Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 26, 2010

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864
Volume 26, 2010
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES in
education - 2010
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

the associated member of Lithuanian Scientific Society and ICASE
(International Council of Associations for Science Education)
The articles appearing in this scientific collection are indexed and abstracted in EBSCO: Education Research
Complete (http://search.ebscohost.com), Copernicus Index (http://www.indexcopernicus.com), the Asian
Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/education_journals_index_P.php), SOCOLAR,
China Educational Publications Import & Export Corporation (http://www.socolar.com/?ver=en) and list of
Science Education Journals (http://homepages.wmich.edu/~rudged/journals.html)
Publisher
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the associated member of Lithua-
nian Scientific Society and International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE)
Editor-in-Chief
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic

of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Dr., prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr., prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czechia
Dr. Yuriy Pelekh, International University of Economics and Humanities named after Academician
Stepan Demianchuk, Ukraine
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Copyright of this scientific journal entitled Contemporary Issues in Education – 2010 is the property of Sci-
entific Methodical Centre “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania. All rights reserved. No part of this journal may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright
holders.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal, issued
by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“.
Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: problemsofeducation@gmail.com
Phone: +370 687 95668
WEB page: http://www.gu.projektas.lt; http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/Problems_of_Education.htm
ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2010

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Contents
Editorial
Ecologization of the World Outlook aS THE KEY purpose of

educational practice
Vincentas Lamanauskas 5
Articles
GIVEN COMPETENCIES BY HIGHER EDUCATION VERSUS EMPLOYERS’ DEMANDS

MIRRORED IN AN EMPIRICAL SURVEY
Andrea Bencsik 9
A STUDY ON HOW THE USE OF ICT IN TRAVELLING PERIODS INFLUENCES

ROMANI STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCHOOL
Anne Bonnevie Lund 19
PRE-SERVICE EDUCATOR ATTRITION INFORMED BY SELF-DETERMINATION

THEORY: AUTONOMY LOSS IN HIGH-STAKES EDUCATION ENVIRONMENTS
Jana Bouwma-Gearhart 30
PERCEPTION OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Luljeta Buza, Hektor Buza, Elida Tabaku 42
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS’ EXTENSION METHODOLOGY

IN CONSERVING SOIL AND WATER USING CONTOUR PLOUGHING,
UNPLOUGHED STRIPS AND FARM YARD MANURE
John Gowland-Mwangi, John Odiaga Oloo, Stephen Wambugu Maina 52
PRE-SERVICE STUDENT TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:

RESEARCH AND SERVICE-LEARNING
Angela James 66
THE University as an Agent of Knowledge Transfer:

the Case of the Latvia University of Agriculture
Ginta Kronberga, Līga Paula, Dina Bite 79
A STUDY OF INVOLVEMENT OF CAREGIVERS IN CHILDREN’S PLAY IN

KIGALI, RWANDA
Peter Odera, Rossette K. Murigande 90
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN THE BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS EDUCATION:

THE CASE OF GREEK BANKS
Vassilis Orfanos, Michalis Evripiotis 103
METHODOLOGY for implementing learning outcomes in a study

program as basis for future RECOGNITION OF PRIOR LEARNING
Agnese Rusakova, Andrejs Rauhvargers 124
ВЛИЯНИЕ ПСИХОЛОГО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОГО СОПРОВОЖДЕНИЯ НА

ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТЬ ОБУЧЕНИЯ И ВОСПИТАНИЯ СТУДЕНТОВ
ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА
Ольга Логашенко, Татьяна Шапошникова 132
Information
Journal of BALTIC Science Education 142

Information & communication technology in natural
science education – 2011 143
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Ecologization of the World

Outlook aS THE KEY purpose of
educational practice
Vincentas Lamanauskas
University of Šiauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt
It is obvious that the educational model to the XXI century is oriented at goals of Sus-
tainable Development. This topic is becoming very trendy and urgent in and outside Lithua-
nia. Recent correlation with nature carries a problematic character. D.Birnbacher proposes that
“bearing in mind the increased people’s possibilities to influence the future of humankind and
other conscious beings, responsibility for the future generations… is an incontrovertible duty”
(Birnbacher, 1980). None of the environment protection laws could tackle problems of ecology
as a huge part of a contemporary society produces a primitive ecologic culture and very often
is completely illiterate. Therefore, the tasks of primary ecology education are to foster ecologic
pupils’ culture and raise their ecologic consciousness because the past and present life offers a
great number of lessons in ecology including ecology catastrophes, anthropogenesis impact on
nature (20th century), etc. Moral responsibility for natural (environment) preservation is relevant
as never before today. Hence, the ecologization of the world outlook of society is also crucial.
From this point of view, academic literature on methodology suggests different positions:
• the construction of the ecologization of the world outlook is a task of 21st century
Mendelejeva, 2000; Lamanauskas, 2001, etc.);
• the development of positive children’s thinking (Kulijev, 2000 etc.);
• the creation of pupils’ mentality of ecology (Tokarskaja, 2000 etc.), ecologic culture
(Akvileva, Klepinina, 2001 etc.) and cultural ecologization of the world outlook in
general (Zacharova, 2000).
The ecologization of the world outlook is implemented mastering the ecologic culture of
the epoch. The world outlook performs a crucial function as it puts together the control proc-
esses of perception and human activity, directly influences consciousness and sub-conscious-
ness. The ecologization of the world outlook heightens responsibility of ecology (Lamanaus-
kas, 1996). On the other hand, the world outlook inwardly implements two basic components
– the world picture and sensual perception of the world. The children’s world picture is their
cognitive-affective-value-based comprehension of the world determined by individual cogni-
tive- affective-value-based experience. Obvious expansion (in the context of natural science
education in particularly) of the childish world takes place in primary school. According to
J.Vaitkevičius (1995), the world picture is the first stage of the world outlook. In other words,
it is the extrinsic world observed with the five senses. Sensual perception of the world is the
second “step” of the world outlook formation process. The pictures of the world are transferred
into the intrinsic human world with the help of senses and are based on mind and ideas at this
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
level. The shape of the concept is established.

The issue of the world outlook generates discussions in order to find proper definitions.
However, in any case, the world outlook helps to explain the world, life and tries to describe
why something has happened. Thus, the world outlook is the foundation of our life, and there-
fore it is an integral creation. Despite the diversity of evaluation (different concepts of the world
outlook vary) the world outlook is a spiritual human phenomenon immediately concerned with
a social activity of the subject. Recent perception of nature cannot be abstraction. Nature has to
be grasped as the whole phenomenal system through the prism of social relations. The estab-
lishment of a harmonious correlation between nature and environment is a relevant task. The
successful and effective implementation of the task needs strong, harmonious personalities that
is, in turn, encourages to ecologize the world outlook. A contemporary situation of the educa-
tional system requires changes in the training process pointing to the ecologization of the world
outlook.
Scientific Interaction Ecology - based

world - outlook world outlook
Cohesion
Figure 1: The interaction of the two components.
Dealing with the ecologization of the world outlook, attention should be turned to the
following questions:
• why is the ecology situation getting worse?
• does an ecology crisis really mean a moral crisis?
• why will not the ecology situation be able to be improved?
• can we operate a real objective situation?
• is the information describing the ecology situation available to everyone?
• why is moral responsibility so important?
• can the problem of “the ecology crisis” be tackled?, etc.
Therefore, the issue of the ecologization of the world outlook should be tackled in a com-
plex way. A personal system of values – personal theoretic background (information) – practi-
cal individual abilities make a closely correlating system that cohesively functions through a
specific private activity. It is worth to refuse stereotypic, conservative attitudes towards the cor-
relation between nature and environment. Only educational work cannot ecologize the world
outlook, i.e. it is not enough to gain only theoretic knowledge about ecology as information
has to be implemented in practise. Human being (a child or adult) must be able to continually
evaluate predictable subsequences of any of the activities in nature. None of them can be based
only on knowledge and mind (natural science positivism) as they are not absolute values. On
the other hand, everyone should try to improve the ecology situation and feel weighty responsi-
bility as they are the vitality factors of contemporary human being. Hence, a society and nation
should be interested to reach that yet primary school focused on the formation of the world
outlook (ecologic aspect is extremely important) because at present technocratic, stereotyped
and destructive thinking is alive and onward developed.
The process of the ecologization of the world outlook should follow as:
• The revelation of ecology problems.
• The required knowledge (information) to tackle the issues of ecology.
• Shaping the stereotypes and models of particular behaviour.
• Attaining an active personal position dealing with the questions of ecology.
Vincentas Lamanauskas. Ecologization of the World Outlook as the Key Purpose of Educational Practice
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
• Continuous, systematic actualization of the principles of human morality.

• Ecology conscience and responsibility development.
• The correction of the ecologization of the world outlook.
The main possible expressions of the ecologization of the world outlook are as fol-
lows:
• the interpretation, comment, assessment and evaluation of the reasons and results of
the ecology crisis (different kinds of literature, the press, role-play and imitation, eco-
mysteries, etc.);
• mastering the ecologic culture of the epoch through the educational process;
• individual involvement into a specific, appropriate activity (for example, environ-
ment protection, eco-actions, Greenpeace Movement, etc.);
The succeeding points should be highlighted in the discussion about the ecologization
of the world outlook:
• the formation of the world outlook should not be versatile and effective without an
ecologic aspect /component/;
• the ecologization of the world outlook means life in unison with nature;
• the crises of ecology and spirit are concurrently coherent;
• ecology education is necessary for all types, stages and profiles of schools and par-
ticularly in the rudimentary concentre. Although only the elements of ecology field
are apt in the primary school educational content, they are supposed to be necessary.
• teachers should mainly deal with relevant issues of ecology, the evaluation of human
behaviour in terms of ecology;
• the approaches to the world outlook are not the foremost points. Even more important
factor is that every world outlook includes three essential components: cognitive,
value-based and behaviour. Hence, the ecologization of the world outlook, in a broad
sense, should follow all these directions that have to be coherently interrelated.
The achievements of natural sciences are striking today. The Universe, stars, planets,
substances and their structure (mega and micro world) are the objects of research. On the one
part, everything is brilliant but on the other part, the man and created technologies behave cru-
elly and remorsefully towards both nature and human being. The inward world is getting poor,
the needs of consumerism have grown into compulsion of spoliation (a pragmatic correlation
with nature). The youth‘s behaviour changes. They frequently kill and torture animals, act ag-
gressively and sadistically. We simply cannot live and think that apres moi le deluge. We must
save the Earth which is our unique shelter for the future generations. Thus, we have to foster
respect for everything around us since early childhood. Generally speaking, the ecologization
of the world outlook is the key purpose of educational practice today. And finally – the ecologi-
zation of all education demands more attention in the 21st century.
References
Birnbacher, D. (Hrsg.)(1980). Ökologie und Ethik. Stuttgart.

Lamanauskas, V. (1996). Pasaulėžiūros ekologizavimas ugdymo procese. Kn: Ekologija kaip socialinis
procesas (tarptautinės konferencijos straipsnių rinkinys). Šiauliai, p. 44–47.
Lamanauskas, V. (2001). Gamtamokslinis ugdymas pradinėje mokykloje /Pasaulio pažinimo didaktikos
pagrindai/. Šiauliai.
Lamanauskas, V. (2003). Natural Science Education in Contemporary School. Siauliai: Siauliai Univer-
sity Press.
Vaitkevičius, J. (1995). Socialinės pedagogikos pagrindai. Vilnius: Egalda.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Аквилева, Г.Н., Клепинина З.А. (2001). Методика преподования естествознания в начальной

школе. Москва: Владос.
Захарова, Н.Е. (2000). Вступая в XXI век: проблемы экологизации культуры. In.: Science and
Education on the Threshold of the III-RD Millennium. Minsk, Vol.2, p. 15–17.
Кулиев, Р.Д. (2000). Методы формирования правильного экологического мышления у детей. In.:
Science and Education on the Threshold of the III-RD Millennium, Minsk, Vol. 2, p. 86.
Менделеева, Е.А. (2000). Задача образования ХХI века – формирование экологического мировоз-
зрения. In.: Science and Education on the Threshold of the III-RD Millennium. Minsk, Vol. 2, p. 91–92.
Токарская, В.В. (2000). Формирование экологического менталитета школьников как социально-пе-
дагогическая проблема. In.: Science and Education on the Threshold of the III-RD Millennium. Minsk,
Vol. 2, p. 105–107.
Vincentas Lamanauskas Professor, Siauliai University, Natural Science Education Research Centre, 25-
119 P.Višinskio Street, LT- 76351, Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 687 95668.
E-mail: lamanauskas@projektas.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.projektas.lt
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
GIVEN COMPETENCIES BY HIGHER

EDUCATION VERSUS EMPLOYERS’
DEMANDS MIRRORED IN AN
EMPIRICAL SURVEY
Andrea Bencsik
Széchenyi István University, Hungary
E-mail: bencsik.andrea@yahoo.com
Abstract
Significance of knowledge is realized and appreciated in the life of every competitive economy. But a
question must be put. What is the right and required knowledge enterprises need? How can employees
acquire this knowledge and how our educational system can keep steps with these continuously change-
able economical demands to serve these requirements?
In an empirical survey we have tried to find the answer to the following question:
How can the higher education and labour market interpret knowledge? What does knowledge mean to
enterprises? What kind of competencies are needed to a successful economy? Do the young employees
with a new degree have these competencies? Can higher education provide students with competencies
which are required by the labour market?
Does higher education take notice of these demands in their courses?
This survey researched requirements and assumptions from three sides. The questioned people were stu-
dents and teachers from higher education, managers of enterprises. In this paper information is given
about a part of the results with the help of two verified hypotheses.
Key words: competencies, enterprises, higher education, knowledge, knowledge management.
Introduction
Realization of the importance and the extreme handling of knowledge are the same
age as the history of humanity (for example: respect for shamans, magicians, priests, teachers,
curatives, later scientists, etc.). Endeavour to share, integrate, produce knowledge are very old
(council of the elderly, relationship between masters – students, etc.). New notions which are
different from earlier ones are methods of knowledge sharing, knowledge integration. They
become complete by the support of information technology. The latter one is not so old, it ori-
gins from the second part of the 1990s. In the background the strengthening globalization and
requirements of the globalized economy can be found (Davenport, 1996)
Knowledge management has become a tool of increasing organizational competitive-
ness by the conscious and system level handling of knowledge. Its
• aim is the development of business,
• prerequisite is to operate all the value chains of HR (recruitment, selection, per-
formance management, teaching/learning, knowledge sharing, knowledge integra-
tion, motivation, reduction),
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
10 • natural structure is a network,

• basis of their existence is partnership,
• technical background of their operation is information technology.
Why do we have to manage knowledge? Due to the fact that intellectual capital has
been in the foreground of organizational statements in the last period. However, it is clear that
knowledge can be difficult to account for, its importance is indisputable. The more companies
can keep and exploit their employees’ knowledge, the more they will be able to reach a business
success. Their knowledge can be found in a lot of divisions (departments, workshops, industrial
units, etc.). It is dissipated and this knowledge cannot be reached by every employee. Therefore
companies have to discover their knowledge again and again, they have to find solutions which
have already been born in another unit.
General Background of Research
The role of knowledge is determinative in the life of economy and society. Nowadays
this role is revaluated by new knowledge - economical and sociological processes. To deter-
mine knowledge is not an easy task. But the real task is to determine the right knowledge.
From this view knowledge is a sum of experience, ideas and cognitions which can help to stay
at markets and to realize a maximum profit. At the same time enviromental changes project in
advance that contents and demands of right knowledge are changing.
The righ question is: which elements of knowledge are needed for young people with a
new degree to be adequate in an activity – or at an organization level to stay in the market?
Nowadays the quantity of information and its accessibility is very problematical. This
huge information is not equal with knowledge. Demands to understand and to use complex
processes require systematized knowledge. As the quantity and accessibility of knowledge are
so huge that a large number of employees expect higher education not only to provide and to
systematize knowledge, but to control its accuracy and to use it effectively.
To get the above – mentioned right knowledge at the highest level is possible or required
from universities. The responsibility of these institutions becomes higher and higher to contrib-
ute to competitive economy because their role in knowledge transfer is very important.
Resources of Hungarian economy and its capability of aggregation are very poor. There-
fore it can stay at the markets only by using and developing human capital. The economy ex-
pects higher education to give a basis to this ability. We can say that in this situation employees
and their knowledge are in focus in organizations.
Knowledge management is a subsystem of leadership. Inside this practice leaders use
the most developed organizational theories, management technics, information technologies
to interpret, to systematize knowledge capital and to make it reachable for everyone in organi-
zations. In these processes teamwork, collaboration, communication, trust and organizational
study are needed (Bencsik, 2009).
Cognitions, abilities, competencies change depending on economical development
(Székely, 2006). At the beginning of industrial production only simple abilities were needed
(it can be acquired in vocational schools), nowadays employees have to have a wide range of
capabilities and skills. In our days employees should have an ability of problem solving, good
communication, enterprises.
Expectations of Labour Market about Competencies
Hessami és Moore (2007) determine competence - on the basis of the 2003 European
Handbook - as the best practice of knowledge management, as a mix of knowledge, experience,
Andrea Bencsik. Given Competencies by Higher Education versus Employers` Demands Mirrored in an Empirical Survey
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
motivational features with the help of which employees can fulfil their tasks successfully. From 11
this view competence is more than an ability to undertake a task perfectly, effeciently, in a high
quality according to costumers’ demands and changeable conditions. This portfolio of abilities
and talents are much more than using knowledge successfully. In this meaning a competent
person is much more than a knowledge - worker.
One of the challenges of our century is to harmonize requirements of enterpresies and
the supply of educational systems (Jánossy 1975). It is not a simple task. With a deficient pro-
fessional structure the economic increase cannot reach a good trend line for a long time, it will
stay at a lower level. That is why it is necessary to form and to operate such an educational
system which can follow the economic requirements and changes.
In this paper a part of an empirical research is shown which was carried out in 2009-10.
All the survey was based on the questions below:
How can the higher education and labour market interpret knowledge? What does
knowledge mean for enterprises? What kind of competencies are needed to a successful econ-
omy? Do the young employees with a new degree have these competencies? Can the higher
education provide students with competencies which are required by the labour market? Does
higher education realize these demands in their courses?
Each question was answered in this survey but only two of them will be highlighted
below:
1. Students and economical players have very different ideas about employees’ competencies.
2. Not only professional knowledge but other competencies (soft skills) are expected from
employees by organizations.
Methodology of Research
This research has continued between 2009 – 2010 in Hungary by questionnaires. Stu-
dents and teachers at universities and managers of enterprises/companies were questioned by
questionnaire.
Before this survey semi - structured interviews was continued by personal asking to test
our idea and our questionnaire.
The collection of samples was made by the ’snowball’ method. On the basis of the sam-
ple a statistical selection (sample cleaning) was used. Number of measurable questionnaires
were altogether almost one thousand.
The research hypotheses were:
1. The first hypothesis focused on to show if there is a difference or not between employ-
ees’ and employers’ ideas about the competencies which are needed at the labour market.
2. In the second hypothesis the purpose was to show and verify that a knowledge society
expects not only and not first of all professional knowledge from employees because behav-
iour and adaptibility come firstdue to the accelerated technical development and environmental
changes.
Characteristics of Sample
The number of questioned people symbolize well and give an overall picture of their
situation in Hungary.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
12 Table 1. Characteristisc of sample.
Asked groups Number of samples Number of universities/companies

Students 399 6
Teachers 95 6
Managers 486 433
Research Method
- qualitative method by semi – structured interviews

A semi-structured interview technique was selected because it is a representative of a
questioning technique and can acquire a broad range of knowledge. The semi - structured inter-
view is a standard technique used in numerous knowledge management projects. It makes use
of a predesigned set of questions but allows unplanned supplementary questions to be asked
during the session. Traditionally the interviews are carried out face to face, one to one and con-
secutively. The interview is a mutual and conversational interaction process which is based on
asking and answering questions and carried out for a serious and predetermined aim.
Twenty people were interviewed in these processes.
- quantitative method by questionnaires
The structure of questionnaires was different. Three different types of questionnaire
were used. Every form was directed towards the habits and communication situations of the
asked people. The questionnaires consist of five main chapters with 25 questions. They are
closed, opened and scaled questions.
In the questionnaire the competencies which are in connection with work, profession,
collaboration were scored on a nominal scale (yes – not) by students. Managers had to use the
ordinal scale from 1 to 5, to mark at which level they expect the enumerated features from em-
ployees. To compare the results were ranked the sum of answers (in case of students) and mean
of competencies (in case of enterprises).
In the questionnaires for enterprises there were statements which had to be valuated on a
scale with 7 levels by questioned people from “absolutely not” to “absolutely yes”.
The data were evaluated by descriptive statistical methods (frequencies, average values,
means, standard deviation) in a Microsoft Excel program and by cross tables, factor analysis in
an SPSS program.
(To control results Wilcoxon-style from nonparametrical methods can be used - which
served to evaluate the coherent data - in case of ordinal scales. In this case two samples will be
ranked together and rank - numbers will be prepared on the basis of means without reference
to groups. Direction of correlation can be investigated but the measure of correlation cannot be
investigated.)
Results of Research
The first hypothesis was investigated among managers and students. In the background
of this investigation there had been a lot of earlier research which reported that the enterprises/
companies are not satisfied with young people with new degree. The teachers miss cooperation
with enterprises/companies.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 2. The rank of required competencies according to students’ 13

and leaders’ opinions.
Students’ opinions Leaders’ opinions

Number of Sum of Rank Required competencies Number of Mean Standard Rank
samples answers samples Deviation
372 340 1. Profession (Knowledge) 462 4,4 0,741 2.

372 323 2. Language knowledge 458 3,7 1,140 10.
372 308 3. Adaptability 461 4,2 0,772 5.
372 300 4. Communication skill 460 4,1 0,821 6.
372 281 5. Creativity 460 3,9 0,927 7.
372 278 6. Experience 458 3,7 1,018 11.
372 274 7. Collaboration 461 4,5 0,724 1.
372 273 8. Flexibility 462 4,4 0,731 3.
372 272 9. Teamwork 461 4,3 0,782 4.
372 204 10. Propriety 457 3,9 0,883 8.
394 190 11. Obedience 456 3,8 0,910 9.
372 138 12. Empathy 458 3,6 0,888 12.
It can be established that these two groups of participants have a different opinion about
the rank of the required competencies. Students think that the most important competencies are
their knowledge, language knowledge, adaptibility, communication skills and creativity. At the
same time for managers the most important competencies are: collaboration, knowledge, flex-
ibility, teamwork and adaptibility.
It was investigated what these participants think if these competencies can be gained
during their studies at universities or not. On the basis of similar logic the students’ and manag-
ers’ answers were compared.
In the table the statistically significant differences of students’ and managers’ opinions
are highlighted. (You can see differencies between ranks.) Students think that they acquire skills
in teamwork, profession (knowledge), communication, collaboration and adaptibility. Manag-
ers’ opinion is the opposite of these. According to their experience young people with a new
degree have skills in collarobation, language, communication, creativity and flexibility. In some
cases there are big differences between their opinions. For example: profession (knowledge),
skills in teamwork, creativity, flexibility.
Table 3. Rank of possessed competencies according to students’ and

managers’ opinions.
Students’ opinions Possessed competen- Leaders’ opinions

cies
Number of Frequency Rank Number of Mean Standard Rank
samples samples Deviation
358 103 11. Obedience 408 3,2 0,888 11.
358 253 2. Profession (Knowledge) 418 3,4 0,873 7.
358 87 12. Empathy 412 3,3 0,78 10.
359 203 5. Adaptability 410 3,4 0,807 8.
358 127 10. Propriety 411 3,4 0,866 9.
359 153 9. Flexibility 415 3,6 0,854 5.
358 205 4. Collaboration 414 3,7 0,803 1.
358 170 8. Creativity 413 3,6 0,831 4.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
14 359 192 6. Language knowledge 413 3,7 0,900 2.

359 221 3. Communication skill 416 3,6 0,827 3.
359 255 1. Teamwork 412 3,6 0,821 6.
358 177 7. Empirical experience 412 2,6 1,003 12.
It was also examined what students’ opinion is if there is a statistical correlations be-
tween the requirements of enterprises and competencies gained at universities. In the analysis
correlation calculation was used among the non-metrical variables. It serves to show direction
and tautness of linear correlation among varieties. To control and analyse these nominal scales
(dichotom variables ) simple cross-table analysis was used. The results show there is differ-
ences between the requirments of labour market and the obtained competencies at universities
according to students’ opinion.
On the basis of the above showed logic managers’ opinion was investigated if there is a
statistically significant correlation between the requirements of labour market and the compe-
tencies supplied by universities or not. If there is a correlation, how strong is it. From this view a
weak connection was established, consequently there is not harmony between the requirments
of labour market and the competencies provided by the universities.
Table 4. Labour market requirements and acquired competencies

at universities.
Required and
Requirements of the labour market (expected) Number of Expect more Get more
given are the
and acquired competencies az universities samples than get than expect
same
Acquired obedience vs. expected obedience 398 201 139 58
Acquired knowledge vs expected knowledge 406 291 93 22

Acquired empathy vs expected empathy 402 174 163 65
Acquired adaptivity vs expected adaptivity 402 247 118 37

Acquired propriety vs expected propriety 400 194 136 70
Acquired flexibility vs expected flexibility 404 245 132 27
Acquired collaboration vs expected collabora- 402 120 27

255
tion
Acquired creativity vs expected creativity 404 176 140 88
Acquired language knowledge vs expected lan-
402 156 110 136
guage knowledge
Acquired communication skill vs expected com-
404 197 140 67
munication skill
Acquired teamwork skill vs expected teamwork 403 118 46
239
skill
Acquired empirical experience vs expected 400 113 27
260
empirical experience
In this table the differences between the required competencies and the possessed com-
petencies of employees are summarized. On the basis of a Wilcoxon test there are statistically
significant correlations (p<0.01) in each case without language knowledge (p=0.936).
The table shows in some cases differences between the acquired and expected com-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
petencies. According to these results enterprises miss skills in the following areas: profession 15
(knowledge), adaptability, flexibility, collaboration, teamwork and empirical experiences.
Altogether it can be established students and economical players have different ideas
about employees’ competencies. On the basis of this result can be accepted the first hypoth-
esis.
In the table 5 there are means and standard deviations of answers and their rank in case
of enterprises. From the means can be seen that each feature was mostly or absolutely impor-
tant. There is only one exception: „employees’ personality should not be boring”. It is clear
deviation was very high in each case which means that questioned people’s evaluation is not
homogeneous.
The rank on the basis of means, leaders expect employees to be correct and honest,
should be interested in the profession and should be authentic, should have realistic expecta-
tions concerning tasks and should be able to work in a team. These competencies and features
can be developed during education, tuition and empirical trainings.
Table 5. Expectations of enterprises from employees.
Number of Standard
Expectations from employees Mean Rank
samples Deviation
Should be honest and correct. 483 6,2 0,983 1.
Should be interested in profession. 479 6,0 1,096 2.
Should be authentic. 483 5,9 1,056 3.
Should have realistic expectations concerning tasks. 483 5,8 0,975 4.
Should have the ability to work in a team. 485 5,8 1,048 5.
Should have ethical norms. 482 5,7 1,140 6.
Should have realistic expectations regarding salaries. 482 5,6 1,116 7.
Should help colleagues. 483 5,6 0,993 8.
Should have realistic expectations regarding workplaces. 483 5,6 1,025 9.
Should have such knowledge which determines what he/she wants
481 5,4 1,200 10.
to do.
Should have up to date information. 479 5,4 1,122 11.
Should have excellent communication skills. 484 5,1 1,272 12.
Should have empirical experience. 483 5,1 1,277 13.
Should have foreign language knowledge. 485 4,9 1,548 14.
Should not be boring. 477 4,6 1,530 15.
On the basis of this table it can be seen that the expectations of employees are ethical
(1, 6.) and social (2, 3, 4, and 5.) These preferred features require not absolutely professional
knowledge.
Universities have a dual sorter role: at first at entrance examinations, during the educa-
tion to get a degree while students are selected, sometimes students drop out. Economic analy-
ses show that ability to perform tests is in a weak correlation with abilities to perform special
tasks at companies at a high level. These results confirm this thesis from the employers’ point
of view it is the least important.
As the number of these variables was so high, data had to be reduced by Maximum
Likelihood method. At first KMO and Bartlett’s-test were used. On the basis of their results
(KMO=0.847) and Bartlett’s test (p<0.01) factor analysis can be used (See table 6.).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
16 Table 6. Results of KMO and Bartlett’s Test.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0,847

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 1346,835
df 45
Sig. 0.000
Table 7. Factors about expectations of enterprises towards employees.
Components Commu-
Expectations of enterprises towards employees
1 2 3 nalities
Should have realistic expectations of tasks. 0,849 0,241 0,187 0,815

Should have realistic expectations of workplaces. 0,735 0,154 0,208 0,607
Should have realistic expectations of salaries. 0,594 0,245 0,195 0,451
Should be interested in profession. 0,096 0,685 0,146 0,499
Should be authentic. 0,207 0,639 0,179 0,483
Should have such knowledge which determines what he/she
0,248 0,568 0,132 0,401
wants to do.
Should be honest and correct 0,248 0,425 0,375 0,383
Should have the ability to work in a team. 0,129 0,056 0,618 0,401
Should have ethical norms. 0,228 0,255 0,571 0,443
Should help for colleagues. 0,111 0,165 0,480 0,270
The extracted factors were named:

