
observed: informed consent, right to anonymity, beneficence and, respect for persons (Brink
2006:32-35).
The Research Sample
According to Burns & Grove (2005:203) the population is the total group of persons that
meets the designated sets of criteria established by the researcher. In this study, the population
comprise all adult females in Igueben to which the researcher has reasonable access to in
the area. It can also be said to be group of people about whom the researcher wants to draw
conclusions (Babbie & Mouton 2001:100). The reason for this is because it is not possible to
study all members of the target population; therefore a sample of 15 adult women all from
Igueben Local Government Area (L.G.A) was drawn. This number was necessitated due to
some logistic problems. Igueben was selected on the ground that the researcher is from the
same area from which the sample was drawn. According to Nzeneri (2002:56) an adult is one
who is physically and psychologically matured and is socially, economically and politically
responsible. The present study utilized only the female data because of the research focus on
vulnerability. The average age of respondents was 28 years and the minimum and maximum
ages were 18 and 49 respectively. Women are particularly affected by AIDS, given how gender
relations intersect with sexual behavior and economic security (Baylies & Bujra, 2000). Further
criterion used for the inclusion is that participants must be able and willing to participate in the
study and provide voluntary informed consent. All respondents had to be verbally fluent in the
medium of communication which is either Ishan or English languages. They should be able to
communicate their experiences, feelings, and thoughts in relation to the research phenomenon.
However, all the respondents used in this study met these criteria and expressed their wiliness
to discuss freely and openly with the researcher.
Data Analysis
Demographical information sought in this section included variables such as age,

marital status, educational qualifications, and employment status. The items in this section
attempted to obtain personal information about the participants in order to contextualize their
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
responses. This section shows the results obtained from interviews with the women. A total 103
of ten (10) questions were designed for use in the interview. Each interview section began
with instructions; this was also typed and given to each interviewer to sign after being told
about the purpose of the exercise. They were asked to feel free to speak their mind. Assuring
them that the information they give would be confidential and no names could be mentioned
to anyone anywhere. Some of the participants’ responses were tape-recorded. This was due
to proper English language communication. Qualitative analyses are often used to minimise
some of the short-comings normally associated with research. According to Burns and Grove
(2006), the purpose of qualitative research approach is to organize the data into a meaningful,
individualized interpretation or framework that describe the phenomenon being studied. Based
on this, the researcher took time to first read all the transcripts and listened to the audiotapes.
Coding was done manually during the reading and rereading of the interview transcripts using
highlighted pens with different colours for each category. Each session was tape-recorded
though not with all.
Discussion of Qualitative Findings
According to the literature, a number of demographic differences exist among women

with regards to vulnerability. Women who are less educated are shown to be more vulnerable
to HIV than those with more education (NACC, 2002; World Bank, 2002). Illiterate women
are more vulnerable to HIV than educated women. Therefore, it is paramount that studies
take into account basic demographic differences in studying the level of vulnerability among
women. In this study it was expected that age, education, marital status, and employment
were the independent variables that would be related to HIV vulnerability among women. The
independent variables are summarized in the tables below.
Table 1. Age category.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

< 26 years 4 26.7 26.7 26.7
26 – 30 5 33.3 33.3 60.0
31 – 40 4 26.7 26.7 86.7
41+ years 2 13.3 13.3 100.0
Total 15 100.0 100.0
Age is one of the variables identified in the literature as a factor in HIV vulnerability
among females. The literature has widely suggested that illiterate women are more vulnerable
to HIV infection because of ignorance, social, cultural, and economic reasons (NACC, 2002).
Age was measured in the following increments:
• Less than 26 years
• 26-30
• 31-40
• 41+ years
The demographical data revealed that the respondents’ age ranges from 18-49 years old;
the age with high HIV prevalence in Nigeria (FMH 2006:24). The significance of this is that
the chronological as well as the maturity of the respondents are important factors in determin-
ing the adherence to awareness and preventive as well as involvement in the campaign or fight
against the pandemic. At this stage, these illiterate adults are sexually active and vulnerable to
HIV/AIDS.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
104 Table 2. Marital status of participants.

Married 9 60.0 60.0 60.0
Single 4 26.7 26.7 86.7
Single parent 2 13.3 13.3 100.0
Total 15 100.0 100.0
The literature has suggested that illiterate women are vulnerable to HIV infection due
to different reasons (Fleischman, 2003; NACC, 2002). In this study it is expected that there
will be differences in HIV vulnerability based on a woman’s marital status. The marital status
variable comprised of three categories: 1. Married 2. Single 3. Single parent
Table 3. Education level of participants.

JSS 2 2 13.3 13.3 13.3
Illiterate 8 53.3 53.3 66.7
Primary school drop out 5 33.3 33.3 100.0
Total 15 100.0 100.0
The literature suggests that those with higher levels of education tend to be more
knowledgeable about HIV transmission and prevention and hence less vulnerable to HIV
infection than those with lower levels of education (World Bank, 2002). Education was classified
into three categories: 1. Junior Secondary School 2 (JSS2) drop out, 2. No schooling at all 3.
Primary school dropout
The distribution of the education qualification as presented above shows that the highest
qualification of the most of the respondents in the study was at primary school level. A total
of 46.0% either did not go to school at all or dropped out of school at primary school level
(See table 3 above). Generally, the standard of education of the respondents appears to be low
considering the percentage of those in the primary and those who did not attend at all.
Based on these, the educational level of the respondents seemed to influence adherence
or had some effect on people’s attitudes. This is consistent with the view that education is an
important factor for the well being of the individuals. This also can enhance employment status
and improve their access to health care facilities. The respondents’ educational status had an
influence on their knowledge of and risk behaviour regarding HIV transmission and prevention
as well as participating in the campaign against the pandemic. Being illiterate they could be
vulnerable to wrong perceptions as they might not have adequate information on the causes and
transmission of the pandemic.
Table 4. Employment Status of Participants.
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Employed 2 13.3 13.3 13.3
Unemployed 13 86.7 86.7 100.0
Total 15 100.0 100.0
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
In this study, it is expected that there will be differences in HIV vulnerability based on 105
whether someone currently works or not with those who are unemployed being more vulnerable
(Sesay 2010). The original occupation variable was collapsed into two categories: (a) employed
and (b) unemployed.
HIV infection is influenced by so many factors one of which is illiteracy. During the
2006 census, the rate of unemployment in the country was very high among young adults.
Nigeria is a country where educational qualification counts so much that when it comes to job
employment that is, if the job is available; if you do not have the required qualification for the
job you might obviously not get the job. From the above, it is cleared that majority 13 (86.6%)
of the people have no qualification that will earn them a good job employment.
When the respondents were asked of their employment status more than half 13 (86.7%)
of the respondents indicated that they were not working, while 2 (13.3%) indicated that they
were working (See table 4). The response indicates that many people are not working and
are poor. Being poor could make them vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. This is in agreement with
National Strategy for BCIC (2006:8), that economic factors increases vulnerability to HIV
infection and intensifies its impact at all levels. It can therefore be deduced from the response
that unemployment leads to poverty, reduces investment in human capital restricts provision of
essential health and social services for prevention, treatment, care and support for HIV/AIDS.
Are you aware of the disease called HIV/AIDS? What do you understand
by the term HIV/AIDS?
The semi-structured interviews were conducted on a one-on-one basis with female

adults. More than 90% of all the women interviewed seem to have a considerable awareness
about HIV/AIDS. This been the first step in acquiring knowledge of the pandemic according to
FME 2006:170-178. However, it was sad to hear that majority of the respondents (87%) do not
know what HIV/AIDS stands for.
Where did you get your information from?
When asked where they got their information about the pandemic, majority of the
respondents (73%) said they got to know about it from their friends and parents. This confirms
Huang et al (2005:772) report that the source of information is mostly from parents.
How is this disease transmitted?
About 83% of the respondents said through sex, sharp object, blood transfusion, blood
contact and unsterilized needles. This response is an affirmation of FGN report (2003:17);
UNICEF (2005:76) reports as highlighted in the literature study above. However, one of them
added that one can contract it through witchcraft activities or curse from the gods of the land
once there is a sacrilege. One of the respondents put it this way:
That is what we have been told but, here we know that when you defile the land, the gods
will inflict you with sickness like HIV/AIDS were your blood begins to dry up the same
is when one is attacked by witches and wizards.
And according to Dennill et al (1999:156), knowledge has an influence on an individu-
al’s perception about an illness such as HIV/AIDS and determines the adoption of healthy
behaviour.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
106 How can a mother infect her newborn baby with HIV/AIDS?
Female adults were interviewed on how a mother can infect her newborn baby with
HIV/AIDS
A mother that is already infected will automatically infect her unborn baby and/or
when breast feeding the baby, she re-infect the baby says one of the respondents.
It was observed that majority (84%) of the respondents do not believe that one can be
HIV positive and still give birth to a baby that is not infected with the virus. This is similar to
the findings of Meerkotter et al (2010) report that Mother-to-child transmission is wide spread
especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where approximately 600 000 babies are infected with HIV
every year.
However, the risk of mother-to-child-transmission of HIV-infection is low ranging from
15% to 35% (UNAIDS 2005). This is in line of the context of HBM (Campus 2005), which
states that incorrect perceptions about the risk of HIV could lead to exposure to the risk of HIV
transmission.
It is easy to conclude that the adults in this area have a reasonable level of awareness
of the pandemic but what remains a problem here is that they do not know the meaning of the
acronyms HIV/AIDS and their means of information according to the researcher needs to be
look into carefully in other to avoid the dissemination of wrong information. The respondents’
level of education had an influence on their knowledge of the risk behaviour regarding HIV
transmission as there is a relationship between illiteracy and vulnerable. This make the illiterate
women void of adequate information on the transmission of HIV. If they got their information
from friends and parents, then these friends and parents need to be empowered to communicate
openly with these adults on HIV/AIDS issues because they have an influential role to play in
the socialization of these adults.
Have you seen a condom before? What do you think of the use of condom?
Most of the respondents (86.7%) have seen condom and as for what they think of the use
of condom, 83% of the respondents do not see any guarantee or safety in the use of it. One of
the participants said:
It is 50/50 because it can burst or break at any time and some condom has holes bigger
than sperm.
By 50/50 it means there is no guarantee or safety in the use of condom.
Another respondent said:
Most of the men don’t like to use it they prefer skin to skin.
Yet another respondent said:
I hate the smell or odour how are you sure the oil does not carry any infection?
This is similar to the findings of Agweda, Dibua and Eromonsele (2010) that the majority
are negatively disposed to using condom.
How would you know if someone is HIV positive?
It appears that (91%) of the respondents have not seen anyone who has HIV/AIDS they
have heard and someone else have pointed others to them as having the disease. For example,
one of the respondents said:
I have not seen but I have heard because AIDS no de show for face
Meaning, you cannot know someone who is infected with the disease by mere looking
at him/her. You have to go for test. This finding indicated a knowledge gap on both the
transmission and consciousness of the disease. Amuyunzu-Nyamongo et al (2005) reporting,
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
that some people might intentionally spread the virus for reasons of revenge if they learn they 107
are HIV positive.
Does women’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS vary across the

communities and villages of Igueben?
Thus, women’s vulnerability in the area will vary. It will not be uniform because most
villages within the Municipality are not like the main town of Igueben. Those in Igueben main
town tend to be a little social or schooled than those who are not. One of the respondents said:
Those who are in the main town of Igueben have advantage than those of us far from the town
because they have better schools than us though not too good compare to those in the city of
Lagos.
This is in line with NACC, 2002 report that Lack of education for women results in
low exposure to HIV/AIDS education messages. Women with education are more likely to
understand how HIV is transmitted and thus know how to protect themselves. Conversely,
illiterate women are less likely to have the education and knowledge of the disease, how HIV is
transmitted, and how to prevent it. Limited information can be concluded to have a significant
contributing factor in the spread of HIV.
Another respondent added:
Igueben town gets electricity more than those of us in the villages around Igueben town.
However, that does not mean that Igueben town gets it often; we all know electricity problem
in Nigeria.
To what extent does illiteracy in this area account for

women vulnerability to HIV/AIDS?
It is obvious that when people are educated or literate they tend to be different from
those who are not both in attitude, behavior and perception because they gain knowledge and
get information.
In the Edo State of Nigeria, the use of media such as written text, in teaching people
about HIV/AIDS does not seem to be effective because most of these women cannot read nor
write to assess information, and tradition still has a strong hold over people, despite the spread
of Christianity.
How effective is the use of newspaper, magazines, leaflets, and radio in the disseminating of
information on HIV/AIDS in your area compare to watching it on film?
The important of using written test in the dissemination of information on HIV/AIDS

among adults who are illiterate is a waste of time, effort and, resources. Not only will they not
benefit by it, but also their children and their friends and family will also remain in the dark for
this singular reason. This conclusion came as a result of the majority of respondents (86.7%)
who responded negatively to the question of how effective is the use of newspaper, magazines,
leaflets, and radio in the disseminating of information on HIV/AIDS in the area compare to
watching it on film?
One of the respondents said:
Of what use is giving a spoon to someone who has no both hands?
The aforementioned statement corroborates the findings of Bali and Wickramasinghe
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
108 (2007:142) that an individual’s knowledge is a function of his/her previous experiences, mental
structures and beliefs, which are used to interpret objects and events. Both writers also argued
that some people may learn new concepts more easily when they are presented in both verbal
and visual forms, and that visual media make concepts more accessible to a person than text
alone, and can help with recall. That majority of the respondents have not watched any film/
movie on HIV/AIDS cannot be overemphasis. However, they wish if they could have such
film/movies to help explain the pandemic to them in the language that they will understand.
One of the respondents said:
It is good but only if they show it in our language or the three major languages in
Nigeria. Another respondent added:
If they must show it, let those who are truly infected and/or affected be part of the movie.
This will make it more real and acceptable to all. Education is not only for our children even we
the adults need to be educated especially in maters like this said another respondent.
This call for a serious attention on the government to see what can be done to help this area
to have constant electricity. Or better still; the organizers of the fight against HIV/AIDS should
buy a mobile generator plant that they can move from place to place in showing film/movies at
interval to create awareness and consciousness of the pandemic to the people especially at the
cool of the day. Bailey and Ledford (1994), in Benicia (2005:10), highlighted this phenomenon
by stating that because film engages the visual sense of students, more senses are thus involved
than with the traditional type of instruction. This uniqueness makes film an ideal aid in teaching
rural illiterate adults about HIV/AIDS. They further suggest that the process of drawing the
attention of students results in better retention and commitment of ideas and information to their
long-term memory. Retention is also stimulated by the viewers’ emotional involvement in the
film. When our emotions are aroused, information is more likely to be retained for example,
when illiterate adults see the physical appearance of HIV/AIDS victim in a film they cannot
forget its physical effects on individuals.
And according to Dennill et al (1999:156), knowledge has an influence on an individual’s
perception about an illness such as HIV/AIDS and determines the adoption of healthy
behaviour.
To what extent does decision-making in marriage in this area account

for women vulnerability to HIV/AIDS?
Women in this area are brought up in such a way to take instruction or decision from
the men or their husband; objection to men’s decisions means disobedient. One of the women
said:
If you want your marriage to last you must not dispute word with your husband.
While another answered:
This is so in our area here because it is assumed that the men know everything.
A total of 67% of the respondents’ fear of been beaten by their husband if they failed to
carry out his instructions this also account for their vulnerability. One of the respondents put it
this way:
If you fail to do what they (men) say, they will leave home without feeding-money for the
family, and possibly go to other women out there.
This account for their inability to read and write since they do not know what the men
knew surpass to know.
Conclusion
This research grew from recognition that women in Igueben were becoming more and
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
more infected with HIV/AIDS despite the awareness and prevention campaign against the 109
pandemic in the area. It is evident that there are stark relationship between illiteracy and HIV/
AIDS vulnerability. The differences range from age, education, marital status, and employment
status. The root of HIV/AIDS vulnerability among women in Igueben is deeply rooted in
illiteracy (UNDP 2010). Women are rendered vulnerable to HIV/AIDS through their inability
to read and write or acquire skills. According to Eng & Butler, (1997), the power of inbalance
between men and women in sexual relationship makes it difficult for women to implement
and insist on protective behaviours. This study recognises that in spite of efforts to prevent or
stop the spread of HIV/AIDS in Igueben, illiteracy and ignorance play a significance role in
women’s vulnerability. From the exploration, this can be alleviated if these illiterate women
are educated so that they can fully participate in all aspect against the spread of the pandemic.
It is clear that education can provide these illiterate women with knowledge in other to make a
healthy decision concerning their own lives and bring about long-term health behaviours (World
Bank 2002). According to Treichler, (1999) HIV/AIDS must be address through education
and prevention efforts that are culturally feasible. Analysis of the data and presentation of the
findings have brought to light how illiteracy makes these women vulnerable to HIV/AIDS.
Educating these illiterate women is particularly important for a vulnerable area such as Igueben.
In general, the findings have highlighted that illiterate women are more vulnerable than the
literate to HIV/AIDS.
Future measures which may reduce the vulnerability of these illiterate women to HIV/
AIDS include the following:
• Opening of adult literacy centres (classes) at strategic locations in the area.
• Encourage these illiterate women to attend by giving them some incentive.
• Give them some training on skills acquisition.
• Training for capacity building of illiterate women to cope with the pandemic and
• Women’s issues should be considered in all relevant policy and programmes
especially when it has to do with women’s health.
References
Agweda, T. O., Dibua, V. A., & Eromonsele,��

A. O. (2010). Attitude of Youths towards the Use of Condom
in Heterosexual Intercourse in Ekpoma Nigeria. Socio Science, 24(3): 169-176
Alvermann, C.A. (2010). International research. In. A. McGill-Franzen and R. L. Allington (Eds.),
Handbook of Reading Disability Research (pp. 488-498). New York: Routledg.
Amuyunzu-Nyamongo, M, Biddlecom, A.E, Ouredraogo, C & Woog, V. (2005). Qualitative evidence

on adolescents’views on sexual and reproductive health in Sub-Sahara Africa. Occational Report No
16 New York: THE ALAN Guttmacher Institute. Available on: _HYPERLINK “http://www.guttmacher.
org”_www.guttmacher.org_ (accessed on 25/11/2010)
Babbie, E. R. & Mouton, J. (2001). The practice of social research. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Bali, R. K., Wickramasinghe, N. (2007). Using film to demonstrate academic concepts. International
Journal of Management in Education, 1(1/2): 139-140.
BBC News (2006). Population in Nigeria tops 140m [online]. Available at: _HYPERLINK “http://
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6217719.stm”_http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6217719.stm_ (Accessed
18/03/2009).
Baylies, C., Bujra, J. (2000). AIDS, sexuality and gender in Africa: Collective strategies and struggles in
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
110 Tanzania and Zambia. New York: Routledge.
Butler, T. (2001). Principles of health education and health promotion. 3rd edition. Belmont:
Wardsworth.
Burns, N., Grove, S. K. (2005). The practice of Nursing Research: Conduct, Critique, & Utilization. 5th
edition St. Louis: Saunders.
Burns, N., Grove, S. K. (2007). Understanding nursing research: building on evidence – based practice.
4th edition. Missiouri: Elsevier.
Campus 2005 Health Belief Model http://www.google.co.za/search?sourceid=navclient&ie=UTF-

8&rlz=1T4PRFA_enZA404&q=campus+2005+health+belief+model. Accessed on 25/11/2010
Dennill, K, King, L., Swanepoel, T. (1999). Aspects of primary health care. Johannesburg: Thomson.
Federal Ministry of Health. Department of Public Health. 2004. 2003 National HIV Sero-prevalence
Sentinel Survey. National AIDS/STDs Control Programme Technical Report.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2003). National Policy on HIV/AIDS Abuja: Federal Government
Press.
Federal Ministry of Education (2006). School-based baseline Survey on HIV/AIDS knowledge, attitude,
practice and skills (KAPS) and school health in Nigeria. Abuja: UNICEF.
Fleischman, J. (2003). Fatal vulnerabilities: reducing the acute risk of HIV/AIDS among Women and
girls. A Report on the Working Group on Women and Girls. Washington DC. Cental for Strategic and
International Studies Press.
Gao, X., Nay, D. P., Rosebluth, S. A., Scott, V., Woodward, C. (2000). The relationship of disease severity,
health beliefs and medication adherence among HIV patients. AIDS Care, 12(4): 387-398
Gay, L. R. (2000). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. New Jersey: Merrill-
Prentice Hall.
Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., Lewis, F. M. (2002). Health behaviour and health education. Theory, research
and practice. 3rd edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Goldburg, P. (2004). Towards a creative arts approach to the teaching of religious education with special
reference to the use of film. British Journal of Religious Education, 26 (2):6.
Gupta, R. (2000). Gender, sexuality, and HIV/AIDS: The what, the why, and the how. Washington, DC:
International Center for Research on Women.
Huang, J., Bova, C., Fennie, K., Rogers, A., Williams, A. B. (2005). Knowledge, attitude, behaviour, and
perceptions of risk HIV/AIDS among Chines. AIDS Patients Care and STDs, 20 (11): 769-777.
Irwin, A., Millen, J., Fallows, D. (2003). Global Aids: Myths and facts: Tools for fighting the Aid pandemic.
Cambridge: South End Press.
Kalipeni, E., Craddock, S., Oppong, R. J., Ghosh, T. (2004). HIV and AIDS in Africa: Beyond Epidemiology.
UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Kumar, R. (2005). Research Methodology. A step-by-step guide for beginners. London: Sage.
Malow, C. R., Boone, S. (2005). Research methods for generalist social work. Belmont, CA: Brooks/
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Cole. 111
McDonald, T. P., Propp, J. R., & Murphy, K. C. (2001). The postadoption experience: Child, parent, and
family predictors of family adjustment to adoption. Child Welfare, 80(1), 71-94.
Meerkotter, A., Bullington, S., Young, T., Swawr A., Heyes, C. (2010). Mother-to-Child-Transmission
of HIV. A Guide for Health Workers and HIV/AIDS Trainers Treatment Action Campaign/ AIDS Law
Project. Available: http://www.tac.org.za/mtctcost.rtf Accessed 15/12/2010
National AIDS Control Council (2002). Mainstreaming gender into the Kenya national HIV/AIDS
strategic plan 2000-2005. Nairobi, Kenya: Gender and HIV/AIDS Technical Sub-committee of the
National AIDS Control Council.
Behaviour Change Interventions and Communications (2006). National Strategy for Behaviour Change
Interventions and Communications for HIV and AIDS. National AIDS Coordinating Agency.
Nzeneri, S. I. (2002). Principles and Practice of Adult and Non-formal Education, Introduction to
Education. Nigeria: University of Port Harcourt Press Ltd.
Nutbeam, D., Harris, E. (2001). Theory in a nutshell: a guide to health promotion theory. Roseville:
McGraw-Hill.
Ojieabu, W. A., Erah, P. O., Okafor, N. A. (2008). HIV/AIDS knowledge and sexual behaviour.
International Journal of Health Research, 1(1): 27-37.
Parahoo, K. (2006). Nursing Research Principles, Process and Issues Basingstoke [England]. New York:
Macmillan.
Polit, D. F., Beck, C.T. (2006). Essentials of nursing research: methods, appraisal, and utilization. 6th
edition Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Polit, D. F., Hungler, B. P. (1999). Nursing research principles and methods. 6th edition. Philadelphia: J.
B. Lippincott.
Radhakrishna, R. B., Toder, E. P., Ewing, J. C. (2007). Strategies for linking theoretical frameworks and
research types. America Association for Agricultural Education Research Conference, Vol. 34. Pp. 692-
694, 2007 Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Waithera, S. (2010). Female Bodies: Gender Inequalities, Vulnerability, HIV and AIDS in Kenya.
Advancing Women in Leadership, 30, 17.
UNDP (2010). The South-East Asia Court of Women on HIV and Human Trafficking: From Vulnerability
to Free, Just, and Safe Movement. Bangkok, Thailand.
UNAIDS (2002). Inter agency task team (IATT) on education, HIV/AIDS and Education. Available from:
www.unesco.org/education (Accessed 15/03/2009).
UNAIDS (2005). Evidence for HIV decline in Zimbabwe: Report on a comprehensive review of the
epidemiological data. Geneva: UNAIDS.
UNAIDS (2010). Report on the global AIDS epidemic, 10th global report. Geneva, Switzerland.
UNESCO (2005). EFA Global Monitoring Report Reference dates for 2000-2004 national literacy data.
Accessed on 2011-02-22 at http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/35466/10980912775Reference_
dates.pdf/Reference_dates.pdf
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
112 Watts, M., Bohle, H. (1993). “The Space of Vulnerability: The Causal Structure of
Hunger and Famine.” Progress in Human Geography, 17:43-67.
Wiersma, W., Jurs, S. G. (2005). Research Methods in Education. Pearson Education Inc. Printed in the
United States of America.
World Health Organization (2006a). Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents
in resource-limited settings: toward universal access. Recommendations for a public health approach.
Geneva.
World Bank (2002). Bangladesh: Climate Change and Sustainable Development, Report no 21104-BD,
World Bank, Dhaka.
��
12��
Matthew Osaigbovo Ovbiebo Dr., Tutor and Maker, Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) University of
South Africa (UNISA), 603 Capoleto Building, 220 Mears Street Cnr, Walker, Pre-
toria, South Africa.
E-mail: attitude_altitude@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.unisa.ac.za/
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTIVES IN 113
DISTANCE EDUCATION IN INDIA IN THE

21st CENTURY

Sadhasivam Panchabakesan
AMET University, Chennai,India
E-mail: panchabakesan@yahoo.com
Abstract
This research paper attempts to introduce the problems and prospective in Distance Education System in
India. This paper begins with the definition of distance learning and then proceeds to tell about the types
of distance learning. It discusses and analyses the synchronous and asynchronous of distance education
delivery system and emphasizes that the asynchronous method is more flexible than synchronous instruc-
tion. It also emphasizes that the instructional design, technology and support are the elements which are
of paramount importance to any successful distance education program.
The history of distance learning narrates the development of distance learning and discusses how it
found an alternative method to the then existing effective system which brought the students together to
one place and one time to learn from one of the masters. It reveals how the pioneers of distance educa-
tion used the best technology of their days to open educational opportunities to people who were unable
to attend the regular conventional institutions. It also lists and discusses the problems such as lack of
student’s co-ordination, conducting examinations, publishing results and other related problems. Further,
it attempts to converse on the origin, salient features, and the technologies used in distance education
in India. It also brings out the four themes of distance education system and their prospective. Finally,
it summarizes and suggests solutions for the problems faced in distance education and also widens the
scope of any researcher to further research on the problems and prospective in distance education and to
improve the values in distance education system of learning in India.
Key words: distance education, definition and types, technology, problems and prospective.
Introduction
The Distance education generally defines as “Distance education usually involves a situ-
ation where learners are separated at a distance from their teachers, involves the provision of
systems (electronic or otherwise) to establish and maintain communication between teachers
and learners, and employs a form of pedagogic interchange between the teacher and the learner
to promote learning, assessment and support”.
Holmberg refined the definition by stating that Distance Education is a concept that cov-
ers the learning-teaching activities in the cognitive and/or psycho-motor and affective domains
of an individual learner and a supporting organization. It is characterized by non-contiguous
communication and can be carried out anywhere and at any time, which makes it attractive to
adults with professional and social commitments. (Holmberg, 1989 p. 168)
The term Distance Education received a formal recognition in 1982 when the four dec-
ades old International Council for Correspondence Education was renamed as the International
Council for Distance Education. The old concept of distance education was exclusively associ-
ated with print materials, whereas the new concept of distance education includes supplemen-
tary material being used through non-print media such as radio, television, computers, laptops,
recorded lectures in Mpeg and Avi formats in CDs and DVDs and Self Learning Materials
(SLM) through projectors, video conferencing and interactive sessions between students and
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
114 faculties via internet. Institutions of these types are termed as dual mode institutions.
Synchronous and Asynchronous are the two types of Distance Education. Synchronous
method requires face to face participation of the student. The interaction is done in “real time”
and has immediacy whereas asynchronous does not require simultaneous participation. The
need for students and instructors to be gathered at the rendezvous is ruled out and students
choose their own time frame for interaction.
Because of the limitations and hurdles in the formal education system in India, the cen-
tral advisory Board of Education in 1961 resolved to introduce Correspondence Courses in In-
dia. In the same year the Government of India appointed a commission headed by the then UGC
Chairman Dr.D.S.Kothari to examine and study for the initiative of correspondence courses
.The expert committee observed that “the correspondence method admits greater flexibility
than class room education, particularly in the combination of subjects leading to a degree and
this is an advantage that should be fully exploited in the interest of sound education”.
The objectives of distance education/correspondence education were enunciated in the
guidelines issued by the University Grants Commission in 1974.The objective of correspond-
ence education is to provide an alternative method of education to enable a large number of
persons with necessary aptitude to acquire further knowledge and improve their professional
competence. Correspondence Courses are thus intended to cater for (a) Students who had to
discontinue their formal education owing to pecuniary and other circumstances; (b) Students
in geographically remote areas; (c) Students who had to discontinue education because of lack
of aptitude and motivation but who may later on become motivated; (d) Students who cannot
find a seat or do not wish to join a regular college or university department although they have
the necessary qualifications to pursue higher education; and (e) individuals who look upon
education as a life -time activity and may either like to refresh their knowledge in an existing
discipline or to acquire knowledge in a new area.
The first correspondence courses in B.A Degree were introduced in 1962 by the School
of Correspondence Courses and Continuing Education, University of Delhi. It attracted a large
number of students. In 1968, the Punjab University, Patiala and the University of Rajasthan
launched correspondence courses by opening Institute of Correspondence and Continuing Edu-
cation.
The first Open University, the Andhra Pradesh Open University (Later re-named as
Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Open University) was started in 1982. The first National Open University,
Indira Gandhi Open University (IGNOU) was established in 1985.
In late 800’s, at University of Chicago, USA the first major correspondence programme
was established in which the teacher and learner were at different locations.
Isaac Pitman (An English man) was the pioneer of correspondence education and he
began teaching shorthand through correspondence in Bath, England in the year 1840.
The first Open University was established in the United Kingdom in 1969. It was estab-
lished mainly to teach adult students who were at distance. After a preparatory work it started
enrolling students from 1971.
As per the DEC there are 249 approved Distance education Institutes are there. But only
178 Institutes are offering Distance education programmes in UG as well as PG levels.
Advantages of Distance Education
• It saves a lot of time, money and energy by cutting down on travel. The time
saved can be judiciously used for personal and professional life.
• You can work at your own convenience: Since all the classes are asynchronous,
you have the liberty to review your assignments or do your homework during off-
hours or at home.
Sadhasivam PANCHABAKESAN. Problems and Prospectives in Distance Education in India in the 21st Century
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
• You can do your correspondence course from anywhere in the world. This pro- 115
vides a lot of flexibility to professionals, especially if they have a travelling job.
• It’s easily accessible to all through online classes, online resources, virtual class-
rooms, video conferencing with the particular subject lecturer, study materials
provided at the right time and so on
• The increased use of the internet has facilitated distance education in more than
one way.
Disadvantages of Distance Education
• You have to juggle between job and studies.