1. factor: Realistic expectations
2. factor: Mature personality and professional preparedness
3. factor: Social/communal being
The first factor contains realistic expectations. Employers expect a realistic behaviour
and a realistic way of thinking of work, workplace and salaries.
The second factor contains a mature personality and professional preparedness. It means
that employees should be conscious, authentic, correct, honest, open for his/her job.
The third factor contains expectations of social interactions, helpfulness, ability for
teamwork and ethical norms.
The competencies and abilities which are determined and expected from employees by
enterprises can be formed in education and due to social environmental effects. The knowl-
edge as a resultant of the other competencies, it comes to light, most part of competencies
- for example collaboration, flexibility, teamwork and communication, - rest on the quality of
education, social and family life. Having examined all the social system, we can say that uni-
versities should handle education and transmission of the moral cognition equally with tuition
and training.
On the basis of the above showed results the second hypothesis is accepted. It means that
the expectations of enterprises regarding employees are beyond professional knowledge other
light (soft) competencies are also required.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Discussion 17
It is shown in this sample that students and economic players have different ideas about
competencies which are important at the labour market.
There is a difference between their opinion if young people with a new degree acquire
these competencies or not and how high level. According to students employers expect pro-
fessional knowledge, language knowledge, communication skill, adaptability, creativity from
them. It is not the same as employers’ opinions. According to them knowledge and adaptability
are important, but the most preferred are collaboration, flexibility and teamwork.
Enterprises require more professional knowledge, flexibility, adaptability, collaboration,
ability in teamwork, practical experience at a higher level than students can gain at universities.
Altogether the higher education cannot meet the expectations of the economic sector.
On the basis of empirical experience it was verified that at the companies demands ap-
pear for soft skills/competencies beyond professional knowledge. In this frame with generated
factors it was verified that for enterprises professional knowledge and a mature personality are
important but there are more preferred employee values referring to work, workplace, salaries.
The skills of teamwork, helpfulness which are very important for collaboration and success of
enterprises play determinative roles in employers’ expectations.
Conclusions
To operate a knowledge management system in organizations successfully depends on

how a learning organizational culture can be formed. Conditions of these structures are open
thinking, helpfulness, collaboration, trust in colleagues and in leaders beyond professional
knowledge at a high level. The value of enterprises/companies at the markets are often much
higher than their value in accounting. The difference between these two values is the intangible
assets, (the intellectual capital or knowledge assets) which are about 70% according to macro
economical public accountancy.
This capital has to be cared by organizations. A task is on the one hand to acquire and
increase knowledge, and a task is on the other hand to minimalize the loss of knowledge capital.
(We can speak about loss of knowledge capital in case of fluctuation if a valuable employee
becomes sick or dies, etc.).
Competitiveness of companies depends on employees’ features, on the level of their
competencies and abilities and depends on how employers can use these capabilities.
According to this theory the first task is to acquire the suitable employees with the best
competencies. But these competencies are not given by universities most of the time.
The higher education is theory oriented in Hungary. Conditions to form practical and
other soft skills are at a low level. To build a knowledge society and a competitive economy is
a very important task to harmonize demands of companies and supply of universities. Such pro-
fessional knowledge and competencies should be in the middle of education which can serve
demands of real markets. To this a conversation between economical players and a change of
structure and methods of higher education are needed. In a lot of regions of Europe the conven-
tional educational systems hinder forming and operating a competitive society and economy. If
there is an expectation, an open way of thinking, collaboration, teamwork and flexibility from
students, teachers, professors at universities have to take the first steps on this road.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
18 References
Arrow (1979). Egyensúly és döntés (szerk. Kornai J.) Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó Budapest,
p. 213-234.
Arrow (1985). Production and Capital, Vol 5. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Bencsik, A (2009). A tudásmenedzsment emberi oldala. Z-Press Kiadó Miskolc.
Davenport, T.(1996). The Future of Knowledge Management in: CIO, 9 (5) pp. 30-31.
Fukuyama, F. (1997). Bizalom. Európa Kiadó Budapest.
Hessami, A. G.., Moore, M. (2007). Competence Matters More than Knowledge. The Electronic Journal
of Knowledge Management, Vol. 5. Issue 4, p. 387-398.
Jánossy (1975). A gazdasági fejlődés trendvonala és a helyreállítási periódusok. Közgazdasági és Jogi
Könyvkiadó, Budapest.
Stiglitz (2006): Economics 4. Edition, with Carl E. Walsh. W.W. Norton & Company.
Sajtos, L., Mitev, A. (2007). SPSS kutatási és adatelemzési kézikönyv. Budapest: Alinea.
Sveiby, K. (1997). The New Organizational Wealth: Managing and Measuring Knowledge-Based Assets.
San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1st Edition.
Székely, Cs. (2006). A „tanuló régió” koncepció szerepe a gazdaság és a felsőoktatás kapcsolatrend-
szerében. In: Tóth, A. (szerk. 2006): Gazdaság, felsőoktatás, munkapiac. Arisztotelész, Sopron.
Adviced Laszlo Jozsa, Széchenyi István University, Hungary
Andrea Bencsik Associate professor, Széchenyi István University, Egyetem tér 1, 9027 Győr, Hungary.
Phone: +36-96-503-487.
E-mail: bencsik.andrea@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.gtk.sze.hu/mmt/
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
19
A STUDY ON HOW THE USE OF ICT IN

TRAVELLING PERIODS INFLUENCES
ROMANI STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES
TOWARDS SCHOOL
Anne Bonnevie Lund
Sør-Trøndelag University College, Norway
E-mail: anne.lund@hist.no
Abstract
In 1998 Norway ratified the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities, and in1999 the Romanies and four other minorities obtained the status of a national minority
group The Romanies have lived in Norway for hundreds of years. But the assimilation policy was hard
and lasted for more than hundred years with the aim to assimilate and eradicate differences from what
was perceived as the “Norwegian”. The school has been an important part in this assimilation policy.
Although we can see a different political climate marked by multiculturalism, acceptance of diversity and
greater understanding of minority groups today, the culture and history of the national minorities has
been, and still remains absent from school. And still many students of Romani families drop out of school
without any exams when they are 13-14 years old. In this article a developmental project with the aim to
make a better school situation for Romani students is examined concerning an attempt using ICT in the
travelling periods. The use of laptops have made changes in the relational and communication patterns
connected to an intercultural understanding, but many pupils still drop out of school before ending the
compulsory school.
Key words: Romani, ICT as communication tool, adapted learning, intercultural education.
Introduction
Norway is currently characterized as a multicultural country where we normally think

of the modern immigration that began in the late 60th and persists today. Immigrants have
been received differently in different historical periods. The assimilation policy has been of
great importance in order to assimilate and eradicate differences from what was perceived as
the “Norwegian”, and the school has been an important part in this assimilation policy lasting
for more than hundred years and was not ended till the second half of the 1900s and. But in
1998 Norway ratified the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of
National Minorities, and in1999 five minority groups obtained the status of national minority
groups (AID, 2000-2001). One of these groups is the Romanies. They have lived in Norway
for hundreds of years. Most believe that the Romanies have the same origin as gypsies, but in
Norway, they are described as two different minorities. It is unclear how many Romanies there
are in Norway; many do not dare to come forward as a result of the strong assimilation strategy
that was imposed on the group, but the Norwegian parliament states that they are approximately
several thousand (AID, 2000–2001).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
20 Romanies are characterized by the fact that they traditionally travelled around selling
handmade products or exchanged these for food and other goods they needed, and there are
still Romanies who maintain a travelling lifestyle related both to different types of work and to
social gatherings. Although we can see the outline of a settlement with the assimilation policy
and a different political climate marked by multiculturalism, acceptance of diversity and greater
understanding of minority groups today, the culture and history of the national minorities has
been, and still remains absent from school. The school has the task of socialization children
and young people into the society, and knowledge about other cultures, geography, history,
language and religion are important components in this context (KD, 2006). The need of knowl-
edge in schools based on the fact that people with different backgrounds have the right of equal
access to education are being visible and emphasized extra strongly through the rights of the
national minorities to retain their own culture and identity and also to have the right to adapted
learning.
Still many pupils of Romani families drop out of school without any exams when they
are 13-14 years old, and some Romanies have in the recent years taken the initiative to projects
with the aim to improve the integration of their children in school. But they are not a homog-
enous group, and till now some have had a segregation practice in society with isolation or
practicing their own lifestyle, or they have chosen a fully assimilated lifestyle, often also with a
denying of their own background (Halvorsen, 2004; Lund & Moen, 2010).
Background: “Romanies from Childhood to Adults” a School Project
With this background one of the Romani organizations, “Taternes Landsforening”, in

2003 took the initiative to collaborate with two University Colleges in Trondheim, Norway to
improve the school situation for Romani children. A project was drawn up with the aim of rais-
ing the Romani culture to be highlighted as a minority culture and to make the school situation
for their children more positive. In all thirteen primary and secondary schools were involved
in the project. The schools were focusing on various issues related to Romanies as a national
minority. Seven of the schools tried testing ICT as a communication tool in the Romanies`
travelling periods. All the schools had a strong focus on the relation between school and the
family trying to give the families more trust in school and education. Romani families who have
chosen to travel often find they loose contact with the home school. Many say they find it dif-
ficult to return to school after a trip. Some families therefore choose to move to a new location
where they are not known. Through experiments with the use of ICT, the participants hoped
they would manage to keep more contact with the school and that it would be easier to come
back to the same school after travelling. Each family was given a laptop during the travelling
periods. In the beginning they used a mobile phone as an internet modem, but the technology
improved, and within one year we were able to remove the link with mobile phones and replace
them with a small device which plugs directly into the machines to get internet access. This
made it easier to handle and take care of the equipment. The teachers did not get any guidance
on how to use ICT. They were encouraged to use a dialogue forum and the learning platform,
if one was used by the school. A main goal was that Romani children would experience school
more relevant and complete the compulsory school of ten years.This article has mainly focused
on aspects of the project related to the use of ICT. During the period of this project, not many
primary schools had started to use learning platforms (LMS) in Norway. Secondary schools
used it more frequently. And where and if it was used, it was for giving information about
school work and for communication. The main ICT-focus was on ICT as a communications
tool; teachers and pupils should be able to send and receive e-mail and be able to communicate
in a dialogue forum. Variations in use and competence were mainly related to age, but the teach-
ers’ user competence also varied. All the teachers used mail and internet. Dialogue forums were
Anne Bonnevie Lund. A Study on How the Use of ICT in Travelling Periods Influences Romani Students`
Attitudes towards School
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
unknown to most of them. The ICT use should be arranged in a realistic way according to the 21
different circumstances of the school and the pupils.
A developmental project aims to develop and change a situation, and it is also an advan-
tage that the need for change should be made visible by the participants themselves (Grøterud
& Nilsen 2001). In this context the schools were not prepared for the initiative; they lacked
knowledge about Romani history and culture, and at the beginning of this project the expecta-
tions of the various participants were unclear. Most teachers were initially skeptical; many had
prior experiences that these pupils did not do school work in periods of travelling and doubted
whether they would do more if they had a computer. This resulted in a relatively slow starting
process at the schools and of their analysis of what could be changed, strengthened or renewed.
We gathered the teachers and school leaders to network meetings with the focus on Romani
history and experience of life and the Romanies’ situation as a minority within a multicultural
school, building relations and closer cooperation between school and home. In addition, we had
sessions with teachers and school leaders where talks were more unstructured. The intention
was to increase the teachers’ and school leaders’ experience and understanding of the Romani
pupils’ school situation. It is difficult to tell exactly how many pupils participated in the project.
Some families moved to new locations, and even though we have tried to follow them in the
new location, we have been dependent on whether the new schools are willing to participate. In
several of the schools there have been one or more families with more than one child while in a
couple of schools only one child participated. The project participants from the University Col-
leges were leaders of the project and did also the research. Sør-Trøndelag University College
focused and made a qualitative research on teachers’ and school leaders’ experiences in school,
the participants from Queen Maud’s College had their focus on the Romani culture and on the
family situations and interviewed the parents (Larsen, Lund, Moen, & Moen, 2007).
The Researcher’s Role

It must be underlined that our viewpoint from Sør-Trøndelag University College, Queen
Maud’s College and the school representatives are based in a majority culture, while we discuss
a minority culture. This is a factor that can influence the interpretation. It is therefore important
to be aware that both our observations and our interpretations can be coloured by lack of under-
standing of and insight into the Romanies’ world. A representative of the Romani Organization
cooperated in the project. To be in direct contact with people who have a traveller background
and experience has been a very useful support for the lack of insight into the minority view-
point, also because people working at the schools were opposed to the project from the start.
She was also necessary to legitimize the project for the traveller families.
Theoretical Perspective
Assimilation Policy and School Situation
The assimilation policy in Norway was hard. Historians have showed that this may
have the reason connected to Norway as a young national state and the grounding of a nation
based on the imagination of one culture and one language. All other groups were looked upon
as strangers (Kjeldstadli, 2003; Engen, 2010; AID, (2000-2001)). This politics has strongest at-
tacked groups of people with a travelling lifestyle. To eradicate these minority groups’ culture
and way of living has been a stated policy (Dyblid & Bjerkan, 1999; Gotaas, 2007; Halvorsen,
2004; Hvinden, 2001). On Svanviken working colony on Møre, run by the organization Nor-
wegian Mission for Homeless People and closed down as late as 1986, Romanies were taught
to live like other Norwegians. It was forbidden to talk their own language and to sing their own
songs (Hvinden, 2001; Pettersen, 1999). Children were taken away from their parents and sent
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
22 to foster homes and women were sterilized. It was not until 1998 that the municipal and re-
gional minister at that time officially apologized on behalf of the Norwegian government to the
Romanies for the injustice that had been done. The history has affected the school situation for
the Romanies. And as a result of the extremely strict assimilation policy, some Romanies still
have little confidence in the public sector, and schools have in this respect been an important
institution. Many grown-ups therefore have a lack of schooling and are having bad experiences
with the Norwegian school system, great distrust at school, poor skills in reading and writing
themselves and do not always see the need for education (Halvorsen, 2004; Hvinden, 2001;
Møystad, 2008; Lund, 2009). In addition, there are many Romanies who feel that school is
not well adapted to their needs. Engen (2010) emphasizes that schools still have an imagined
community constructed from the vision of one culture and one language where the divergent
identities not are made visible. And as long as the school does not take the knowledge of the
national minorities into account and thus does not necessarily facilitate the educational needs
of minorities who might want this related precisely to the characteristics of language or cul-
ture, these pupils still do not get the confirmation of identity that gives pride in relation to their
minority affiliation. But the ratification of the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for
the Protection of National Minorities means among other things that the school must make
conditions favourable such that Romanies, who want to, can continue their travelling lifestyle,
while at the same time their children are guaranteed adapted learning. Parliament’s statement
15 (AID, 2000-2001) formulates the challenge as follows:
“Both the Romani people (Romanies/those who travel) and Rom (gypsies) are groups where trav-
elling is part of their lifestyle. Education at school is not always adjusted to this lifestyle. The gov-
ernment nevertheless adds that the right and the duty of education concern all children equally. For
that reason there can be a need to develop education types which can be practised even if pupils
travel parts of the year” (AID, 2000-2001, 46).
The concept of intercultural education describes an interaction between individuals or

groups with different cultural backgrounds (Lorentz & Bergstedt, 2006) and discusses among
other things, democratic understanding and behavior with a focus on human rights. The educa-
tion also must be perceived as relevant for all (Carlsen, 2005; Lahdenperä, 1995, 2004). But the
long unified tradition in the Norwegian school focusing equality and one common national cul-
ture (Gullestad, 2002; KD, 2006; Seeberg, 2003) may conflict with this. An intercultural prac-
tice in school may also have the possibility to give the Romani child adapted learning based on
knowledge of their background and history as essential to the development of Norway today.
Use of ICT in School

There is no clear vision of how ICT functions in schools (Krumsvik, 2004; Balanskat,
Blamire and Kefala, 2006; Machin, McNally & Silva, 2006). Some argue that ICT is not a learn-
ing tool (Cuban, 2001), but can act as a catalyst for various processes of change related to how
people communicate, for democratic process and to connect people in new ways (Krumsvik,
2004). Other studies show that ICT can be a learning tool in some subjects (Machin, McNally
& Silva 2006), and still other say it is a motivating factor (Isnes, Håland & Hernes, 2001). Nied-
erhauser and Stoddart (2001) conducted a big survey in the United States, and among others
the results indicated that getting pupils to use ICT effectively requires more than just supplying
the machines. The survey pointed out that effective use of ICT as a tool for learning requires
that those with teaching responsibilities need to possess ICT skills to a high level. A Norwegian
report from 2005 ITU describes digital literacy as skills, knowledge, creativity and attitude that
everyone needs for using digital media for learning and mastering the knowledge society (ITU,
2005). Among other things the users’ digital competence is essential together with motivated
teachers and support from the school leader.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Methodology of the Research 23
This research is done within a qualitative framework (Creswell 1998; Postholm 2005).
The purpose is not to give clear answers, but to get a deeper understanding of the Norwegian
teachers’ thoughts and reflections. We therefore chose to use open questions to get the most
spontaneous reactions, and the interviews had the character of a conversation, even though they
were based on an interview guide. It was desirable to gain a better understanding of school lead-
ers’ and teachers’ experiences of Romanies’ situations relating to several areas: school achieve-
ment, relationship building, relation between school and home, the school’s understanding of
the relationship between minority and majority, and experiences with the use of ICT in the
travelling periods. This article has its focus on the use of ICT in the travelling periods, and in
spring and autumn 2007 we conducted qualitative interviews with six school leaders and fifteen
teachers. Being leaders of the project gave in addition insight in the teachers’ situations con-
nected to their Romani pupils.
Interpretations of the material show that teachers and school leaders focused on how
ICT is used and on conditions for using ICT. The interviews also show that the use of ICT has
influenced the contact and intercultural understanding between Romanies and school (Lund,
2010). But so far we do not see that the use of ICT has had any influence on whether the pupils
continue the secondary school or not.
Results and data analyses
How ICT is Used
The current study shows that there are several factors which become clear in relation
to the conditions for use of ICT. The first factor concerns the participants’ ICT competence.
One teacher said: “I wonder how much rest they’ll get; that should be clear, in a caravan with
3 kids.” At the same time many teachers were uncertain about their own ICT competence and
worried about ICT use during travelling periods possibly causing more work for them. Some
however wanted to make the best of it as they were already involved in the project. One teacher
says: “It takes time for me as a teacher to work with adapted education on the internet. The in-
ternet is slow.” There were also teachers who considered the work as a good learning arena for
themselves: “To start with, it was rather technical, but apart from that, I learned a lot myself”
(Lund, 2010). Some teachers concern the maintenance and handling of technical equipment:
“The family has two computers. That did not function very well. There was something with the
card she had a problem with, but then she used the machine of her younger brother, and all in all it
went fine. It turned out that the biggest problem the girl had, was to handle the equipment in such
a way that it worked”.
Some teachers also found that they did not know how to use ICT in a good way for ef-
fective communication training. It can be said that the teachers are having a responsibility to
increase their own ICT competence in a way that they can handle the laptops and that this is
part of the teachers’ responsibility for arranging education adapted to the individual pupil. On
the other hand many teachers believe this is a form of adapted education that lies outside their
responsibility, and not all teachers are technically competent.
Especially in primary schools some teachers chose to give special information on e-mail
to the pupils when they were travelling. This information could be linked to tasks and subjects,
but it could also be of a more personal nature where the pupil was encouraged to talk about their
trip or special events when travelling, or the teacher and pupil would send small greetings. One
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
24 of the pupils experienced her mother dying during the travelling period, and the fellow pupils
expressed their sympathy with words and drawings through a dialogue forum. If the school and
the girl had not used the lap top or dialogue forum, this girl would not have got these messages
from her class mates. Now she experienced a belonging to the school also when travelling;
someone at school cared for her.
After a while many teachers also became conscious that parents should be able to help
their children using the laptop during travelling. “Don’t think parents can work with a compu-
ter. Maybe we should offer to teach them?” one teacher said (Lund 2010). Some schools already
have planned giving the parents some ICT knowledge making it easy to help their children
when needed. This also is important for the families’ feeling of belonging and acceptance.
When we conducted the interviews, some teachers said the use of ICT did not work as
well as they wanted it to, but we think the laptops have made changes in the relational and com-
munication patterns between Romanies and schools in such a way that the confidence between
the families and the school has improved.
The head masters on the secondary schools expressed concerns about the pupils’ ability
or willingness to complete the compulsory education: “Boys often join their father’s work and
girls take care of younger siblings. The threshold is low to let the children leave school without
any exams, although many parents at the same time express their belief in school as important
for their children”. These parents see their traditional way of living as difficult in the future and
they want their children to have a real choice in life. But the tradition for ending school is still
strong, and many parents lack school practice themselves. We did not see any differs in this
related to weather the pupils got the possibility to use ICT or not. But pupils who borrowed a
laptop in travelling periods had more contact with the school than before even though the ex-
periences varied.
At several schools teachers talked about changes in working practices in the periodes of
travelling as a result of the use of computers (Lund, 2010).
“There is a difference between what she does now, having a computer, and when she did not have
one. Last year I gave her books to take with her, but she did not return them, and she did not do
anything. Now we have been in contact 3–4 times a week, and she does all the exercises she was
given. The computer has made a difference”.
Another teacher in the primary school says:
“There has been more mail than communication, but I do get other feedback that it has arrived,
and I think that is more important than getting a reply on the machine. She is coming back and
has done page 50 in her maths book. She has managed to sit down in the caravan and do some-
thing.”
We observe that this teacher finds the new contact most important; the use of ICT had
made a difference even though this pupil did not use the laptop for answering the mails. But the
child used the laptop to read information from the teacher. This may be a good way using ICT
as a tool for communication for the smallest children.
Intercultural Understanding
In the beginning several teachers said that the Romanies had to take the responsibility
for lack of education if they chose to travel, but participation in the project resulted in changes.
Several teachers and principals now had a focus on the Romani culture, not only on the Norwe-
gian way of seeing it or on what the pupils did not master.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
“... It’s important that children get a feeling for their culture, what it is. And if they get something 25
out of it when they are older, then they can try it out. I feel it is right they leave and that we should
make it possible”, said one of the teachers. One teacher in the higher primary school talked about
how she had changed her own understanding about the Romanies’ rights to travel and explained it
like this: “Lack of knowledge is the best way to develop prejudice. Information is the best way to
remove it”. Knowledge about the Romanies’ history and rights as a national minority surely helps
to change the understanding of a pupil’s background. One school leader expressed it like this:
“The project has done something with me and with the school and the teachers who have been in
it. It has something to do with consciousness and social relations, (...) so we can handle travelling
as something natural.”
Discussions
It has been claimed that the use of ICT can function as a catalyst for various processes
of change in relationships (Watson, 2001; Krumsvik, 2004). By offering Romanies computers
during travelling periods the school as an institution has broken with the routines that were used
earlier in Romanies’ travelling periods where there were no contact between the school and the
pupil (Lund, 2009). It was also common that Romani pupils suddenly stayed away from school
for a period of time without any preparation for this. Now schools report that they are more of-
ten informed before an absence. The offer to borrow a laptop has brought it about that traveller
families experience that the school takes their way of living more seriously. If they wanted, they
got the opportunity to continue travelling as a part of their cultural characteristics and could at
the same time have a communication and contact with the school as a learning arena. This has
increased confidence and can help to improve relationships between school and the traveller
families (Lund, 2009). Several traveller families also expressed that they now find it easier to
come back to school. This has made it easier to discuss their life situation with respect to school,
and those involved can positively develop their relationship, also in periods where the families
do not travel. This does not mean that travelling needs to be done more often. In some situations
it would even be possible that families stay home longer because they feel they are accepted.
When we started the project, it was unknown to the participants that Romanies were a
national minority group (Lidèn, 2005; AID, 2000–2001) and that this entails certain rights. The
principle of adapted learning for all (KD, 2006) can be perceived as difficult for teachers to
combine with the Romanies’ nomadic lifestyle, specially in a school still having an imagined
community constructed on a vision where divergent identities not are made visible.
Several teachers prepared for better dialogues and interaction with pupils and families.
Knowledge may in turn make the preparation of exercises and the use of ICT more adapted to
every child’s life situation, which makes schoolwork in travelling periods easier and more ac-
cessible. One of the teachers says that due to the use of the computer during travelling periods
she can set higher demands concerning written assignments and homework, because the pupil
can make use of the information that is on the internet. The teacher expresses that the compu-
ter has a positive effect on her relationship with the pupil. Another teacher at the same school
seems to be almost enthusiastic when she talks about the results of using the laptop. Her contact
with the pupil has become closer, also during travelling periods (Lund, 2009).
The term intercultural practice can be used in connection with teaching processes or in-
teractions linked to an extended understanding through self-awareness and meetings based on
good quality communication processes between teacher and pupil (Lahdenperä, 1995, 2004).
It is most important that the school is aware that differences should also be communicated in a
positive way to prevent ethnic categorizations (Seeberg, 2003).The challenge for schools is to
look at their practices to evaluate how this can be organized so the pupils both have the opportu-
nity to live their life based on characteristics of their own culture while the school must provide
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
26 for effective learning for pupils when the family chooses to travel. This requires close collabo-
ration with pupils and good relationships between schools and families. It also requires that the
school has knowledge of both the individual student’s situation and the minority group’s history
and way of life today.
For Romanies on a journey, ICT may functions as a tool to maintain previously learned
knowledge. At the same time communication through e-mail, a dialogue forum or through a
learning platform gives the single child the experience of belonging to a school and a learning
community even when travelling, and the use of computers in the travelling periods can give
traveller children contact with the school, which they would not otherwise have had. This is
a change in the relationship and communication patterns. At the same time, we see that there
are large unused potentials associated with the use of educational software, computer games
and more interactive synchronous activity, even for the youngest pupils both for learning and
communication.
How the computer equipment is handled and taken care of is important for its practical
use while travelling. If teachers, parents or pupils themselves do not have the technical exper-
tise that enables them to repair a computer, the damaged equipment easily becomes a major
challenge. And it may be useful to provide in-depth user training in a fairly detailed manner for
both teachers, pupils and parents, and perhaps also for older siblings. After the program had
been tested over a certain period, it appeared necessary for the school and the homes to make
clear agreements about how the equipment should be handled and that the school could help
with practical arrangements in advance of a travelling period. The principals on the schools
gradually understood that they must be responsible for repairs, while recognizing that both
computer skills and equipment must be secured before use.
Conclusions and Implications
In conversations with teachers and with represents of Romanies, both expressed that
trust towards school had became stronger. The Romanies said the offer to use computers during
travelling periods was understood as a hand stretched out to them by society (Larsen, Lund,
Moen & Moen, 2007). Giving the parents the possibility for a course in how to use ICT, might
be experienced in the same way.
If pupils of Romani families are going to use computers in the travelling periods, the
digital competence must be on a level that makes this possible. This may be better if the par-
ents will have the necessary ICT competence, too. To give these parents a course in the use of
ICT, might at the same time be a way to build relations between home and families. That might
be understood as the school accepts their way of living. If the primary and secondary schools
make good cooperation practice, it would be possible for the secondary school to continue the
cooperation that may have been started and settled with the families in primary school related
on trust and recognition. Starting with the use of ICT as a communication tool in travelling pe-
riods in primary school, might make it easier to use ICT even as a tool for learning in secondary
school. The combination of close relations to school and a good digital competence could be an
important element in the work to motivate the student and family to complete the compulsory
education of ten years in school. Most teachers and school leaders who participated differently
expressed that the use of ICT led to a greater openness between schools and families and in
different ways to a better integration. But we find it difficult to seay that this is due to the com-
puters alone. Important is probably also the attention the pupils received and teachers’ training
related to the Romani culture and history.
Knowledge about Romanies as a national minority group with special rights as well
as the right to receive adapted learning on the same level as other children in the Norwegian
school, has done something both to attitudes and actions among teachers and principals in the
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
project. The digital competence among the users in this project was mainly not very high, and 27
digital competence is probably not enough in this situation. But an adapted education based
on high digital competence in a combination with knowledge about the Romanies history and
rights as a national minority today, may probably give more pupils the experience of school as
relevant.
We examined a small project. But as a result of the lack of knowledge in schools about
the Romanies, the Parliament in Norway this autumn decided that school leaders and teachers
on a national level auth to have more knowledge about Romanies and their right for adapted
learning. This also require knowledge about the use of ICT on a high level for teachers and
in the teacher education and knowledge about how to make this visible in practice for those
Romani families wanting to maintain a travelling life stile. It is a hope that pupils from travel-
ler families will feel that school might be more interested in their way of living and that their
experiences when they are travelling might also be interesting for the rest of school. At the same
time both the teachers and other pupils will get to know more about life as a traveller. In this
way ICT can act as a mediation tool for an intercultural understanding (Lund, 2009). It may
seem from this that lending laptops has strengthened the Romanies’ confidence in the school as
an organization.
In the future this might give more Romani pupils the possibility to fulfil their exams
after the compulsory school and give the children a real possibility to choose weather to stay on
with a travelling life stile or to take an education suited for a more stable life.
References
AID 2000. Stortingsmelding nr. 15 (2000–2001). “Nasjonale minoritetar i Norge – Om statleg politikk
overfor jødar, kvener, romanifolket og skogfinnar”, Oslo.
Balanskat, A., Blamire, R., Kefala, A. (2006). The ICT impact report. A rewiew of studies of ICT impact
on school in Europe. European Schoolnet. Read June 2010. http://ec.europa.eu/education/pdf/doc254_
en.pdf
Carlsen, B. B. (2005). Interkulturel pædagogik. KvaN 73, 7-16.
Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design. Choosing among five traditions. Thousand
Oaks, California: Sage.
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused. Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-
versity Press.
Dyblid, L., Bjerkan, L. (1999). Om likhet, likeverd og annerledeshet. Et antropologisk blikk på taternes
livshistorier. Trondheim: Sosialantropologisk institutt, NTNU.
Engen, T. O. (2010). Enhetsskolen og minoritetene. I Lund, A.B. og Moen, B.B. (red.) Nasjonale minori-
teter og det flerkulturelle Norge. Trondheim: Tapir akademiske forlag.
Gotaas, T. (2007). Taterne: livskampen og eventyret. Oslo: Andresen & Butenschøn.
Gullestad, M. (2002). Det norske sett med nye øyne. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
Grøterud, M., Nilsen, B. (2001). Ledelse av skoler i utvikling. Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.
Halvorsen, R. (2004). Taternes arbeid for oppreisning og anerkjennelse i Norge. Trondheim: Tapir Aka-
demisk Forlag.
Hetland, P., Solum, N.H. (2008). Digital kompetanse i norsk lærerutdanning. NIFU STEP no 28, 2008.
Read June 2010. http://www.nifustep.no/Norway/Publications/2008/NIFU%20STEP%20Rapport%2028
-2008.pdf
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
28 Hvinden, B. (2001). Storsamfunn og minoritet. Oslo: Norges Forskningsråd.

Isnes, A., Håland, E., Hernes, F. (2001). IKT i skolen: Noe informasjon og ingen kommunikasjon. Insti-
tutt for lærerutdanning og skoleutvikling, UiO & Allforsk NTNU.
ITU (2005). Digital skole hver dag. Forsknings- og kompetansenettverk for IT i utdanning.
KD (2006). Kunnskapsløftet. Læreplaner for gjennomgående fag i grunnskolen og videregående opplæ-
ring. Oslo: Utdanningsdirektoratet.
Kjeldstadli, K. (Red.) (2003). Norsk innvandringshistorie, bind 1-3, Oslo: Pax.
Krumsvik, R. (2004). IKT i det nye læringsrommet. Delrapport 2. IKT, innovasjon og “internautar” i nye
praksisfellesskap. No 25. Oslo: ITU.
Lahdenperä, P. (1995). Internationalisering och interkulturellt synsätt i lärarutbildningen. I P. Lahdenperä
(red), Interkulturella läroprocesser (s.105–127). Stockholm: HLS förlag.
Lahdenperä, P. (2004). Interkulturell pedagogik – vad, hur och varför? I P. Lahdenperä (red), Interkul-
turell pedagogik i teori och praktikk (s. 11–32). Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Larsen, A.-M., Lund, A.B., Moen, B.B., Moen, K.M. (2007). Tatere som minoritet i et flerkulturelt sam-
funn. Kulturformidling i barnehage og skole. Trondheim: Dronning Mauds Minne, Høgskole for førsko-
lelærerutdanning.
Lidèn, H. (2005). Barn og unge fra nasjonale minoriteter. Rapport. Oslo: Institutt for samfunnsfors-
kning.
Lorentz, H., Bergstedt, B.(2006). Interkulturella perspektiv- från moderen till postmodern pedagogikk. I
Lorentz, H., Bergstedt, B(Red.) Interkulturella perspektiv. Poland: Studentlitteratur.
Lund, A.B. (2009). Bruk av IKT for tatere som reiser. Erfaringer fra et skoleutviklingsprosjekt hvor IKT
ble forsøkt brukt som kommunikasjonsverktøy i taternes reiseperioder. Norsk tidsskrift for migrasjons-
forskning. Nr 1, 2009.
Lund, A.B., Moen, B. B. (2010). Taterne i Norge – fra utstøting til inkludering? I Lund, A.B. og Moen,
B.B. (Red.) Nasjonale minoriteter og det flerkulturelle Norge. Trondheim: Tapir akademiske forlag.
Lund, A.B. (2010). Use of ICT for Romani children in primary school in Norway - a tool for learning or
intercultural communication? In: ATEE Winter Conference 2010. Pedagogicka fakulta Univerzity Kar-
lovy v Praze, Vol ll.
Machin, S., McNally, S., Silva.O. (2006). New Technology in Schools: Is There a Payoff? Discussion
Paper No. 2234. Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor. Read June
2010, http://ftp.iza.org/dp2234.pdf
Møystad, M. (2008). Taternes lange vei fra reisende til fastboende. Heimen, 45, No.1: 57-70.
Niederhauser, D.S., Stoddart, T. (2001). Teachers’ instructional perspectives and use of educational soft-
ware. Teacher and Teacher Education, 17: 15-31.
Padfield, P. (2006). Learning at a distance supported by ICT for gypsies and travellers: young peoples’
views. University of Edinburgh, Moray House School of Education. Scottish executive education depart-
ment sponsored research programme 2005. Final repport.
Pettersen, K.-S. (1999). Tiltak rettet mot barn av tatere- forholdet mellom Norsk misjon blant hjemløse
og sentrale myndigheter på området barnevern. Rapport. Institutt for sosiologi og statsvitenskap, Trond-
heim: NTNU.
Postholm, M.B. (2005). Kvalitativ metode: en innføring med fokus på fenomenologi, etnografi og kasus-
studier. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
Seeberg, M.L. (2003). Dealing with Difference: Two classrooms, two countries. NOVA Rapport no 18,
2003.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Watson, D.M. (2001). Pedagogy before Technology: Re-thinking the Relationship between ICT and 29
Teaching. Education and Information Technologies, 6, No. 4: 251-266.
Adviced by Bente Bolme Moen, Sør-Trøndelag University College, Norway
Anne Bonnevie Lund Associate Professor, Sør-Trøndelag University College, Faculty of Teacher and Interpreter
Education, Rotvoll alle, 7004 Trondheim, Norway.
E-mail: anne.lund@hist.no
Website: http://hist.no/english/
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
30
PRE-SERVICE EDUCATOR ATTRITION

INFORMED BY SELF-DETERMINATION
THEORY: AUTONOMY LOSS IN
HIGH-STAKES EDUCATION
ENVIRONMENTS
Jana Bouwma-Gearhart
University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
E-mail: jlbo226@uky.edu
Abstract
This paper documents results of research regarding one pre-service educator’s motivation to remain in
the teaching profession at the secondary level. This qualitative research was based on semi-structured
interviews and collaborative analysis between researcher and pre-service educator that included an it-
erative process of theory building informed by a pre-espoused theory treated as a secondary source of
data. We present an instrumental case examined through the lens of self-determination theory (SDT), a
theory of motivation shown to successfully inform a wide array of psychological data concerning human
behavior and optimal functioning in a variety of social contexts but that, nonetheless, remains underuti-
lized in the field of education. Applying this theoretical lens, we document the struggle that early educa-
tors may experience as a result of the felt loss of autonomy and volition with respect to the pedagogical
competencies that teacher preparation programs help to instill. We provide recommendations for both
teacher educators and school administrators hoping to secure educator success and retention in schools
operating under strong teacher accountability mandates. We argue that self-determination theory is a
powerful conceptual model that may inform and predict the experiences of others like our instrumental
case subject working in similar environments, with our ultimate motive being the better preparation of
aspiring educators’ in terms of their pedagogical savvy regarding professional realities.
Key words: teacher motivation, retention, self-determination theory, high-stakes testing.
Introduction
Amanda (a pseudonym) was enrolled in a middle school science teaching methods

course at a research university in the Midwestern United States in the autumn of 2008. She was
a very strong student overall as evidenced by her perfect undergraduate performance, with a
grade of “A” earned in every course. Equally commendable were her advanced understanding
of science content and her ability to translate pedagogical theory into teaching practice. Aman-
da demonstrated both mastery and excitement with respect to engaging her peers in scientific
inquiry and seemed well primed to engage her future middle-level students (normally ages
11-13 in the U.S.) via research-confirmed best teaching practices. Indeed, during her practi-
cum placements and semester of student teaching in three high-needs science and mathematics
Jana Bouwma-Gearhart. Pre-Service Educator Attrition Informed by Self-Determination Theory: Autonomy Loss in
High-Stakes Education Environments
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
classrooms, Amanda demonstrated skills and knowledge reminiscent of a more veteran teacher, 31
including her ability to foster students’ construction and deep understanding of complicated
scientific and mathematical models through advanced pedagogical practices and interpersonal
skills. Thus, her university-based science teacher educator was more than a little surprised
when, during her last year end of her 4-year teacher training program, Amanda remarked I am
vowing to never step foot in a classroom again after graduation. Given her incredible potential
as an educator in areas of great national need, her teacher educator, also a researcher in sci-
ence teacher education, discussed the possibility of documenting Amanda’s experiences for the
greater teacher preparation community. Amanda agreed to this, indicating that she hoped shar-
ing her experience would help teacher educators uncover and alleviate the strength of pertinent
factors currently contributing to educator attrition.
Problem of Research
This paper reports on the experiences of one educator’s pre-service experience through
the lens of one theory of human motivation, self-determination theory (SDT), previously shown
to successfully shed light on a wide array of psychological data concerning behavior and op-
timal functioning in a variety of social contexts, including work settings. Applying this theo-
retical lens, we document the struggle that even pre-service educators may experience as a
result of a perceived loss of autonomy with respect to felt competencies within the high-stakes
environments that are often the norm in schools in the U.S. and internationally. In light of these
findings, we provide recommendations for teacher educators and school personnel hoping to
better secure educator success and retention in modern schools.
Research Focus
Professional Educator Retention and Attrition

Inquiry into primary and secondary teacher retention has been the focus of a relatively
large body of education research (Guarino, Santibañez, & Daley; 2006; MacDonald, 1999).
Particularly well documented are the intrinsic factors that serve as motivation to become an ed-
ucator initially, including personal commitments to serving others and society (Andrew, 1983;
DeLong, 1987; Farkas, Johnson, and Foleno, 2000; King, 1993; Nias, 1989; Place, 1997) and
the promise of the profession’s match with personal creativity and abilities (King, 1993). Others
have documented more externally influenced factors, such as family obligations (Farkas et al.,
2000; King, 1993) and the profession’s potential towards affordance of personal autonomy and
prestige (King, 1993).
Yet attrition from the teaching profession in the U.S. is higher than that from most other
professions (Ingersoll, 2001) and most common among those teachers within their first two
years of teaching and just a few years out of their teacher preparation programs (Darling-Ham-
mond & Sclan, 1996; Hanushek, Kain, & Rivkin, 2004; Kirby, Berends, & Naftel, 1999; Mac-
Donald, 1999). Attrition from the teaching profession is of growing national concern in the U.S.
given the great need to staff the thousands of teaching positions created each year due to the
growing school children population coinciding with retirements of the generation born during
the post-WWII baby boom. Of extra concern is how to fill the secondary science and math-
ematics positions vacated at a higher rate than teaching positions in other disciplines and at the
primary level (Henke, Zahn, and Carroll, 2001; Ingersoll, 2001; Kirby et al., 1999).
Of recent scholarly focus is the relationship between educator autonomy, and encroach-
ments on autonomy, such as mandates and policies regarding teacher accountability. Various
researchers have linked teachers’ felt autonomy, and school leaders’ support of this autonomy,
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
32 with teachers’ professional satisfaction (Shen, 1997; Stockard and Lehman, 2004; Weiss, 1999).
Ingersoll (2001) has reported that schools in which teachers reported greater autonomy and
administrative support experienced higher levels of teacher retention. Yet the relationship of
teacher autonomy with respect to educator motivation, and how this may foster retention in the
profession, is still underexplored. According to Guarino et al. (2006), few studies have explored
psychological factors underlying individuals’ motivation to remain in the teaching profession.
This paper explores one pre-service educator’s decision to leave the profession, in light of one
research-confirmed theory of motivation, self-determination theory. Analyzed through this lens,
our research provides insight into the interplay of teacher motivation, autonomy, and retention
and how to secure a more effective and committed teacher workforce.
A Review of Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory, or SDT, was first conceptualized by Deci and Ryan (1985) to
explain a wide array of psychological data concerning human behavior. Like many other cogni-
tive theories of motivation, SDT is based on the premise that humans are naturally “growth-
oriented.” SDT postulates three needs as central to motivation, that humans naturally act to 1)
coordinate their actions to foster their growth towards a more unified and personally determined
sense of self (autonomy), 2) better understand and interact with the world around them (compe-
tence) and 3) achieve better social integration (relatedness). With respect to autonomy, compe-
tence, and relatedness, SDT helps to explain and predict the types of goals humans attempt to
achieve as well as the psychological strength of these goals.
Unlike many other contemporary theories of motivation, SDT also considers the un-
derlying bases of goal pursuits, or regulatory processes. Anything impacting the regulatory
processes of goal pursuits can, according to SDT, impact motivation to act. Orientation with
respect to goal pursuits is influenced by an individual’s perception of autonomy, competence,
and relatedness. Thus anything impacting an individual’s perception of his or her autonomy,
competence, and relatedness may ultimately impact an individual’s goal pursuits and, thus, his
or her motivation. The dialectic between individuals and their social backdrops serves to sup-
port or thwart both the perception and the seeking of satisfaction of an individual’s autonomy,
competence, and relatedness and, thus, may support or thwart an individual’s motivation.
According to most modern motivation theories, an individual is assumed to be intrinsi-
cally motivated to act if one views the act itself as inherently rewarding. This stands in contrast
to extrinsically motivated behaviors that are performed for some outcome outside of the act
itself. Key to all types of motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic, is one’s perception of the level of
autonomy one holds with respect to the action. As it relates to SDT, autonomy can be concep-
tualized in two ways. According to Deci and Ryan, autonomy is “equated with the ideas of
internal locus of control, independence, and individualism” (2000, p. 231), a definition many
resonate with in terms of autonomy. Yet Deci and Ryan assert that SDT is most predictive and
explanatory when autonomy is also recognized as “volition-the organismic desire to self-organ-
ize experience and behavior and to have activity be concordant with one’s integrated sense of
self” (2000, p. 231). An individual’s motivation with respect to an action can change in terms
of the level of autonomy they perceive with respect to the action. As such, individuals can even
internalize the importance of an action that was originally extrinsically motivated.
Various researchers have confirmed the tenants of SDT in helping to explain and predict
human behavior in a variety of settings and more than 100 research reports of the applicabil-
ity of SDT in education contexts have been published so far (see http://www.psych.rochester.
edu/SDT). The vast majority of this work has researched the motivation of students. Some
researchers have explored teachers’ motivation, the societal effects impacting this, and how the
motivation of teachers manifests as effects on students. Pressures emanating from school ad-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
ministration have been linked with low levels of teacher motivation (Pelletier & Sharp, 2009). 33
Low teacher motivation in turn, specifically low felt autonomy, has been correlated with low
student motivation and performance (Pelletier & Sharp, 2009). Teacher limits on student au-
tonomy, often prevalent in high-stakes teacher accountability environments, are correlated with
low student motivation and engagement (Assor, Kaplan, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2005; Assor,
Kaplan, & Roth, 2002; Reeve, 2006).
The relationship between teacher autonomy, motivation, and attrition from the profes-
sion, however, has not yet been fully explored within the most powerful psychological theories
of human motivation. This paper attempts to make salient that the self-determination theory
of human motivation is a powerful theoretical model that may allow moving beyond the inter-
pretation of the experiences of one pre-service teacher to predicting the experiences of others
like her working in high-stakes teacher accountability education environments. Our ultimate
motive is to inform those working with aspiring educators to help them better prepare for their
professional realities.
Theoretical Framework
This study was conducted under the assumptions of an interpretivist theoretical frame-
work with acknowledgement of the preconceived biases of the study participants, both pre-
service teacher and university education researcher. The university researcher’s role was one of
empathizer who attempted to understand the pre-service teacher’s motives, overall cognition,
and actions. While we attempt to report as accurately as possible the experiences of the pre-serv-
ice teacher, the university researcher admittedly co-constructed meaning of these experiences.
Research was phenomenological as described by Schutz (1973) with acceptance of Weber’s
1968 postulate of subjective interpretation that assumes that humans are conscious beings able
to convey information about activities they deem relevant in a reliable and meaningful way. The
reflection of teachers, specifically, regarding their personal histories has been shown to be reli-
able and powerful in terms of explaining the influence of past experiences on current cognition
and action (Eick, 2002; Hawkey, 1996; Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1994; Nias, 1989).
Procedures and Instruments
Analysis was a continual collaborative endeavor between researcher and subject (Feld-
man, 1996; van Driel, Beijaard, & Verloop, 2001) and every attempt was made to validate the
university researcher’s analysis of the pre-service teaching by having the pre-service teacher
critique and correct any analysis of her experiences. While we do not argue for vast generaliz-
ability of our findings, given both interpretivist assumptions and limitations of analysis regard-
ing just one case, we do assume that the pre-service teacher may serve as an instrumental case
(Stake, 1995) and may provide insight into the experiences of other early-career educators.
Our research questions were:
I. What experiences and factors are salient regarding one pre-service educator’s moti-
vation to remain, or not, in the teaching profession?
II. How does using self-determination theory as a theoretical lens inform understanding
of the factors impacting one pre-service educator’s decisions regarding her attrition
from the profession and recommendations arising from the analysis of her experi-
ence?
Our research is based on data gathered during two semi-structured interviews. The first
occurred between the semester of Amanda’s practicum, a five-week segment of practice and
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
34 observing teaching in local schools, and her semester of full-time student teaching. A follow-up
interview was conducted during her semester of student teaching. Interview questions, created
by the university researcher, prompted Amanda to reflect on the evolution of her motivation
towards serving as a middle school teacher and probed what she attributed changes to regarding
this motivation, including what she felt could have protected against these changes. Amanda’s
responses were recorded verbatim. Formal analysis of her responses followed others’ recom-
mendations concerning an iterative process of theory building informed by pre-espoused and
well-tested theories that could serve as secondary sources of data (Glaser, 2001; 1992; Hutchi-
son, 1993; May, 1994; McGhee et al., 2007; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Recognizing the salience
of the concepts of autonomy and competence during the coding of the initial interview, the
university researcher applied SDT in subsequent analysis of existing data while remaining at-
tentive to the possibility of other theories that could potentially inform Amanda’s case. While
SDT was used as an analytical theoretical lens, every effort was made to allow for necessary
redirection regarding theory with respect to the data at hand, including the potential need to
modify the theory of SDT as per Amanda’s experiences (Agar, 1996; Hammersley & Atkinson,
1983; Yin, 2002).
Results of Research
Amanda reflected on her motivation to work and remain in the teaching profession with
respect to three main research questions as prompts. Selected responses follow.
Question 1: Reflecting on the relevant experiences in your life, including during your teacher
preparation program, chronicle your motivation/interest towards becoming a middle school
science and math teacher.
Amanda responded by sharing her earliest memories of being in school.
Beginning as early as elementary school, I thrived in and fully enjoyed school in its entirety. I
simply loved to learn new things, I loved to create, I loved seeing my friends, I loved interacting
with the teachers, I loved the opportunity to achieve and accomplish.
Amanda described an overall positive affect regarding school experienced from her time
in grade school through her time at university. This affect was, at first, attributable only to her
experiences as a student. Her first true teaching experience was not until her time as a university
student when she worked as a summer camp couselor. Her positive affect towards school and
towards teaching and learning was further strengthened as she began to recognize new personal
competencies.
I began to thrive on the smiles on the children’s faces. Each and everyone of them taught me some-
thing about myself I had never seen before-I had the ability, the drive, and the desire to influence
and mold their lives.
Amanda looked forward to a teaching career. Yet like many teacher candidates in the
U.S. Amanda did not have a sustained experience in an actual formal classroom until late into
her university training. It was then that her motivation to become an educator began to wane.
Question 2: When did you experience change with respect to motivation/interest regarding be-
coming a middle school science and math teacher and to what do you attribute this change?
Amanda’s motivation was significantly affected during her time in her 5-week long practi-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
cum experience in the schools. She attributed her change to the realization that teachers had 35
little choice and control over teaching and learning as they responded to external pressures.
As I began to observe in the same classroom I saw a world of education that only those who
actually work in it know exists. It is a world constricted by red tape and government agendas,
burdened by tests, rules, and regulations, and one that has made me severely question my future.
Long gone are the days where educators have the freedom and the respect to move their classroom
at the pace and in a way that they deem acceptable and most appropriate for their group of stu-
dents… it seems every single order is passed down, leaving the educator virtually free of having
to make a single decision regarding their classroom.
Amanda cited the high stakes testing environment, and those that perpetuate and enforce
it, as the most salient external pressures on teachers.
As school districts receive pressure from the state to achieve at “distinguished” levels, the threats
and pressure trickle down to the teachers in the educational trenches who do not dare color outside
the lines. Who would risk taking time using manipulatives in mathematics or using model-based
teaching when the time until testing is clicking away?
Amanda recognized manifestation of the pressure to “teach to the test” as teacher burn-
out.
Educators no longer get their creative juices flowing. They merely copy twelve multiple-choice
questions and paste them onto the test, leaving their job mundane, routine, and below the level that
they can and should be achieving at.
Amanda’s subsequent semester long student teaching experience in her senior year fur-
ther decreased her motivation to become a teacher. It was during this time that Amanda was able
to witness the long-term negative effects of the high-stakes testing environment on students.
In the school district I work with, every teacher is to give this type of test at least every month.
I do understand the logic behind this process. Using standardized testing procedures prepares
students for the state testing, comparing data allows us to find weaknesses that can be tweaked
and worked on, so there are reasons...However, I see multitudes of problems. Imagine the bore-
dom that comes for students and not every student is going to test well in this format, no matter
how many times you try it on them. Not only is having a singular type of assessment boring and
ineffective, but the level of learning and understanding required to answer these types of open-
response and multiple-choice questions leaves little reason for teachers to push their students into
creative zones of thinking where they are forced to analyze situations or create new ideas. Rather,
most students have learned through their repetitious encounters how to merely get by with enough
points to please parents and educators; however, they are being cheated of possible achievement
and advanced levels of understanding.
Amanda conveyed a certain degree of relatedness with other educators during her stu-
dent teaching semester but these relationships overwhelmingly fed her negative impression of
the profession.
I took a poll of all of my friends who are teachers, there were seven girls that I spoke to. All of
them said that if they went back to school they would choose a different career, all of them. While
in practicum this past semester I actually had a teacher tell me that if her daughter had wanted
to become a teacher she would not have paid for her education. Now, how am I supposed to feel
about entering this profession when I am being bombarded by negativity, feelings of despair, and
frustration?
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
36
Question 3: Do you have any sense of what, if anything, may have protected against change in
your motivation/interest to teach or could strengthen your motivation/interest to teach in the
future?
Amanda hoped during her remaining time as a pre-service teacher, via her semester of
student teaching, to witness other teachers being successful and seeming fulfilled in the class-
room.
As I [go through] student teaching I hope to see teachers daring to push the limits of the state
mandates through creativity, exploration, and investigation. I hope to have all the opinions and
observations I have formed up to this point in my education completely unfounded, inaccurate,
and totally reversed. Though, being a realist in nature, I am very aware that this is more than likely
not what I will find.
While Amanda grew ever more positive about her own pedagogical abilities through
student teaching, she experienced accumulating concerns regarding her potential to remain in
the profession.
I have become much more comfortable in front of a classroom, I have felt more comfortable
having the title of a professional, and I have become more aware of how to relate to and in-
teract with the students in a way in which they will respect you but also genuinely like you. In
the end, my teaching or not teaching will merely come down to one simple question, will I be
willing to endure the price and, often times, pain that comes with being an educator to fulfill
my original goal of working with kids. If my joy can survive and not be extinguished by the
state mandates, the administrative hoops that must be jumped through, and I can find a way to
be true to my personal teaching style and beliefs in a way in which students can benefit, then
I will teach. If I cannot, then I will not, for the good of all of those involved.
Amanda ultimately decided that she could not find a way to do what she knew was right
for herself or her future students. In lieu of seeking a job in a classroom, Amanda applied to a
graduate program in education in the spring of 2009 with hopes of eventually serving in another
capacity.
Discussion
While neither educator disillusionment during the transition from university-based train-
ing programs to actual classrooms, nor educator attrition from the profession, are newly identi-
fied phenomena, it is our contention that analysis of these through a lens of self-determination
theory allowed new insight into these phenomena. Amanda seemed the perfect teacher candi-
date. Amanda’s positive affect regarding her lifetime of schooling was overwhelmingly based
on her felt academic competency. She attributed her growing motivation to teach to this affect.
Amanda had excelled in the schooling environment throughout all of her life, earning high
praise from her teachers and parents, Amanda, as predicted by SDT, eventually internalized oth-
ers’ praises into her own intrinsic motivation to continue to excel. Amanda became interested
in the possibility of increasing others’ competency with respect to scientific and mathematical
knowledge as she further grew her own. As with many others who decide to become profes-
sional educators, Amanda expressed intrinsic motivation to serve others in order to “make a
difference” and viewed the teaching profession as affording possibilities to do so.
Yet, of SDT’s three predicted needs, the need for relatedness was most obvious in Aman-
da’s reflections regarding her decision to become an educator. She had basked in the positive
interactions with teachers as a younger student and wanted to be on the other end of that stu-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
dent–teacher relationship. The influence of autonomy with respect to her motivation to become 37
a teacher, in contrast, only became apparent during her first real experience serving as an edu-
cator, as a summer camp counselor and well into her time at university. Finally, she was able
to effectively put her science and mathematics competencies into action through relationships
with students that she was given charge to teach. Amanda spoke fondly of how she “thrived”
on her interactions with students and how these relationships cued her into her “ability, drive,
and desire” to teach. Amanda looked forward to a career that would serve as an outlet for her
competence and secure positive sustained relations with students.
Like many teacher candidates in the U.S. Amanda did not have a sustained experience
in an actual formal school classroom until late into her university training. This is when her mo-
tivation to become an educator first began to wane. Amanda mainly attributed her diminishing
motivation to teach to what she saw as the stripping of competencies of teachers with respect to
ability to meet their students’ needs. Amanda lamented the constrictions of “red tape, tests, and
regulations” and the effects on educators who thus lacked “freedom and respect to move their
classroom at the pace and in a way that they deem acceptable and most appropriate for their
students.” Analysis of Amanda’s statements highlights her disillusionment upon witnessing the
lack of control that teachers have in their classrooms.
Yet Amanda indicated the main encroachment she noticed was with respect to teachers’
volition, in this case the ability to unite their subject matter competencies with their pedagogical
ones towards doing what they knew to be pedagogically best for their students. Most depressing
to Amanda was the realization that research-confirmed best teaching practices were not encour-
aged, and were even actively discouraged, by school district administrators who, responding to
“pressure from the state,” were now overly focused on normalizing teachers’ practices towards
better preparation of students for success on standardized tests. Teachers’ loss of autonomy, in
Amanda’s view, was totally at the hands of forces external to the teachers themselves. Amanda
saw educator burnout as the ultimate result via natural response to the “mundane, routine” work
now required of them and that was “below the level that they can and should be achieving at.”
Amanda’s subsequent student teaching experience in the last semester of her senior
year both confirmed and added to her numerous fears and further decreased her motivation to
become a teacher. Paramount was Amanda’s distress regarding the trickle-down effects of the
high-stakes testing environment on students who succumbed to “boredom” and were “being
cheated of possible achievement and advanced levels of understanding.”
During her sharing of her experiences, Amanda conveyed a certain degree of relatedness
with other educators. Yet these interactions seemed only to lower her motivation to teach as
they grew her negative impression of the profession, one that predominantly fostered feelings
of “negativity,” “despair,” and “frustration.” Relatedness with other educators for Amanda, and
perhaps for many practicing teachers, was counterproductive with respect to motivation to be
an educator. When asked if anything may have protected against her change in motivation/in-
terest to teach, Amanda responded that she was hopeful that she would find others working in
the profession that did not convey such negativity and frustration yet was “very aware” that her
hopes would not be realized by the time of her university graduation.
While Amanda did not find the model teachers she was looking for while apprenticing
in the schools, she did recognize positive effects from her pre-service experience. Amanda’s
felt competencies with respect to teaching were actually strengthened via her semester of full-
time student teaching. Given the relative freedom that student teachers often have in the U.S.
to try out new teaching strategies, Amanda was able to witness students responding positively
to her teaching practices, many that she had previously only known as theory. Yet Amanda’s
gains in knowledge and skills with respect to best practices only exacerbated her felt encroach-
ments with respect to her envisioned future professional autonomy, bad news for the greater
teacher educator community who is ever attempting to increase the number of highly effective
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
38 science and math educators in the schools. In the end, her decision to leave the profession did
come down to whether she felt she could “endure the price and pain” brought on by the “the
state mandates, the administrative hoops” that made it impossible to “be true to [her] personal
teaching style and beliefs in a way in which students can benefit.” Informed by her experiences,
Amanda flexed her professional autonomy muscle when, in lieu of seeking a teaching job, she
applied to a graduate program in education. As a potential future scholar with great potential,
Amanda may still serve students in need of quality science and mathematics education, but at
the cost of losing a gifted practitioner on the all-important front lines and, partially, as a result
of the pedagogical competencies her teacher preparation program had worked so hard to foster
in her.
Conclusions
The pre-service teacher depicted in this article represented the best potential graduate
that a teacher educator program’s faculty could hope for. Melding theory and practice with her
strong content knowledge, Amanda had developed a “personal teaching style” that promised
to incorporate best practices in science education. In the language of self-determination theory,
Amanda distributed high levels of teaching competence and relatedness with other educators,
seemingly good traits for aspiring educators, especially in the eyes of teacher educators and
school administrators. In addition, Amanda’s sense of autonomy, both in terms of the control
she envisioned regarding her future classrooms and her volition in uniting her pedagogical
practices with knowledge on how to secure student success, was strengthened by her teacher
preparation program to a degree that surpassed many of her pre-service peers. Yet during her
last year in her teacher education program, Amanda decided to opt out of the profession.
Few studies have explored psychological factors underlying individuals’ motivation to
remain in the teaching profession. It is our contention that analysis of educator disillusionment
during the transition from university-based training programs to actual classrooms can be in-
formed through a lens of self-determination theory, allowing for insights into this phenomenon
and related educator attrition. Most notable in Amanda’s discussion of her reasons for leaving
the profession was how during her practicum experience external encroachments on her profes-
sional autonomy, autonomy that her teacher education program had helped to foster, seemed
to undermine her professional competence. Amanda’s gains in competence during her student
teaching only intensified the encroachments she felt on her professional autonomy, perpetuating
the cycle of Amanda’s professional strengths weakening her others.
The research detailed above exploring Amanda’s decision to leave the teaching profes-
sion allowed for many painful realizations. As one of Amanda’s professors with the responsi-
bility of training her to be an effective educator, the university researcher involved could not
escape the reality of her own influence regarding Amanda’s expectations regarding what good
teaching should look like and how this ultimately played a significant role in Amanda’s decision
to opt out of the profession. Surely, other readers of this work recognize their similar influence.
What, then, can be learned from this research in terms of informing teacher educators as well
as school administrators in hopes of fostering motivation in educators to remain in the teaching
profession?
To being with, we contend that what teacher educators recognize as pedagogical com-
petence needs to include knowledge, skills, and practice that protect teachers against external
encroachments on professional autonomy. We call for teacher educators to help to foster in their
protégés what we are calling pedagogical savvy, the educator savoir-faire needed to effectively
integrate research-confirmed best practices regarding teaching and learning into the high-stakes
teacher accountability movements of the moment. Pedagogical savvy has, as its basis, an un-
derstanding of what educators may expect to encounter, psychologically, as they transition into
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
the real-world of teaching and the skills and practices that may help them offset factors that 39
traditionally drive educators out of the profession. Development of such would likely require
1) strengthening teacher candidates’ knowledge concerning the macro- and micro-level issues
driving historical and current education movements through concerted academic study along-
side 2) lived experience of how these movements play out at the local level and 3) deep subse-
quent reflection on how to teach through research-confirmed best practices while fostering the
knowledge and skills students need to demonstrate success on a variety of measurements within
the current education climate. Advanced pedagogical savvy would translate into teacher praxis
that unites the topics and processes covered on standardized assessments with those central to
the discipline they teach and the advanced interpersonal skills to justify their praxis to adminis-
trators and other powerful stakeholders that may not recognize the parallels.
We acknowledge that our call’s basis is under-researched and we are now moving to test
our developing theory with a greater population of educators who have left or are considering
leaving the profession as well as those who have decided to stay. In addition, we acknowledge
our call is ambitious and broad and that we provide only limited direction towards meeting it.
For now, we hold steadfast to the possibilities of our recommended actions in helping to mend
the leaking pipeline of committed educators. With the leak so large, what do we have to lose?
References
Agar, M. H. (1996). The professional stranger: An informal introduction to ethnography (2nd ed.). San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Andrew, M. D. (1983). The characteristics of students in a five-year teacher education program. Journal
of Teacher Education, 34(1), 20–23.
Assor, A., Kaplan, H., Kanat-Maymon, Y., & Roth, G. (2005). Directly controlling teacher behaviors as
predictors of poor motivation and engagement in girls and boys: The role of anger and anxiety. Learning
and Instruction, 15, 397–413.
Assor, A., Kaplan, H., & Roth, G. (2002). Choice is good, but relevance is excellent: Autonomy-enhanc-
ing and suppressing teacherbehaviours predicting students’ engagement in schoolwork. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 72, 261–278.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Sclan, E. M. (1996).Who teaches and why: Dilemmas of building a profession
for twenty-first century schools. In: J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 67-
101). New York: Association of Teacher Educators.
Deci, E. & Ryan, R. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York:
Plenum Press.
Deci, E. & Ryan, R. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determi-
nation of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.
DeLong, T. J. (1987). Teachers and their careers: Why do they choose teaching? Journal of Career De-
velopment, 14(2), 118–125.
Eick, C. J. (2002). Studying career science teachers’ personal histories: A methodology for understanding
intrinsic reasons for career choice and retention. Research in Science Education, 32: 353–372.
Farkas, S., Johnson, J., & Foleno, T. (2000). A sense of calling: Who teaches and why. New York: Public
Agenda.
Feldman, A. (1996). Enhancing the practice of physics teachers: Mechanisms for the generation and
sharing of knowledge and understanding in collaborative action research. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 33, 513–540.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
40 Glaser, B. G. (2001). The grounded theory perspective: Conceptualisation contrasted with description.
Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.
Guarino, C. M., Santibañez, L., & Daley, G. A. (2006). Teacher recruitment and retention: A review of
the recent empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 76(2), 173–208.
Hanushek, E., Kain, J., & Rivkin, S. (2004). Why public schools lose teachers. Journal of Human Re-
sources, 39(2), 326–354.
Hawkey, K. (1996). Image and the pressure to conform in learning to teach. Teaching & Teacher Educa-
tion, 12, 99–108.
Henke, R., Zahn, L., & Carroll, C. (2001). Attrition of new teachers among recent college graduates:
Comparing occupational stability among 1992–1993 college graduates who taught and those who worked
in other occupations. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Hutchison, S. A. (1993). Grounded theory: The method. In P.L. Munhall & C. A. Boyd (Eds.), Nursing
research: A qualitative perspective (pp. 180-212). New York: National League for Nursing Press.
Ingersoll, R. (2001). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational analysis. American Edu-
cational Research Journal, 38(3), 499–534.
Kelchtermans, G., & Vandenberghe, R. (1994). Teachers’ professional development: A biographical per-
spective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 26(1), 45–62.
Kirby, S., Berends, M., & Naftel, S. (1999). Supply and demand of minority teachers in Texas: Problems
and prospects. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 21(1), 47-66.
King, S. (1993). Why did we choose teaching careers and what will enable us to stay? Insights from one
cohort of the African-American teaching pool. Journal of Negro Education, 62(4), 475–492.
MacDonald, D. (1999). Teacher attrition: A review of the literature. Teaching & Teacher Education,
15(8), 835–848.
May K. (1994). Abstract knowing: the case for magic in method. In J. Morse (Ed.), Critical issues in
qualitative research methods (pp. 407-423). London: Sage.
Nias, J. (1989). Primary teachers talking: A study of teaching as work. New York: Routledge.
Pelletier, L. G. & Sharp, E. C. (2009). Administrative pressures and teachers’ interpersonal behaviour in
the classroom. Theory and Research in Education, 7(2), 174–183.
Place, A. W. (1997). Career choice of education: Holland type, diversity, and self efficacy. Journal for a
Just & Caring Education, 3(2), 203–214.
Reeve, JM. (2006). Teachers as facilitators: What autonomy-supportive teachers do and why their stu-
dents benefit. The Elementary School Journal, 106(3), 225–236.
Schutz, A. (1973). Collected papers I: The problem of social reality (A. Broderson, Ed.). The Hague, the
Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
Shen, J. (1997). Teacher retention and attrition in public schools: Evidence from SASS91. Journal of
Educational Research, 91(2), 81–88.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Stockard, J., & Lehman, M. (2004). Influences on the satisfaction and retention of 1st-year teachers: The
importance of effective school management. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(5), 742–771.
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research. Grounded theory procedures and tech-
niques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
van Driel, J. H., Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (2001). Professional development and reform in science
education: The role of teachers‘ practical knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38(2),
137–158.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Weber, M. (1968). Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology. Vol.1. New York: Bedmin- 41
ster Press.
Weiss, E. (1999). Perceived workplace conditions and first-year teachers’ morale, career choice commit-
ment, and planned retention: A secondary analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(8), 861–879.
Yin, R. K. (2002). Case study research: Design and methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Adviced by Stephen E. Schmid, University of Wisconsin Colleges-Rock County,