• It does not offer immediate feedback from the learners and instructors.
• It leads to social isolation: Most often you’ll be studying alone.
• Students pursuing Distance Education tend to be less seriousness.
• There is lack of interaction and motivation.
Problem of Research
The distance education is analyzed as a problematic conception in social reality. Because

of the educational facts, it has been realized many radical changes in modern era that could be
rated as revaluation. New technologies develop continuously distance education models, so
it must be expected new revolutions become reality. However, rapid change in social reality
causes to lose structural balances and to prevent benefits of distance education.
Theree elements are most importanat to any successful distance education programme.
• Instructional design
• Technology
• Support
Distance education and technology are contributing to this general fact. Interactions be-
tween people and society make education institutionalized and develop technology. The most
important factor in new knowledge society is to use new technologies in education. It speeds
up the process of social mobility, and condenses socialization. In conclusion, researches in the
field of distance education should cover all social units in which socialization is in question.
In order to describe the technologies used in distance education, we have selected “The
4-Square Map of Groupware Options” that was developed by Johansen et al. (1991) which
is based on recent research in groupware (see Fig. 1). This model seemed most suitable to
our purpose, because we see distance education moving from highly individualized forms of
instruction, as in correspondence education, to formats that encourage teaching students as a
group and collaborative learning among peers. The “4-square map of groupware option” model
is premised on two basic configurations that teams must cope with as they work: time and place.
Teams or groups of people who work together on a common goal deal with their work in the
same place at the same time as in face-to-face meetings, and sometimes they must work apart
in different places and at different times, as in the use of asynchronous computer conferencing.
They also need to handle two other variations: being in different places at the same time, as in
the use of telephones for an audio teleconference, and at the same place at different times, as in
workplaces, study centers, or laboratories. Based on these configurations, the 4-square model
classifies four types of technologies that support the group process: (1) same time/ same place,
(2) different time/different place, (3) same time/ different place, and (4) same place/different
time. These four categories are used for describing technologies that currently support distance
teaching and learning. While we use the 4-square model to discuss the major distance education
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
116 technologies currently being used, we feel that this model does not lend itself very well to dis-
cussing new and future developments in integrated telecommunications. Since these integrated
systems incorporate many of the features that we classify separately in the 4-square model.
Figure 1: The 4-square map of distance education technology options. (Adapted

from R. Johansen et al., p. 16.).
Research Focus
Distance education in India had its genesis in the early 1960s. It started as Correspond-
ence Education - a supplementary method of education to meet the growing demand for higher
education. Since then it has expanded rapidly, particularly over the last two decades. In 2005,
there were 12 open universities [including the Indira Gandhi National Open University – (IG-
NOU)] and 106 dual mode university distance education institutes / centres in the country,
catering to over 2.8 million students. At present, there are 13 state open universities, 127 dual
mode universities and 9 institutions conducting distance education programmes of which IG-
NOU has the lion’s share of enrollment of 2.5 million students so far. Each year, nearly 1.3
million students register for various courses in these universities and institutions. This is an
economical and a quick way of increasing enrolment in higher education.
The present research is carried out scientifically to suggest why the enrolment and passed
out ratio has decreased tremendously for the last three years and to give positive recommenda-
tions to implement the system.
General Background of Research
Based on their operations, popularity of courses and study centres the distance education
institutes analyses the following parameters.
1. Resources’ & Reach
2. Learning & experience

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
3. Result & Efficiency 117
As of now the available data of 10 Distance education institutes are taken into consideration
based on their enrolment, study materials efficiency, personal contact programmes and Learning
technology.
1. Resources’ & Reach
The parameters used in this involves number of faculties/total students admitted, number
of academic counselors/total students admitted, number of study centres or student support
centres/ total students admitted, number of courses offered, current enrolment, and active
enrolment/years in existence.
2. Learning & Experience
In Learning and Experience the parameters considered are the quality of course material
in SLM format (Self-Learning Material), e-learning platform, quality of e-learning platform
(verifying by testing), telephone counseling availability (include effective tool-free nos.),
quantum of audio visual study materials created, exam schedule, responsiveness (student
friendliness & forthcoming), and Personal Contact Programmes (PCP)
3. Result & Efficiency
The parameters used in result & efficiency are: pass ratio, transparency, unique features/
special projects/seminar, validity of course certificates, and job opportunities.
Sample of Research
Out of 149 Institutes which vary in size, reach, quality and efficiency and with different
curriculum and syllabus the data of 10 selected institutes has been taken based on the quantitative
and qualitative parameters as explained earlier. (Refer Table 2)
Data Analysis
The HRD Ministry Annual Report reveals the following student’s data. We have taken
these data for a comparative study.
Table 1. Progress overview during 2009-10.
Total Enrolment in Universities and Colleges 136.42 lakhs

University Departments 16.69 lakhs (12.24%)
Affiliated Colleges 119.73 lakhs (87.76%)
Enrolment in Distance learning 30 lakhs
Enrolment of Women 65.49 lakhs
Intake in Technical Education
Degree 14.10 lakhs
Diploma 5.09 lakhs
Institutions in Technical education Degree level
7272
Diploma level
2324
Number of Universities 504
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
118
Number of Colleges 25,951
Faculty 5.89 lakhs
Academic Staff Colleges 66
National Assessment and Accreditation Council as on 28 March

4094 Colleges and 159 Universities
2010, assessed
Source: Annual Report, MHRD, 2009-10.
Table 2. Student‘s enrolment data from various distance education universitiies

& institutes.
Name of the University/Institutes Total Enrolment up to Dec.2010

1. Indira Gandhi National OpenUniversity, New Delhi 3200000
2. YCM Open University,Nasik 2432000
3. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad 465000
4. Delhi University, Delhi 322000
5. Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai 250000
6. M.P. Bhoj University, Bhopal 205000
7. Sikkim Manipal University, Gangtok 185000
8. Annamalai University,Annamalai Nagar 179000
9. Maulana Azad National Urudu University Hyderbad 169000
10. University of Madras 150000
Source: From the respective websites of the Universities & Institutes.
Figure 2: Students enrolment data.

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Table 3. Top 9 courses in distance education mode in India. 119
S.No Name of the Course Duration Institute/University

BA in Applied Sign Language Studies 3 Years IGNOU,New Delhi
M.Com in Business Policy and Corporate Governance 2 Years IGNOU, New Delhi
MA in Participatory Development 2 Years IGNOU, New Delhi
MSc in Dietetics and Food Service Management (DFSM) 2 Years IGNOU,New Delhi
M.Sc in Geoinformatics 2 Years Annamalai University
BSc in Visual Communication 3 Years Annamalai University
Certificate Course in Employability Skills 2 Years IMT Jodhpur
MS in Cyber Law and Security 91 Hours IGNOU,New Delhi
MBA in Shipping and Logistics 2 Years TNOU,Chennai
Source: Careers360 magazine of OUTLOOK
Table 4. Top 10 universities offering distance education in the world.
Rank Universities Enrollment

Indira Gandhi National Open University,
1.
New Delhi (December 2010) over 3200000
Website :www.ignou.ac.in
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad,
2. A press release in July 2009 noted an enrollment at 19
Pakistan
lakhs.
Web site: www.aiou.edu.pk
3. University System of Ohio, Ohio Noted as 478,376 in fall 2008 and over 15 lakhs in 2009 at
Web site : www.uso.edu the college Web site.
4. Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran web According to translation of the university home page 13
site : azad.ac.ir lakhs students.
5. Bangladesh National University, Bangladesh About 10 lakhs students, according to the university home
web site: nu.edu.bd page.
6. Anadolu University, Turkey
According to Turkish Online Journal (2006) 884,081
Web site : www.anadolu.edu.tr
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyder-
7.
abad, India Approximately 465000 students.
Web site : braou.ac.in
In August 2009, SUNY noted a headcount of 439523 stu-
dents; however, an Albany CBS affiliate news station noted
8. State University of New York, New York
that 25,458 more students were enrolled in 2009, bringing
Web site : suny.edu
the total enrollment number to 464981, “the largest ever in
SUNY history.”
Now over 450000, according to the CSU Web site. While a
9. California State University, California more precise number might push this university higher on
Website: calstate.edu the list, expect a drop in 2010 as CSU plans to cut 40,000
students based upon lack of state funds.
Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok,
10. Approximately 430000 and an additional 1500 from the
Thailand
International division for a total of about 431500 students.
Web.ru.ac.th.
Note: Most enrollment numbers were gathered from university Web sites, but news resources also were used to gain insight
into changes as enrollment finalized for fall 2010 classes.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
120 Discussion
India is the pioneer in the innovative course in the Distance Education mode. As
seen in Table 3 the innovative courses offered in India through Distance Education mode is
most welcome irrespective of fees. For example: The general fee for MBA programme in all
universities is Rs.10, 000(220 USD) per year. But, for MBA in Shipping and Logistics it costs
about Rs.30, 000(660 USD) per year because of its industrial orientated curriculum and job
assurity. Moreover country’s biggest management B Schools offer distance education at a
cost of Rs.20, 000(440 USD) to Rs.60, 000(1320 USD) per year. These business schools offer
distance education in a well planned manner and deliver both study materials and lectures
recorded in CDs in their relevant subject. This helps the students to access the materials at
his convenience. Because of this the students opt for self study rather than PCP classes. The
conventional universities in India can also start to distribute lecture CDs to students along with
the regular study materials which would improve the enrolment of the students.
The latest problem faced by Distance Education students is that they are not eligible
for high level posts in India. The pathetic thing is that degree awarded by Distance Education
universities & institutes is not being recognized by a few private and government sectors.
Especially MBA and MCA students are greatly affected by the above reason.
Positive steps are being taken in this issue by the regulatory body of Distance Education,
DEC (Distance Education Council) to publish press notice stating that the degrees awarded by
distance education institutes and universities is equivalent to regular degree and the students who
are awarded the degrees are eligible for all posts both in private and government sectors. But
still these steps are only in printed form and no proper action has been taken in this regard.
In most of the countries because of accessibility and time constraint the student
community could not be facilitated with proper higher education in the regular mode. Master
of Science programmes is popular among the student community but because of lack of proper
infrastructure and guidance from the staff students hesitate to choose distance education mode
which increases the drop outs of PG degrees in distance education. So, the government has
planned to initiate to start engineering, paramedical, innovative certificate courses and other
relevant courses through distance education with proper guidance. The scientific courses in
distance education should be monitored by DEC and Department of Science and Technology
with advice from AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education).
The internet and multimedia has become a key role for communication between teacher
and student in a virtual class. Students see and hear the lecture, ask questions and even get a
reply. This learning experience has to apply in all the distance education programmes by the
distance education institutes.
Nowadays, the new institutes have sophisticated the multimedia study material recording
room with latest software’s, modern equipments and techniques to deliver a worth full lecture.
These lectures should be recorded in DVDs and should be delivered to the students along
with printed study materials. This will enable and enhance the students learning in an effective
way. This procedure will help the distance education institutes to avoid personal contact
programmes.
The majority of dropouts in distance education is the exam pattern, and the results. The
distance education and universities must have separate controller office to conduct, evaluate
and publish the examination results on time. Unfortunately in India most of the distance
education universities and institutes do not have a separate wing of controller of examination to
monitor the distance education examination. Because of this issue, the mark sheets and degree
certificates are not issued to the students on time. This damages the reputation of the institution
and affects the enrolment of students.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Conclusion 121
Distance education should bring students together. Advanced and real-time multimedia
technology should be used to enhance the teaching effectiveness and to improve the interaction
between instructors and students. With symmetric audio and video capabilities, students can
quickly communicate their ideas with the instructor and other students. In addition, media-rich
lessons should been shown to enhance student learning. Instructors must push distance educa-
tion further through experimentation and innovation in their teaching methods. The distance
education institution should modify their syllabus according to the learner’s need and criteria.
Computer aided and online teaching should be implemented in all universities for distance
education mode. In India all universities should have a separate pool for distance education
and cater to the needs of the learners. If the inconveniences are eliminated, there will be a great
increase in the student’s enrollment in distance education mode. It would be a great success if
these steps are taken with the government aids and support.
According to the National Knowledge Commission the achievement of target of 15% of
GER (General Enrolment ratio) by the end of the 11th five year plan and 20% by the end of the
12th five year plan.
Thus, many trends in higher education will influence the future of distance learning.
Student enrollments are growing to surpass the capacity of traditional infrastructures. Learner
profiles are changing, and students are shopping for education that meets their needs. Tradi-
tional faculty roles, motivation, and training needs are shifting while workload, compensa-
tion, and instructional issues continue to deter them from distance learning participation. The
institutional and organizational structure of higher education is changing to emphasize aca-
demic accountability, competency outcomes, outsourcing, content standardizing, and adapta-
tion to learner-consumer demands. The Internet and other information technology devices are
becoming ubiquitous while technological fluency is becoming a common expectation. Funding
challenges are increasing with fewer resources to meet expanding, lifelong-learning demands.
Distance education is becoming more abundant, especially online, and location independent,
increasing the need for effective course-management systems and teaching strategies that uti-
lize technology.
In response to these trends, distance learning may rise to meet student needs and over-
come funding challenges that traditional institutions cannot. Distance education administrators
must resolve concerns with faculty and university administrators to ensure adequate support, as
well as to develop the needed course management systems and teaching strategies. Technologi-
cal advances and increased fluency will continue to open opportunities for distance education.
Although higher education institutions are changing to favor distance education, the complexi-
ties of major transformations will require patience.
As Bates suggests, perhaps “the biggest challenge [in distance education is the lack of
vision and the failure to use technology strategically” (Bates 2000 p.7). The challenge is un-
derstandable, given the complexity of the issues involved. “Clearly, each institution needs to
understand where online distance education fits in its vision of the institution’s future and in its
mission.”
Further, institutions will have to strengthen their distance-learning strategic plans by
identifying and understanding distance-education trends for student enrollments, faculty sup-
port, and larger academic, technological and economic issues.
References
Annual Report 2009-2010. (2010). Published by Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govern-
ment of India. Retrieved from: http://www.education.nic.in/AR/AR2009-10/AR2009-10.pdf
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
122 Annual Report 2009-2010 (2010). Published University Grant Commission, Government of India. Re-
trieved from: www.education.nic.in/AR/AR2009-10/AR2009-10.pdf
Bates, T. (2000). Distance education in dual mode higher education institutions: Challenges and chang-
es. London: Routledge. http://bates.cstudies.ubc.ca/papers/challenges andchanges.html
Education Consultants India Ltd. (Sep 1985). Project Report: Indira Gandhi National Open University,
p. 27-28.
Holmberg, B. (1986). Growth and Structure of Distance Education. London: Croom Helm.
Johansen, R., Martin, A., Mittman, R., Saffo, P. (1991). Leading business teams: how teams can use
technology and group process tools to enhance performance. Reading, M A: Addison-Wesley publishing
company.
Howell, Scott L., Williams, Peter B., Lindsay, Nathan K. (2003). Thirty-two Trends Affecting Distance
Education: An Informed Foundation for Strategic Planning. Online Journal of Distance Learning Admin-
istration, Vol. 6, No. 3.
McIsaac, M. S., Gunawardena, C. N. I. (1996). Distance education. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook

of research for educational communications and technology (pp.403-437). New York: Simon & Shuster
Macmillan.
Rumble, G. (1989). On Defining Distance Education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2):
8-21.
��
04��
Sadhasivam Panchabakesan M.Sc��

, AMET University, Flat
��
3, Arun Appartments, New No. 21, Karnan Street, Ran-
garajapuram, Kodambakkam, ��
Chennai, India.
Phone: + 91-9382660093.
E-mail: panchabakesan@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.ametuniv.ac.in/
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНЫЙ ДИАЛОГ НА 123
УРОКАХ РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА В

ОБЩЕОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ ШКОЛАХ
ЛАТВИИ
Маргарита Гаврилина
Латвийский Университет, Латвия
Э-почта: gavril@inbox.lv
Абстракт
В статье анализируются возможности использования опыта лингвокультурологии в процессе

обучения школьников родному (русскому) языку в условиях диаспоры.
В центре внимания автора – формирование межкультурной компетенции школьников:
необходимость развития у учащихся межкультурных умений, потенциал родного языка в
формировании их межкультурной грамотности. Большое внимание в статье уделяется
межкультурным задачам как особому виду учебного задания. Автор описывает принципы,
положенные в основу моделирования межкультурных задач, виды межкультурных задач,
характеризует дидактические возможности использования межкультурных задач на уроках
русского языка. В заключение статьи автор обращает внимание на то, что опыт использования
межкультурных задач в курсе родного (русского) языка позволяет
- расширять культурологический кругозор учащихся диаспоры;
- учить ребят замечать сходства и различия в культурно-речевом поведении представителей
разных культур и иметь с ними дело;
- учить ребят мыслить в сравнительном аспекте, определять лакуны в собственных
знаниях, уходить от стереотипов, менять отношение к фактам и ценностям иных культур;
- целенаправленно и успешно совершенствовать коммуникативные, языковые и
общеучебные умения школьников.
Ключевые слова: социокультурная компетенция, межкультурный диалог, межкультурная
задача, изучение родного языка в диаспоре.
Введение
В последние годы в образовании вообще и в школьном образовании в частности