Janesville, WI, USA
Jana Bouwma-Gearhart PhD, Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Kentucky, 112
Taylor Education, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.
E-mail: jlbo226@uky.edu
Website: http://education.uky.edu
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
42
PERCEPTION OF LIFELONG LEARNING

IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Luljeta Buza
“Luarasi” Law University, Tirana, Albania
E-mail: luljetabuza@yahoo.com
Hektor Buza
Ministry of Education and Science, Tirana, Albania
E-mail: hbuza@mash.gov.al
Elida Tabaku
Tirana State University, Tirana, Albania
E-mail: lidatabaku@yahoo.com
Abstract
The paper is an empirical study based on questionnaires of 450 postgraduates’ students, and 30 teach-
ers enrolled in different courses in Tirana University. It aimed to identify the problems and to find out
some solutions to the problem focused on the wide availability of information and communication, which
makes learning take place wherever and whenever it suits the student. The study highlights the way how
education can be organized to ensure quality and lifelong learning. The study, based on the analysis of
questionnaires, pointed out that it is considered as not efficient if lifelong learning is focused only on
short-term requirements. The teacher educators had quite a number of concepts on lifelong learning, and
their perceptions were concentrated on: 1) developing a range of skills; 2) being able to identify prob-
lems; 3) ways of tackling, finding and using information effectively; 4) understanding and extending ways
of learning to gain and apply new knowledge.
The paper is divided into two parts. Part one outlines the key issues related to the importance of lifelong
education and part two analyzes lifelong learning approaches, conclusions and recommendations.
Key words: creativity, innovation, knowledge, lifelong learning, perception.
Introduction
During the last 20 years of Albanian democracy constant scientific and technological
innovation and change have had a profound effect on learning needs and styles which asks
from the society to have creative individuals who value knowledge and learning. Taking into
consideration that the globalised society like that of today asks for qualified citizens in differ-
ent areas of life the demand for quality based higher education has been on a constant rise. The
implementation of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), which
began in 1999, demanded from all Albanian higher education institutions not only to introduce
credits in all subjects but also to develop a system of education which will comply with the new

The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ETCS) is a student-centered system based on the student
workload required to achieve the objectives of a program. ECTS was introduced in 1989, within the framework of
Erasmus, now part of the Socrates program.. ECTS is the only credit system which has been successfully tested and
used across Europe.
Luljeta Buza, Hektor Buza, Elida Tabaku. Perception of Lifelong Learning in Higher Education
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
circumstances that Albania is undergoing. During 2003 – 2005 several acts and orders were 43
amended by the Parliament and the Ministry of Education and Science in order to implement
the Bologna Declaration, including the study cycles, academic standards, teaching load, finan-
cial autonomy, and university admissions procedures.
The knowledge and skills gained through study at the universities will continue to be
essential as graduates begin their professional life, but will not be sufficient enough throughout
all their professional life. The study considers as very important if the focus is moved away
from what the teachers are doing at universities towards what is going on for providing the
learner with life long learning skills. The idea of learning is much wider than that of education
for 100% of the participants in the survey. They highlighted that it reflects a major shift of at-
tention towards skills and competences. All the teacher educators pointed out that after teacher
students’ graduate they will need to continue to develop career-long learning and professional
knowledge for their students. The way how we teach determines the kind of society we build
told 100% of the teachers. (“Teachers open the door. You enter by yourself” Chinese Proverb).
They are pretty conscious that they prepare students for a future which is largely unknown.
All the perceptions of teacher educators and student teachers go in line with the idea how a
‘knowledge society’ needs ‘knowledge works’ and citizens of the world’ (Drucker, 1993). The
authors suggest that different and differentiated personal development would contribute to bet-
ter understanding and improved implementation of educational policies in lifelong learning and
should focus on long-term requirements.
Problem of Research
The study is based on a concept which asks for a great concern and change in the edu-
cation system, business, professional bodies and government due to the demands of develop-
ment and the employers voicing and their concerns and deficiencies they perceive in the skills
and competences of their employees. The study treats three education key features in lifelong
education as: (1) lifelong learning seen as building upon and affecting the educational system
of higher education; (2) lifelong learning, which goes beyond the formal educational providers
involved in any kind of learning activity; (3) lifelong learning as a shift from personal growth
to human resource development.
The article deals with the perceptions of lifelong learning of the teacher educators and
student teachers followed by a brief description of emerging trends to broaden and enhance
teaching that promotes lifelong learning. The study treats several basic elements in teaching
and education where the dissemination of the concept has been developed further due to the
development of the communications` revolution and the mobility of the people. The study
explores not only the views of teacher educators and student teachers in a Master Program of
Tirana University about lifelong learning but also explores in the use of methods for developing
it further.
Research Focus
The study is focused on the concept that preparing students to be lifelong learners is a
duty because it offers opportunities to update people’s knowledge of activities which they had
either previously laid aside or always wanted to try but was unable. The study was based on
three analytic issues (EU orientation) about: (1) perception of life learning; (2) teaching that
promotes lifelong learning; and (3) lifelong learning as a personal growth. It is focused as well
on the views of lifelong learning education for: (1) employability; (2) globalization; (3) rapid
development of technology; (4) EU integration; (5) national economic growth.

Albania signed Bologna Declaration during 1993.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
44 Methodology of Research
As lifelong learning was crystallized as a concept in the 1970s, by three international

bodies; Council of Europe, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
and United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) developed
further during the first years of the new millennium. It drew most attention and had the broadest
influence, considering education as a transformative and emancipator force, not only in schools,
but in society at large in Albania. Adaptability to such circumstances and readiness to learn the
work which related to knowledge and skills has become important instrument of the education
policy during these last years. For all the teachers and students learning is no longer considered
as a place and time to acquire knowledge but a place, and time to apply the acquired knowledge;
the majority of them consider learning as something that takes place on basis comprising the
daily activities with others and with the world. The research pointed out that technology and
social change have direct impact on the work, the workplace and the living conditions, which
can be improved only through a lifelong learning process. For the majority of the Albanian
teachers and students lifelong learning is considered as the development of individuals through
a continuously learning process which empowers them to acquire the knowledge, values, skills,
and ready to apply them with confidence, creativity and optimism in all roles, circumstances,
and conditions. “Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make yourself
do the thing you have to do, when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not; it is the first
lesson that ought to be learned; and however early a man’s training begins, it is probably the last
lesson that he learns thoroughly” Thomas H. Huxley.
The study examines the trends of lifelong learning education as a reflection on experi-
ence and as an instrument to make life vivid, strong, and creative, which can realize continu-
ous progress in a developing society. “I have argued that life, for most people, is a process of
discovery – of who we are, what we can do, and ultimately, why we exist and what we believe.
It is a circular process, because when we discover what we are capable of and work out why we
exist, it changes the way we see ourselves, which can send us off in new directions, discovering
new capabilities and new reasons for our existence. This spiraling journey is the true meaning
of lifelong learning, and it remains, for those who pursue it, an endlessly fascinating experience,
one which enriches not only the individual but all those around. Those who have tired of the
journey have tired of life. They come across as dull and boring, and can soon infect their friends
and colleagues with their apathy” (Charles Handy 1997).
Sample of Research
The sample consisted of 450 students of Master Program on Teacher Education offered
by University of Tirana and 30 teachers who teach in this program. All students and teachers
were invited to participate in the survey. From 450 students, responded 450, and from 45 teach-
ers responded 30 to the questionnaires of the survey.

Thomas Henry Huxley, born on May 4, 1825, was an English biologist, known as “Darwin’s Bulldog” for his
advocacy of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 1. Gender of students’ sample. 45
Gender Frequency Percentage
Female 375 83.4

Male 75 16.6
Total 450 100.0
Table 2. Age range of students’ sample.
Age Range Frequency Frequency
22-25 70 15, 6
26-31 315 70
32+ 65 14.4
Total 450 100
1. 83.4 % of sample comprised by female as the teacher education programs are attended
in majority by female.
2. Majority of students belonged to age 26-31 years. They decided to attend the master
program to improve their career and find a better job in the market.
Table 3. Teachers` sample.
Assoc.
Age range Frequency Percentage Prof Dr MA Total
Prof
35-45 12 40.0 4 4 16 6 30
46-56 18 60.0
Instruments and Procedures
A questionnaire was completed by both teacher educators and teacher students on ques-
tions related to perception of lifelong learning, tips thought useful for fostering lifelong learning
in students, and factors to develop further and educate students as lifelong learners. 450 master
student teachers completed a questionnaire, which included two sections: a section with bio-
graphical information; and a section with questions on lifelong learning understanding, namely
perception of lifelong, teaching that promotes lifelong learning, education and lifelong personal
growth and development. The questionnaires were formulated based on the National Strategy
of Ministry of Education of 2009.
30 teachers completed a questionnaire composed of three sections: first section asked
biographical information, second section asked questions on lifelong learning conception, and
the third one asked questions on relationship between teaching, and lifelong learning.
It was invested a lot of time into preparation, particularly through conversation and in
building a relationship with the participant. 42 students and 12 teachers were interviewed in
the form of conversational interview in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the
interviewee’s priorities. The aim of the interviews was to collect more detailed information on
open ended questions included in the questionnaire about their perceptions on lifelong learn-
ing.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
46 Data Analysis
The teachers and students` responses given in the questionnaire were measured on the
interval scale during March 2010. The analysis of the data started with the content analyses
which were carefully observed to present perceptions on lifelong learning and the tendency of
the future. It focused on the student teachers’ concerns for teaching lifelong learning interests
and the needs of the market. Following all ethical principles, information was provided on
the nature and purpose of the interviews. The data was treated with the confidentiality and their
anonymity was assured.
In answer to the open ended questions student teachers suggested that lifelong learning
can be enhanced and fostered depending on: (1) the subject matter and the instructor; (2) course
format and structure; and (3) grades associated with the skills.
They told that questioning, lesson management, assignment, can either enhance or hold
back lifelong learning. If they are graded highly for a precise recall of the subject content they
will match their learning style to that way of teaching, if they are graded highly for being able
to apply their learning strategies to new learning situations and for being creative, a must for
lifelong learners, they will try to develop this skill. Although they are postgraduate students,
they condition their learning and performance depending on the teacher’s teaching and their
understanding. In the case of teacher education courses, the lessons must be a practice of what
teachers teach and intend to teach in line with the society`s needs and future development.
The interviewees (90 % of teacher educators and 74% of teacher students) displayed
very positive attitudes towards the inclusion of lifelong learning concept into the curricula of
higher education as an instrument which will prepare them not only to be part of EU but also
would help them to live and work in a globalized society. They also highlighted that having a
good command of English language and sound knowledge on IT technology will create them
possibilities to adopt them quickly to new circumstances. The interviews were conducted dur-
ing the study under the promise of confidentiality. Most respondents spent most of the interview
time discussing their own experiences rather than promoting or opposing proposed reforms.
Results of Research
After the analysis of the answers provided by the participants in this study we came to
the conclusion that lifelong learning includes several basic elements: (1) a belief in the idea of
lifetime human potential; (2) efforts to achieve the skills, knowledge, and attitude necessary for
a successful life; (3) recognition that learning takes place in many manners and places, includ-
ing formal educational institutions and non-formal experiences such as employment, military
service, civic participation, informal self-initiated activity and mobility; and (4) the need to
provide integrated systems adapted to individual differences that encourage and help individu-
als to achieve mastery and self-orientation. The society should make these systems available to
learners with flexibility and diversity.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 4. Perception of lifelong learning (student teachers & teacher 47

educators).
Student Teachers Total Teacher Educators Total

Perceptions on
Yes No Yes No
Lifelong Learning N % N %
N % N % N % N %
Education for
351 78 99 22 450 100 27 90 3 10 30 100
employability
Globalization 333 74 117 26 450 100 27 90 3 10 30 100
EU integration 297 66 153 34 450 100 27 90 3 10 30 100
National economic
270 60 180 40 450 100 26 86 4 14 30 100
growth
Rapid develop-
297 66 153 34 450 100 28 93 2 7 30 100
ment
Lifelong learning
324 72 126 28 450 100 27 90 3 10 30 100
as very important
Lifelong learning
to be developed 324 72 126 28 450 100 27 90 3 10 30 100
further
Lifelong learning
differs to gender,
261 58 189 42 450 100 24 80 6 20 30 100
type of job, experi-
ence
Lifelong learning
as capabilitiy & 405 90 45 10 450 100 28 93.3 2 6.7 30 100
performance
Lifelong learning
from culture to 387 86 63 14 450 100 27 90 3 10 30 100
culture
To conceptualize lifelong learning and articulate policies to realize the “lifelong learning
for all” it is a great challenge for the whole system of education, policy-makers, universities,
and educators. As Smethurst remarks: What does not come out of the statistics is that, in order
to succeed in life, in the world, in history, you need not just academic skill but personality, in-
dependence of mind, and autonomy of spirit (1995).
Discussion
The study participants concerns offer insights into the nature of lifelong learning, which
are important not only for understanding student teachers` perceptions of teaching lifelong
learning skills but also about knowledge and interpretation of which goes in line with the life-
long education to meet society`s` needs in the context of this rapid change and the global mar-
ket. The way how both groups perceive learning brings us to the conclusion that the tendency
is rising in favor of lifelong education.
I. Perception of Lifelong Learning of Both Groups
Lifelong learning is considered by the majority of both groups as “all learning activity”
undertaken during the life, aiming to improve knowledge, skills and competences, which will
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
48 be able to identify problems, ways to solve them, and use information in an effective way. “Can
we teach and promote ways that develop students’ commitment to lifelong learning?” 97% of
teachers reported that curricula and educational practices have a great influence to the develop-
ment of a lifelong learning orientation. The reform of curricular components and educational
practices serve as an element which should increase our motivation to use them more. All the
teachers told that commitment to lifelong learning does develop gradually and not necessarily
visibly.
Lifelong learning - along with ideas such as “the learning society” - has become popular
in a number of universities. But what do people mean by it? Is the idea of lifelong learning help-
ful? Both groups consider lifelong learning as a very decisive factor for their future; students
(72%), teachers (90.0%). Results indicated that 90.0% of teacher believed lifelong learning
could be developed, whereas, 72% of the student teachers shared the same opinion.
Students in 58% and teachers in 80.0% did not agree that men and women are lifelong
learners in the same way. They list as the main factors of the differences: gender status, type of
job, and life experience.
The notion of special places for learning is deeply rooted in nearly all cultures, and the
creation of the formal school is the first of Ashby’s four educational “revolutions” that trans-
formed our ability to learn and produce great advances in civilization (Knapper, Carnegie Foun-
dation, 1972). This brings us to the critical question: what kind of culture might promote life-
long learning? The Fryer Committee suggested that the following might be seen as the general
hallmark of a learning culture: “Above all, a vision of a learning culture will envisage learning
as a normal, accessible, productive and enjoyable (if demanding) feature of everyday life for all
people, throughout their lives. Yet human beings learn throughout their lives and in almost all
situations - at home, in their leisure activities and at work. We start learning even before birth,
and we continue until senility (Fryer 1998). Both groups in majority, students (86.0%) and
teachers (90.0%) stated that lifelong learning differs from culture to culture.
Based on the figures of the study on perception of the lifelong learning aspects, student
teachers ranked as the most representative aspects of lifelong learning: Education for employ-
ability (78.0%), globalization (74.0%), and rapid development of technology (66.0%), EU inte-
gration (66.0%), and national economic growth (60.0%).
While, teachers identified as the five first aspects of the following: rapid development
of technology (93.3%), Education for employability (90.0%), globalization (90.0%), EU inte-
gration (90.0%), and national economic growth (86.6%). Student teachers perceived lifelong
learning more than product, whereas teachers perceived it as a process. Both groups identified
as the main element of lifelong education for employability and ranked at the end for national
economic growth. The teachers and the students rank differently the aspects of lifelong learning
priorities due to their experiences and their educational formation.
II. Teaching that Promotes Lifelong Learning
Can we teach in ways that develop students’ commitment to ongoing, lifelong learning?
Yes, said all 30 teachers who highlighted that curricular designs and educational practices have
direct impact in the development of a lifelong learning orientation. It entails that: to ensure
meaningful learning, it is essential to place both pedagogy and technology in teaching process
told all teachers. 100% of teacher educators and teacher students state that they need to develop
IT skills. They told that on-line education should be a part of continuous education. The study
found that teaching practices that encourage students to reflect-active learning techniques, op-
portunities for perspective taking, and the chance to positively interact with diverse peers may
develop the students’ commitment to lifelong learning.
Both teachers and students` concepts to lifelong learning go in line with the research of
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Brian Tracy and The Economist Journal (October 9, 1999) “Various research, evaluation meth- 49
ods and indicators based on the global vision, are presented for measuring and improving learn-
ing performance. It requires a shift in our thinking about the fundamental organizational unit
of education, from the school, an institution where learning is organized, defined and contained,
to the learner, an intelligent agent with the potential to learn from any and all of the encounters
with the world around ”.
The idea of lifelong learning has become part of our national strategy discussion, par-
ticularly as global competition and economic restructuring toward EU Integration and knowl-
edge-based industry (Annual Statistical Report of Education 2009 of MASH).
III. Education and Lifelong Personal Growth and Development
The concept of education as a “public good” and the responsibility we all share for the
mutual benefit of all members of society is considered as fundamental to the need for “lifelong
learning for all” told 94% of teachers. The increasing of skills and competences can continue
throughout life, as a vital part of individual`s growth and development as citizens in a participa-
tive democracy, as well as being productive factors in economical progress.
Individual and the society wellbeing is protected and promoted by making these activi-
ties, and the resources to support them, available to the widest range of communities. Is educa-
tion a public or a private good? All groups in majority, students (76.0%) and teachers (90.0%)
stated that education is both. There is some education that is a public good in that its benefits
increase widely, to society at large as well as to the individual. People can have their view of the
world and capacity for rational choice continually transformed by the educational experiences
and achievements offered by lifelong learning. It provides people with one of the principal
means of personal empowerment, emancipated understanding and informed choice in exercis-
ing the duties and responsibilities of a citizen in a participative or representative democracy.
Nowadays this notion has been taken seriously even by different groups, managers of educa-
tion who have articulated, drafted programs of education and strategies of lifelong learning.
In the traditional institutions and non-profit organizations (NGOs, national and international)
in Albania, there is a trend for offering opportunities for lifelong learning by the creation and
expansion of a range of community initiatives by providing trainings for different categories
of people. The central elements in what the teachers have described as the nature of lifelong
learning is for:
1. Economic progress and development (90% of both teachers and students);
2. Personal development and fulfillment (60% of students and 84% of teachers;
3. Social inclusiveness and democratic understanding and activity are fundamental to
building a more democratic policy and set of social institutions (50 % of students and
67% of teachers).
Both groups highlighted that these principles and ideals of social inclusiveness ask for a)
equity; b) an economy which is strong, and competitive; c) and a range of provision of activities
on which people choose. To realize these elements, concepts and goals of education and train-
ing, and a major re-orientation of its direction towards the concept and value of the idea of “the
learning society” is required.

Brian Tracy. He is now the Chairman of Brian Tracy International, a human resource company, with affiliates
throughout the United States and thirty-one other countries.