особое внимание уделяется развитию у учащихся умения успешно участвовать в
межкультурном диалоге. Необходимость этого продиктована как особенностями
социокультурных пространств конкретных государств, представляющих собой
поликультурные сообщества, так и факторами современных мировых интеграционных
процессов. В их контексте межкультурный диалог признается одним из ключевых
понятий современной международной политики и рассматривается в качестве основы
«для применения ценностей культурного многообразия в повседневной жизни <…>,
как профилактический метод предотвращения конфликтов внутри общества <…>, как
противодействие стереотипам, расизму, дискриминации» (Баттаини-Драгони, 2009).
Формировать у учащихся понимание того, что мир ментально многообразен,
развивать умение успешно общаться с представителями иных культур, вставать на
их позицию, смотреть на мир их глазами можно в рамках любого учебного предмета.
Однако именно урокам языка (родного, второго, иностранных) в данном процессе
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
124 следует отвести особое место, поскольку «изучение языка помогает избежать развития
стереотипного представления о других, развивать любознательность и открытость чему-
то непохожему и открывать другие культуры. <…> помогает увидеть, что контакт с теми,
кто имеет другую социальную и культурную идентичность, обогащает» («Белая книга»,
2009, с. 33).
Анализ лингводидактических исследований позволяет говорить о том, что в
настоящее время межкультурный диалог чаще присутствует на страницах учебников
и учебных пособий по иностранным языкам (в т.ч. – в учебниках русского языка как
иностранного). И это не случайно - именно в методике обучения иностранным языкам
накоплен и обобщен богатый дидактический опыт в данном направлении. В дидактике
родного языка подробных исследований пока мало, а в учебниках по родным языкам
нередко присутствует этноцентристский подход. Такая ситуация способствует тому,
что выпускники школ часто находятся в плену сложившихся стереотипов относительно
ценностных ориентаций представителей иных культур, оказываются не способными
успешно участвовать в ситуациях межкультурного диалога.
Так, автор данной статьи в 2002-2010 гг. проводила анкетирование среди студентов-
латышей, предлагая им назвать типичные, по их мнению, черты характера русского
человека. Результаты анкетирования показали следующее:
 положительными чертами русских людей латышские студенты считают
дружелюбие (на это указали 67% студентов из 520 человек, участвовавших в
анкетировании), сердечность (41%), эмоциональность (34%), предприимчивость (34%),
решительность (27%), талантливость (21%);
 к отрицательным чертам студенты отнесли лень (86%), эмоциональность (44%),
агрессивность (38%), любопытство (36%).
Интересно, что эмоциональность, как черту характера русских людей, студенты
оценили по-разному: положительно или отрицательно. В ходе беседы с реципиентами,
задача которой заключалась в том, чтобы выяснить, на что они опирались, формулируя
положительные и отрицательные черты русского характера, выяснилось, что большинство
из них опирались не на опыт личного общения с представителями русской культуры
или знания о русской культуре, о русском человеке, полученные в школе, а на те мифы,
которые существуют в обществе.
На протяжении нескольких лет (2005-2010 гг.) автор статьи анализировала реакции
русскоязычных студентов Латвийского Университета (389 человек) на ценностные
ориентации, отраженные в культурно-речевом поведении латышей, в ситуациях
межкультурного диалога, которые моделировались на занятиях учебного курса «Русский
язык». Исследование показало, что достаточно многие студенты (41%) выражают
неприятие тех или иных особенностей латышского культурно-речевого поведения,
нелегко отказываются от своих культурных предубеждений, связанных с русскими
культурными стандартами. В ходе анализа данных реакций выявилась психологическая
дистанцированность русскоязычных студентов по отношению к фактам и ценностям
латышской культуры. Дистанцированность, которая сформировалась, несмотря на
глубокое освоение ребятами латышского языка в процессе школьного обучения, несмотря
на то, что окружающая ребят социокультурная среда максимально насыщена «встречами»
с фактами и ценностями латышской культуры.
Приведенные выше ситуации, а также результаты специальных исследований,
проведенных в Латвии (напр.: Krupnikova, 2004; Golubeva, 2006), свидетельствуют, на
наш взгляд, о том, что
- межкультурный диалог недостаточно актуализирован в содержании школьного
образования Латвии;
- до сих пор не создан эффективный дидактических механизм, помогающий
Маргарита ГАВРИЛИНА. Межкультурный диалог на уроках русского языка в общеобразовательных школах Латвии
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
ученику в ходе школьного образования стать личностью «открытого типа», человеком, 125
желающим и способным услышать и понять представителя иной культуры.
Внутрикультурный и межкультурный диалоги в содержании учебного

курса «Русский язык»
В латвийском стандарте основного образования «Языки национальных

меньшинств», который вступил в силу в 2004 году (Mazākumtautību valoda, 2004),
особое внимание уделено развитию у школьников не только коммуникативных,
языковых, но и социокультурных умений. Данный стандарт адресован и русскоязычным
школьникам Латвии, получающим основное образование в школах с русским языком
обучения. Согласно стандарту и программе «Русский язык: 1-9 классы» формирование
социокультурных умений ребят разворачивается в двух направлениях:
- развитие знаний и умений учащихся в области внутрикультурного диалога, т.е.
диалога с фактами и ценностями русской культуры;
- развитие у учащихся знаний и умений в области межкультурного диалога, т.е.
представление о языковом и ментальном многообразии как ценности мира, умение
успешно участвовать в межкультурном диалоге.
Необходимость первого направления объясняется тем, что в условиях диаспоры
место и роль русского (родного) языка учащихся в системе школьного образования
несколько иные, нежели в метрополии (в России). С 1-го класса ребята осваивают
родной язык параллельно со вторым языком (в нашей ситуации – латышским). Доля
участия родного и второго языков в процессе обучения зависит от того, какая модель
билингвального образования реализуется в конкретной школе. Так, согласно одной
модели, освоение школьниками большинства учебных предметов осуществляется
билингвально и на втором языке, а родной язык школьники осваивают как учебный
предмет. Согласно другим моделям – родной язык занимает более активную позицию
в образовании школьников, он изучается не только как учебный предмет, но и является
средством освоения других учебных предметов (математики, природоведения,
социальных знаний и т.д.). Так или иначе – наши школьники получают образование в
пространстве двух языковых систем, а значит – двух языковых картин мира. При этом
освоение второй (латышской) картины мира поддерживается фактами и ценностями, с
которыми ребята встречаются на уроках других учебных предметов (например: история
Латвии, природоведение и др.) и в окружающей их действительности - социокультурной
среде Латвии. Ценностные же ориентации в области русской культуры формируются
преимущественно в семье и в ходе освоения учебных предметов «Русский язык» и
«Литература».
Необходимость второго направления (развитие у учащихся знаний и умений
в области межкультурного диалога) продиктована не только общей тенденцией
современного образования, о чем уже говорилось ранее, но и тем, что Латвия, как и
большинство европейских стран, является поликультурным государством, в котором
проживают представители разных народов и культур. Успех сосуществования в таком
социокультурном пространстве, как известно, напрямую зависит от способности
конкретной личности к участию в межкультурном диалоге, способности, которая не
является врожденной, а развивается в процессе становления личности, в том числе – в
ходе школьного образования.
Как показывает наша практика, помочь учащимся целенаправленно и успешно
«приращивать» культурологические знания и умения в области внутрикультурного и
межкультурного диалогов можно в том случае, если процесс освоения ребятами русского
языка строится на основе культуросообразного подхода (Гаврилина, Филина, 2009, с.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
126 168-170). Данный подход целесообразен еще и потому, что количество учебных часов,
предусмотренных в учебных планах на освоение родного языка в школах национальных
меньшинств, невелико. Сопряжение же в курсе родного языка понятий «язык» и
«культура» позволяет за небольшое количество учебного времени помочь школьникам
не только освоить систему языка, но и обогатить их культурологический кругозор.
В учебниках русского языка, созданных в Латвии и адресованных русскоязычным
учащимся (Гаврилина, 2002-2008), знания и умения в области межкультурного диалога
учащиеся приращивают
- при работе с культурологическими текстами, в которых содержится информация
о восприятии и интерпретации разными народами того или иного факта материальной
или духовной культуры (задача текстов – обогащать культурологический кругозор
школьников);
- при работе с заданиями рубрик «Перекрёсток культур» и «Мастерская
общения!», которые позволяют последовательно и целенаправленно развивать у ребят
умение находить общее и различное в культурно-речевом поведении представителей
разных культур, способность мыслить в сравнительном аспекте, вставать на позицию
собеседника - представителя иной культуры и под.
Возможности развития межкультурных знаний и умений латвийских школьников
на уроках русского языка с помощью текстов и заданий рубрик «Перекрёсток культур»
и «Мастерская общения!» уже достаточно описаны автором в ряде публикаций (напр.:
Гаврилина, 2004; Гаврилина, Филина, 20071; Гаврилина, Филина, 20072). В данной статье
основное внимание будет уделено межкультурной задаче – учебному заданию, которое,
как показывает наша практика, оказывается достаточно эффективным для развития у
школьников умений в области межкультурного диалога.
Межкультурные задачи и развитие знаний и умений школьников в

области межкультурного диалога
Межкультурная задача – это учебное задание, при выполнении которого

школьники учатся узнавать и сопоставлять культурно-речевые (неречевые) традиции
разных народов с целью понимания общего и различного в картинах мира народов и
построения успешного межкультурного диалога.
На страницах учебников по русскому языку латвийские школьники встречаются
с тремя группами межкультурных задач, которые созданы в соответствии с уровнями
проникновения человека в контактирующие культуры, сформулированными
Милославской С.К. (Милославская, 2001, с. 12-13):
1) межкультурные задачи, направленные на развитие у школьников культурного
взаимоприятия;
взаимопонимания;
«взаимоединения».
Первый уровень (культурное взаимоприятие), по мнению Милославской С.К.,
можно условно представить через утверждение: «Я предполагаю, знаю и учитываю, что
другой думает и действует по-другому» (его задача - гарантирование взаимной культурной
толерантности). Второй уровень (культурное взаимопонимание) - через утверждение: «Я
знаю и понимаю, почему другой - другой, и я готов согласиться с объяснением его инакости
и принять ее» (задача - обеспечение взаимной культурной адаптации). Третий, высший,
уровень (культурное «взаимоединение») можно попытаться выразить утверждением: «Я
понимаю и принимаю концептуальные ценности другого и готов разделить их» (задача
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
- достижение взаимного культурного ассоциирования (единения)). 127

При разработке содержания межкультурных задач, включенных в учебники, в
качестве ведущего принципа был принят принцип проблематизации межкультурного
взаимодействия. Межкультурные задачи, с которыми встречаются школьники,
формулируют проблемные ситуации, направленными на выявление общего в разных
культурах или возможных неприятий, противоречий в отношении к иным культурам,
к поведению их носителей. Решая задачи, школьники учатся сомневаться в очевидном,
обнаруживать и преодолевать собственные стереотипы, предрассудки, возможно, ранее
ими не осознаваемые.
Работа с межкультурными задачами на страницах учебника разворачивается в двух
направлениях:
- школьники решают межкультурные задачи, которые полностью или частично
сформулированы автором учебника;
- школьники сами формулируют межкультурные задачи, опираясь на анализ
предложенной или самостоятельно найденной культурологической информации
(например, информация о разных смыслах одних и тех же жестов (межкультурная
омонимия) или о различиях в жестовой кодировке одного и того же смысла (межкультурная
синонимия) в различных культурах).
Межкультурные задачи, направленные на развитие у школьников уровня

культурного взаимоприятия
Межкультурные задачи первой группы, как показывает практика, позволяют

расширить знание учащихся о том, что одно и то же явление окружающего мира,
поведение человека в той или иной ситуации общения часто по-разному воспринимается
и оценивается представителями разных культур.
Так, в русской и латышской культурно-речевой традиции модели обращения
ученика к учителю существенно различны: в русской культуре принято обращение к
учителю по имени и отчеству, в латышской – skolotāja (букв. учительница) или skolotāja
Ilze (букв. учительница Илзе). Ежедневно наш ученик оказывается на «перекрестке
культур»: на уроке русского языка он должен использовать одну форму обращения к
учителю, на уроке латышского языка (или другого учебного предмета, который преподает
учитель – представитель латышской культуры) – другую. Успех речевого поведения
ученика в данной ситуации зависит от того, знает ли он об этих традициях русского и
латышского культурно-речевого поведения, насколько осознает причины различий,
понимает ли, что неверно выбранная форма обращения к учителю является не только
неуместной в контексте данной культуры, но и может обидеть собеседника. Осознанию
учеником этого факта как раз и помогают межкультурные задачи, объективизирующие
данную ситуацию. Наблюдение за речевым поведением русскоязычных школьников
Латвии в данной ситуации показывает, что чаще всего ребята успешно осваивают модель
обращения к учителю латышского языка, однако затем переносят ее на «русскую почву»,
предпочитают обращаться к учителю русского языка не по имени и отчеству, а с помощью
формулы «учитель(ница)».
Как известно, важная роль в процессе межкультурного общения принадлежит
интерпретации собеседниками личностного опыта, т.е. осознанному и бессознательному
сопоставлению (сравнению) себя (своей личности, поведения, системы ценностей и под.)
с личностью собеседника. Причем, наиболее сильное влияние на восприятие собеседника
(представителя иной культуры) оказывают этнические стереотипы – устойчивые,
упрощенные, зачастую ошибочные представления о нормах поведения и ценностных
ориентациях представителей конкретной этнической культуры.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
128 Межкультурные задачи первого типа как раз и помогают школьникам расширять
культурологический кругозор и разрушать сложившиеся в их сознании неверные
стереотипы. Школьники понимают, что судить о том или ином факте, ценности, об
особенностях культурно-речевого поведения представителя той или иной культуры
можно только тогда, когда владеешь объективной культурологической информацией.

культурного взаимопонимания
Цель задач второго типа, направленных на развитие уровня культурного

взаимопонимания, – учить школьников понимать, почему представители разных
культур могут по-разному воспринимать и оценивать явления и события окружающего
мира, поведение собеседников; принимать данные различия, соотносить их с нормами,
принятыми в собственной культуре.
Пример задания из учебника русского языка.
В зимнем международном молодёжном лагере ребята наряжали друг для

друга новогодние ёлочки. Русским школьникам по жребию выпало наряжать ёлку для
мексиканцев. Игрушки они смастерили из бумаги бордового цвета.
Какие чувства испытали мексиканские школьники, увидев ёлку?
При решении данных задач школьники констатируют лакуны в собственных

знаниях, обращаются к научным источникам (например, к словарю символов), учатся
мыслить в сравнительном аспекте. В отличие от задач первого типа, данные задачи не
только расширяют культурологический кругозор школьников, но и развивают умение
сопоставлять ценностные и культурно-речевые традиции собственного народа и других
народов. Так, предложенная выше межкультурная задача носит «открытый» характер,
поэтому ребята не только решают её, но и «дописывают» текст задачи: формулируют
другие межкультурные ситуации, иллюстрирующие диалог или конфликт культур.