MASH (Ministry of Education and Science of Albania)
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
50 Conclusion
The notion of learning society needs some theoretical and analytical potential which
requires realization of a considerable work. There is a need for greater clarity in defining the
meaning of the learning society, and for establishing criteria for interpretation. Learning con-
tinually throughout life is vital if we are to make informed choices about our lives and the
societies in which we live. The strength of the idea of a learning society is a concept that needs
to link learning process with the idea of a future society. It is necessary to link the theory of
relationship between education and economic life and to draw upon understandings of human
beings as active, and cooperative in the learning society. The different and differentiated per-
sonal development would contribute to better understanding and improved implementation of
lifelong learning policies. Formal education needs to become more meaningful and relevant in
its on-line application.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge Statistical Office of Ministry of Science and Education

for the help provided to us. Special thank goes to our colleague Prof. As. Dr. Viktor Ristani who
encouraged us to write the article.
References
Aspin, D. N., and Chapman, J. D., (1988). Lifelong education and liberal education. Journal of Philoso-
phy of Education, Vol. 22, No. 1. pp 121–126.
Chinese Proverb. Retrieved from: http://www.quotationspage.com.
Drucker, P. F., (1993). Post-capitalist society. New York, USA, HarperCollins, pp. 212–232.
Dave, R. (1976). Foundations of Lifelong Education. Oxford, pp. 382.
Field, J. (2008). Lifelong Learning and the New Educational Order. London: Trentham-books, pp. 210.
Geertz, C. (1993). The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, pp. 121–146. USA.
Huxley, H. T. (2010). Retrieved from: http://www.quotationspage.com.
Knapper, C. (1972). Lifelong Learning in the Workplace”. Carnegie Foundation, pp. 10. Retrieved from:
http://www.nceta.flinders.edu.au.
Knapper, C., and Cropley, V. (2000). Lifelong Learning in Higher Education. Routledge, pp. 238. Lon-
don. UK.
Ministry of Education and Science (MASH). (2007). Annual Statistical Report of Education 2006-2007.
Tirana: Published by MASH, pp. 75.
Ministry of Education and Science (MASH). (2010). Annual Statistical Report of Education. 2009-2010.
Tirana: Published by MASH, pp. 78.
Smethurst, R. (1995). Education: a public or private good? Edmund Rich Memorial Lecture. RSA Jour-
nal, December 1995, pp 33–45.
Social Media for Trainers. (2009). New Approaches to Lifelong Learning, Big dog, little dog pp. 12. Re-
trieved from http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/depts/sese/
Tawney, R. H., (1938). Some Thoughts on the Economics of Public Education. London: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, pp. 203.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Tight, M. (1996). Key Concepts in Adult Education and Training. London: Routledge. pp. 180. 51
Tuijnman, A., (1996). Lifelong learning for all: meeting of the education committee at ministerial level.
Paris: OECD..
Smith, M. K. (1996, 2001). Lifelong learning. The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from
http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-life.htm
UNESCO (1972). Report Learning to Be. Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.org/delors/ltobe.htm
Adviced by Viktor Ristani, University of Tirana, Albania
Luljeta Buza PhD, “Luarasi” Law University, Rr. Lidhja Prizrenit, Pall.10, Ap, 1, Tirana, Albania.
E-mail: luljetabuza@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.luarasi-univ.edu.al
Hektor Buza Director, Ministry of Education and Science, Rr. Durresit. No. 123, Tirana, Albania.
E-mail: hbuza@mash.gov.al
Website: http://www.mash.gov.al
Elida Tabaku PhD, Head of English Department, Faculty of Foreign, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania.
E-mail: lidatabaku@yahoo.com
Website: http//:www.unitir.edu.al
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
52
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FARMER FIELD

SCHOOLS’ EXTENSION METHODOLOGY
IN CONSERVING SOIL AND WATER USING
CONTOUR PLOUGHING, UNPLOUGHED
STRIPS AND FARM YARD MANURE
John Gowland-Mwangi
Egerton University, Egerton, Kenya
E-mail: mwangijg5@yahoo.com
John Odiaga Oloo

Ministry of Livestock Development, Kisumu, Kenya
E-mail: oloo@gmail.com
Stephen Wambugu Maina

Ministry of Agriculture – Sotik, Nakuru, Kenya
E-mail: Stephen67maina@yahoo.com
Abstract
Land degradation, characterized by bare ground, wanton destruction of vegetation and poor farming
practices, still threatens food production in Africa where poverty and insufficient resources for income
generation impacts negatively on the population. The Farmer Field Schools’ (FFS) Extension and Non-
Farmer Field Schools’ (NFFS) Extension Methodologies have been used to teach farmers how to mini-
mize the problem in both Bondo and Rarieda districts of Kenysa through soil and water conservation.
However, it is not yet clear whether FFS are more effective than NFFS in enhancing adoption of Contour
Farming, Un-ploughed Strips and Farm Yard Manure Application. This study sought answers to this
question using a cross-sectional survey design to collect data from 150 FFS-trained and 150 NFFS-
trained farmers randomly selected from both districts. Ten extension experts ascertained the question-
naire’s content validity whose reliability was 0.85α at 0.05 confidence level. A t-test was used to determine
the presence of significant differences between mean scores of FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers in
adopting the three conservation techniques. The FFS-trained farmers’ adoption rate of the three conser-
vation technologies was significantly higher than that of the NFFS-trained farmers. The FFS extension
methodology was more effective than the NFFS extension methodologies. Extension providers should
consider using the FFS extension methodology more in their daily extension work because it is interactive
and more effective than the NFFS.
Key words: effectiveness, farmer field schools, conservation of resources, Bondo and Rarieda districts,
Kenya.
John Gowland-Mwangi, John Odiaga Oloo, Stephen Wambugu Maina. The Effectiveness of Farmer Field Schools’
Extension Methodology in Conserving Soil and Water Using Contour Ploughing, Unploughed Strips and Farm Yard Manure
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Introduction 53
Globally, the problem of land degradation, which is a major threat to food security and
farm productivity, is worse now than ever before and according to the United Nations Sec-
retary General, Ban Ki-moon, land degradation has made approximately 30% of the world’s
cropland unproductive over the past 40 years (Block, 2008, Ki-moon, 2010). In Bondo and Rar-
ieda districts of Western Kenya, land degradation manifested itself in gullies, bare ground and
wanton destruction of ground vegetation cover that led to losses of soil and water and increased
inability of the land to support agricultural production. It makes land use unsustainable and
harder for Kenya to achieve her Vision 2030 that targets a 10% annual economic growth aimed
at creating sufficient funds for improving the country’s infrastructure and reducing unequal
distribution of resources, poverty and unemployment (Daily Nation, 2009). It negatively affects
Kenya’s ability to achieve the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 7 whose objective is to
ensure environmental sustainability by integrating the principles of sustainable development
into policies and programs intended to reverse the loss of environmental resources (GTZ, 2006,
Ki-moon, 2010). Effective conservation of the natural resource was greatly needed to address
problems of land degradation. Extension providers in Bondo and Rarieda districts were us-
ing the Farmer Field Schools (FFS) extension methodology and the non-Farmer Field Schools
(NFFS) extension methodologies to promote contour ploughing, use of unploughed strips, and
farm yard manure application as conservation measures. A Farmer Field School is a capacity
building extension methodology that uses adult education principles in farmers’ groups. it is
best described as ‘a school without walls’ in which farmers learn improved technologies and
farming practices aimed at high and sustained production as well as environmental conserva-
tion in their farms through observation and experimentation (District FFS Coordinator, 2006,
Groeneweg, 2006, Mungai, Nakhone, Lagat, Opiyo, & Mumera, 2008, Wright, 2007). Non-
Farmer Field Schools (NFFS) extension methodologies involved use of neighbours, friends,
farm visits, focal area approach, seminars, letters and brochures, telephone, contact farmers,
mass media, agricultural shows, on-farm trials, demonstrations or field days to communicate
with farmers.
This study sought to determine the effectiveness of Farmer Field Schools (FFS) exten-
sion methodology in enhancing the adoption of contour ploughing, use of unploughed strips
and farmyard manure application. The study’s specific objectives were to determine the effec-
tiveness of the FFS extension methodology when compared to NFFS extension methodologies
in enhancing the adoption of contour ploughing, use of unploughed strips and farmyard manure
application in Bondo and Rarieda districts. The results of the study were intended to provide
answers to the following research questions: Is FFS extension methodology more effective than
NFFS methodologies in enhancing the adoption of contour farming, use of unploughed strips,
and farm yard manure application by small-holder farmers in Bondo and Rarieda districts?
Knowing the effectiveness of an extension communication method enables an extension
provider to choose correctly an appropriate method that is effective in a particular situation.
The correct choice and use of the right extension communication method is likely to enhance
adoption of conservation technologies. The ability to choose the correct extension method was
particularly important in Bondo and Rarieda districts because over 80% of the households in
the two districts engaged in subsistence farming, were food insecure in at least part of the year,
74.1% of them lived below the poverty line and experienced surface runoff of 40% in their
farms and development of gullies affected 30% of their available arable land (District Agricul-
tural Officer, 2006, Mungai, Nakhone, Lagat, Opiyo, & Mumera, 2008).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
54 Problem of Research
Extension providers in the two districts had insufficient knowledge on whether the FFS
extension methodology was more effective than the NFFS extension methodologies in address-
ing problems of land degradation. Lack of this information made it harder for them to choose
and apply the more effective extension methodology in resources conservation. This study was
intended to provide the missing information to enable extension providers to choose correctly
an appropriate extension method that would more effectively improve their dissemination of
appropriate conservation technologies to farmers. Better interaction with farmers would then
enhance farmers’ adoption of sustainable farming practices in the two districts. The results from
this study were also intended to help other educators in encouraging frequent use of the more
effective extension communication methodology in all their interactions with farmers on issues
related to environmental conservation.
Research Focus
Land degradation - largely caused by land clearance, deforestation and poor farming
practices – is becoming worse in severity and extent and is a major threat to food security and
farm productivity in African countries and Kenya in particular (Block, 2008). It manifested
itself in declining biodiversity; soil erosion leading to loss of soil fertility and productivity with
negative impacts on livelihoods and the economy; increased sedimentation; long-term loss of
ecosystem function due to disturbances from which the land cannot recover unaided; reduced
crop and pasture productivity; diminished fuel wood and non-timber forest products close-
ly linked to poverty and food insecurity; increased salinity; scanty ground vegetation cover
and low carrying capacity of pastures; farmer migration; and ecosystem failure (Block, 2008,
Muchena 2008). Uncontrolled land degradation made it harder for Kenya to achieve the MDG
7 whose objective is to ensure environmental sustainability by integrating the principles of sus-
tainable development into policies and programs intended to reverse the loss of environmental
resources. Within the 40 years that approximately 30% of the world’s cropland became unpro-
ductive, involuntary migration, disintegration of communities, political instability and armed
conflict occurred as a result of social strains caused by drought, famine, unsustainable farming
practices that remove ground vegetation cover exposing top soils to erosion, and deepening
poverty (GTZ, 2006, Ki-moon, 2010).
Land degradation made it harder for Kenya to achieve her goals of increasing farm pro-
ductivity, food self-sufficiency, better nutrition and poverty reduction without increasing cul-
tivated land. Achievement of MDG 1 and 2 was particularly important for Bondo and Rarieda
districts whose poverty level was 71% implying that it is was important to eradicate extreme
poverty and hunger, as per the objectives of MDG 1 (DDO, 2007). Because degraded farms
needed more resources to than average farmers could afford, using effective extension meth-
ods to disseminate research-based technologies to farmers was desirable and extremely essen-
tial (Block, 2008, Groeneweg, 2006, Prager, Schuler, Helming, Zander, Ratinger & Hagedorn,
2010, Wright, 2007). To conserve the natural resource, extension providers promoted three
conservation technologies to cut down the speed of ground runoff namely, contour ploughing
and use of stone lines or unploughed strips. In contour ploughing, farmers plough the land
across the slope to create stepped-up ridges for planting crops. The ridges reduce the speed of
water runoff, which causes soil erosion. Unploughed strips usually 1-2 m wide, left along the
contours prevent or minimize soil erosion by slowing down the flow of surface water down
the slope. Soil erosion was also controlled by constructing stone lines using stones or boulders
(Government of Kenya, 2002).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Contour ploughing ensures that rainfall and surface runoff is spread over a field by 55
making furrows parallel to the contours. It is effective on slopes less than 10% steep and can
reduce soil erosion by 50% while increasing water infiltration and soil retention, limited release
of nutrients, disruption of wind currents, reduced loss of nutrients and increased speed of ox
ploughing since the equipment moves along the same elevation (Nyagaka, Mwer, Shiribwa, &
Kaumbutho, 2001, Posthumus, Hewett, Moris, Quinn, 2008). However, improperly laid con-
tour lines increase the risk of soil erosion; stepped topography may hinder mechanized farming;
and maintenance of contours is labour-intensive (Nyagaka et al., 2001). Unploughed strips,
usually 1-2m wide, left to run along the contours act as a barrier that slows the speed of sur-
face runoff down the slope while farmyard manure is a good source of plant nutrients. Some
farmyard manures provide 70%-80% nitrogen, 60%-85% phosphorus and 80%-90% potassium
(Quedraego, 2005). Proper management of the top soil creates an organic soil cover that may
enhance growth of soil organisms that improve soil structure (Wright, 2007). A cover or mulch
prevents the ground from being directly impacted on by rainfall and adoption conservation
practices could facilitate accumulation of soil organic matter, which maintains soil physical,
chemical and biological properties that are important for crop production (Michemi, Kihanda,
Irungu, 2004, Theodore, 2008).
Extension providers were promoting adoption of contour ploughing as well as the use
of unploughed strips and farm yard manure application in Bondo and Rarieda districts using
the Farmer Field Schools (FFS) extension methodology and non-Farmer Field Schools (NFFS)
extension methodologies. The purpose of using FFS extension methodology was to empower
farmers, through education, to independently make day-to-day, on-farm decisions and to bring
farmers with common problems together to conduct collective and collaborative inquiry (But-
tanya, 2004, Makori, 2004). The FFS extension methodology initiates community action in
problem solving using experimental learning techniques developed for non-formal adult educa-
tion. Farmer Field Schools were first used in South East Asia in 1989 to disseminate Integrated
Pest Management technologies among small-scale rice farmers and have since been used to
educate farmers on soil fertility management in the Philippines, Vietnam and China; and in
disseminating dairy production technologies in Kenya (Groweneg, 2006). A farmer field school
has 20-30 farmers who meet regularly to share information and interact with researchers and
extension workers on a demand-driven basis (Groeneweg, 2006, Soniia, Agordorku, Bassanga,
Guloud, Kumi, Okuku, & Wandiji, 2006). Participants learn problem-solving skills by partici-
pating in practical farmer-led learning activities on the farmer’s field with the help of competent
extension facilitators who guide them systematically through discovery learning (Groeneweg,
2006 & Khisa, 2004, Sonii et al., 2006). The number of FFS in both crop and livestock produc-
tion in Bondo district increased from 18 in 2002 to 187 in 2010 involving 4500 farmers (District
FFS Coordinator, 2007).
Figure 1 shows the relationship between the independent variable types of extension
methodologies and the dependent variable effectiveness. To control the Intervening variable
experimental learning, all farmers taught through FFS used the same curriculum while those
taught through NFFS used various models. To control the variable contact hours, completed
hours of learning was 80 hours for all FFS-trained farmers but varied for NFFS-trained farmers
depending on the method used. The variable funds availability was controlled by ensuring that
all FFS-trained farmers received 80,500/= Kenya shillings (US$ 1.00= Ksh. 1,000) of which
40,000/= (US$ 500) was for capacity building and the remaining 40,500/= for enterprise de-
velopment. NFFS-trained farmers had received no funds or varying amount that could not be
easily quantified. The intervening variable policy environment was controlled by the fact both
FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers worked under the same policy environment. Farmers
were free to decide whether to adopt or not. Therefore, differences in adoption of the three
resource conservation technologies between the two groups could be attributed to factors other
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
56 than policy environment. To control the variable facilitators, both the FFS-trained and NFFS-
trained farmers were taught by extension agents with equivalent training, qualifications and
experience. Therefore, any changes in the dependent variable were more likely to be due to the
extension methodology used.
Independent Intervening Dependent

Variable Variables Variable
Type of 1. Experimental learning Effectiveness measured as %

E xtension 2. Contact hours with farmers adoption of contour ploughing,
unploughed strips and farm
3. Availability of funds
1. FFS yard manure application
2. NFF S 4. Policy environment
5. Facilitators
Figure 1: A conceptual framework for determining the effectiveness of the

type of extension delivery method in the farmers’ adoption of three
resource conservation techniques.
The study used a cross-sectional survey design (Kombo & Tromp, 2007) to collect data
from 150 FFS-trained and 150 NFFS-trained farmers in Bondo and Rarieda districts. This de-
sign is suitable for determining respondents’ feelings, attitudes, opinions and practices. Bondo
district is 1328 km2 and has a population of 144,780 while Rarieda district is 644 km2 and has
a population of 133,886 (District Agricultural Officer, 2008, District Livestock Production Of-
ficer, 2008). The rainfall in both districts is bimodal and ranges from 800-1600mm per year
with a mean of 1200mm. The long rains fall between March and May while the short rains fall
between October and November. The temperature ranges from 150C-320C with a mean of 240C
while the annual evaporation rate is 2000-2200mm. The districts are 1140m-1400m above sea
level and have soils that vary from black cotton, sand loams, to red volcanic. Small-scale farm-
ers account for 80% of total agricultural production. On average, their farms are 2-3ha. Their
annual consumption of cereals is 350,000 bags but production is 201,080 bags indicating a big
food deficit that is responsible for the prevailing poverty index of 70.6% (Central Bureau of
Statistics, 2000, District Development Officer, 2008).
Sample of Research
Purposive sampling was used to select FFS-trained farmers and proportional random
sampling to select respondents from each division based on the number of farmers in the di-
vision. Divisions with more farmers had a higher representation in the sample. In order to
minimize problems of attrition, migration out of the study area, and non-response or refusal to
participate, a sample of 300 was selected from 4500 farmers, which included 150 FFS-trained
farmers and 150 NFFS-trained farmers. This number was above the minimum of 100 subjects
recommended for survey research analysis in each major sub-group by Kathuri and Pals (1993)
and Fraenkel and Wallen (1990). An equal number of NFFS-trained farmers (150) were se-
lected proportionately from a list obtained from District Agricultural Officers of both districts.
These officers had kept records of all farmers trained through FFS and NFFS. It was therefore
possible to distinguish FFS-trained from NFFS-trained farmers.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Instrument and Procedures 57
A structured closed-ended questionnaire, developed by the researchers and found to be

content valid by a panel of extension experts, was used to collect primary data while reports
and pamphlets were used to collect secondary data (Kombo & Tromp, 2007, Kothari, 2007).
The questionnaire for data collection was pilot tested with 35 FFS-trained and 35 NFFS-trained
farmers in the neighbouring Busia district. Its reliability was found to be 0.85α, which was
above the 0.70 threshold for acceptable reliability (Bryman & Cramer, 1997). For data col-
lection, five enumerators, trained on questionnaire administration and issues of confidentiality
assisted the researchers in collecting primary data from both FFS-Trained and NFFS-trained
farmers in their farms. This was preceded by prior appointments made through Divisional FFS
Coordinators. The three conservation techniques that farmers had adopted were measured in
meters. Each respondent completed the questionnaire and handed it over to the researchers or
to enumerators who checked to ensure that there were no uncompleted items. Where necessary,
respondents with inadequate writing skills were assisted to record their responses in the ques-
tionnaire. The size of farms was calculated in square meters to obtain the proportion of land
conserved through the three land conservation technologies.
Data Analysis
Data were entered in the computer and analyzed using the Statistical Package for So-
cial Sciences (SPSS). For each technique (contour ploughing, unploughed strips and farmyard
manure application), the mean, mode and standard deviations were calculated while a t-test
was used to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference in mean scores
between FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers. The extension methodology (FFS or NFFS)
associated with a higher adoption rate than the other was considered more effective.
Results of Research
Unlike NFFS- trained farmers, all FFS-trained farmers followed a well defined resource
conservation training program linked to a specific enterprise from land preparation to harvest-
ing. Depending on the enterprise, farmers were trained for 2 hours per day once a week for a
maximum of 40 weeks or 80 contact hours with extension staff. The curriculum for NFFS-
trained farmers was not well defined since the training was largely informal and therefore, it
was difficult to ascertain the number of times they interacted with extension providers. The
fact that adoption of the three resource conservation technologies was higher for FFS-trained
than for NFFS-trained farmers implies a positive and significant relationship between farmers’
contact hours with extension providers and adoption.
Table 1 shows the farmers’ percentage adoption of the three conservation technologies
by age. None of the respondents was below 20 years and although percentage adoption tended
to increase with age, it was relatively higher for FFS-trained than for NFFS-trained farmers.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
58 Table 1. Percentage adoption of conservation technologies by age in

years (N=300).
Type of technology and extension Age

method
< 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 >50
Contour Ploughing
FFS 0 10 18 26 37
NFFS 0 10 13 15 26
Unploughed Strips
FFS 0 6 13 20 24
NFFS 0 2 5 5 14
Farm Yard Manure Application
FFS 0 10 19 24 42
NFFS 0 4 8 17 19
The percentage adoption was higher for females than for males irrespective of the type
of technology being promoted and the training methodology used (Table 2).
Table 2. Percentage adoption of conservation technologies by

gender (N=300).
Type of technology and extension method Gender
Male farmers Female farmers
Contour Ploughing
FFS 29 71
NFFS 31 69
Unploughed Strips
FFS 17 83
NFFS 19 81
FFS 23 77
NFFS 24 76
Table 3 shows higher adoption rates among farmers with primary school level of educa-
tion irrespective of the training methodology used
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 3. Farmers’ percentage adoption of conservation technologies by 59

education level (N=300).
Type of technology and extension method Education level

N P S T AE
Contour Ploughing
FFS 2 51 34 2 0
NFFS 2 35 18 5 1
Unploughed Strips
FFS 2 29 17 1 0
NFFS 2 25 10 0 0

FFS 1 46 28 1 0
NFFS 1 28 14 5 0
Key: N=Nil, P = Primary, S = Secondary, T = Tertiary, AE = Adult Education
Farmers learned the three conservation technologies from NFFS extension methodolo-
gies that included public meetings, on-farm trials, farm visits and tours, residential and non-
residential training, and field days. Their adoption of these technologies remained low probably
due to the limited contact they had with extension providers and insufficient hands-on experi-
ence except where on-farm demonstrations were used. Adoption of the three technologies for
FFS-trained farmers was higher than for NFFS-trained farmers implying that use of FFS in
promoting the use of these technologies may lead to higher adoption. Plates 1-3 show the three
conservation technologies on FFS-trained farmers’ farms in Usigu division of Western Kenya.
Plate 1: A Contour Ploughed Field Plate 2: Unploughed Strip of a

in Western Kenya Farm in Western Kenya
Plate 3: Ground Rock Exposed by

Water Erosion in Western
Kenya
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
60 The first research question was: Is the FFS extension methodology more effective than
NFFS methodologies in enhancing adoption of contour ploughing in Bondo and Rarieda dis-
tricts? Table 8 shows that the mean score of land covered by contour ploughing was higher at
1.32 (with a standard deviation of 0.69 and standard error of 0.06) for FFS-trained than for
NFFS-trained farmers, which was at 1.27 (with a standard deviation of 1.26 and standard error
of 0.10) at 0.05α. Table 9 indicates a statistically significant difference between mean scores of
FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers in adoption of contour ploughing with a combined mean
of 0.20, standard deviation of 1.14 and standard error of 0.07 (t = 3.09, p < 0.05, df=299).
Table 8. Paired samples statistics for FFS and NFFS-trained farmers on

contour ploughing in Bondo and Rarieda Districts (N=300).
Mean N Std Deviation Std. Error Mean

FFS Test Scores 1.32 150 0.69 0.06
Pair 1
NFFS Test Scores 1.27 150 1.26 0.10
Table 9. Paired samples test for FFS and NFFS-trained farmers on

contour ploughing in Bondo and Rarieda Districts (N=300).
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Std. Difference
Error Sig.
Mean SD Mean Lower Upper t df (2-tailed)
FFS Test Scores

Pair 1 0.20 1.14 0.07 0.07 0.33 3.09* 299 0.00
NFFS Test Scores
Legend: (*) Significant at 0.05 levels
The second research question was: Is FFS the extension methodology more effective
than NFFS methodologies in enhancing the adoption of unploughed strips in Bondo and Rar-
ieda districts? Table 10 shows that the mean score of land covered by unploughed strips was
higher at 0.74 (with a standard deviation of 0.85 and standard error of 0.07) for FFS-trained
than for NFFS-trained farmers, which was at 0.53 (with a standard deviation of 0.08 and stand-
ard error of 0.07) at 0.05 confidence level. Table 11 indicates a statistically significant differ-
ence between mean scores of FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers in adoption of unploughed
strips with a combined mean of 0.86, standard deviation of 1.02 and standard error of 0.06 (t =
14.65, p < 0.05, df=299).
unploughed strips in Bondo and Rarieda Districts (N=300).

Pair FFS Test Scores 0.74 150 0.85 0.07
1 NFFS Test Scores 0.53 150 0.08 0.07
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 11. Paired Samples Test for FFS and NFFS-Trained Farmers on 61
Unploughed Strips in Bondo and Rarieda Districts (N=300).
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Std.
Difference
Error Sig.
Mean SD Mean t df (2-tailed)
Lower Upper
FFS Test Scores
Pair 1 0.86 1.02 0.06 0.75 0.98 14.65* 299 0.00
NFFS Test Scores
The third research question was: Is FFS the extension methodology more effective than
NFFS methodologies in enhancing the adoption of farmyard manure application in Bondo and
Rarieda districts? Table 12 shows that the mean score of land covered by farmyard manure ap-
plication was higher at 1.15 (with a standard deviation of 0.69 and standard error of 0.06) for
FFS-trained than for NFFS-trained farmers, which was at 0.83 (with a standard deviation of
0.76 and standard error of 0.06) at 0.05 confidence level. Table 13 indicates a statistically sig-
nificant difference between mean scores of FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers in adoption
of farmyard manure application with a combined mean of 0.51, standard deviation of 0.98 and
standard error of 0.06 (t = 8.93, p < 0.05, df = 299).
farmyard manure application in Bondo and Rarieda
Districts (N=300).

FFS Test Scores 1.15 150 0.69 0.06
Pair 1
NFFS Test Scores 0.83 150 0.76 0.06
Table 13. Paired samples test for FFS and NFFS-trained farmers on
farmyard manure application in Bondo and Rarieda
Districts (N=300).
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Std. Difference
Error Sig.
Mean SD Mean Lower Upper t df (2-tailed)
FFS Test Scores

Pair 1 0.51 0.98 0.06 0.40 0.62 8.93* 299 0.00
NFFS Test Scores

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
62 Discussion
Since FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers worked under the same farming conditions
and were trained by extension agents with similar qualifications and experience, any difference
in adoption between then was attributed to the type of extension methodology. The two meth-
odologies differed in practical approach, participatory nature and contact hours. Adoption rate
for FFS-trained farmers was higher than for NFFS-trained farmers on all the three conservation
technologies, implying that the FFS extension methodology was more effective.
Adoption was higher for older than for younger farmers. This was probably because
older farmers had bigger family responsibilities and therefore tended to adopt new technologies
that improved the productivity of their farms. This finding is supported or contested by the work
of other researchers. For example, Anyango (2000) found no relationship between age and
adoption while Rahman (2007) reported a positive relationship. Our results support Rahman’s
(2007) work but differ with the work of Mohammed and Singh (2003), who found a negative
relationship, between age and adoption. Rogers’ (1983) had earlier argued that younger farmers
were more likely to adopt new technologies. In general adoption of the three conservation tech-
nologies (contour ploughing, unploughed strips and farmyard manure application) was higher
for FFS-trained than for NFFS-trained farmers implying that the FFS extension methodology
was more effective than the NFFS extension methodologies in resource conservation due to its
practical and interactive orientation.
Adoption was higher for female than for male farmers. On average, the mean adoption
of the three conservation technologies among farmers in the two districts was higher for FFS-
trained than for NFFS-trained farmers. This difference could be attributed to the FFS’ group
learning and learning by doing approach. Adoption of the three conservation technologies was
higher for farmers with primary education followed by those with secondary school education
and tertiary education. Since education for FFS-trained farmers and NFFS-trained farmers was
not significantly different, the higher adoption for farmers with primary education was probably
due to their availability for meetings and group composition aspects rather than education. It
should be noted that proportional random sampling was based on geographical division rather
than education. This may explain why this particular finding differed with the findings of Rah-
man (2007), Chitere (1995), Ndiema (2002) and Childress (1994) who found that adoption of
agricultural technologies increased with education.
Unlike NFFS- trained farmers, all FFS-trained farmers followed a well defined resource
conservation training program linked to a specific enterprise from land preparation to harvest-
ing. Depending on the enterprise, farmers were trained for 2 hours per day once a week for a
maximum of 40 weeks or 80 contact hours with extension staff. The curriculum for NFFS-
trained farmers was not well defined since the training was largely informal and therefore, dif-
ficult to ascertain the number of times they interacted with extension providers. The fact that
adoption of the three technologies was higher for FFS-trained than for NFFS-trained farmers
implied a positive and significant relationship between farmers’ contact hours with extension
providers and adoption.
Farmers learned the three conservation technologies from NFFS extension methodolo-
gies that included public meetings, on-farm trials, farm visits and tours, residential and non-
residential training, and field days. Their adoption of these technologies remained low because
of their limited contact with extension providers and limited hands-on skills except where farm
demonstrations were used. Adoption of the three technologies for FFS-trained farmers was
higher than for NFFS-trained farmers. This implied that use of the FFS extension methodology
led to higher adoption of the three conservation technologies.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Since FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers worked under the same farming condi- 63
tions and were trained by extension agents with similar qualifications and experience, any dif-
ference in adoption between them was attributed to the type of extension methodology. The
two methodologies differed in their practical approach, participatory nature and contact hours.
FFS-trained farmers had a higher adoption rate than NFFS-trained farmers on all the three
conservation technologies, implying that its use in promoting conservation agriculture led to
higher adoption rates.
Since the FFS extension methodology was more effective than the NFFS extension
methodologies in promoting adoption of the three conservation technologies, the researchers
recommended that given a choice, extension providers should use the FFS extension meth-
odology to encourage farmers to practice conservation agriculture in their farms due to its
interactive and learning by doing principle. The Kenya Government, through the Ministry of
Agriculture, and the private sector should continue to encourage farmers to pay greater atten-
tion in ensuring that they ploughed along the contours, leave unploughed strips whose number
and length should depend on the slope of the land; and should allocate more funds for FFS train-
ing. They should further make a regular follow up of the FFS-trained farmers after graduation.
Since adoption rates of contour ploughing, and use of unploughed strips and farm yard manure
application were significantly higher for FFS-trained than for NFFS-trained farmers, further
research should be done to determine whether the use of FFS in promoting resource conserva-
tion technologies is cost effective.
Conclusions
Age influenced the adoption of contour ploughing, use of unploughed strips and farm-
yard manure application for both FFS-trained and NFFS-trained farmers. Farmers with more
years in farming had a better understanding of the usefulness of conservation agriculture and
were more likely to adopt conservation technologies that improved the productivity of their
land per unit area. The FFS extension methodology was more effective than the NFFS exten-
sion methodologies in promoting conservation agriculture. Adoption of the three conservation
technologies was independent of gender though it could play a role where physical strength is
required to apply farmyard manure or plough along the contour using heavy farm machinery.
Education did not influence the adoption of the three conservation technologies probably be-
cause they were fairly simple and their benefits easy to understand. However, education may
play a significant role in adoption if the technology is more complex and challenging to under-
stand, interpret and use.
Acknowledgements
The researchers are grateful to Egerton University for funding this study, fellow re-
searcher for reviewing the data collection instruments for content validity, and all enumerators
and field extension officers for their support. They are also grateful to their family members for
their encouragement and support.
References
Anyango, C. (2000). Awareness and response by smallholder women farmers to soil erosion. A case study
of Njoro. Unpublished M.A.thesis, Egerton University, Kenya.
Ban Ki-moon (2010). Desertification is caused by climatic variations and human actions. Tackling land
degradation crucial for human well-being, UN officials stress. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.
asp?NewsID=35050 Retrieved: 11/9/2010
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
64 Block, Ben (2008, July 9). Land degradation worse than previously reported. http://www.worldwatch.
org/node/5820 retrieved 9/9/10
Bryman, A. & Cramer, D. (1997). Quantitative data analysis with SPSS for windows: A guide to social
scientists. London.
Buttanya, D. K. (2004). Effectiveness of FFS in dissemination and adoption of soil management technolo-
gies among. Yuya location of Transzoia district. Unpublished.
Central Bureau of Statistics (2000). Second quarterly report. Bondo & Rarieda districts.
Chitere, P. A. (1995). Extension education and farmers’ preference in improved crop farming in Kakak-
mega district. Agricultural Administration, 18, 39 - 57.
Childress, M. D. (1994). Capital investment on smallholder coffee farms. In: Economic and Institutional
Analysis of Soil Conservation Project in Central America and the Carribean. World Bank. Environmental
Paper No. 8, Washington DC: USA.
District Agricultural Officer’s Annual Report (2006). Annual report. Bondo district.
District Agricultural Officer’s Annual Report (2008). Annual report. Bondo district.
District Development Officer (2007). Annual report. Bondo district.
District Development Officer (2008). District development plan 2008-2012 for Bondo and Rarieda dis-
tricts.
District FFS Coordinator (2007). Annual report. Bondo district.
District Livestock Production Officer’s (2008). Annual report. Bondo district
Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, E. W. (1990). Sampling. How to design and evaluate research in education,
(p.81). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
Government of Kenya (2002). Ministry of Agriculture: Soil and Water Conservation Branch. Nairobi.
Groeneweg, G. B. (2006). Livestock farmer field schools: Guidelines for facilitation and technical man-
ual, (pp. 1-18). Nairobi, Kenya.
GTZ Sustainet. (2006). Sustainable agriculture. A path way out of poverty for East Africa’s rural poor.
Examples from Kenya and Tanzania, (pp. 1–11). Eschborn: Deutsche Geseclscchaf.
Kathuri, N. J. & Pals, A. D. (1993). Introduction to educational research, (p. 87). Egerton Education
Book Series. Njoro.
Khisa, G. (2004). Farmers field schools’ methodology; training of trainers’ manual, (pp. 1–28). Nairobi.
Kombo, K. D. & Tromp, A. L. D. (2007). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction, (p.168). Nairobi:
Pauline’s Publication Africa.
Kothari, C. R. (2007). Research methods and techniques, (pp. 1–56). New Delhi: New Age.
Makori, J. A. (2004). Influence of FFS extension approaches on smallholders’ knowledge and skills
of dairy management technologies in Molo division. Unpublished MSc thesis.
Michemi, A., Kihanda, F. & Irungu, J. (2004). The basis for improved soil organic matter (SOM): The
basis for improved crop production in arid and semi-arid climates of Eastern Kenya. In: Managing nutri-
ent cycles to sustain soil fertility in sub-Saharan Africa. Nairobi.
Mohammed, M. K. & Singh, B. (2003). Correlation adoption of improved sericulture practices. Indian
Journal of Extension Education, 39 (1 and 2), 51 & 57.
Muchena, F. N. (2008). Indicators for sustainable land management in Kenya’s context. GEF land degra-
dation focal area indicators, ETC-EastAfrica. Nairobi, Kenya.
Mungai, N. W., Nakhone, L. W., Lagat, J. K., Opiyo, A. M. & Mumera, L. M. (2008). Role of traditional
leafy vegetables and associated cropping systems. (p. 44).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Ndiema, A. T. (2002). Factors affecting adoption of selected wheat varieties (Tricum aestivum) produc- 65
tion technology by farmers in Njoro and Rongai divisions of Nakuru District. Unpublished MSc thesis.
Egerton University, Njoro.
Nyagaka, D., Mwer, B., Shiribwa, M. & Kaumbutho, P. (2001). A study guide for farmer field schools (pp.
1 - 86). FARMESA, Harare.
Posthumus, H., Hewett C. J. M., Moris, J. & Quinn, P. F. (2008). Agricultural land use and flood risk
management. Agricultural Water Management, 7(95), 787–797. North York.
Prager, K., Schuler, J., Helming, K., Zander, P, Ratinger, T. & Hagedorn, K. (2010). Soil degradation,
farming practices, institutions and policy responses: An analytical framework http://onlinelibrary.wiley.
com/doi/10.1002/ldr.979/abstract
Quedraego, A. (2005). The future of African agriculture in context of WTO agricultural negotiations, (pp.
15-27). Nairobi. Networks (ATPS).
Rahman, S. (2007). Adoption of improved technologies by the pig farmers of Aizawi district. Livestock
Research for Rural Development, 19, 5.
Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations. (3rd ed.) New York, NY: Free Press.
Soniia, D., Agordorku, S., Bassanga, S., Guloud, J., Kumi, A. M., Okuku, I. & Wandiji, D. (2006). A
guide for conducting farmer field schools on cocoa integrated crop and pest management (pp. 1-7). Ac-
cra, Ghana.
Theodore, F. (2008). Investing in sustainable agricultural intensification. The role of conservation agri-
culture, (pp. 1–24). FAO, Italy.
Wright, R. T. (2007). Environmental science, (pp. 1-675). India: Pearson Education Inc.
John Gowland-Mwangi PhD in Agricultural Education and Extension, Professor of Agricultural Education
and Extension, Egerton University
P. O. Box 536-20115 Egerton, Kenya.
E-mail: mwangijg5@yahoo.com
John Odiaga Oloo MSc in Environmental Science, Ministry of Livestock Development

Principal Livestok Development Officer, P. O. Box 974 Kisumu, Kenya.
E-mail: oloo@gmail.com
Stephen Wambugu Maina MSc in Agricultural Extension, Principal Agricultural Officer

Ministry of Agriculture – Sotik, P. O. Box 15428-20100 Nakuru, Kenya.
E-mail: Stephen67maina@yahoo.com
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
66
PRE-SERVICE STUDENT TEACHER

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
RESEARCH AND SERVICE-LEARNING
Angela James
University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
E-mail: jamesa1@ukzn.ac.za
Abstract
Pre-service Biology student teachers completed a module/course on Research and Service-Learning as

part of their professional development. This module expected of student teachers to take new actions
in that they were to work with the lecturer and a manager from a community organization to conduct a
Research and Service-Learning project. This paper reports on two student teacher groups experiences of
the project. The research questions that drove this paper are: What were the pre-service student teachers’
experiences of their Research and Service-Learning project? An interpretive and qualitative approach
was used. An action research case study methodology with document analysis, reflective journals and
class discussions was used. The data collected was analysed using a descriptive case study, providing
narrative accounts for each of the student teacher groups. The data reveal the emotional, cognitive and
social dynamics that the student teachers experienced. The conclusion reached is that this project is an
essential component for the professional development of any Biology pre-service student teacher, espe-
cially in the South African. It is essential in that the pre-service student teachers can address poverty,
hunger, impact of HIV/AIDS and develop an understanding of the learners that they teach.
Key words: action research, service-learning, pre-service student teachers; student teacher profes-
sional development.
Introduction
A goal of the South African government is to provide quality education by address-

ing the subservient, irrelevant, unrealistic, impersonal education that the majority of people
received under the rule of apartheid (Department of Education, 1998). To achieve this goal,
the Department of Education has since 1994 introduced a plethora of policy documents that fo-
cused on curriculum change at the schooling level (Grades 0 – 12). These policies included the
National Curriculum Statements (NCS) Grades 10 – 12 (Department of Education, 2003) and
the Revised Curriculum Statements (RNCS) Grades 0 – 9 (Department of Education, 2006).
The introduction of these curricula was viewed by the South African government as heralding
the intended changes in education. This is evident in that the National Curriculum Statement
for Life Sciences (Biology) Grades 10-12 was based on “the principles of social transformation;
outcomes-based education (OBE); high knowledge and high skills; human rights, inclusivity,
environmental and social justice and valuing indigenous knowledge systems” (Department of
Education 2003, 1). Furthermore, according to this policy document “OBE encourages a learn-
er-centered and activity-based approach to education, while high knowledge and skills requires
Angela James. Pre-Service Student Teacher Professional Development: Research and Service-Learning
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
the empowerment of those sectors of the population who were previously disempowered by a 67
lack of knowledge and skills” (ibid, 2-4). At the tertiary level, policy referring to the professional
development of pre-service student teachers and the expectations of professional teachers were
passed, e.g. Norms and Standards for Educators (Department of Education, 2000). In these
policy documents the expectation and the role of teachers in providing high quality education is
highlighted. Furthermore, the Council for Higher Education, which focuses on developments at
the tertiary level, has called for the inclusion of Service-Learning in the curriculum of Higher
Education institutions (universities). The University of Kwa-Zulu-Natal is responding to this
by inserting in its Mission Statement that it promises responsiveness to South African society,
and expression of African identity. It has policies to guide outreach (community engagement),
research and teaching. Staff and students, including the student teachers at a Faculty of Educa-
tion are expected to work with communities for the development of both the students and the
community and in the process enhance the production of new knowledge.
The pre-service Biology student teachers are the South African teachers of the future
that is, in the next two to three years they will be teachers teaching in the schools. Currently,
Biology teachers are expected to implement the new curriculum when teaching Biology and
to integrate Environmental Education in the Biology lessons. This is the case as Environmen-
tal Education is not a separate subject and teachers are expected to integrate it when teaching
other subjects. This expectation is laid out in the learning outcomes of the Life Sciences (Biol-
ogy) curriculum in that learners should be able to “use science and technology effectively and
critically showing responsibility towards the environment and the health of others” (Depart-
ment of Education, 2003, 2). In a world filled with environmental crises (Palmer, 1997), which
include global poverty and food crises, the impact of diseases and high unemployment, and
particularly in South Africa where issues of gender related violence, HIV/AIDS, and crime
that the learners bring to school (Bhana, Morrell, Epstein and Moletsane, 2006), pre-service
student teacher professional development should encapsulate the complexity of educating the
student teachers in the highest possible quality education practice. Pre-service student teachers
should be empowered to achieve knowledge and skills and also an awareness of and actions
to be conducted for self and community development and empowerment. In this development
thinking it is important that pre-service student teachers, teachers, learners and the community
develop an understanding that positive environmental changes can and do occur, and that these
changes are done by responsible individuals (Braus, 1995). Gough & Gough (2004) are of
the opinion that themes in Environmental Education such as human rights, including cultural
diversity and overcoming poverty have traditionally not been included in the teaching of Bi-
ology at the schooling and the tertiary level. The inclusion and discussion on these issues in
Biology classrooms is essential for the development of knowledge and skills of Biology learn-
ers and pre-service student teachers. This is especially important in the South African context
where environmental problems such as homelessness, unemployment, poverty, pollution and
land degradation are in a deteriorating state (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2007). The
report cautions that “unless we take urgent and dedicated measures,” the physical environment
of the sub-continent and, significantly, the socio-economic well-being of many South Africans
will continue to deteriorate (South Africa Environment, 2007, 1). Pre-service Biology student
teacher educators should engage the student teachers in courses that promote and enhance the
student teachers’ knowledge and skill development on these issues. It is by engaging the student
teachers in Research and Service-Learning that student teachers may be developed beyond an
awareness about people’s impact on the environment and the so called green and brown issues
of the environment but to community development and empowerment, thus educating them for
the challenges of the 21st century.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
68 Background to the Problem
The thinking therefore is that pre-service student teachers should be professionally de-
veloped to implement the new Biology curriculum where environmental issues are given a cen-
tral focus. But, to achieve this, the professional development of the pre-service student teachers
should be one where they are confronted by these particular issues in authentic situations. Even
though there are policies in place to guide the teachers as to what is expected of them when
teaching Biology, it is well-known that policies and curriculum statements do not bring about
changes and improvements in quality teaching and learning on their own. It is the teachers who
are responsible for the implementation of new policies and therefore are regarded as a crucial
interface between the abstract education policies and curriculum statements on one side and
quality teaching and learning on the other (Fullan, 1982). Therefore, any change and demands
in education can only be implemented and realised if they are inherent in student teacher profes-
sional development programmes (Hargreaves, 2003).
It is for this reason that a student teacher professional development module, which fo-
cuses on Research and Service-Learning, was introduced in the Biological Sciences programme,
at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. In this module pre-service student teachers are expected
to develop as novice researchers and Service-Learners. This development is in the frame of
research and Service-Learning where student teachers develop the theory and practical skills
about research and Service-Learning in the context of Biology. The pre-service student teach-
ers are expected to conduct research on their Service-Learning in particular communities. The
research and Service-learning should be of benefit both to the pre-service student teachers and
the community. The importance of this module is for pre-service student teachers to develop a
“sense of social responsibility and commitment to the greater good” (Howard, 1998, 23-24).
For all pre-service student teachers, this is a new approach their professional development as
Biology student teachers.
The foci of social responsibility and commitment are used in this paper to give a different
meaning to pre-service student teacher professional development. This development is about
the action of pre-service student teachers as researchers and engaging in Service-Learning. The
question that I use to explore this pre-service student teacher professional development is:
What were the pre-service student teachers’ experiences of their Research and Service-
Learning projects?
Theoretical Perspective

Teachers are expected to be professionals and hence the practices that they are engaged
in, in the schools in which they teach reveals their professionalism. Teachers are expected to be
a source of information and knowledge and to adopt the teaching methods through which such
knowledge could be transmitted (Leavy, McSorley & Bote, 2007; Morrow, 2007; Bullough &
Gitlin, 1994; Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981). The professionalism that the pre-service student
teachers are expected to have when they are teachers is that of a personally engaged, holistic na-
ture, where their intellect is still necessary, and their emotional, personal and cognitive aspects
are considered and developed in their interactions with learners. The professionalism expected
of pre-service student teachers should be one where they are competent and “committed to the
practice of professional teaching” (Morrow, 2007, 75) and they can make decisions about
teaching and learning for particular learning environments with “confidence and commitment”
(Samuel, 2008, 15). Pre-service student teacher educators are faced with the challenge of de-
ciding on the most relevant programme for the professional development of student teachers.
These programmes should focus on the varied contexts and the challenges that the pre-service
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
student teachers will experience in teaching. Therefore, educators need to re-think their ap- 69
proaches and methods of teaching pre-service student teachers.
Currently many teacher education curricular fall short of preparing pre-service student
teachers for the array of complex environmental issues and they do not focus on “the purpose of
life which is to maximise and fully utilise human potential” (Leonard & Murphy, 1995, p. 14).
This according to Slabbert (2007, 2) is “not only a useful purpose, it is absolutely necessary.”
Slabbert (2007, 2) extends the purpose to include “towards a safe, sustainable and prosperous
universe for all”. It is essential that pre-service student teachers are developed to the level where
they can provide the highest possible quality education practice which focuses on the sustain-
able and prosperous world for all (Slabbert, 2007), make decisions about learning and teaching
for particular learning environments (Samuel, 2008) and to take into account the complexity
of the South African contexts. This would entail a special type of pre-service student teacher
professional development intervention, in the form of a Biological Sciences module.
The Biological Sciences module was focused on transformative approaches to higher
education in relation to community engagement. This community engagement is viewed as
Service-Learning. According to Bender and du Toit (2005, 13-16), “service learning is en-
trenched in a discourse that proposes the development and transformation of higher education
in relation to community needs….it is a balanced approach to, and an integration of, community
service and student learning”. Research conducted by van Niekerk (2007) on Service-Learning
in Adult basic education at a South African university concluded that service-learning “enriches
a student’s total learning experience at a tertiary institution and provides opportunities for better
closer public relations”. Service-Learning therefore is one avenue that tertiary institutions may
use to achieve the goal of responsible community engagement.
Service-Learning has been defined by various authors where some have focused on the
service component, others on the learning component and others on an equal focus on service
and learning. In this module the meaning of Service-Learning used embraces both service and
learning in a transformative manner, where student teachers are expected to be empowered to
address community needs. This meaning of Service-Learning is evident in that it may “develop
in students a lifelong commitment to service and leadership. It promotes understanding of lo-
cal issues as well as recognition of the interrelatedness of communities and societies across the
world” (International Partnership for Service-Learning and Leadership 2007, 1). During the
Service-Learning experiences the student teachers and the community were “equally benefit
… [and there was an] equal focus on both the service being provided and the learning” (Furco
1996, 1) that occurred. It was imperative that this module was designed in such a way that it en-
sured that “both the service enhances the learning and the learning enhances the service” (ibid).
Clearly the above meanings of Service-Learning highlight the role that (a) student/s following
a Service-Learning module has to play and the goals that (b) student/s have to achieve. Of sig-
nificance in both meanings is the maximum focus on the student role in the community.
The student teacher professional development module therefore, should focus on pre-
service student teachers developing an awareness of research and Service-Learning as parts
of a dynamic field which has great application for empowerment of themselves and the com-
munities within which they will work. More specifically, the module should focus on pre-serv-
ice student teachers developing the theory and practice of engaging in Service-Learning and
Research. These student teacher developments and experiences are not instantaneous, de novo
processes that occur in a vacuum. For student teachers to develop this theory and practice they
would need to be engaged in professional development modules where they are expected to
develop the theory of Research and Service-Learning and to act on these, that is, conduct them
in partnership with particular communities. In the process of the student teachers developing
the theory and engaging in the practice, their paradigms of thinking and action of teaching
and learning is challenged. By the pre-service student teachers engaging in the Research and
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
70 Service-Learning module they are challenged by the experiences that they encounter. This chal-
lenge could serve to broaden their expectations of what will be expected of them when they are
teaching and they will reflect on the importance of a trnaformative approach to student teacher
professional development.
Teaching and learning about research and Service-Learning has a number of challenges
for pre-service student teachers in a professional development programme. Dé Bryant (1996) is
of the view that we need to move beyond the meaning of research to include the service activi-
ties where we interact with the communities in our academic endeavour, especially in terms
of the work of teachers in their particular teaching contexts. The engagement of pre-service
student teachers in Service-Learning, “contributes to a richer education” at the university (van
Niekerk, 2007, 17). Research conducted by van Niekerk on Service-Learning in Adult basic
education concluded that Service-Learning “enriches a students’ total learning experience at
a tertiary institution and provides opportunities for better closer public relations” (ibid, 18).
The students in van Niekerk’s research expressed their enjoyment of Service-Learning in that
they took individual responsibility; the learning was practical, sharing ideas with many peo-
ple, learning from others and the challenges that they had experienced. These students also
expressed the most significant things that they had learnt and what they came to realise: the
importance of patience, challenging pre-conceived ideas, to be reliable and not to take simple
tasks for granted and that everybody is a person (van Niekerk, 2007). These student teachers’
experiences were crucially important for them to develop and to make a difference, not just to
themselves but also in their community. What was surprising is that the student teachers did
not voice any difficulties with the Service-Learning as such, and the interaction with the com-
munity. They only felt constrained by a lack of time to conduct service and challenged by their
feelings of being overwhelmed by so much to do and feeling uncertain about their competence
to do it (Van Niekerk, 2007).
A transformative approach to Research and Service-Learning is a critical approach to the
professional development of pre-service student teachers. As, the pre-service student teachers
are expected to engage in activities at the university and in the communities and reflect on these
to inform further action, the Vygotskian perspective on learning and development in a sociocul-
tural context (Van Huizen, van Oers and Wubbels, 2005, 267 - 290) is the theory adopted. This
choice of theory is based on the feature that it “concentrates on the connections between indi-
vidual functioning and development and the sociocultural practices in which individuals take
part” (ibid, 2005, p. 271). Each pre-service student teacher’s learning in the Biology module
expects of them to develop the knowledge and skills of research and Service-Learning through
the lectures, discussions at the university and their actual interactions with the people in the
communities. The pre-service student teachers are viewed as the individual and the experiences
that they have or encounter are influenced by their own emotions, cognitive understanding and
their identity of themselves as student teachers and citizens of South Africa. The sociocultural
practices are viewed as their actions and interactions with community members. It is for this
reason that the pre-service student teachers’ professional development during their Research
and Service- Learning project cannot be understood if it is only explained in terms of the pre-
service student’s understanding and not their emotions, reflections of their experiences as well.
The pre-service student teachers’ development cannot be removed from the everyday actions
e.g. planning, reflecting on activities that the pre-service student teachers participated in, within
particular contexts. This learning and development theory views the pre-service student teacher
and his/her environment (society) as “a unified system in which these two elements are joined
together in a dialectical relationship” (ibid). The pre-service student has an influence (impact)
on the environment (community) in which he/she works in and this environment will also have
an influence on the pre-service student teacher.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Methodology of Research 71
Context
The pre-service student teachers attended Biology classes at the university and they were
based in communities, in areas within a 30 km radius of the university.
They were based in an area that they had never been to before, it was their first experi-
ence of visiting and working in the area. Thabi and Camol were based in a township, which
although 12 km from the university, is a semi-rural area with a number of one-and two-bed-
roomed block houses, cows, grazing land and ‘container shops’. Denise and Pravi were based
in a rural, township area which was 30 km away from the university. This area comprised of
some mud huts and block two and three bedroomed houses, very small in structure. Both areas
had extensive levels of poverty and unemployment.
Sample of Research

Twenty four final year Biological Sciences pre-service student teachers completed the
module in 2007. This paper reports on two pre-service student teacher groups’ experiences
of the research and Service-Learning project. The selection criteria used to select the student
groups to report on for this research article were where the student group consisted of two
students, and they worked with (research sample groups) were children from the community
in which they were placed. Two student group projects were thus selected: Problems faced by
young adolescents of child-headed families by Thabi and Camol and an investigation of the
factors influencing the nutrition of infants aged 0 -12 months by Denise and Pravi. Thabi and
Canol are Black, African isiZulu males between 21 and 24 years old. Canol is a peer educator
in the HIV/AIDS leadership school programmes. Denise and Pravi are Indian, Hindu females
between 21 and 22 years old. The four students had not worked in semi-rural areas before.
Research Design
An interpretive, qualitative approach was selected as the purpose of the research was to
explore the pre-service student teachers’ subjective experiences of their Research and Service-
Learning projects. The use of a qualitative approach is supported by Creswell (2003, 181) who
states that “qualitative research is concerned with interactive and humanistic” aspects. The case
studies are descriptive, narrative accounts of each of the student teacher groups’ projects. The
action research case study is one where the experiences are recorded on three steps: the baseline
understanding step (initial experiences), the mid-project step and the post project step (James,
2009). This case study design was used to capture the pre-service student teachers’ initial un-
derstandings and expectations before they started the project and their planning, actions during
the project and their reflections after the project. Qualitative data is viewed as by researchers
as significant and the data collection involves “documenting real events, recording what people
say, observing specific behaviours, studying written documents” (Neuman, 1997, 329). It is for
this reason that the student teachers were expected to record their experiences in a reflective
journal, record their research and service-learning project in a research report, and the research-
er recorded researcher notes on class discussions that took place between the researcher and
the student groups at the university site. Since developing the research and Service-Learning

Township in a South African context is where all the people of the so called Black racial group were placed to
live. These areas were far from the centre of town, removed from the residential and working areas of the White
racial group. These townships were developed during the Apartheid era.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
72 capacity of student teachers is “education that is grounded in experience” (Jacoby & Associates
1996, 9) the student teachers were expected to reflect on their experiences. The data was ana
lysed using an deductive approach (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007), which focused on how
the student teachers experienced their Research and Service-Learning projects. The categories
were pre-determined by the researcher. These categories were the pre-service student teachers’
initial feelings and beliefs about the Research and Service-Learning project, their planning and
action with regard to the project and their reflections of the project.
Data Collection Instruments
The data collection instruments were researcher recordings of the class reflective dis-
cussions between the teacher educator and pre-service student teachers, pre-service student
teacher reflective diaries and the document analysis of their theses (research project reports).
The open class discussions were prompted by questions raised or comments made by student
teachers or teacher educator about their experiences of their projects. Written records of com-
ments were recorded by the teacher educator. These were dated and filed according to the stage
in the research process that was being discussed. The class reflections were in an open forum
where the teacher educator asked the student teachers to share what they thought about the
activity/section/research work they had done in the previous week. These reflective discussions
took place once a week and were recorded by the teacher educator. The student teachers were
also expected to keep a reflective diary and to document their experiences during the project.
The student teachers reported their research in the form of chapters (as expected for research
projects) in a research report.
Data Analysis

The data captured was electronically recorded on the computer. All the data for the two
student teacher groups was read. It was then placed into categories which were previously
decided by the researcher. These categories were concerned with the student teachers’ initial
understandings and expectations of the project before they started it, their planning, action and
reflections of the project. Their planning addressed issues concerning their feelings about the
first observation of the placement site and their motivation for why they wanted to be placed
in the particular site where they were to conduct their research and Service-Learning project.
Their action was concerned with their thinking and actions with regard to the Service-Learning
that they conducted at the site. The reflections focused on their feelings, cognitive and percep-
tual understandings and experiences of the project.
Results of Research
The findings are presented as narrative case studies for each of the student group projects.
The format of the case study is such that it reports on the initial understandings and expectations
of the student teachers before they started the project and it describes their planning, action dur-
ing the project and their reflections on the project.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
The Case of Denise and Pravi 73
Their expectations and beliefs about Research and Service-Learning are indicated by
the words that Denise used when she said that “research is the collection of information and
writing it up” (Reflective journal, 15 August, 2007). Their understanding was that information
was collected from reading and sourcing literature from books, magazines etc. and organizing
this literature into a particular format, usually an essay as this is what is expected of them when
completing other modules. They did not conceive of it to include empirical data collection.
Both Denise and Pravi viewed Service-Learning as doing community service. This was evident
from the class discussion where they stated that it entailed working and helping people in the
community.
Denise and Pravi had decided to work at a placement site which, is referred to as the
1000 Hills Community Helpers. On their orientation and decision visit for the placement site
they had observed the baby clinic where babies underwent various testing procedures, their
mothers were given milk formula, fresh vegetables, nappies, lotion for bum rash and clothing.
Pravi described her first trip to the baby clinic as a “very emotional one, having been exposed
to poverty and various other factors, was more of a reality check and a real eye opener for me.”
(Reflective diary, August, 2007). Denise reflected that she was amazed that “it was not a clinic,
it was an old church that was being used for as a clinic to treat the people from the community”.
She also shared her emotions when she reflected “I feel angry, frustrated and disappointed to
see how little support these people are receiving from government … I actually feel that in this
place I can also play a small part of and help the community” (Reflective diary, August, 2007).
In their planning and decision making about where to conduct their research and Service-Learn-
ing, Denise and Pravi sent in a motivation, which stated their reason for wanting to work with
the babies in the clinic even though they “had never had this type of experience before” (re-
flective diary, august, 2007). Experiencing the stark reality of the context made Denise state “I
have a FEAR” to work in the place but her inner feelings for the “helpless babies who do not
even know what fear is, who are barely hanging on to survive” served to challenge these fears.
An important attitude that Denise was developing was that the group “will put in hard work in
everything that we do, but to us … it’s not about competition and who gets the highest mark,
it’s about peoples’ lives and how we can help”. They also had to plan weekly, three hours visits
to the clinic, over a period of seven weeks. Denise and Pravi (2007) thought their Research
and Service-Learning that focused on the factors that influenced the nutrition of infants in the
community would be a “form of education to both the community and us… an exchange of
knowledge takes place through learning about one another” (p. 2).
Denise and Pravi worked with ten mothers and their infants. They conducted various
objective tests on the infants (observed the state of their bottoms, their body skin for any evi-
dence of a skin rash and weighed and recorded this information in the baby clinic card) and
they conducted semi-structured interviews with the mothers about the health, social, living and
economic conditions that the mothers experienced in the community.
An extract from Denise and Prav’s research reports indicates their actions during the
project:
Some mothers used an extra number of scoops of baby formula when mixing the infants milk.
When one of the mothers was asked as to why she used extra milk powder when mixing, she re-
plied, “My baby was hungry and I did not feed him before.” It could be seen that mothers whose
infants have missed a feed thought that by using an extra number of scoops will balance the effect
of the child not being fed regularly… The clinic cards reveal that many of the infants suffer from
diarrhorea and dehydration. This provides further evidence that the infants are not being fed the
recommended number of feeds per day and incorrect methods of mixing formula milk was used.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
74 These student teachers reflected on their experiences and Pravi expressed her eye opener
of witnessing “how poverty affects the lives of mothers and their babies.” Denise’s experience
was such that “it amazes me that I have learnt so much from a small community in such a short
time”. She shared her feelings when she stated “apart from the Service-Learning, I feel that
I have grown as a person”. Pravi’s experience was so deep that “it will always remain in my
heart … words cannot express” them. Denise reflected on how this experience impacted on her
thinking about her role as a teacher when she said that “it is important to also make our students
aware of the reality that South Africa faces (and) to get students involved in organizations to
help people who are less fortunate than us or to even help anyone for that matter.”
The Case of Thabi and Camol
Thabi was not sure if he wanted to do the research project and he thought that research
was “the thing done by honours and masters studies”. He thought this as he did not see how an
undergraduate student teacher could conduct research. Their initial understandings and expec-
tations of the research and Service-Learning were focused on their personal challenges that they
would experience during the project.
Thabi and Camol worked at a Drop In-Centre. The Drop In-Centre operated as a place
where vulnerable and orphaned children afflicted by HIV/AIDS attended. These children re-
ceived two meals per day – breakfast before going to school and lunch on their return from
school. They are supported by a housemother with laundering of their school clothing, comple-
tion of homework for school-going children, and the provision of basic pre-primary teaching
for the very young children. On their first visit to the centre, Camol reflected that “for the first
few minutes that we spent with these children, I felt emotional … [and] one could actually see
in their eyes that they were happy to be part of the centre” (Reflective diary, August, 2007).
Thabi’s reflection described the initial meeting with the children in that “the kids were not very
comfortable talking to us but we tried to talk to them in a way that will make them relax” (Re-
flective diary, August, 2007).
Thami and Camol planned their visits to the Drop In-Centre over a period of seven
weeks. There were sixteen children at the centre, from four to seventeen years old. Any Re-
search and Service-Learning (action) that they planned would have to take this into account.
The action that they carried out was that they worked with these children for two and a half
hours every week for seven weeks. Thabi and Camol were struck by some of the children in
front of them who were taking on the role of parents to their siblings. They decided that to work
with these children by sharing experiences would be rewarding for them and the children. They
played games, read stories, did gardening with all the children and they spoke with the children
from child-headed families about the challenges that they experienced and provided motivation
and advice for their further development and planning for their future. Thobi and Camol wrote
narratives on the five children who were in charge of childheaded families (where there are no
parents in the home and the elder child takes charge of his/her siblings). An extract from their
narratives is presented below:
Vuyo stresses out that people in the community look down on them because they are poor. The
thing that depresses him sometimes is the fact that his father left them. He is a young boy who
likes his family very much…
Pearl is a young girl who seemed very strong. She is stressed by the poverty that she experiences
and the absence of elder people in the family. She is also stressed by the lack of privacy she has as
she has to sleep on a couch shared with her siblings….
Pretty is a young girl who to us seemed to be the most stressed child. Her focus was on love in
the family. She sees her mother once a month for a day. She is trying to cope with everything,
although she is very ashamed that she is part of the programme.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Thabi and Camol (2007, 44) reflected that the: 75
experiences that we got from doing this research has been very informative. …Children from
child-headed families need not to be discriminated in any way: they also form part of our society.
As future teachers, we realize now that we actually did not choose the wrong career. We will do
our best to make sure that all that we learnt from this experience is implemented in schools and in
the communities at large (Thabi & Camol, 2007, p. 44).
Discussion
The pre-service student teachers’ understanding of Research and Service-Learning was