культурного «взаимоединения»
Цель задач третьего типа, направленных на развитие уровня культурного

взаимоединения, – учить школьников понимать и принимать ценностные ориентации
других народов, объяснять особенности культурных традиций разных народов, вставать
на позицию представителя иной культуры.
Пример задания из учебника русского языка.
На уроке русского языка ребята-латыши учились формулировать комплименты

собеседникам. Анита, обращаясь к Сергею и Ивару, сказала: «Вы очень симпатичные
молодые люди, каждый из вас как дуб».
Почему Сергея обидел комплимент Аниты, а Ивара – нет?
При решении данной задачи школьники сравнивают символику дуба в русской и

латышской культурах, а также - модели речевого поведения, содержащие лексему «дуб»
в русском языке и „ozols” в латышском языке. В результате сравнительного анализа
культурологического материала ребята приходят к выводу о том, что в латышской
культурно-речевой традиции сравнение мужчины с дубом имеет сугубо положительный
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
характер (сильный, стройный, мощный, как дуб). Именно на этот факт собственной 129
культуры и опиралась ученица, формулируя комплименты одноклассникам. Однако она
не учла того, что в русской культурно-речевой традиции подобное сравнение молодого
человека с дубом может выражать противоположное значение, а значит – восприниматься
как антикомплимент.
Межкультурные задачи данного типа – это задачи более высокого уровня, т.к.
они требуют от учащихся умения не только видеть общее и различное в ценностных
ориентациях разных народов, но и интерпретировать особенности культур, опираясь на
анализ культурологического материала. В ходе их решения ребята сравнивают речевое
поведение представителей разных культур в разных ситуациях общения (напр.: в ситуации
утешения собеседника, приема гостей и под.), находят сходство и различия, моделируют
данные ситуации, занимают ролевые позиции представителей разных культур.
Заключение
Практика показывает, что включение в учебники русского языка заданий,

реализующих идею диалога и конфликта культур, позволяет решать в курсе родного
языка целый ряд важнейших задач.
Прежде всего, межкультурные задачи способствуют развитию у ребят желания
и умения участвовать в межкультурном диалоге, что является жизненно необходимым
умением в той социокультурной ситуации, поликультурной среде, в которой живут наши
школьники. Из 360 девятиклассников, участвовавших в опросе, 302 (84%) отметили,
что они с большим интересом решают межкультурные задачи, потому что «эти задачи
помогают увидеть и понять в окружающем мире то, что раньше не замечалось и не
казалось важным». Анализ устного и письменного речевого поведения девятиклассников
показывает, что межкультурные задачи позволяют на достаточно высоком уровне
сформировать у большинства девятиклассников (59%) следующие умения:
- замечать сходства и различия в культурно-речевом поведении представителей
разных культур и иметь с ними дело (особенно важным в данном случае нам представляется
то, что ребята способны видеть сходство в ценностных картинах мира разных народов
(прежде всего – русских и латышей), что, на наш взгляд, является интегрирующей
основой межкультурного общения);
- мыслить в сравнительном аспекте, определять лакуны в собственных знаниях,
которые неизбежны для сознания, воспитанного в рамках одной культуры, уходить от
стереотипов, менять отношение к фактам и ценностям иных культур, которые отражаются
в речевом поведении представителей данных культур, развивать умение вставать на
позицию собеседника – представителя иной культуры, оценивать мир с позиции его
ценностных ориентаций.
Кроме того, межкультурные задачи, включенные в материал учебников, носят
универсальный дидактический характер и являются «экономным» дидактическим
средством, поскольку при их решении школьники параллельно развивают
коммуникативные, речевые, социокультурные и общеучебные умения. Так, решая ту или
иную межкультурную задачу, учащиеся совершенствует следующие умения:
- формулировать проблему, выдвигать гипотезы, высказывать собственную
точку зрения и аргументировать ее разными способами, воспринимать и анализировать
позицию собеседника(ов);
- критически оценивать содержание текста (если межкультурная задача
сформулирована в текстовом формате);
- создавать собственные устные и письменные тексты культурологического
характера, межкультурные задачи, опираясь на информацию, содержащуюся в научных
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
130 источниках;
- сравнивать модели речевого поведения, принятые в культурно-речевых традициях
разных народов, в содержательном и структурном аспектах;
- находить нужные источники информации, работать с культурологической
информацией;
- сотрудничать с учителем и одноклассниками в процессе решения той или иной
межкультурной проблемы.
Как показывает практика, межкультурный материал, включенный в учебники (в
т. ч. и межкультурные задачи), помогает ребятам многое понять и в русском речевом
поведении (в данном случае реализуется принцип: все, в том числе – свое, познается в
сравнении).
Несомненный положительный результат всей этой работы видится также в
том, что у учащихся постепенно меняется отношение к языку (родному, второму,
иностранному): в сознании ребят идея «язык – грамматическая система, система правил»
трансформируется в идею «язык - составная часть культуры народа», иначе говоря –
развивается культурологический взгляд на язык.
Литература
Баттаини-Драгони, Г. (2009). Содействие межкультурному диалогу: «Белая книга» Совета Европы.

Retrieved 25/01/2011, from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/youth/Source/Resources/Forum21/Issue_No10/
N10_CoE_WhitePaper_ru.pdf
«Белая книга» по межкультурному диалогу. «Жить вместе в равном достоинстве». Retrieved ��
25/01/2011, from http://www.coe.ru/publication/epublication/ebook/White%20paper_russian.pdf
Гаврилина, М. (2002-2008). Русский язык. Практика. Учебники для 4-9 классов. Rīga: Mācību
grāmata.
Гаврилина, М. (2004). Восприятие культурологической информации текстов русскоговорящими

учащимися Латвии. Slavica Helsingiensia, Vol. 24, p. 222-226.
Гаврилина, М., ��

& Филина, О. (2007). Культурологические тексты и развитие этнической
идентичности учащихся диаспоры. Русский язык как иностранный: Теория. Исследования.
��
Практика, Vol. IX, p. 77-84.
Гаврилина, М., & Филина, О. (2007). Диалог языков и культур на уроках русского языка и
литературы в условиях диаспоры. МОВА. Науково-теоретичний часопис з мовознавства. Vol. 11,
p. 62.-67.
Гаврилина, М., & Филина, О. (2009). К вопросу о создании учебников русского языка и литературы
в диаспоре.�� Problems of Education in the 21st Century (Education: General Issues). Vol. 18, p. 167-
177.
Милославская, С��
. ��
К��
. (2001). Межкультурная
��
коммуникация в свете задач интернационализации
образования. Мир��
��
русского��
��
слова, Vol.��
4, p. 10-16.
Golubeva, M. (2006). The Case for Diversity Mainstreaming in the National School System. Centre for
public policy PROVIDUS. Latvia, Riga.
Krupnikova, M. (2004). Diversity in Latvian Textbooks. Centre for Human Rights and Ethnic Studies.
Latvia, Riga.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Mazākumtautību valoda (2004). Pamatizglītības standarts. Rīga. 131
Summary
CROSS-CULTURAL DIALOGUE AT LESSONS OF RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AT

SCHOOLS PROVIDING GENERAL EDUCATION OF LATVIA
Margarita Gavrilina
University or Latvia, Latvia
This article is devoted to the possibilities of usage lingvoculturology experience in the

process of teaching mother tongue (Russian) in the conditions of diaspora, and in Russian
language textbooks for the pupils of national minority schools of Latvia. These textbooks were
developed by the author of the article.
In the introduction, the author proves the necessity of the development of cross-cultural
skills of pupils in the process of their mother tongue studies, analyses the problems in cross-
cultural capacity of school-leavers.
In the second part of the article, the author describes the intra-cultural and cross-cultural
dialogues, which are actualized in the contents of educational course “Russian language” and
in the textbooks of Russian (the necessity and didactic possibilities of development for diaspora
pupils the ability to create a dialogue with facts and values of their own culture and other
peoples’ cultures).
The focus of author’s attention is the development of cross-cultural competence of
students with the help of using cross-cultural tasks as a special type of educational exercises.
The author describes the principles taken as a cross-cultural task-forming basis, and cross-
cultural task types:
- cross-cultural tasks aimed at the development of pupils’ cultural tolerance;
- cross-cultural tasks aimed at the development of pupils’ cultural mutual
understanding;
- cross-cultural tasks aimed at the development of pupils’ cultural unity.
The author describes the didactic possibilities of the use of cross-cultural tasks at the
lessons of Russian.
In the conclusion, the author highlights that the experience, which has been gained in the
process of using cross-cultural tasks at the lessons of Russian, allows
- to expand the culturological outlook of diaspora students,
- to teach students to notice likenesses and distinctions between speech behavior of
different cultures representatives and deal with them,
- to teach students to think in a comparative aspect, to determine lacunae in their
own knowledge, to escape stereotypes, to be able to take the position of an interlocutor
– the representative of another culture, to evaluate the world from position of their value
orientations;
- to improve purposefully and successfully not only cross-cultural skills of students but
also their communicative, language and educational abilities.
Key words: sociocultural competence, cross-cultural dialogue, cross-cultural task,
studying mother tongue in diaspora.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
132 Advised by Oksana Filina, Baltic International Academy, Latvia, Riga
0��
��
2, 2011 Accepted: March 1��
5��
, 2011
Margarita Gavrilina Professor, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia.

Gravu 14a/1 Street, Babite, Latvia.
Phone: +371 26098417.
E-mail: gavril@inbox.lv
Website: http://www.lu.lv/eng/
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
ОБОБЩЕННЫЕ ХАРАКTЕРИСТИКИ 133
ЯЗЫКОВОЙ ЛИЧНОСТИ ДВУЯЗЫЧНЫХ

УЧАЩИХСЯ (PУССКО-ЭСТОНСКИЙ
БИЛИНГВИЗМ), ПОЛУЧАЮЩИХ
ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ НА ЭСТОНСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ
Наталия Замковая, Ирина Моисеенко, Наталия Чуйкина
Таллиннский университет, Эстония
Э-почта: talyz@inbox.ru, irinamo@hot.ee, natalia.tshuikina@tlu.ee
Абстракт
В статье рассматриваются обобщенные характеристики языковой личности двуязычных

учащихся (русско-эстонский билингвизм), получающих образование на эстонском языке. Поскольку
таких учащихся в Эстонии становится все больше, задача их исследования становится как
никогда актуальной. Данные, представленные в статье, получены путем письменного и опроса
(анкетирования) и позволяют проследить отражение определенных социальных факторов в
формировании языковой личности учащегося-билингва. С помощью анкетирования выявлялись
биографические данные, этническая и лингвистическая самоидентификация, сферы применения
языков, самооценка владения языками, оценка процесса обучения русскому языку в школе такими
учащимися.
В целом респонденты оценили решение своих родителей об обучении в эстоноязычной школе,
а также отношение к ним одноклассников и учителей позитивно, однако большинство из них
считает свой уровень владения русским языком, а в ряде случаев и эстонским недостаточным.
Были опрошены учащиеся разных регионов Эстонии, что позволило составить общее
представление по данной проблеме. Полученный материал дает возможность выявить узкие
места в обучении русскому языку таких учащихся, спрогнозировать и учесть их образовательные
потребности при составлении учебных материалов.
Ключевые слова: языковая личность, двуязычные учащиеся, родной язык, самоидентификация,
языковые трудности, образовательные потребности.
Введение
В современной русскоязычной диаспоре Эстонии значительное количество

родителей, пытаясь обеспечить своему ребенку достойное место в эстонском обществе,
определяют его в эстоноязычные учебные заведения. Из них 3,1% являются двуязычными
(русско-эстонский билингвизм) (Замковая, Моисеенко, Чуйкина 2009). Наибольшее
количество двуязычных учащихся было выявлено в Харьюском (42,4% из выборки по
всем регионам), Ида-Вирумааском (16,95%), Тартуском (9,5%), Пярнуском (6,3%) и
Ляэне-Вирумааском (4,9%) уездах. Меньше всего таких учащихся в островных регионах:
на Хийумаа (0,02%) и Сааремаа (0,6%).
Учащиеся-билингвы отличаются друг от друга с точки зрения их владения двумя
языками. Так некоторые из них изучают русский язык как иностранный с 3-го, 6-го или
10 класса. В зависимости от языка общения дома (только русский или русский с одним из
родителей) у них наблюдаются разные типа билингвизма: смешанный и чистый (согласно
классификации по соотнесенности речевых механизмов), естественный и продуктивный
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
134 как следствие полного погружения в иноязычную среду обучения. Незначительная часть
учащиеся окончила основную школу (9 классов) на русском языке, но гимназическое
образование (10-12 классы) получают в школе с эстонским языком обучения. Билингвизм
данной группы учащихся определить затруднительно, так как они непродолжительное
время погружены в эстоноязычную среду обучения, что не позволяет в полной мере
отнести их к носителям естественного или продуктивного билингвизма. Все же при
условии, что дома такие учащиеся общаются по-русски, их можно отнести к носителям
чистого билингвизма.
Об актуальности исследования языковой личности двуязычных учащихся
свидетельствует значительное количество научных работ, посвященных их
лингвистическому развитию (Baker 2000; Sears 1998; Montanari 2002; Skutnabb-Kangas
1981; Рюнканен. 2007; Протасова, Родина, 2005; . ��
Kessler, Quinn 1987;. Swanson��
, ��
Sa��
´��
ez��
.,
Gerber��
2006 и другие).
В последние годы в Эстонии проблема двуязычия также изучается достаточно
активно: в центре внимания находятся изучение билингвизма как теоретической
проблемы и исследования русско-эстонского двуязычия (Мальцева-Замковая, Моисеенко
2008а; ��
Hint��
, 2002; Раннут 2004; Rannut, Ü. 2003; Синдецкая, Чуйкина 2006; Ауг Н.2007;
Мальцева-Замковая, Моисеенко, Чуйкина 2008; Русскоязычная семья и эстонская школа
2008, Замковая, Моисеенко 2009а; Замковая, Моисеенко 2009в; Замковая, Моисеенко
2010; Забродская 2009).
Постановка проблемы
Изучение языковой личности данной группы учащихся представляется

своевременным и полезным, учитывая значительное количество двуязычных учащихся
в школах с эстонским языком обучения, а также актуальность проблемы исследования
двуязычия в 21 веке.
На первом этапе работы была определена и описана целевая группы (регионы,
статистика, динамика). С этими данным можно подробнее ознакомиться в статьях
Н.Мальцевой-Замковой, И.Моисеенко, Чуйкиной (Замковая., Моисеенко, Чуйкина 2009;
Zamkovaja, Moissejenko, Tshuikina 2010).
Цель второго этапа исследования – описать языковую личность двуязычных
учащихся, находящихся в эстоноязычной образовательной среде, используя
социолингвистические методы исследования.
Поскольку объектом данного исследования являются обобщенные характеристики
языковой личности учащихся-билингвов, необходимо остановиться на трактовке этого
понятия. Оно прочно вошло в понятийный аппарат лингводидактики в конце прошлого
столетия, когда в связи с тенденцией гуманитаризации науки в системе образования чётко
обозначился антропоцентрическое направление, в соответствии с которым внимание
педагогов и языковедов сосредотачивается на лингвистическом развитии индивида. В
центр современной антропоцентрической лингвистики ставится понятие «языковой
личности», то есть человека в его способности совершать речевые поступки.
Известны различные подходы к изучению языковой личности: полилектная
(многочеловеческая) и идиолектная (частночесловеческая) личности (Нерознак
1988), этносемантическая личность (Воркачев 2001), русская языковая личность
(Ю.Н. Караулов), языковая личность западной и восточной культур (Снитко 1999)
и т.д. Первое обращение к понятию языковой личности связано с именем немецкого
ученого Л.Й.Вейсгербера (Вейсгербер1993). В русской лингвистике это понятие было
сформулировано В.В.Виноградовым. (Виноградов 1980) в связи с исследованием языка
художественной литературы и долгое время было невостребованным. Первые описания
Наталия ЗАМКОВАЯ, Ирина МОИСЕЕНКО, Наталия ЧУЙКИНА. Обобщенные характеристики языковой личности двуязычных
учащихся (русско-эстонский билингвизм), получающих образование на эстонском языке
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
конкретных языковых личностей также можно найти в трудах В. В. Виноградова (глава 135
«Опыты риторического анализа» монографии «О художественной прозе») (там же: 120-
146).
Глубоко и всесторонне начал разрабатывать это понятие Г.И. Богин, он создал
модель языковой личности, в которой человек рассматривался с точки зрения его
“готовности производить речевые поступки, создавать и принимать произведения
речи” (Богин 1984: 31). Введение этого понятие в широкий научный обиход связано с
исследованиями Ю.Н.Караулова (Караулов 1987, 1989) Под языковой личностью он
понимает «совокупность способностей и характеристик человека, обусловливающих
создание и восприятие им речевых произведений (текстов), которые различаются
а) степенью структурно-языковой сложности, б) глубиной и точностью отражения
действительности, в) определенной целевой направленностью. В этом определении
соединены способности человека с особенностями порождения им текстов» (Караулов
1989: 3) .
Важным для лингводидактики является понятие «этносемантическая личность,
которая трактуется как «закрепленный преимущественно в лексической системе
базовый национально-культурный прототип носителя определенного языка, своего рода
“семантический фоторобот”, составляемый на основе мировоззренческих установок,
ценностных приоритетов и поведенческих реакций, отраженных в словаре, – личность
словарная, этносемантическая”. (Воркачев 2001: 64-72).
Понятие языковая личность является центральным в лингводидактике и имеет
множество дефиниций. Приведем некоторые из них. «За термином языковая личность
стоит реальность в виде субъекта, обладающего совокупностью способностей и свойств,
позволяющих ему осуществлять сугубо человеческую деятельность – говорить, общаться,
создавать устные и письменные речевые произведения, отвечающие цели и условиям
коммуникации, извлекать информацию из текстов, воспринимать речь» (В.В.Соколова
1995:11).
В работах, связанных с обучением в инокультурном пространстве, под языковой
личностью «понимается модель надличностных культурно-ценностных ориентиров,
реализуемых коммуникантом в тех или иных дискурсивных условиях путем использования
различных языковых средств и речевых стратегий в исконном или инокультурном
языковом пространстве» (Трубчанинова 2008). Важными в дидактических целях
являются также следующие определения языковой личности: «Языковая личность
«обобщенный образ носителя культурно-языковых и коммуникативно-деятельностных
ценностей, знаний, установок и поведенческих реакций» (Карасик 2002: 26); «Языковая
личность «теоретически выводимый в опоре на лингвистические процедуры конструкт,
культурно специфический когнитивно-дискурсивный инвариант, реализуемый в
различных дискурсивных условиях разнообразными вариантами» (Гришаева 2006: 17).
Для данного исследования представляется особенно актуальной мнение Ю.Н.
Караулова о том, что языковая личность является той сквозной идеей, которая пронизывает
все аспекты изучения языка и одновременно разрушает границы между дисциплинами,
изучающими человека вне его языка (Караулов 1989). Таким образом, мы рассматриваем
языковую личность как человека, реализующего себя в речевой деятельности, в которой
проявляется определенная совокупность его знаний и представлений, конкретный
жизненный опыт. При этом важно учитывать, что языковая личность включает в себя
как постоянную составляющую, в которой она соотносится с национальным характером
(языковой тип, систему вербально-семантических ассоциаций, картину мира, устойчивые
коммуникативные черты), так и индивидуальные особенности. Обе составляющие
могут проявляться на трех уровнях языковой личности: вербально-семантическом,
когнитивном и прагматическом. Вербально-семантический уровень, единицами которого
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
136 являются слова, включает в себя владение структурой языка, способность реализовывать
систему языка во всех видах речевой деятельности. Этот уровень Ю.Н.Караулов не
случайно называет «нулевым», так как владение языком не позволяет еще говорить о
языковой личности. Следующий уровень - когнитивный, или тезаурусный. Он включает
в себя различные понятия (идеи, концепты), формирующие картину мира. Последний
уровень – мотивационный, или прагматический. Его единицами являются различные
деятельностно-коммуникативные потребности, и на этом уровне происходит связь
коммуникации с реальной ситуацией. Прагматическая характеристика определяется
целями и задачами коммуникации – намерением говорящего, его интересами, мотивами и
конкретными коммуникативными установками. Именно мотивированность говорящего,
которая, по определению Ю.Н.Караулова, является «коммуникативно-деятельностной
потребностью», представляет собой единицу прагматического уровня языковой личности
(Караулов. 1987: 215), который может быть описан с привлечением данных настоящего
исследования.
Уровневая модель отражает обобщенный тип личности. Конкретных же языковых
личностей, безусловно, множество, они отличаются разной значимостью каждого
уровня в составе личности. Следовательно, языковая личность – это многослойная
и многокомпонентная парадигма речевых личностей. При этом речевая личность
– это языковая личность в парадигме реального общения, в деятельности. Именно
на уровне речевой личности проявляются как национально-культурная специфика
языковой личности, так и национально-культурная специфика самого общения. В
содержание языковой личности включены следующие компоненты: 1) ценностный,
мировоззренческий, компонент содержания воспитания, то есть система ценностей,
или жизненных смыслов; 2) культурологический, то есть уровень освоения культуры; 3)
личностный компонент, то есть индивидуальные особенности.
Языковая личность существует в пространстве культуры, отраженной в языке, в
формах общественного сознания на разных уровнях (научном, бытовом), в поведенческих
стереотипах и нормах, в предметах материальной культуры. Определяющая роль в
культуре принадлежит ценностям нации, которые являются концептами смыслов.
Основным средством формирования языковой личности является социализация
индивида, предполагающая три аспекта: процесс включения человека в определенные
социальные отношения, в результате которого языковая личность оказывается своего рода
реализацией культурно-исторического знания всего общества; активная речемыслительная
деятельность по нормам и эталонам, заданным той или иной этноязыковой культурой;
процесс усвоения законов социальной психологии народа. Особая роль принадлежит
второму и третьему аспектам, так как процесс присвоения той или иной национальной
культуры и формирование социальной психологии возможны только посредством языка.
В своем исследовании мы пытаемся проследить влияние определённых социальных
факторов на формирование языковой личности учащихся-билингвов.
Полученные данные позволяют выявить узкие проблемы, связанные с обучением
таких учащихся, спрогнозировать их образовательные потребности и учесть их при
составлении учебных материалов.
Методология исследования
При проведении исследования использовались следующие методы:

– анкетирование, с помощью которого выявлялись биографические данные,
этническая и лингвистическая самоидентификация, сферы применения языков,
самооценка владения языками, оценка процесса обучения русскому языку в школе
такими учащимися. Анкетирование проводилось в течение 2008-2010 годов в разных
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
регионах Эстонии, отличающихся степенью распространения русского языка. Частично 137

результаты анкетирования уже были представлены в одной из публикаций авторов
(Мальцева-Замковая., Моисеенко И. 2008b), в которой особое внимание уделялось
вопросам самоидентификации.
Общее количество проанкетированных составило 117 человек;
– интервьюирование, которое проводилось в ноябре-декабре 2009 года в городах
Таллинне, Тарту и Пярну. Интервьюировались двуязычные учащиеся, получающие
образование в школе с эстонским языком обучения в основном с первого класса,
отобранные администрацией школ. Всего в интервью приняли участие 53 учащихся
9-12 (16-19 лет) классов четырех школ с эстонским языком обучения. Результаты
интервьюирования, которое было использовано в качестве вспомогательного метода
исследования, приводятся в одной из публикаций авторов (Замковая, Моисеенко 2010);
– лингвистический анализ письменных речевых произведений учащихся-билингвов
.
Для определения языковых затруднений исследовались письменные творческие
работы двуязычных участников республиканской олимпиады по русскому языку как
иностранному (за 2007/2008 и 2008/2009 учебные годы) и двуязычных выпускников
гимназии, сдававших экзамен по русскому языку как иностранному в те же годы.
Просматривались также русскоязычные анкеты, предназначенные для определения
этнокультурной идентичности и динамики языкового развития учащихся-билингвов,
заполненные ими. В общей сложности было проанализировано 200 письменных
текстов. Не рассматривались проблемы, связанные с порождением речи (затруднения
содержательного и текстообразующего характера). Внимание было сосредоточено на
ошибках, обусловленных нарушением языковых и речевых норм. Результаты анализа
представлены в двух работах ((Замковая, Моисеенко 2009а, 2009в).
В данной статье обобщаются и систематизируются данные, полученные при
анкетировании.
Результаты исследования
Все вопросы анкеты условно можно разделить на три блока. Задачей вопросов
первого блока было выявление биографических данных, этнической и лингвистической
самоидентификации.
По результатам анкетирования выяснилось, что большинство респондентов
родились в Эстонии, и лишь 8 (6, 83%) из них родились в других странах. Последние 10
лет большинство из них (более 70%) проживают в больших городах Эстонии: Таллинне
– 55 человек, Тарту – 19 человек, Кохтла-Ярве – 10 человек. Некоторые из них меняли
место жительства много раз (Арабские Эмираты – Бахрейн – Хельсинки – Таллинн; Санкт-
Петербург – Берлин – Мюнхен – Раквере; Таллинн-Пекин-Таллинн; Хаген (Германия)–
Таллинн). Почти все учащиеся с первого класса обучаются в школе с эстонским языком
обучения. Один человек учился один год на украинском языке, один – 2 года на немецком,
два человека на русском языке в течение 2 или 5 лет, один на английском – 1,5 года. При
смене школы прослеживается тенденция переезда в столицу.
Одной из целей исследования было выяснение этнической самоидентификации
двуязычных (русско-эстонское двуязычие) учащихся в условия обучения в эстонской школе.
Для этого были решены следующие задачи: выявлена этническая самоидентификация
участников анкетирования, мотивация отнесения себя к той или иной национальной
общности; определены факторы, влияющие на самоидентификацию, такие как
а) родной язык (по собственной оценке);
в) владение языками;
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
138 г) язык в семье;

д) родина родителей;
е) выбор языка обучения;
ж) самооценка владения русским языком;
з) владение русским и эстонским языком (в сравнении).
Как показали результаты анкетирования, эстонцами себя считают 37 (31,6%)
человек, русскими – 41 (35, 1%), русскими эстонцами – 10 (8,5%), украинцами – 4
(3,4%), даргинцами – 1 (0,85%), евреями – 1 (0,85%), эстонскими украинцами – 1 (0,85%),
эстонскими грузинами – 1 (0,85%), поляками – 1 (0,85%), татарами – 1 (0,85%), белорусами
– 1 (0,85%), армянами – 2 (1,7%), осетинами – 1 (0,85%), «славянами» – 1 (0,85%),
«европейцами» – 1 (0,85%), азербайджанцами – 1 (0,85%), русскими азербайджанцами
– 1 (0,85%), 6 (5,12%) человек не отнесли себя ни к какой национальности и 5 (4,3%)
считают себя «никем».
На вопрос, почему анкетируемые относят себя к представителям той или иной
национальности, были получены следующие ответы:
– национальность не имеет значения (не относит себя ни к одной
национальности);
– русская, т.к. у меня много русских друзей и характер русский, дома больше
русского языка, русский темперамент, русское ближе, чем остальное, дома говорю
по-русски, думаю на русском языке, люблю культуру и язык, горжусь своими корнями,
потому что русский мой родной язык, больше общаюсь на русском языке, родители из
России, родились в России, владею лучше русским языком;
– русским эстонцем/эстонкой: живу «по культуре обеих стран», много времени
провожу в эстонской школе, дома говорю по-русски; вырос в эстонской среде, в родне
все русские, две культуры смешаны во мне, в семье две национальности, у меня есть
частицы обеих культур (отнесение себя к русским эстонцам);
– эстонка/эстонец, потому что люблю свою страну, живу в Эстонии, ближе
эстонская культура, больше общаюсь на эстонском языке, учусь в эстонской школе,
легче общаться на эстонском языке, владею лучше эстонским языком, считаю Эстонию
своей родиной, выросла в Эстонии, тут родился , мама эстонка, больше друзей эстонцев,
по характеру я эстонец, родители родились в Эстонии;
– «европейцем», потому что все друзья в Европе живут.
Одним из факторов, влияющим на самоидентификацию, является родной язык (в
данном случае выяснялась самооценка анкетируемых).
В качестве родного русский язык называли 71 (60,7%) респондент, эстонский – 32
(27,4%), оба языка (эстонский и русский – 6 (5,1%), украинский – 2 (1,7%), даргинский
– 1 (0,85%), армянский – 1 (0,85%), азербайджанский – 1 (0,85%), эстонский и армянский
– 1 (0,85%), не назвали родного языка – 2 (1,7%).
Как выяснилось, этническая самоидентификация анкетируемых и признание того
или иного языка родным зачастую расходятся. Так, эстонский язык считают родным
33 человека, а эстонцами себя считают 37 человек; русский язык признают родным 72
учащихся, а с русскими идентифицируют себя только 40; два языка (русский и эстонский)
считают родным 6 человек, а русскими эстонцами себя называют 10 человек. Несмотря
на то, что осетинским языком не владеет ни один человек, все же одна девушка считает
себя осетинкой. Очевидно, такое расхождение в ответах можно объяснить влиянием
языка обучения. Также на процесс самоидентификации, как показывают результаты
исследования, оказывают влияние такие факторы, как родственные отношения,
дружеские контакты, отождествление себя с той или иной культурой, владение языком,
место рождения, темперамент.
На вопрос о том, почему анкетируемые считают родным тот или иной язык,
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
получены следующие ответы: 139

– первый язык, на котором начал разговаривать;
– свободно владею;
– знаю с самого детства;
– знаю оба языка с самого детства;
– говорю с рождения (другой язык выучил);
– язык моих предков;
– говорят родители;
– домашний язык;
– учусь в эстонской школ;
– друзья эстонцы/русские;
– лучше думается, легче объясняться;
– свободно владею двумя языками.
Как видно из ответов анкетируемых, большинство из них считают родным
языком первый язык, на котором они научились говорить, язык, на котором говорят в
семье. Несколько респондентов считают родным языком эстонский, мотивируя это
тем, что учатся в эстонской школе. Уровень владения языком также оказался важным
мотивирующим фактором.
Характерно, что анкетируемые, как правило, владеют и другими языками (кроме
русского и эстонского), на которых они редко общаются в естественных условиях. В
числе этих языков были названы английский, немецкий, итальянский, осетинский,
французский, украинский, испанский, даргинский, армянский, грузинский, финский,
польский. Думается, что владение другими языками помогает осознать уровень владения
родным языком (-ами), увидеть своеобразие собственного языка (-ов) и культуры
(культур) среди других. Разумеется, таких учащихся можно назвать билингвами лишь
условно, однако два языка (русский и эстонский) явно доминируют.
Как выяснилось, домашним языком является эстонский лишь в двенадцати
случаях, в пятидесяти восьми семьях говорят по-русски, в тридцати четырех – в общении
используется два языка (русский и эстонский). В некоторых семьях домашним языками
являются 3 и в одном случае четыре языка. Эти данные свидетельствуют о том, что
домашний язык респонденты, как правило, определяют в качестве родного, что, в свою
очередь, отражается на этнической самоидентификации.
Родина родителей, как показывают результаты анкетирования, напрямую не
влияет на этническую самоидентификацию учащихся. Большинство родителей родом из
Эстонии (69 матерей и 69 отцов), значительное количество родителей родились в России
(24 матери и 23 отца), Украине (7 матерей и 14 отцов) и Белоруссии (8 матерей, 2 отца).
Все родители живут в Эстонии не менее 20 лет.
Второй блок вопросов был связан с изучением сфер и ситуаций использования
языков, уровня владения ими в оценке самих учащихся.
В результате опроса удалось выяснить адресатов, с которыми общаются
респонденты, и частотность общения с ними. Покажем это в таблице.
Таблица 1. Адресаты и частота общения с ними на русском языке

(указывается количество информантов)
Я говорю по-русски
всегда часто редко никогда
С мамой 88 14 7 6
С папой 79 13 13 8
С бабушкой 87 11 5 9
С дедушкой 61 9 20 23
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
140 С русскоговорящими родственниками 94 10 7 4

С эстоноговорящими одноклассниками 7 6 37 67
С русскоязычными одноклассниками 36 33 25 23
С учителями русского языка 36 38 30 13
С другими учителями 1 7 12 97
С эстоноговорящими друзьями 2 5 30 80
С русскоговорящими друзьями 83 17 9 4
С тренером, руководителем кружка по интересам 25 9 19 53
Как показывают данные таблицы, основным адресатом общения на русского

языка у билингвов являются его ближайшие родственники, русскоязычные друзья и
одноклассники. Некоторые ученики общаются на русском языке в секциях и кружках по
интересу. К сожалению, в школе, где учащиеся проводят значительную часть времени,
использование русского языка ограничено: даже с учителями русского языка общаются
по-русски далеко не все респонденты, не говоря уже об общении с другими учителями.
Примечательно, что с русскоязычными одноклассниками билингвы зачастую также
общаются по-эстонски.
Выявлено было, насколько активно пользуются билингвы теми или иными языками
в разных ситуациях общения.
Таблица 2. Ситуации использования респондентами того или иного языка

Эстонский и Русский Эстонский Русский, эстон-

русский ский англий-
ский
В магазине 71 13 27 6
В библиотеке 24 5 86 2
В транспорте 60 9 46 2
В школе 67 0 42 8
В кругу сверстников 75 8 21 13
В Интернете 33 19 35 30
Кроме эстонского, русского и английского языков, несколько учащихся-билингвов

используют также другие языки (немецкий и французский) для общения в Интернете и
кругу друзей. Таким образом, русский язык используется преимущественно в бытовой
сфере.
Результаты анкетирования позволяют судить о том, что и на каком зыке читают