extended. They viewed research as researching literature and that only students who had com-
pleted a degree would be able to conduct research. They did not see it possible for them to
conduct a research project. Their beliefs and thinking about themselves was developed to the
point where they were researchers who could design and conduct their own research projects.
Their identity of themselves as researchers was challenged and confirmed in the process of
them completing the project. This was possible as each student teacher was expected as part of
the Biology module to decide on a project that could be researched in a particular context once
they had viewed the place and discussed the needs of the place with the director/manager of
the place. It is only by giving the student teachers authentic experiences that they could learn
and develop the appropriate knowledge and skills. Their understanding of Service-Learning
was extended as it is a specialized form of community engagement. Since an important feature
of Service-Learning is that the community defines their needs (Furco, 1996), and the power
relationships are respected and recognised in the community by a partnership interaction the
pre-service student teachers interacted with the managers of the centre ensuring that they were
working in line with the needs of the organization. Service-Learning should not be viewed as
outsiders going into a community to tell them what to do but rather to support them to achieve
their goals and to meet their needs. Both student groups were engaged in their Service-Learning
in this manner. Denise and Pravi supported the nurses in the clinic by working with the babies
and researching the nutrition of these babies, while Thabi and Camol supported the housemoth-
ers in working with the children in the centre.
The planning and actions of the pre-service student teachers during the Research and
Service-Learning projects were impacted on by various experiences that they had. These expe-
riences were emotional, cognitive and social. Even though Denise was fearful about working in
the site she was motivated to work there by the faces of the babies that she worked with. These
experiences impacted positively on the personal development of the pre-service student teach-
ers as Denise saw herself as being able to support people who live in poverty and Thabi worked
on how to interact with orphaned children so as to “relax them”.
The reflections that the pre-service student teachers made after conducting the project
focused on how they had developed personally and professionally from the project. Denise
stated that she had grown as a person and, Thabi and Camol became aware of discrimination
that an individual experiences. The student teachers’ professional development is evidenced
from the statements made by Thabi and Camol who were concerned with using the knowledge
and skills that they had developed in the schools when they are teaching.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
76 Conclusions
The pre-service student teachers were engaged in a project which challenged their iden-
tities, emotions, social and cognitive development. The student teachers’ immersion (work) in
the township areas, which are poverty stricken served to challenge their personal and profes-
sional aspects as future teachers. The transformative approach to professional development of
student teachers is essential for them to not just experience but to ‘realise’ their role in being
‘players’ providing quality education to all learners irrespective of the contexts from where
they come. In fact, the student teachers have respect and knowledge about learners who come
from child-headed homes and from contexts of low socio-economic status. More importantly
the student teachers can question their role and act in accordance with the responses that they
make for the particular actions that they planned and participated in. The activities and tasks
carried out by the students during their Research and Service-Learning were crucial for them
to study and analyse their personal, social and professional development (Ash, Clayton and
Atkinson, 2005).
The development and learning that the pre-service student teachers experienced where
was a deeply emotional, personal, social experience that influenced the student teachers’ think-
ing about their roles as teachers in the future. During this project the student teachers were faced
with a number of emotions. They had experienced emotions of frustrations, for example devel-
oping an understanding of the concepts and making decisions about the possible and most ap-
propriate actions to take for the Research and Service-Learning projects to be completed. What
is significant is that learning is as much to do with emotions as it is with the intellect, about
patterns and relationships every bit as much as it is about facts (Zull, 2002). So this experience
in the project has challenged the pre-service student teachers to think further about what they
personally viewed as research and Service Learning and how they could use these experiences
to enhance their personal and professional development as student teachers and also an aware-
ness of and actions to be conducted for developing and empowering communities.
Ethical Consideration
Ethical clearance was obtained from the university research office for the students to
conduct their research. All participants were given a clear explanation of what was required of
them and they were asked to participate. All participates were told that they could withdraw
at any time during the research, Letters of consent explaining the ethical procedures and the
role of the participants in the research were written in Zulu and given to the participants. The
child care workers who looked after the children signed the letter of consent for the children to
participate in the research.
Acknowledgements
The article was prepared with the financial aid of the National Research Foundation
(NRF) in South Africa. I would like to thank four Biological Sciences Research and Service-
Learning student teachers for giving me permission to write on their projects.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
References 77
Ash, S., Clayton, P., & Atkinson, M. (2005) Integrating Reflection and Assessment to Capture and Im-
prove Student Learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, Spring, p. 49–60.
Bhana, D., Morrell, R., Epstein, D., & Moletsane, R. (2006). The hidden work of caring teachers and
the maturing AIDS epidemic in diverse secondary schools in Durban. Journal of Education, Vol. 38, p.
5–23.
Braus, J. (1995). Environmental Education. BioScience, 45, p. 45–51.
Bullough, R., & Gitlin, A. D. (1994). Challenging teacher educational training: Four propositions. Jour-
nal of Education for Teaching, Vol. 20, Issue 1, p. 67–81.
Coghlan, D., & Brannick, T. (2001). Doing Action Research in your own organisation. Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage Publishers.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education (5th ed.). United King-
dom: Routledge Falmer.
Cresswell, J. W. (2003). Researcher design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
California: Sage
Dé Bryant, M. G. (1996). Service Learning Research Projects: Empowerment in Students, Faculty, and
Communities. College Teaching, 44.
Department of Education (2000). Norms and Standards for Educators. Government Gazette, Vol. 415, No.
20844. Pretoria: DoE.
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (2007). South Africa Environment Outlook. Retrieved
14 January, 2009, from http://www.environment.gov.za/HotIssues/2006/staeoftheenvironment2006/soer-
form.pdf
Fullan, M. (1982). The meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers College Press.
Gough, A., & Gough, N. (2004). Environmental Education Research in Southern Africa: dilemmas of in-
terpretation [Electronic Version]. Environmenatl Education Research, 10, 409-424. Retrieved 14 January,
2009, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1350462042000258224
Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the Knowledge Society: education in the age of insecurity. New York:
Teachers College Press.
Howard, J. (1998). Academic Service Learning: A Counternormative Pedagogy. In Rhoads, R. and How-
ard, J. (eds.). Academic Service Learning: A Pedagogy of Action and Reflection. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
Jacoby, B., & Associates (1996). Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner (3rd ed.). Geelong, Victoria: Deakin
University Press.
Leavy, A. M., McSorley, F. A., & Bote, L. A. (2007). An examination of what metaphor construction
reveals about the evolution of preservice teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 23, 1217-1233.
McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2005). Action Research for Teachers, Winter Research School Notes. Cape
Town.
Morrow, W. (2007). Learning to Teach in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Neuman, L. (1997). Social research methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Palmer, C. (1998). Environmental Ethics and Process thinking. Oxford:University Press
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
78 Samuel, M. (2008). Accountability to whom? For what? Teacher identity and the Force Field Model of
teacher development. Perspectives in Education, Vol 26, Issue 2, p. 3-16.
Slabbert, J. A. (2007). Facilitating learning. What is it really? Pretoria: University of Pretoria, Faculty
of Education.
South Africa Environment (2007) South Africa’s environment deteriorating, warns report. Retrieved 14
January, 2009, from http://www.dancewithshadows.com/society/south-africa-environment.asp
Van Huizen, P., van Oers, B., & Wubbels, T. (2005). A Vygotskian perspective on teacher education.
Journal of Curriculum Studies, Vol. 37, Issue 3, p. 267–290.
Zeichner, K., & Tabachnik, R. (1981). Are the effects of university education ‘washed out’ by school
experience? Journal of Teacher Education, 32, 7-11.
Adviced by Ken Ngcoza, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa
Angela James PhD, Curriculum Design and Instruction, Academic Discipline Coordinator School of Sci-
ence, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Kwa
Zulu-Natal, Private Bag X03, Ashwood, 3605, Province of Kwa Zulu-Natal, South Africa.
E-mail: jamesa1@ukzn.ac.za
Website: http://education.ukzn.ac.za/Homepage.aspx
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
79
THE University as an Agent of

Knowledge Transfer: the Case
of the Latvia University of
Agriculture
Ginta Kronberga, Līga Paula
Latvia University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia
E-mail: Ginta.Kronberga@llu.lv, Liga.Paula@llu.lv
Dina Bite
Latvia University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia
E-mail: Dina.Bite@llu.lv
Abstract
There is a discussion within social science literature on theoretical models looking at the relationships
between universities and stakeholders in the process of knowledge transfer particularly explaining
whether universities are involved in the triple helix relationships (politicians, businesses representatives
and university officials) or a quadruple helix system where public constitutes the forth party. Universities
have a number of functions which among the other include both creation and obtaining of knowledge and
transferring it within wider community, thus promoting socioeconomic development. By studying the case
of the Latvia University of Agriculture (hereinafter – LUA), the authors of the paper focus on cooperation
networks that are involved in the process of knowledge transfer from the university to regional stakehold-
ers and vice versa. The research methodology is based on the qualitative approach. For identification of
cooperation agents, nineteen individual and six group semi-structured interviews were held involving 35
informants. For a deeper analysis of relationships between the LUA and regional stakeholders, policy
documents concerning socioeconomic development of Zemgale planning region were analysed.
The research results show that the LUA operates as a unique agent of knowledge transfer in many fields
(agriculture, veterinary science, forestry, wood processing, food technology, etc.) at both regional and
national levels thus diversity of structural elements in cooperation networks depends on demand and
supply of knowledge as well as on involvement of institutions responsible for facilitation of successful
knowledge transfer. The authors discuss which of the theoretical cooperation models is more evident in
the case of the LUA and conclude that currently the triple helix relationships dominate; however, in some
cases particular relationship patterns and activities indicate transformation towards the quadruple helix
system.
Key words: cooperation models, knowledge transfer, the Latvia University of Agriculture (LUA).
Introduction
Currently in Latvia there are many discussions about the role of higher education in-
stitutions in the regional development, which stress the importance to develop closer coopera-
tion with regional stakeholders. Through cooperation with producers, business representatives,
education and culture entities, government institutions and policy makers the higher educa-
tion institutions including universities potentially are becoming the key leaders in development
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
80 processes at the local, regional and national levels. Only through a close cooperation with other
social agents, universities have possibilities to influence various social and economic processes
and to promote innovations. Motivation and interest of the regional social agents is one of the
primary and most important preconditions in the knowledge transfer processes.
University has its intellectual, scientific, cultural and administrative potential. The role
of university as a cooperation agent and its tasks in knowledge and technology transfer is in-
creasing, as the society requires not only the knowledge development, management and trans-
fer, but also a closer cooperation and goal oriented performance of regional agents.
The factors described above are analysed in the context of cooperation of the LUA
and other social agents. Thinking of a sustainable and polycentric development of regions,
it is important to study how the university potential is used in existing forms of cooperation,
as well as to outline new possibilities for cooperation in the future. The paper characterises
university functions and explores various theoretical cooperation models. The authors analyse
the documents of Zemgale planning region (hereinafter – ZPR) in order to identify what is the
role of the university and cooperation possibilities in Zemgale regional development from the
viewpoint of the region development planners and policy makers. On the basis of the theoretical
cooperation models explaining relationships between university and social agents (triple helix
relationships and quadruple helix system), the authors describe the main forms of cooperation
and identify which cooperation model is the most suitable to characterize relationship between
LUA and the regional stakeholders in the knowledge and technology transfer process.
A University as a Knowledge Transfer Agent – the Role and Functions to

Ensure Cooperation
Universities play an important role in regional development. The literature describes

several types of universities which differ in certain characteristics that in some cases may over-
lap or combine. Due to administrative factors, unique knowledge, intellectual and resource
potential the most important universities are ones located in capitals or the national universi-
ties. Further, regional universities, which are located in regional centers, may be distinguished,
since they, undoubtedly, plays an important role in regional development. Such universities
typically have developed infrastructure for scientific research, unique libraries and specialist
training centers. Regional universities of the classical type can be classified into the third group;
these usually are small education institutions which were created in the second half of the 20th
century and which cannot be proud of unique libraries or teaching staff composition. Regional
universities must intensively monitor the development trends and the demand for specialists in
the region (Шафранов-Куцев, 2005).
Drucker and Goldstein (2007) find that the technology transfer programs, university-
industry partnerships, and educational curricula tailored to match the skill demands of local
knowledge-based industries provide just a few examples of such economic development pro-
grams. Studying university impact and typology, authors evolve eight functions for modern
research universities that may potentially lead to economic development impacts - creation of
knowledge, human-capital creation, transfer of existing know-how, technological innovation,
capital investment, regional leadership, knowledge infrastructure production, influence on re-
gional milieu (Drucker & Goldstein, 2007). Universities pass their investments in research to
the external agents (industry sector or businesses). Formal and informal interactions between
these agents are important, especially with businesses located around universities, as it allows
such businesses to implement innovations faster than rival firms located elsewhere (Hedge,
2005). Huggins, Johnston and Steffenson, researching universities and knowledge networks,
found if universities as knowledge agents are to continue to play a regional economic develop-
ment role, it is vital that knowledge transfer and networks’ initiatives are fully supported to en-
Ginta Kronberga, Līga Paula, Dina Bite. The University as an Agent of Knowledge Transfer: the Case of the Latvia
University of Agriculture
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
sure sustainability. The authors emphasize that the impact on regional development of univer- 81
sity knowledge transfer is generally positive. Universities have a varying ability to effectively
transfer their knowledge, but regional businesses have the same ability to effectively absorb
such knowledge. Policy makers must ensure they suitably balance support for both networked
and market-oriented transfers of knowledge (Huggins, Johnston, & Steffenson, 2008).
In the literature, the authors propose different cooperation models that explain relation-
ships between universities and other social agents. One the models - triple-helix system – char-
acterizes relationships as an interaction between representatives of three broad institutional
spheres which are politicians, businesses representatives and university officials (Etzkowitz &
Leydesdorff, 2000).
The triple helix relationships are developed through the establishment of intermediar-
ies, innovation and incubation centres and science parks, allowing each sphere to undertake
activities from which they were previously excluded. Such overlapping triple helix forms are
manifested by industrial policies, which seek to develop an industrial structure based on firm
engagement in inter-organizational alliances and networks with universities (Etzkowitz & Ley-
desdorff, 2000). In reality, triple helix development models have focused more on building
hardware, rather than software such as the networks, value and supply chains underlying suc-
cessful growth.
Representatives of local community or citizens in other words, also become increasingly
aware of the importance of the knowledge economy in general, and the role of the universities
in particular, to ensure current and future wealth creation. Thus the public constitutes a fourth
party in cooperation model whose concerns and ideas have to be taken as seriously as those of
the others. In a result, knowledge regions are not built on triple helix interactions but constitute
a quadruple helix system. Mehta (2002) proposed the idea of the importance of the public as a
fourth party and as a Fourth Helix in the system. As Reichert (2006:17) states, ‘this approach
was criticized by Leydesdorff and Etzkovitz who find that the free public should be seen more
as a fundament for a functioning triple helix system than a party in the system. While an inter-
ested supportive public can be seen as a necessary foundation for a functioning knowledge the
public should also be treated as a communication party in the system’ (Reichert, 2006:17).
The authors draw a conclusion that knowledge and technology transfer is ensured when
different and multiform structural elements are introduced into a united network of social
agents. This is determined by the knowledge demand and supply as well as by intermediary
institutions which are responsible for successful processes of knowledge transfer. A university
acts as a knowledge transfer agent developing also interdisciplinary relationships with other
science and research institutions within the framework of the university as well as with social
agents from private, public, and nongovernmental sectors.

The paper presents the results of the action research carried out in the framework of the
research project “Promoting the Utilization of the Research Potential of regional Universities
for Regional Development in Latvia” (25.02.2009.-30.04.2011.), funded by the Norwegian fi-
nancial instrument.
The action research methodology is used in the study, which required active participa-
tion of both the researchers to explore cooperation models and the regional stakeholders and
the university officials to discuss and reflect on individual and common cooperation experience.
The objective of the research was to promote a better understanding about cooperation possibil-
ities among agents through identifying existing conceptual models of cooperation in knowledge
and technology transfer. This was reached through joint discussions, interviews, and reflections.
It was important to identify what social agents are involved and what cooperation forms reflect
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
82 the knowledge and technology transfer in the region. The research also sought to investigate
how collaborative relationships were developed between researchers and practitioners and what
were the promoting and hindering factors. Within the context of this paper, the authors focus on
research issues which provide answers on the diversity of networking agents, and identification
of a dominating cooperation model (triple helix system or quadruple helix system) in the case
of the LUA. The research focused on the following research questions:
1) What social agents cooperate with the LUA in the knowledge transfer process at the
level of LUA structural units and the university level?
2) What cooperation forms and models can be identified?
The action research was carried out from November 2009 to April 2010, using quali-
tative approach of sociological research. Document analysis and semi-structured interviews
(individual and group interviews) were implemented for information gathering purposes. The
document analysis was used to analyse the LUA performance strategy, the ZPR strategies and
other planning documents related to the regional development. Various documents which regu-
late activities of the LUA and determine development of Zemgale planning region were ana-
lysed at the beginning of the research. The research instrument for interviews was developed
afterwards.
The semi-structured interviews were conducted to identify cooperation forms and coop-
eration conceptual models (institutional forms and informal networks) and to identify factors
that promote and hinder cooperation. 19 individual and 6 group interviews (25 interviews in to-
tal) including 35 informants were conducted. The research sample was made of the representa-
tives of cooperation agents (interviews with heads of different structural units at all faculties of
LUA). The average length of the interview was one hour. Interviews were recorded or written
down. Some informants showed great interest and initiative, and asked colleagues to present
information and share experience. Interview transcripts were set up after each interview.
The interview questions conditionally were divided into several blocks focusing on the
following issues:
• cooperation partners in ensuring the study process, in science and research activities,
in making the industrial policy, and in relations with the society,
• cooperation forms and time periods, (joint projects, informal networking, participa-
tion in professional organizations and/or branch associations, etc.),
• initiators of cooperation,
• factors that promote and hinder cooperation,
• multidisciplinary cooperation (how researchers understand multidisciplinary coop-
eration, what are those sectors and branches where cooperation exist, what multidis-
ciplinary cooperation could be developed in the future, does knowledge exchange
and transfer among specialists (theoreticians and practitioners within LUA, as well as
business representatives and other cooperation agents from the region) from different
sectors present),
• transfer of the LUA expertise to regions of Latvia.
Empirical data were analysed by using interview transcripts according to the interview
guidelines described above.

Results of Research
Cooperation Initiatives in Strategies of the LUA and Zemgale Planning Region
The document analysis gives an insight in needs and priorities of Zemgale region and
envisages whether the LUA responds to them and to which extent. Knowledge transfer from
academic environment to national economy is emphasized in both strategies of the LUA and
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
policy documents that envisage directions of development of ZPR and define the main activities 83
for meeting the aims stated in the documents.
In the LUA Acting Strategy for Planning Period 2010-2016, a strong orientation towards
closer linkage between science and practice is emphasised, which means integration of higher
education and researches in particular sectors what in its turn would provide implementation of
innovative and knowledge intensive technologies in Latvia’s economy. Particular cooperation
forms with regional stakeholders, the meaning of cooperation and possibilities of collaboration
for development of Zemgale region are envisaged in the documents elaborated by ZPR. Below
the authors provide a brief insight in the most important documents.
The Development Programme of Forestry in Zemgale planning region (elaborated in
2005) is interwoven by the idea of closer collaboration of stakeholders, quality of education,
unity of science and practice in development of new products and technologies in Latvia, and
involvement of local municipalities. A great emphasis is put on science, thereof renovated labo-
ratories of the LUA as well as the enterprise ‘Forest and Wood Products Research and Develop-
ment Institute’ (abbreviated as MeKA) established in 2004 by the LUA, JSC ‘Latvijas valsts
meži’ and the Latvian Forest Industry Federation are mentioned as a great success. (2005:4-23)
In the programme, the LUA appears as a cooperation partner alongside responsible ministries,
municipalities and local governments, associations and federations of the industry (2005:28).
The second redaction of the Programme for Development of Entrepreneurship in Zem-
gale for 2006 – 2011 also was analysed. The programme was adopted in 2005 and currently
is being improved. In this programme, a presence of the institutions of higher education is
mentioned as a factor diminishing the flow of work force from regions, which is achieved by
adequate opportunities of both education and work in a local labour market. It is stated that in a
result of active operation of institutions of higher education, the winner is the whole region thus
the presence of the LUA in Zemgale has been evaluated as a great advantage, as it is the only
technical institution of higher education in Latvia’s regions (2005:43). The programme seeks
to envisage the main economic sectors that should be developed in Zemgale, proposing some
prior such as agriculture, food technology, textile industry, metal-fabricating industry, engineer-
ing industry and chemistry (2005:66-69). In the programme, the LUA is mentioned in relation
to real support and contribution to entrepreneurs by carrying out researches in construction and
wood-processing sectors.
The Programme for Development of Tourism in Zemgale Planning Region 2008 – 2013
was elaborated in order to be useful for a wide range of stakeholders: administration of Zemgale
planning region, local municipalities, tourism specialists, tourism entrepreneurs, NGOs, and
other social groups to whom it may be concerned including students, thus indirectly pointing
at undergraduate, graduate or post-graduate students of the LUA (2008:59; 75-77). In the pro-
gramme, promotion of collaboration of all the parties involved in tourism in Zemgale planning
region is defined as one of the priorities (2008:65). In order to realize this priority, following
activities have been forwarded: provision of information exchange between tourism enterprises
and institutions of professional as well as higher education on practice opportunities for stu-
dents and promotion of students to elaborate their scientific papers on topics related to tourism
development in Zemgale region. (2008:65)
The strategic target of the Programme for Development of Zemgale Planning Region
2008 – 2014 is to ensure the quality of life in Zemgale. The LUA alongside affiliates of other
institutions of higher education (ten in total) is mentioned here as a unique regional value
which contributes greatly to development of regional human resources. The development of
science technological parks, technological centres, logistics, industrial parks, business incuba-
tors and the Technology Transfer Contact Point of the LUA are also treated as a regional value
(2008:11).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
84 For meeting the strategic target, three priorities were determined and two of them are
closely related with cooperation between regional partners and the LUA. One of the priorities
concerns development of human resources, formation of information and civil society. Devel-
opment of knowledge economy is the second priority, which determines activities for develop-
ment of entrepreneurial environment, for example, promotion of information and knowledge
transfer by creation and maintenance of the support system of coordinated information and
knowledge transfer as well as promotion of linkages between education, research, and entrepre-
neurship. In order to realize it, it is necessary to facilitate cooperation between academic envi-
ronment and practitioners, and to increase commercialization of research results developed by
LUA students. (2008:58) The next and very important task is to promote understanding in wider
society on the role of innovations in raising the level of welfare. This task requires informing
society on innovation issues by involvement of local activists, NGOs, and representatives of
mass media as well as by popularization of particular scientific achievements (2008: 58).
According to the programme, regional stakeholders such as the administration of ZPR,
municipalities, the LUA, affiliates of other institutions of higher education, science centres,
entrepreneurs, and mass media are responsible for accomplishment of the previously men-
tioned tasks. This indicates vertical and horizontal cooperation on a large scale between agents
representing Zemgale region. The authors believe that ZPR could take up an initiative and
coordinate activities of the stakeholders, thus ensuring cooperation agents with an opportunity
to exchange information and resources within initiatives of a different level. It is important that
scientists themselves are active and interested in popularization of their results, thus promoting
understanding within wider community on activities of universities and science centres, their
possibilities and results. A good example of cooperation between agents is the Scientists’ Night
organized by the LUA for several years already. During the night, science becomes closer to
public, researchers introduce visitors with their laboratories and technologies, and during pub-
lic lectures in an attractive manner they tell and show what universities do.
LUA in Cooperation Models in the Process of Knowledge Transfer
Identification of diversity of cooperation agents (representatives of business, policy mak-