респонденты.
Таблица 3. Языковые предпочтения при чтении

В основ-
Только По-русски и В основном Только по-
ном по-
по- русски по-эстонски по-эстонски эстонски
русски
Художественная литература 8 4 23 38 44
Газеты и журналы 7 11 54 29 16
Учебная литература 0 0 18 44 55
Тексты в Интернете 4 1 76 26 12
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Из таблицы видно, что русский язык при чтении учебной литературы используют 141
лишь 18 респондентов, что составляет всего 15,3% от всех опрошенных. Художественную
литературу 82 учащихся (70%) предпочитают читать на эстонском языке. Такие каналы
получения информации на русском языке, как Интернет, газеты и журналы также могли
быть использованы более широко.
То, что только 30% процентов учащихся-билингвов читают художественную
литературу на русском языке, вероятно, можно объяснить теми трудностями, которые
они испытывают в процессе чтения.
Таблица 4. Трудности при чтении художественной литературы на русском

языке (указывается количество информантов и их процентное
соотношение)
Недостаточное
Непонимание Отсутствие фоно- Отсутствие
понимание содер- Другие трудности
лексики вых знаний трудностей
жания
47 (40,2%) 17 (14,5 %) 4 (3,4 %) 16 (13,7 %) 28 (23,9%)
Полученные данные указывают на то, что затруднения при чтении художественной

литературы возникают более чем у 75 % учащихся. Большая часть трудностей связана
с недостаточным словарным запасом и отсутствием фоновых знаний. 5 человек
ответили, что не читают художественную литературу на русском языке. Практически все
респонденты считают, что трудности восприятия художественного текста возникают из-
за того, что они медленно читают. Расхождения данных в таблицах 3 и 4 объясняются
тем, что во втором случае учащиеся имели в виду художественные тексты, изучаемые в
рамках учебной программы по русскому языку как иностранному.
Значительную часть информации на русском языке респонденты имеют
возможность получать посредством телевидения и радио. В Эстонии развита сеть
кабельного телевидения, имеется радиовещание на русском языке. В таблице 5 и 6
показано, насколько широко используются такие возможности.
Таблица 5. Языки восприятия информации при просмотре телепередач

(указывается количество информантов и их процентное соотношение)
Только русский Русский и эстонский Только эстонский Несколько языков

25 (21,4 %) 68 (58,1 %) 5 (4,3 %) 19 (16, 2%)
Позитивным моментом является то, что около 75% респондентов смотрят

передачи на двух и более языках, в том числе и русском. При этом круг интересов
учащихся довольно широк: им нравятся познавательные, развлекательные, музыкальные,
спортивные, новостные, юмористические передачи, фильмы разных жанров. Оказалось,
что более 20% респондентов смотрят телевидение на русском языке, мотивируя это
разнообразием передач и их привлекательностью. Многие смотрят передачи, специально
предназначенные для молодежи. Некоторые учащиеся отмечали, что смотрят передачи
на русском языке вместе с родителями, а на иностранных языках, чтобы «поддержать
язык».
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
142 Таблица 6. Языки восприятия радиопередач (указывается количество

информантов и их процентное соотношение)

18 (15,4 %) 51 (43,6 %) 33 (28,2%) 17 (14,5%)
В целом сходная картина наблюдается при выборе языка радиопередач. Обращает на

себя внимание тот факт, что почти 30% предпочитают радиопередачи на эстонском языке.
Это можно объяснить их более широким диапазоном по сравнению с русскоязычными.
У учащихся довольно много возможностей посещать театры и концерты, в том
числе смотреть постановки и концертные программы на русском языке. Данные таблицы
7 дают представление о том, на каком языке это делается.
Таблица 7. Языки просмотра постановок и концертных программ (указывается

количество информантов и их процентное соотношение)

14 (12,0 %) 61 (52, 1 %) 22 (18, 8 %) 20 (17, 1%)
Данные таблицы свидетельствуют о том, что респонденты в достаточно полной мере

используют имеющиеся возможности: более 80 % учащихся посещают представления на
разных языках.
Как правило, самым слабым местом учащихся-билингвов является русская
письменная речь. Тем не менее, в ситуациях естественного общения респонденты часто
сталкиваются с необходимостью создавать письменные тексты. Следующий вопрос
анкеты был направлен на выяснение наиболее частотных жанров письменных речевых
произведений.
Таблица 8. Жанры письменных текстов на русском языке (указывается

количество информантов)
Сообщения в
Электронные
SMS Письма чатах и фору- Записки Объявления Другое
письма
мах
52 40 49 48 50 22 10
Наиболее часто учащиеся пишут на русском языке SMS, записки, электронные

письма, переписываются в чатах и на форумах. Данные говорят о том, что письменная
речь – актуальный для респондентов вид речевой деятельности.
Свое владение русским языком учащиеся оценивают следующим образом.
Таблица 9. Самооценка уровня владения русским языком (указывается

количество информантов и их процентное соотношение)
Говорю сво- Говорю хорошо,

Владею в совер- Говорю и пишу Говорю и пишу
бодно, но пишу но иногда не хва-
шенстве с ошибками плохо
с ошибками тает слов
12 (10,3 %) 66 (56, 4 %) 28 (23,9 %) 9 (7, 7 %) 1 (0,85 %)
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Один учащийся ответил, что не умет ни писать, ни читать по-русски. О слабом 143
владении орфографией и каллиграфией можно судить по качеству заполнения анкет. Ряд
из них был заполнен на эстонском языке. Несмотря на то, что многие билингвы владеют
достаточно хорошо, с их точки зрения, устной формой общения на русском языке, они
испытывают значительные трудности при создании письменных текстов: они связаны с
отсутствием знаний в области орфографии и пунктуации (56, 4 %), небольшим словарным
запасом (23, 9%). Считают, что владеют русским языком в совершенстве лишь 10,3 %
респондентов.
Сравнивая свое владение русским и эстонским языками, учащиеся делают такие
выводы.
Таблица 10. Сравнительная характеристика владения русским и эстонским

языками (указывается количество информантов и их процентное
соотношение)
Владею обоими
Знание обоих языков Лучше владею эстонс- Лучше владею
языками одинаково
недостаточное ким языком русским языком
хорошо
27 (23,1 %) 20 (17, 1 %) 60 (51, 3 %) 10 (8, 5 %)
Давая сравнительную оценку своему владению русским и эстонским языками,

только 23,1 % учащиеся отмечают, что владеют одинаково хорошо обоими языками.
Больше половины опрошенных считают, что лучше владеют эстонским языком, что
объясняется сознательностью его изучения. Следовательно, изначально родной язык не
развивается. Зачастую респонденты оценивают знание обоих языков как недостаточное
(более 17 %). Это может негативно сказаться на развитии их языковой личности.
Несмотря на то, что учащиеся критически оценивают свое владение русским
языком, лишь 5 из них занимаются им дополнительно.
Третий блок вопросов анкеты способствовал выявлению удовлетворенности
учащихся процессом организации процесса обучения в школе и преподаванием русского
языка. Выяснялось также, кто выбирал язык обучения в школе и отношение гимназистов
к этому выбору.
Во всех случаях языком обучения был выбран эстонский. Анализ анкет показывает,
что это решение в основном принималось обоими родителями (47 ответов), матерью (33
ответа), отцом (9 ответов), дедушкой (1 ответ), самим ребенком (11 ответов), бабушкой
(2 ответа), бабушкой и дедушкой (1 ответ, дедушкой и мамой (1 ответ), работником
образования (2 ответа). В десяти случаях был получен ответ «не знаю». Важно отметить,
что язык обучения в школе оказывает большое влияние на самоидентификацию учащихся:
37 человек из 117 считают себя эстонцами.
Респонденты оценивают решение своих родителей определить их в школу с
эстонским языком обучения в целом положительно (104 ответа). Негативно такое решение
оценили всего 3 человека. Нейтрально отнеслись к нему 9 учащихся. Один респондент
не ответил на вопрос. Вероятно, такие ответы свидетельствуют об осознании важности
перфектного владения эстонским языком в будущем.
Как показывают полученные данные, в процессе обучения респонденты не
испытывают особого дискомфорта. Отношение к ним других учащихся оценивают как
дружеское 92 человека, как нейтральное – 20 человек и как неприязненное – всего 4
ученика. Не ответил на вопрос 1 учащийся. Отношение учителей к себе учащиеся-
билингвы расценивают в основном как дружеское – 80 ответов или нейтральное – 32
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
144 ответа. Лишь в пяти случаях учащиеся отмечают неприязненное отношение к ним.
Данные показывают, что ученики, как правило, удовлетворены учебной средой,
однако настораживают ответы некоторых из них, которые указывают на определенный
дискомфорт, испытываемый некоторыми билингвами.
Отношение к процессу обучения русскому языку не находит однозначной
оценки. Мнение по этому вопросу разделились: примерно половина учащихся
считают, что преподавание русского языка в их школе способствует его сохранению и
совершенствованию (54 ответа), а несколько большее количество (56 ответов) думают,
что этот процесс не поддерживает его развитие. 7 человек не ответили на вопрос.
На вопрос, что бы они изменили в преподавании русского языка, учащиеся-
билингвы ответили, что хотели бы заниматься русским языком в отдельной группе по
специальному учебнику, изучать русский язык более углубленно. Начинать изучение
русского языка они предпочли бы с 1-2 класса с большим количеством уроков в неделю.
Были высказаны пожелания больше общаться на уроках, смотреть фильмы, читать
книги, применять такие формы работы, как дискуссия, проект. Некоторые респонденты
указывают на необходимость больше писать и заниматься грамматикой. В единичных
случаях учащиеся не считают необходимым изучение русского языка, по-видимому,
считая свой уровень владение им достаточным.
Дискуссия
Обучение учащихся-билингвов в эстоноязычной образовательной среде может

иметь положительное влияние на их языковую личность в случае, если у них разовьётся
так называемое функциональное двуязычие, т.е. они смогут одинаково хорошо овладеть
двумя языками. И, конечно, «бывают люди, которые выучивают до более менее одного
уровня два языка (их иногда называют уравновешенными билингвами). Однако они
скорее представляют собой не правило, а исключение. Большинство людей в одном языке
сильнее, чем в другом» (Baker, 2005:22). И сильнее, как показывают исследования, обычно
так называемые двуязычные учащиеся бывают в языке титульной нации. Хотя только
отдельные одаренные в языковом плане учащиеся достигают владения эстонским языком
на уровне носителей. Об этом свидетельствуют и результаты проведенного исследования.
Однако, несмотря на то, что многим учащимся не удается достичь одинаково высокого
уровня владения обоими языками или даже одним из них, большинство респондентов не
оценивают такое положение как недостаток свого языкового развития, видимо, исходя из
прагматических установок.
Дискуссионным остается вопрос обеспечения условий для полноценного развития
языковой личности учащихся-билингвов, получающих образование на эстонском языке.
Возможным решением этой проблемы может быть создание специальной программы
для таких учащихся. Первые шаги в этом направлении уже делаются. С сентября 2010
года началась работа по обучению русскому языку в специальных группах учащихся-
билинвов (проект Kaks keelt – üks meel при поддержке Министерства образования и
науки Эстонии.
Выводы
В статье предпринята попытка продемонстрировать влияние определённых

социальных факторов на формирование языковой личности учащихся-билингвов
(русско-эстонское двуязычие), получающих образование на эстонском языке. Путем
анкетирования были получены данные, которые позволяют описать обобщенную языковую
личность таких учащихся. В результате анализа и обобщения результатов исследования
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
выяснилось, что на формирование языковой личности билингвов оказывает существенное 145

влияние среда обучения, в нашем случае – эстоноязычная. Важным фактором являются
также языковые контакты на русском языке вне школы, в особенности внутрисемейное
и дружеское общение, интенсивность его использования при восприятии и передаче
информации на русском языке в различных сферах и ситуациях общения. Процесс
школьного обучения русскому языку оказывает также большое влияние на формирование
их языковой личности.
Типичными характеристиками обобщенной языковой личности учащихся-
блингвов являются сужение сфер функционирования русского языка, его использование
преимущественно в бытовой сфере и в устной форме. Лексический запас респондентов
ограничен. По самооценке учащихся, их письменная речь развита недостаточно,
некорректна в орфографическом и пунктуационном отношении. В настоящее время
специальная государственная учебная программа для таких учащихся не предусмотрена,
поэтому изначально родной язык не поддерживается и не совершенствуется в достаточной
мере.
Благодарности
Исследование, описываемое в данной статье, проводилось в рамках проекта целе-

вого финансирования «Эстонский текст в русской культуре. Русский текст в эстонской
культуре» (SF 0130126s08, руководитель проекта И.Белобровцева) и проекта «Русский
ребенок в эстонской школе» Таллиннского университета (��
TA��
37309, руководитель про-
екта Наталия Чуйкина).
Литература
Ауг Н. (2007). Языковое развитие русскоговорящего ребенка в иноязычной среде. MA (academic)
thesis. Tallinn: Tallinn University.
Богин Г. (1984). Модель языковой личности в ее отношении к разновидностям текстов:
автореферат дис…докт.филол.наук. Ленинград.
Вейсгербер Л. (1993). Родной язык и формирование духа. Москва.
Виноградов В. (1980). Избранные труды. Том 5. О языке художественной прозы. Москва: Наука.
Забродская А. (2009). Vene-eesti keelekontaktid. Keeletarvituse ja –muutuse grammatilised aspektid.
Analüütiline ülevaade. Tallinn.
Замковая Н., Моисеенко И. (2009а). Типичные ошибки в письменной речи учащихся-билингвов,
получающих образование на эстонском языке. Язык и культура. Киев: Издательский Дом Дмитрия
Бураго, 336-344.
Замковая Н., Моисеенко И. (2009в). Затруднения в словообразовании и словоупотреблении в речи
учащихся-билингвов. Труды по русской и славянской филологии. Лингвистика XII. HUMANIORA:
lINGUA RUSSICA. Активные процессы в русском языке диаспоры и митрополии. Тарту: Tartu
Ülikooli Kirjastus, 127-142.
Замковая Н., Моисеенко И., Чуйкина Н. (2009). Ситуация распространения русско-эстонского
двуязычия в школах с эстонским языком обучения. Kultuuride dialoog – Võimalus või paratamatus?
(Dialogue of Cultures – Possibility or Inevitability?) II. Teadusartiklite kogumik. Tallinn: Tallinna
Ülikooli kirjastus, 267-286.
Замковая��
��
Н��
., ��
Моисеенко��
��
И��
. (2010). Учащиеся-билингвы,
��
получающие образование на эстонском
языке: опыт социолингвистического исследования. Русский язык и литература в международном
образовательном пространстве: современное состояние и перспективы. Том II. Madrid: Rubinos
- 1860-SA, 1297-1301.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
146 Караулов Ю. (1987). Русский язык и языковая личность. Москва.

Мальцева-Замковая Н., Моисеенко И. (2008a). Проблемы обучения русскому языку в ситуации
естественного русско-эстонского билингвизма. I Mеждународная научно-методическая
конференция «Состояние и перспективы методики преподавания русского языка и литературы».
Сборник статей. Москва: Издательство Российского университета дружбы народов, 782-785.
Мальцева-Замковая Н., Моисеенко И. (2008b). Этническая самоидентификация двуязычных
учащихся (русско-эстонское двуязычие) в условиях обучения в эстонской школе. Язык и культура.
Киев: Изд-во Киевского университета, 75-85.
Мальцева-Замковая Н., Моисеенко И., Чуйкина Н. (2008). Двуязычный ребенок (русско-эстонское
двуязычие) в школе с эстонским языком обучения. Коллеги – коллегам. Tallinn:
��
Argo��
, 7-14.
Нерознак В. (1988). Праязык: реконструкт или реальность? Сравнительно-историческое изучение
языков разных семей. Теория лингвистической реконструкции. Москва, 26-43.
Протасова Ю., Родина Н. (2005).Многоязычие в детском возрасте. Санкт-Петербург.: Златоуст.
Раннут М. (2004). Пособие по языковой политике. Tallinn: AS Atlex.
Русскоязычная семья и эстонская школа (2008). Sociologic Research. Tallinn: Integratio.
Рюнканен Т. (2007). Русский язык как родной в Финляндии: возможности сохранения, изучения
и развития. Русистика и современность. Том 2. Диалог культур в преподавании русского языка и
русской словесности. Санкт-Петербург: Издательский дом «МИРС», 213-217.
Снитко Т. (1999). Предельные понятия в западной и восточной лингвокультурах. Пятигорск.
Соколова В. (1995). Культура речи и культура общения. Москва: Просвещение.
Трубчанинова (2008). Языковая личность в инокультурной среде: по данным русскоязычной
технически опосредованной коммуникации носителей китайского языка. Воронеж.
Чуйкина Н., Синдецкая Н. (2006). К вопросу о русско-эстонском билингвизме. Международная
научно-практическая конференция по проблемам преподавания русского языка и литературы
в странах Балтии (Сборник научно-методических материалов). Санкт-Петербург: Санкт-
Петербургский государственный университет, 48 - 52.
Язык��
и��
��
личность� (1989). ��
�� Под ред.Ю.Караулова. Москва.
. (2000). A Parents and Teachers Guide to Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Baker��
, ��
C��
Baker, C. (2005). Kakskeelne laps. Haridus-ja Teadusministeerium: El Paradiso.

Hint, M. (2002). Keel on tõde on õige ja vale. Tartu: Ilmamaa.
Language minority children’s linguistic and cognitive creativity. Journal

Kessler, C., Quinn, M. E. (1987). ��
of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 8, 173–186.
Montanari, E. (2002). Wie Kinder mehrspraching aufwachsen: Ein Ratgeber. 3.Auflage. Frankfurt a. M.:
Brandes&Apsel Verlag.
Rannut, Ü. (2003). Muukeelsete õpilaste integreerimine eesti koolis. Tallinn: TPÜ kirjastus.
Sears, C. (1998). Second Language Students in Mainstream Classrooms: A Handbook for Teachers in
International Schools. Cleveland: Multilingual Matters.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1981). Bilingualism or Not. The education of Minorities. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Swanson, H. L., Sa´ez, L., Gerber, M. (2006). Growth in Literacy and Cognition in bilingual children
at risk or Not at risk for Reading Disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology .Vol. 98, No. 2, 247–
264.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Zamkovaja, N., Moissejenko, I., Tshuikina, N. (2010). Russian-Estonian Blingualism Research and its 147
Practical Meaning for Estonian Schools. Problems of Education in 21st Century. Volume 20, 146-155.
Summary
GENERALIZED CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE LINGUISTIC PERSONALITY

OF BILINGUAL STUDENTS (RUSSIAN-ESTONIAN BILINGUALISM) GETTING
THEIR EDUCATION IN THE ESTONIAN LANGUAGE
Natalia Zamkovaja, Irina Moissejenko, Natalia Tshuikina

Tallinn University, Estonia
The article describes general characteristics of linguistic personality of bilingual

students (Russian-Estonian bilingualism), who get their education in the Estonian language.
As the number of such students in Estonia has been increasing, the problem of their research
has been recognized as being of great importance. The data for the article was received through
written and oral questionnaire and allow tracing specific social agents for a bilingual student’s
linguistic personality formation. By dint of the questionnaire biography data, ethnical and
linguistic self-definition, spheres of the languages application, self-definition for the languages
acquisition, appraisal for the process of Russian language teaching in the schools given by the
students has become apparent.
In general, the respondents positively estimated the decision to study in an Estonian-
medium school made by their parents, they also see their classmates’ and teachers’ attitude as
good; however, most of them think that their level of skills in the Russian language (sometimes
in Estonian as well) is insufficient.
Students of different regions in Estonia were questioned, which allows getting a general
idea of the matter. The collected material affords to elicit bottlenecks in teaching Russian to
such students, to predict and take into account their educational needs while compiling teaching
materials.
Key words: linguistic personality, bilingual students, mother tongue, self-definition, language
difficulties, educational needs.
Advised by Maria Tilk, Tallinn University, Estonia
Received: February 14, 2011 Accepted: March 04, 2011
Natalia Zamkovaja Associate Professor, Tallinn University, ��

Narva Street 25, 10120 Tallinn,��
Estonia.
Phone��
: +372 6 409332.�
E-mail: talyz@inbox.ru
Website: http://www.tlu.ee/slaavifil
Irina Moissejenko Associate Professor, Tallinn University, ��

Narva Street 25, 10120 Tallinn,��
Estonia.
Phone��
: +372 6409332.�
E-mail: irinamo@hot.ee
Natalia Tshuikina Lecturer, Tallinn University, Narva Street 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia.
Phone: +372 6409332.
E-mail: natalia.tshuikina@tlu.ee
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
148 SCIENTIFIC METHODICAL CENTRE

„SCIENTIA EDUCOLOGICA”
/The associated member ofLithuanian Scientific Society
and International Council of Association for Science
Education /ICASE/
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/Problems_of_Education.htm
E-mail: problemsofeducation@gmail.com
General Information
The publication language is English and Russian. All authors must take care of the lan-
guage revision by they own. The language must be clear and accurate. The work should be writ-
ten in an impersonal style. The editor reserves the right to send the manuscript to be reviewed.
If English is a second language for the author, please consider having the manuscript proof read
and edited before submitting.
Format of Manuscripts
Abstract
The first page of the manuscript must begin with the title of the paper and an abstract
which should be in the interval of 150 - 500 words. For papers reporting original research, state
in brief: the primary objective (the research ąuestions addressed or any hypothesis tested); the
research design; the methods and procedures employed; the number of subjects; the main out-
comes and results; the conclusions drawn from these data and results, including their implica-
tions for further research or application/practice.
Key words
Please provide 3 to 5 key words or short phrases in apphabetical order.
The structure of the manuscript (recommended)
The body of the text of the manuscript must generally have the following parts:
• abstract + key words;
• introduction;
• methodology of research;
• results of research;
• discussion;
• conclusions;
• acknowledgements (if any);
• references;
• summary (only for manuscripts which main text is in Russian),
• appendix (if any).
P.S. The structure of paper can be different if the paper is only theoretical ąualitative
research.
The length of the manuscript
The manuscript should be not shorter than 5 pages (including references, tables and
figures). Manuscripts should be typed on A4, in Times New Roman 12-point font size, single-
spacing, 2,5 cm with all the margins, word-document (Word 6.0 or later) format.

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
Titles 149
The name of the paper 14-point, bold with capital letters, align left; titles in the text
(chapters): 12-point bold, not numbered; sub-titles (subchapters) 12-point, italic, not numbered;
before a title of subtitle 1 empty rows, after 1 empty row before text. Text chapters must be
separated with 1 empty row. The title should be concise and informative. Avoid abbreviations.
Author names and affiliations
Full names/surnames should be provided. Please indicate affiliations of the author (s).
Below all e-mails should be indicated.
Acronyms
Acronyms should be defined the first time they appear.
Tables and Figures
Tables and figures should be valuable, relevant, and visually attractive. Tables (made
with Word or another programme) and figures must be referred to in the text and numbered in
order of their appearance. Each table and figure should have a complete, descriptive title; and
each table column an appropriate heading. The texts in tables and figures should be 11-point
(in some cases 10) and their width should be 12 cm at maximum. The figures should be in form
of jpg (if not done with Word or Excel); resolution 1200 dpi. Figures, tables (black and white
colour, without ground-colour) and captions should be inserted within the manuscript at their
appropriate locations. All graphics (figures) must be editable. The font size should be Times
New Roman for all figures and tables. Figures should be carefully explained in the text and
cited in numerical order.
It is the author’s responsibility to obtain permission to reproduce illustrations, tables, etc.
from other publications.
References
The title „References” must be used. APA style for writing references in the text and in
the reference list must be used. References in the text should be presented in brackets (Knox,
1988; Martin, 1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin, 1995, p.48). The list of
references should be presented after the text.
The author should make sure that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the
names and years in the text and those on the list. The all references should be listed in alphabeti-
cal order by author’s name.
Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APA style will be returned without re-
view.
Note 2: References to online sources should include the type of medium (such as “serial online”
or “monograph online”), the date of that specific reference (if applicable), the uniform resource
locator (URL), and the date that the source was accessed. A source accessed online should al-
ways be referenced accordingly, even if it is also published in printed form.
Note 3: All papers must meet the criteria of originality and scientific ąuality. Obviously, they
must also comply with style and format reąuirements. The paper will not be subject to further
review, if the manuscript is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF
LANGUAGE (all manuscripts must be written in clear and grammatical English or Russian).

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION

150
ISSN 1648-3898
Information about
Journal of Baltic Science Education
(publication prices and other important information for 2011)
1. Ordering information
● We will invoice everyone for material ordered;
● Orders have to be renewed annually not later than till November, 15th of current year;
● It is possible to order only for the one year period.
● Cancellations are not accepted;
● The frequency is: 4 times a year – March, June, September, December;
● In 2011 we will publish: Vol. 10, issue 1, issue 2, issue 3, issue 4;
2. PRICE INFORMATION
● Foreign regular price is 35 EUR (excluding postage) for one copy of journal;
● Domestic regular price is 30 LTL (excluding postage) for one copy of journal;
● To continual customers (not individual) the discount at a rate of 5 percent is applied.
● To individual customers the discount at a rate of 10 percent from the regular prices is ap-
plied;
● Copies of JBSE 2008-2010: 10 EUR for one copy.
● Methods of payment: Payments should be made by electronic transfer directly into the
centre`s bank account /but not by cheque/. It is important that you quote your ID number
and name (or customer number and name) and the type of payment (e.g. subscription fee),
so that your payment can be identified when received.
3. CONTACT DETAILS
● Telephone number is: +370 687 95668.
● E-mail address is: mail.jbse@gmail.com
● Home page is: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt
● The postal address is: SMC „Scientia Educologica“
29 K. Donelaicio Street
LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
● Editor-in-Chief of JBSE is prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Lithuania.
4. OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATION

The articles appearing in this journal are indexed and abstracted in:
● British Education Index, Copernicus Index and EBSCO: Academic Search Complete;
● Social Scisearch (Thomson Reuters) - http://science.thomsonreuters.com/index.html (from
Vol. 7, 2008);
● Journal Citation Reports / Social Sciences Edition (Thomson Reuters) - http://thomsonreu-
ters.com/products_services/scientific/Journal_Citation_Reports (from Vol. 7, 2008);
● The Asian Education Index - http://www.asian-education-index.com/sciences_index.php
5. Last, but not least

Editorial Board of JBSE expresses gratitude to all who is interested in our remarkable aca-
demic journal.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT IN THE 21st 151
CENTURY
ISSN 2029-6932
Problems of Management in the 21st

Century is an international, periodical,
peer reviewed scientific journal, issued
by the SMC “Scientia Educologica”.
Editor-in-Chief
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas,
Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia
Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Problems of Management in the 21st

Century (ISSN 2029-6932) is abstract-
ed and/or indexed in:
Index Copernicus - http://journals.in-

dexcopernicus.com/karta.php?action=
masterlist&id=6117
EBSCO: Business Source Complete -

http://search.ebscohost.com
Editor-in-Chief
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Re-

public of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Assoc. prof., dr. Tsai-Hsin Chu, National Chiayi University, Taiwan (from 2011)
Assoc. prof., dr. Marek Franek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic (from 2011)
Prof., dr. Ivars Muzis, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Managament Academy, Latvia
(from 2011)
Prof., dr. Sonia Teresinha de Sousa Penin, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil (from 2011)
Prof., dr. Chris Rensleigh, University of Johannesburg, South Africa (from 2011)
Website: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/PMC/Problems_of_Management.htm
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 30, 2011
152 Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864

Volume 30, 2011
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė, Lina Banuškevičienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė
Contact person Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)
12-05-2011. Publishing in Quires 11,25. Edition 200
Publisher SMC „Scientia Educologica“,

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: gu@projektas.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm
Contact person: Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)

Printing K. J. Vasiliauskas`s enterprise Lucilijus,

5 stoties Street, apt. 6, LT-77156 Šiauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: info@lucilijus.lt, phone/fax +370 41 421 857.
http://www.lucilijus.lt
��
Contact person: Danguolė Vasiliauskienė (info@lucilijus.lt)

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 30, 2011

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 30, 2011

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864

Volume 30, 2011

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic

Dr., prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2011

THE SCIENCE EDUCATION TOOLS AND WAYS OF PRODUCING THEM IN THE

THE ROLE OF METACOGNITION IN EVERYDAY PROBLEM SOLVING AMONG

PROBLEMS INDUCED BY AMALGAMATION OF PEDAGOGICAL PROGRESSIVISM

CRITICAL POINT IN FINANCIAL LEARNING PROCESS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL

KNOWLEDGE GENERATION IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: CASE OF SOUTH

ASSESSMENT OF PARTICIPATION OR MUSICALITY: PILOT STUDY AMONG

DECENTRALIZATION OF EDUCATION: THE EXPERIENCE OF KENYAN

ILLITERACY AND VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS: THE CASE OF IGUEBEN

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTIVES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION IN INDIA IN

МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНЫЙ ДИАЛОГ НА УРОКАХ РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА В

 ОБОБЩЕННЫЕ ХАРАКTЕРИСТИКИ ЯЗЫКОВОЙ ЛИЧНОСТИ ДВУЯЗЫЧНЫХ

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ........................................................................... 148

Journal of BALTIC Science Education ......................................................... 150

PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT IN THE 21st CENTURY............................................. 151

THE SCIENCE EDUCATION TOOLS AND 

WAYS OF PRODUCING THEM IN THE

 • in order to explain concepts and phenomena, primary school pupils’ thinking

 problem-solving activities etc.

Arends R. J. (1998). Mokomės mokyti.Vilnius, p. 337-357.

Received: March 29, 2011 Accepted: April 30, 2011

THE ROLE OF METACOGNITION IN 

EVERYDAY PROBLEM SOLVING AMONG

Metacognition is an important dimension of problem solving because it includes problem-relevant

Research on metacognitive development was initiated in the early 1970s by John

10 of ‘metacognition’ describing metacognitive activities as thinking whereby the thinking subject

Metacognitive skills are a pre-requisite to problem-solving of both well and ill-defined

General Background of Research

A correlational study was conducted to investigate the role of metacognition on everyday

Instrument and Procedures

of metacognition as being regulation of cognition and knowledge of cognition. These 13

Table 1. KMO and Bartlett’s Test.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.651

Question 1: Does metacognition predict students’ problem solving ability?

Table 2. Summary Table of Linear regression.

Model Sun of squares df Mean squares F p-value.

a. Predictors: (Constant), Overall metacognition score

Table 3. Summary Table of Linear regression. 15

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t-value p-value

Dependent Variable: Problem Solving

Question 2: Does problem solving vary with grade?

Question 3: Does metacognitive ability differ with grade?

Table 4. Summary tables for Analysis of Variance.

Outcome variable df F-ratio p-value

Dependent Variables: Problem Solving and Metacognition

This study contributes to the limited research on influence of Metacognition on everyday

Carlson, R. A. (1997). Experienced cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. London: D. C. Heath & Company.

Hennessey, M. G. (2003). Metacognitive aspects of students’ reflective discourse: Implications for

Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. MIT

Kluwe, R. H. (1982). Cognitive Knowledge and Executive Control: Metacognition. In D. R. Griffin

Kuhn, D., (2000a).Metacognitive Develpoment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 178-

Moshman, D (1994). Reasoning, Metareasoning, and the Promotion of rationality. In A. Demetriou

Schraw, G. (2001). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. In H. Hartman (Ed.), Metacognition in

Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories – An educational perspective. New Jersey:

1 I think I know whether I have understood the problem well

Problem-Solving Questionnaire (PSQ)

ОБОБЩЕННЫЕ ХАРАКTЕРИСТИКИ ЯЗЫКОВОЙ ЛИЧНОСТИ ДВУЯЗЫЧНЫХ

THE SCIENCE EDUCATION TOOLS AND

• in order to explain concepts and phenomena, primary school pupils’ thinking

problem-solving activities etc.

THE ROLE OF METACOGNITION IN

well as help to identify struggling pupils and schools. In ��

Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. ��

Elstad, E., Nortvedt, G. A., Turmo, A. (2009). ��

Ministry of Education (1998). Guidelines to t��

Telhaug, A. O. Mediås, O. A., Aasen, P. (2006). ��

UNESCO (2006). ��