ers, university, and public) was important aspect of the research in order to answer the question,
which theoretical model – triple helix system or quadruple relationships – dominate in the case
of the LUA. Thus the analysis of the transcripts of the interviews focused on identification of
various cooperation agents, which were involved in the organization of studies and learning
processes, in scientific work and research, in making industrial policies, and in communication
with a wider community.
Particular cooperation agents are active partners in one or another sphere where the
LUA operates. In the organization of studies and learning processes, institutional cooperation
forms dominate, which involve labour contracts, regulations and contracts on student practices,
membership in professional organizations, etc.; however, informal contacts between univer-
sity departments and their graduates or colleagues from other institutions outside the LUA are
also important. Very often informal contacts are an initial basis for institutional cooperation
forms, for example, in the case of guest lecturers, learning excursions, student practices. Most
frequently, the cooperation is developed between academic personnel and researchers in reali-
zation of study programmes, mutually discussing a content of study courses, consecutiveness
of the courses, linkage between theory and practice, etc. Cooperation was observed within a
framework of disciplines as well as between them, for example, in a form of consultations how
to give a course so that it better meets the requirements of the particular study programme. It
is important to note that the learning process is not conceivable without mutual cooperation
between students and academic staff where both sides are gainers. Of course, to a great extent
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
knowledge is transferred from a lecturer to a student; however, this process is reflexive. Coop- 85
eration forms here are different and depend on study methods. When students are involved in
research activities, opportunities of knowledge and experience transfer extend.
Since representatives of municipalities, NGOs, graduates, educational establishments,
and industries are involved in study process, theory and practice is interlinked in the following
ways:
• scientists and academic staff in cooperation with practitioners observe how technolo-
gies are used practically and how theoretical knowledge is approbated, how innova-
tions are introduced, etc.;
• the same observations make students during the excursions or practice in enterprises,
public or private institutions;
• entrepreneurs offer grants or bursaries for better students (they organize thematic
competitions);
• producers offer topics for student researches.
There are various configurations of cooperation forms in research and scientific studies;
their multiformity depends on research focus and depth of a study. Both specific cooperation
within disciplines and interdisciplinary team building practices were identified where coopera-
tion among researchers is widely apparent within the departments and between the faculties,
with other universities, science centres, institutes, etc. In the cooperation process, the experi-
ence, position, identification at national and international levels of particular people is impor-
tant, as it reflects on the common capacity of a team and on networking. The case study in the
LUA indicated that interdisciplinary teams operate quite successfully; teams are built between
engineering disciplines, engineering and natural sciences, also engineering and social sciences.
Cooperation is developed also with producers, which is quite successful in cases when produc-
ers themselves are interested in collaboration with a scientist and are able explicitly define their
needs and expectations regarding expected results. The initiators of cooperation are both sides.
Sometimes in these relationships intermediate institutions are involved, the most active are:
the Science and Technology Transfer Centre of the LUA, the administration of ZPR (it organ-
izes seminars and other activities for producers and entrepreneurs), sectorial associations, and
business incubators. The respondents expressed different attitude towards the necessity and
efficiency of these intermediate institutions, as sometimes they are related to bureaucratic and
formal constraints or burden that make the cooperation process more complex. Producers often
prefer informal consultations.
At the level of sectorial policy, the current cooperation was identified in disciplines
where the LUA provides unique expertise – forestry, food technology, agriculture, veterinary
science, alternative energy, etc. Experts contribute also to elaboration of education standards.
Cooperation is initiated from both sides – policy makers and academic experts. Cooperation
with policy makers at sectorial, local and national levels becomes urgent when politicians elab-
orate a particular programme or strategy which requires an analysis of current situation. Very
often cooperation is organized in projects funded by the EU structural funds where individual
interests might dominate, which later can transform in long term collaboration.
Cooperation with a public or wider community more likely exists at an informal, indi-
vidual level, which could be analysed in the social network context for particular individuals.
However, the activities of the Scientists’ Night can be mentioned as a good example; interest-
ing lectures and discussions about topical issues in science and society are organised in these
activities as well as the population gets introduced with an environment in which scientific
experiments are conducted.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
86 Discussion
The research results correspond with theoretical concepts that some universities are try-
ing to stabilize their position through participation in new science niches, which are multidis-
ciplinary and oriented towards cooperation. These multidisciplinary research programmes has
become new study programmes providing graduates with skills necessary for particular eco-
nomic activities in knowledge economy (cooperation among students from science, engineer-
ing science, entrepreneurship and law sectors) (Huggins, Johnston, & Steffenson, 2008).
Development of regional economy is more based on the key research universities. At the
same time policy and innovation system for the regional development has to be adapted more
specifically not only for available intellectual and material resources but also for the regional
culture, social structure and history, as well as the so called weltanschauung (Drucker & Gold-
stein, 2007).
The document analysis shows that the regional development planners consider the LUA
as an important force promoting regional development. Since it is seriously taken into consid-
eration, policy makers express concrete expectations in regard to the university. These expecta-
tions are study programs based on labour market needs, qualitative studies, research and sci-
ence activities based on innovations and practical applications. Other expectations are related to
scientific activities that provide technologies with a high applicability in the national economy,
involvement of the students of all study levels in researching topical problems for business and
society, active cooperation with the practitioners and users of knowledge and technologies in
the region. Because of these expectations the LUA is mentioned in all the analysed documents,
emphasizing the uniqueness of the university in Latvia. This is concluded both in the analysis
of current situation and in outlining the future development of the region and economic sectors
in Zemgale region.
As it was described above, researchers discuss whether society forms a fourth party in
cooperation networks that involve universities and regional stakeholders or not. The authors of
the paper are of opinion that the local community or society has to be defined as a separate agent
in cooperation networks. The results of the interviews reflect that the knowledge transfer in the
LUA is mainly characterized by the triple helix system when the cooperation is implemented
among the university structural units, policy makers and business representatives. Activities of
these agents are emphasized both in policy planning documents and empirical research. The
issue of bringing other parts of society into a knowledge transfer process remains open. By
raising a level of understanding within society about the role of higher education and science
in the regional development, the attitude of the other agents (politicians and industry repre-
sentatives) may change. By raising social awareness about functions that university fulfils, the
stereotypical concepts about science as something alienated from practice could be weakened.
There are new agents, not mentioned before, participating in the knowledge transfer into a
broader society (local community). These agents are various groups of interests, mass media
and students themselves. More and more discussions are raised in LUA and in the regional
planning documents that research results have to be popularized and understanding about in-
novation processes in the society has to be promoted. These ideas are emphasized in documents
and interviews which showed that some structural units of the LUA work on activities which
provide the local community and a wider society with information and ensures its participation.
Thus there is evidence that in some cases quadruple helix system relationships already exist.
The authors suggest that further investigation should be carried out in the partnership develop-
ment among the cooperation agents.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Conclusions 87
The cooperation network involving the LUA and regional stakeholders is sufficiently
wide and open on both international and local levels, since cooperation and exchange of re-
sources takes place with agents of different types - non-governmental organizations, scientific
organizations, business representatives and cooperation with industry companies.
The LUA in policy documents appears as a crucial factor promoting development of
Zemgale, particularly influencing several important economic sectors such as tourism, the engi-
neering industry, forestry and entrepreneurship in general. The planning documents emphasize
that it is necessary to promote and encourage a closer cooperation between the LUA and re-
gional partners, e.g., in developing innovative business products and technologies, in develop-
ing research on economic sectors, and in improving the study programmes. The sector policy
makers or regional development planners are mentioned as initiators of cooperation. This al-
lows the authors to conclude that the relationships between the LUA and regional stakeholders
are formed as the triple helix system. At the same time, the research indicated some activities
that are directed towards greater involvement and information of local society, and this means
a drive to the quadruple helix system. Gradual transformation towards this system is indicated
by the increase of awareness of both the university and public (through mass media, NGOs,
etc.) in greater information exchange, discussions and mutual expectations. This drive is also
implied by the policy documents.
The LUA faculties and departments have a broad network of contacts which is formed
by academic personnel, graduates, central and local government employees. In many cases
informal contacts are initiators to develop institutional or formal partnerships among agents.
The knowledge transfer from the academic environment to practical users in many cases is
implemented in an informal manner. In this way, knowledge can be possibly obtained by any
user, however, the institutionalisation or formalisation of this knowledge transfer is important,
otherwise many potential users are not informed about such possibilities. The involvement of
other social groups in the knowledge transfer requires initiatives and preparedness of scientists
themselves to share their knowledge and achievements. From the point of view of knowledge
transfer, it is a positive fact that the respondents are oriented towards knowledge commer-
cialisation. For this purpose, institutional solutions making it easier to transfer knowledge are
considered.
The most typical and successful cooperation emerges among scientists. During the next
stage, after a product has been developed and the research results have to be transferred to users,
various barriers can be observed, for instance, lack of confidence in the quality of product, dis-
trust. Presently, the weakest linkage can be observed between scientists and a local or regional
community. It is hard to identify convincing examples or stable social practises that would
indicate a close linkage between a local community and a university.
The research results show that the triple helix relationship system is currently dominat-
ing in cooperation between the university and regional stakeholders; nevertheless, the authors
stress that some cooperation examples indicates a shift towards quadruple helix system where
public constitutes the forth party and this shift should be encouraged by both institutional and
informal mechanisms.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
88 Acknowledgements
The article is based on action research carried out in the framework of research Project
“Promoting the Utilization of the Research Potential of regional Universities for Regional De-
velopment in Latvia” (25.02.2009.-30.04.2011.), funded by the Norwegian financial instru-
ment. The article was prepared with the financial aid of European Social Fund project “Sup-
port for Doctoral Studies at the University of Latvia” Nr.2009/0138/1DP/1.1.2.1.2/09/IPIA/
VIAA/004.
References
Drucker, J., Goldstein, H. (2007). Assessing the Regional Economic Development Impacts of Universi-
ties: a Review of Current Approaches. International Regional Science Review, 30, 20–46
Etzkowitz, H. and Leydesdorff, L. (2000). The dynamics of innovation: from National Systems and
‘‘Mode 2’’ to a triple helix of university–industry–government relations. Research Policy, 29, 109–123.
Hegde, D. (2005). Public and Private Universities: Unequal Sources of Regional Innovation? University
of California. Berkeley Economic Development Quarterly, 19, 373.
Huggins, R., Johnstona, A. and Steffenson, R. (2008). Universities, knowledge networks and regional
policy. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 1, 321-340, doi:10.1093/cjres/rsn013.
Latvijas Lauksaimniecības universitātes darbības stratēģija 2010.-2016. gada plānošanas ciklam. Re-
trieved 25/03/2010, from http://www.llu.lv/getfile.php?id=16386
Mehta, M. (2002). Regulating Biotechnology and Nanotechnology in Canada: A Post-Normal Science
Approach for Inclusion of the Fourth Helix. Paper presented ar the international Workshop on Science,
Technology and Society: Lessons and Challenges, National University of Singapore.
Reichert, S. (2006). The Rise of Knowledge Regions: Emerging Opportunities and Challenges for Univer-
sities. Brussels: European University Association.
Smith, K. (2005). Economic Infrastructures and Innovation Systems. In C. Edquist (Eds.), Systems of In-
novation. Technologies, Institutions and Organizations. (pp. 86-106). New York, London: Routlege.
Zemgales plānošanas reģiona mežsaimniecības attīstības programma. Retrieved 3/12/2009, from http://
www.zemgale.lv/index.php/attstbas-plnoana/plnoanas-dokumenti
Zemgales plānošanas reģiona nodarbinātības attīstības programma laika posmam no 2006.-2010. gadam.
Retrieved 3/12/2009, from http://www.zemgale.lv/index.php/attstbas-plnoana/plnoanas-dokumenti
Zemgales plānošanas reģiona tūrisma attīstības programma 2008–2013. Retrieved 3/12/2009, from http://
www.zemgale.lv/index.php/attstbas-plnoana/plnoanas-dokumenti
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Zemgales plānošanas reģiona attīstības programma 2008.- 2014. gadam. Retrieved 3/12/2009, from 89
http://www.zemgale.lv/index.php/attstbas-plnoana/plnoanas-dokumenti
Шафранов-Куцев, Г.Ф.(2005). Современному обществу - современный университет. Универси-
тетское управление, 5(38). c. 14–25.
Adviced by Aija Zobena, University of Latvia, Latvia
Ginta Kronberga Mg.sc.oec., Lecturer, Latvia University of Agriculture, Liela iela 2, LV-3001, Jelgava,
Latvia.
Phone: +37129390994.
E-mail: Ginta.Kronberga@llu.lv
Website: http://www.llu.lv
Līga Paula Mg.sc.soc, Lecturer, Latvia University of Agriculture, Liela iela 2, LV-3001, Jelgava,
Latvia.
Phone: +37126321667.
E-mail: Liga.Paula@llu.lv
Dina Bite Mg.sc.soc., Lecturer, Latvia University of Agriculture, Liela iela 2, LV-3001, Jelgava,
Latvia.
Phone: +37129729356.
E-mail: Dina.Bite@llu.lv
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
90
A STUDY OF INVOLVEMENT OF
CAREGIVERS IN CHILDREN’S PLAY
IN KIGALI, RWANDA
Peter Odera
Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya
E-mail: poajagempj@yahoo.com
Rossette K. Murigande
Wellspring Academy, Kigali, Rwanda
E-mail: rosettemk@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper was based on survey research design that aimed at examining caregivers’ involvement in
children’s play in Rwanda. Random sampling technique was used to sample out 89 respondents from
4 different locations. The sample of the study included 40 caregivers, 40 children and 9 social workers
in Compassion assisted projects. Compassion is non profit making organization. Data was collected
through interview schedules and observation. The findings revealed that the most important variables that
influence the perceptions of caregivers were the age of children and education background of caregivers.
Majority of caregivers were more favourable to children’s play, especially those children at a younger
age. However, caregivers reported that as children grow older, they should take domestic chores and
school work seriously rather than spending time in play. The more caregiver had formal education, the
higher the likelihood that one would have a positive attitude toward children’s play. Besides, the gender
of children, age and also, the gender of caregivers were found to be less significant factors. This study
has concluded that the more caregivers were knowledgeable on the importance of play, the more they
were willing to facilitate children’s play and the more they actively encouraged children to participate
in play.
Key words: caregivers, children’s play, emotional development, formal education, intellectual develop-
ment, mental development, physical development and social development.
Introduction
In ancient Rwanda play was one of the major activities that was used to enhance dif-
ferent stages of child development. Considering its interactive nature for construction of new
knowledge, play is defined in this paper as ‘a means for children to interact, learn from each
other and to learn about their surrounding environment’. It has been observed that play is a
natural medium, through which children can shape their cognitive, social, emotional and physi-
cal development. The major play activities involved Rwandan children initiating play activi-
ties such as climbing trees, playing football, playing handball, skipping rope and other differ-
ent games using material found in their surrounding. These materials included sticks, stones,
plants, banana leaves, clay and mud. It is a child’s natural tendency to play. Thus, a child who
is deprived of play will be adversely affected in his or her physical, mental, emotional, intellec-
tual and social development. In the Western countries, a child’s play is becoming increasingly
Peter Odera, Rossette K. Murigande. A Study of Involvement of Caregivers in Children`s Play in Kigali, Rwanda
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
confined to playrooms, bedrooms or basements with much of its content derived from television 91
movies, video games and computers. On the contrary, in developing countries such as Rwanda,
a child’s play is mainly an outdoor activity. Sargent (2003) reported that through play, a child
learns to be self-reliant, develops initiative, perseverance, common sense and problem-solving
skills. It has also been demonstrated that parents in particular and caregivers in general, play an
important role in child’s play. Although adult caregivers play very crucial role in the facilitation
of play for children, Tassoni, Beith, Eldridge and Gough (2002), however, were of the opinion
that caregivers’ involvement in children’s play can also be helpful in assisting children with
special needs. The caregivers can also facilitate children in the allocation of resources and op-
portunities that encourage physical activities and exploration. Physical activities in children’s
play may include improvisation of playing materials Kiminyo (1992). When used together with
imaginative play in which children engage in, improvisation can reduce interest in ready made
materials.
Adult caregivers in traditional Rwanda initiated children into play. However, the care-
givers were not actively involved in children’s play such as making toys, playing with them or
determining types of play for their children. Rwandan children could also learn how to dance,
jump hurdles or wrestle by observing adults doing these activities. In addition, adults taught
boys various sports, dances and other different skills in order to prepare them to become strong
and courageous. Such teaching also prepared boys to become husbands and fathers who would
be able to take care of their future families. Girls were also initiated to economic and social
activities. Besides, they learned various skills such as basket making, and household manage-
ments which included how to take care of the future husband and children.
The different skills taught to children were conducted in an atmosphere of play, in a non-
formal setting where children could assimilate the learning without any stress or fear of punish-
ment. However, due to socio-economic factors in Rwanda at present, there have been rapid and
dramatic changes in child-caregiver interaction. Children are getting less opportunity to play.
Formal education with an overloaded curricula and intellectual competition has both reduced
the duration for the involvement of children in play. Other factors such as busy working parents
and an absence of grandparents at home have changed the form of child rearing. Furthermore,
parents can no longer attend fully to their children’s needs. Given the tradition that did not
encourage caregivers to actively involve in children’s play and the new pressures of modern
life, there is a risk of less attention being paid to children’s play in Rwanda.
Problem of Research
This study is aimed at finding out caregivers’ views on the issue of children’s play in
Rwanda. It also aims to identify the kind of interaction that exists between caregivers and
children in regard to various play activities. Pressure of work in present-day Rwanda and socio-
economic pressures do not give many parents a room to interact and give children the attention
that they deserve. Parents hardly spare money to buy playing materials to their children; this
has partly contributed to the poor child-caregiver interaction in Rwanda. Besides, children do
not get adequate time to play. They are overwhelmed with school assignments, overloaded
curricula and continuous assessment tests that have put too much pressure on them. Thus, as
a result children do not get adequate time for play. Other factors such as working parents, ab-
sence of grandparents in homes and children being left under the custody of house helps have
brought a number of changes in the way children are brought up. This has adversely affected the
cognitive, social, emotional and physical development of majority of children in Rwanda. This
study therefore furnishes caregivers, particularly parents with knowledge and skills that would
make them to appreciate the role provision of playing materials, and play in particular, have in
developing children’s personality.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
92 The objectives of the present study were to investigate if caregivers’ perceptions on

children’s play are influenced by age of a child. The study also sought to determine whether
caregivers’ views on children’s play are influenced by educational background of caregivers.
Finally, the present study aimed at finding out if caregiver’s view on children’s play is influ-
enced by the gender of children.
In order to achieve its objectives, the study covered Kigali city. The population com-
prised caregivers of both gender and children of both gender. It specifically investigated four
Compassion-assisted projects located in Kimisagara, Kiyovu, Gikondo and Gatenga areas of
Kigali city. 89 respondents were considered in the study.
Research Focus
This section consists of substantive scientific information sources that are related to the
perception of caregivers’ in children’s play in Rwanda.
Erikson (1963) identified eight developmental stages of an individual; he pointed out
that at every stage, there is a crisis which needs to be faced and resolved so that there is normal
development in an individual. For developmental play, caregivers need to be aware of these
different changes and to be prepared to assist children to handle well the different crisis they
face at every stage. The age range of children for this study was 5-10 years. This age range
of the present study is related to third stage and fourth stage of child development as given by
Erikson (1963). The third stage of development which occurs during the preschool years (3 to 6
years) is classified as ‘initiative versus guilt.’ At this stage, children encounter wider and more
challenging situations than before; the children are required to assume some responsibilities
toward their bodies, behaviour, toys and toward other people in general. For these children, the
sense of responsibility leads to an increased sense of initiative and in some instances, children
may become guilty if their actions are not appreciated or if they fail to accomplish some respon-
sibilities assigned to them.
The fourth stage (6 to 11 years) is labeled industry versus inferiority (Erikson, 1963).
At this stage, children’s increased initiatives expose them to a variety of new experiences and
they become eager to master new knowledge and to apply new skills; they engage themselves
in accomplishing new tasks and develop a sense of industry. The danger at this stage is the de-
velopment of a sense of inadequacy or inferiority and a feeling of incompetence when they feel
unable to complete certain tasks or are not well supported and guided. Thus Erickson’s (1963)
theory is relevant to the current study in the sense that when children in the Rwandan context
fail to get the necessary support from caregivers in terms of play, they may fail to develop inter-
action and play skills. Hence, children may become socially inadequate and unlikely to develop
a sense of initiative to play with other children. This is because of being withdrawn.
Piaget (1962, 1969) was of the opinion that play contributes to children’s mental growth
and exposes them to new experiences which force them to think and change new situations into
existing cognitive structures. For example, the children may assume that a stick is a gun or that
a doll is a baby. However, (Vygosky, 1962) reported that play is an important component in chil-
dren’s cognitive development. Cohen (2001) was of the view that play is children’s main means
of learning and communicating. For this reason, it is argued that children should be facilitated
to get involved in a variety of play activities for more stimulation and creativity. Through play,
children learn how to handle objects, how to relate with people in their surrounding, how to
soothe themselves from various hurts and to develop confidence in themselves.
Various researchers (Beaver, Brewster, Neaum and Tallack, 2004; Hughes, 1991) have
indicated that play is essential for children in the development of all parts of the body such as
bones, muscles, and internal organs. It is also important for physical growth, for muscle control
and coordination. Play allows the mastering and control of children’s bodies; it improves psy-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
chomotor coordination and the learning of new skills. For instance, a child’s bodily movement 93
allows him or her to move from place to place in order to relate with others, to touch, explore
and discover different things that constitute his/her environment.
It has been noted that play offers a safe environment whereby a child learns through
observing and imitating other children or adults, feels free to explore new things and to seek
out new information to be applied in new situations (Davenport, 1994). Play encourages self
expression, creativity and an exploratory behavior, which involves curiosity and a desire for
more information to accomplish new things. Play exposes a child to new experiences, offers
him/her opportunity to solve problems in a pleasurable manner and to gain skills that can be
applied later in life (Tassoni, Beith, Eldridge and Gough, 2002; Bruner, 1976). However, San-
trock (1994) suggested that parents need to encourage imaginative play because it advances the
child’s cognitive development in general, particularly the creative thought. In addition, many
researchers are of the view that interaction with peers and adult caregivers through play and
games, and the use of appropriate toys are of very critical importance for children. Through
play, children learn to differentiate things such as soft and hard elements, sizes, forms, colours,
moving or non-moving objects; they develop more skills in the mental, socio-emotional and
physical domains (Shapiro, 2003; Cohen, 2001; Dreyer & Duminy, 1983; and Piaget, 1962)
The sample was constituted of 40 caregivers (parents/guardians) for children who are
taken care of in four Compassion-assisted projects in Kigali-Rwanda, 40 Compassion-assisted
children aged 5-10 years, and 9 project social workers. The main aim of Compassion Interna-
tional assisted projects is to assist impoverished children and bring hope to them to ensure that
they become responsible adults in future. The chosen age range of children is significant since
at this developmental stage, children are very playful and need assistance from adult caregivers
to gain more physical, mental and social-emotional skills. Children from age five were selected
because Compassion projects in Rwanda do not assist children below the age of five.
With the exception of social workers who were interviewed according to availability
at the student Centers, other respondents, both the caregivers and children, were selected ran-
domly from four Compassion-assisted projects. The four projects were also selected by random
sampling from the lists of 16 projects in Kigali cluster. This was done by writing down names
of the projects on pieces of paper and the first four projects that were picked were considered
in the study. Visits to four Compassion-assisted projects were organized within Kigali city and
interview schedules were carried out to both caregivers and children. Lists of parents/guardians
and children were obtained from each of the four Compassion-assisted projects. The probability
principle of sampling where population is heterogeneous (males and females) was applied in
the selection of caregivers and children. The population of caregivers and children was divided
into homogeneous groups before selecting the required number of respondents to constitute the
sample from each homogeneous group.
Sample of Research
The final sample of 10 caregivers (5 females and 5 males) and 10 children (5 boys and
5 girls) was selected from each of the four student Centers using the random sampling proce-
dures whereby numbers from 1 to 20 were written on pieces of paper and the respondents who
picked the first ten even numbers and the first five even numbers were respectively were taken
to constitute the sample. This was done by writing down numbers from 1 to 98 on pieces of
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
94 paper and the respondents who picked the first 20 even numbers in each category constituted
the sample. The total respondents were 89 namely: 40 caregivers comprising 20 females and
20 males selected using random sampling from a list of 393 caregivers that was compiled from
Compassion office by the researchers. Further, 40 children (20 boys and 20 girls) aged 5- 10
years were selected using random sampling from a population of 342 children. The 40 children
that constituted the sample of the study had 12 (30%) children between 5-7 years old while 28
(70%) were between 8-10 years old. However, the 9 project social workers (that is, 3 males
and 6 females) interviewed were merely selected due to lack of an adequate number in this
category of respondents. The summary of the distribution of respondents and their locations is
given in Table 1.
As shown in Table 1 below, half of the children who participated in the study were girls
(20) and the other half were boys (20). Among the 49 adult caregivers namely, caregivers and
social workers, 26 were females while 23 were male caregivers.
Table 1. Distribution of respondents according to gender and location.
Kimisagara
Respondents’ gender Kiyovu Gikondo Gatenga Total
Female parents/guardians 5 5 5 5 20
Male parents/guardians 5 5 5 5 20
Girl children 5 5 5 5 20
Boy children 5 5 5 5 20
Female social workers 1 2 2 1 6
Male social workers 1 - 1 1 3
Total 22 22 23 22 89
Instrument and Procedure
The data was collected from different respondents through schedules with parents/guard-
ians, project social workers and children in four Compassion assisted projects. Respondents
were found in their community. This facilitated the understanding of reality on the ground. To
ascertain validity and reliability, the research instruments were administered as a pre-test to
a group of 33 respondents (15 caregivers and 15 children and 3 project social workers). The
subjects that were considered for pre-test were not included in the main study.
Visits to four Compassion student centers were organized within the city of Kigali and
interviews were administered to selected participants. Guiding questions were prepared in
advance, and the study was mainly guided by data collected from different informants through
interviews. From each Center, an interview was conducted for 10 selected children, 10 par-
ents/guardians and 2 or 3 project social workers. Interviews were conducted by the researchers
together with the help of 2 research assistants who had gone through prior training in order to
get acquainted with the nature of research. Besides, an examination was made on secondary
sources of information which included information available in different Compassion-assisted
projects, schools and different local communities in Kigali city where the children live. Infor-
mal discussions were conducted with teachers and local community leaders concerning avail-
able program for children, toys, play equipments, playgrounds and other facilities for children’s
play activities.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Data Analysis 95
Data from interview schedules were organized and manually put into categories ac-
cording to the questions asked. In this study both qualitative and quantitative methods were
used. Descriptive statistics, Chi-Square test and central tendency that include mean, median
and mode were used. Percentage scores were fully analyzed, presented in tables and graphs for
easier comprehension of the results.
The age, gender and education background were the variables considered for the car-
egivers. On the other hand, age and gender were used as variables for the children. The reason
for selecting these variables was to find out if they have some influence on caregivers’ percep-
tion on children’s play. The description of data collected from interview schedules from chil-
dren and caregivers are presented in this section. In this study, caregivers’ level of education
was used as a variable denoting the stage of formal education attained by caregivers and to find
out whether it influences their perception or not on children’s play.
The Chi-Square test showed that the association between gender of children and the
importance for caregivers to provide playing time is not significant. The p-value is 0.667>0.05.
The interaction between the variables gender group and time given for play (very important,
important, not important) is not significant because 0.4348>0.05. Similarly, the difference be-
tween girls and boys is not significant in all categories of importance (the p-values are greater
than 0.005). The high percentages of caregivers who responded that they “never” play with the
children constitute 57.1% for girls and 53.1% for boys respectively. This suggests that a major-
ity of caregivers do not play with their children regardless of their gender.
Ethical Considerations
This study was purely conducted for the sake of expanding knowledge in the area of
child play. Therefore, the data collected was purely for research purposes and confidentiality
of the information got from the respondents was/will be kept secret. Identity of any respondent
will not be revealed whatsoever.
Results of Research
Table 2. Education level of caregivers.
Number of
Education level Percentages
caregivers in the group
No Education 8 16.3
Primary 1 to primary 6 16 32.7
Senior 1 to senior 6 20 40.8
University level 5 10.2
Total 49 100
Majority of caregivers (83.7%) who constitutes the sample of the study have attained at
least primary school education. Further, it is revealed from Table 2 that 16.3 % of the caregivers
lack any formal education. Over half of caregivers interviewed have attained at least secondary
education which constitutes 51% of the caregivers. Out of this 51%, only 5 respondents have
attained the university level of education which makes up 10.2%. It was observed that caregiv-
ers who are educated at least from senior 1 to university spare some time to play with children
particularly the ones aged 5-7 years.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
96 90
80
70
60 57.10
Percentage 53.10
50 44.90
40 38.80
30
20
10 4.10 2.10
0
Very often sometimes Never
Girls
Boys Responses by gender
Figure 1: Gender of children and how often caregivers participate

in play.
60% 57.20
51%
50%
Percentage
40.80
40%
30% 24.40
18.40
20%
8.20
10%
0%
Very important Important Not important
5 – 7 years
8 – 10 years Perception by age
Figure 2: Caregivers’ perception of toys/play in relation to children’s age.
Figure 2 above shows that the majority of caregivers value the importance of toys for
children of both age groups (5-7 years old and 8-10 years old). Some caregivers however stated
that the importance of toys should not be the same to all children since older children (8-10
years old) need to concentrate on school work as well as domestic chores. As represented above,
20 out of 49 (40.8%) caregivers reported that toys are very important for children between 5-
7 years of age compared to 12 out 49 (24.4%) who reported that toys are very important for
children age of 8-10 years old. 18.4% of caregivers indicated that toys were not important for
the age group of children between 8-10 years against only 8.2% of caregivers who believed that
toys are also not important for children between 5-10 years of age. Significant relationship be-
tween variables age groups of children and time given for play is indicated by p-value equal to
0.002 < 0.05. The highest level of giving playing time was found for children aged 5-7 years.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 3. Children’s gender and needs in area of play. 97
Lack of playing Lack of more Lack of play- Need for

Gender of children materials time for play ground playmates
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Girls (20) 95 30 20 15
Boys (20) 85 45 25 0
Table 3 above shows that most of the children, irrespective of their gender, experience
shortage of playing materials; this is represented by 95% and 85% of girls and boys respec-
tively. 30% and 45% of girls and boys respectively lack adequate time for play, while 20% and
25% of girls and boys respectively lack a play ground.
1. There was a significant relationship between caregivers’ perception on children’s play

and age of children. Significant relationship between variables age groups of children
and time given for play is indicated by p-value equal to 0.002 < 0.05. The highest
level of giving playing time was found for children aged 5-7 years. The more children
were younger, the more caregivers were likely to provide playing time and toys.
2. There was no significant relationship between the gender of a child and caregivers’
perception on play. The Chi-Square test gives a p-value of 0.499 > 0.05. The inter-
action between the variables gender group and time given for play (very important,
important, not important) is not significant because 0.2377 > 0.05. This implies that
the association between variables gender group and importance of toys is not signifi-
cant.
3. The study has shown that there is a significant relationship between caregiver’s edu-
cational background and perception on children’s play, especially when they are still
young (5 to 7 years old). The interaction between variables (level of education and
giving playing time) is significant for the p-value 0.0247 < 0.05.
4. From interview with children, it was clear that children do not have a variety of play-
ing materials and more boys than girls lack time for play.
Discussion
The first finding indicates that there is significant relationship between caregivers’ per-
ception on children’s play and age of children; the younger the children (5-7years old) the more
caregivers are more likely to give them more toys and more playing time (see figure 1). Certain
factors may also be responsible for this tendency. One of the factors could be due to the fact
that, since younger children do not have responsibilities such as domestic duties or homework,
they are free to spend their time playing without being bothered by their caregivers. Another
possible reason may be that caregivers themselves might encourage their children to involve
themselves in play in order for the children to be distracted while they (caregivers) are busy
doing their usual chores at home. This finding is consistent with Shapiro (2003) who noted that
indeed most parents get interested in children’s play when they are younger, get less interested
in play when children enter school, and just give up as their children become teenager. There-
fore, younger children should be given more attention, a variety of toys and more play time.
This is because early childhood is a period where children need more play materials and play
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
98 time for their holistic development as compared to older ones who go to school and so may be
too busy with school activities.
The second finding indicates that there is no significant relationship between the gender
of child and caregivers’ perception on play. There is no significant difference in the way car-
egivers perceive children’s play whether they are boys or girls due to the fact that all children
are treated the same irrespective of their gender without discrimination in the Rwandan society
when it comes to play that is the reason why this finding is not significant. However, the results
shows that few caregivers have a tendency to discriminate between boys and girls on the issue
of play; this insignificant difference may be attributed to individual differences among caregiv-
ers (see figure 2). Some caregivers reported that when they play with children especially boys,
the former pretend to fight, sneak, chase or dive on the children while smiling and laughing.
This amuses the children. This sort of play provides a context for learning and role exchange for
instance, ‘now it is my turn, you have to chase me.’ This sort of attitude provides positive proso-
cial behavioural patterns like cooperation among children. Though a majority of caregivers are
of the view that girls and boys should be treated equally (especially when they are young), there
are others who feel that as children grow up, when they are not at school, girls should not be
allowed to go out to play with friends as boys do. The common reason given by these caregivers
was that girls were to be more protected than boys and can not go far from home as boys usually
do. Another possibility could be the fact that caregivers especially females prefer keeping girls
at home because they help them in doing domestic chores.
During interview, some caregivers revealed that for protective reasons they can not give
more freedom to girl children as they do for boys. When children are on holidays, it was report-
ed that usually boys were free to move around in the neighbourhood and to join peer groups for
play activities such as football. Girls were prevented by parents/guardians to move away from
home for fear that something dangerous might happen to them. It was found out that for girls,
there is general tendency from caregivers of being more overprotective, warm and interactive
than if it was a boy. On the other hand, for boys, the child could easily be left alone without
any fear as compared to their female counterparts; expression of fear or loneliness could not
be accepted as for a girl. It was also noted that themes such as courage, confidence and power
were more emphasized for boys than for girls. This suggests that Rwandan society tends to be
patriarchal.
The third finding is based on the interview carried out on caregivers. It was revealed that
there was a significant relationship between caregiver’s education background and perception
on children’s play. This is especially observed more for younger children than for the older
ones. The more caregivers were educated, the more they were likely to have a positive view on
play. Caregivers who have reached secondary or university level of education were found to be
more favorable on children’s play than those who had non-formal or have only attained primary
level education. Some caregivers in the category of non-formal and primary level of education
were of the view that children whose age range is 8-10 years were grown up who should en-
gage in more serious issues such as contributing to household work or embark on their school
assignments instead of playing. Sargent (2003) has indicated that one of the major challenges
caregivers face in area of play is mainly ignorance on the role and benefits of play in the devel-
opment of children. It was also revealed that gender of caregivers has no significant influence
in their perception on children’s play. Nevertheless, the present study has shown that there was
a small tendency for male caregivers to put more value on play than their female counterparts.
In traditional African context, household chores are mainly under female responsibilities, it is
possible that female caregivers have many demands and thus lack time to play with their chil-
dren. Another possible explanation of the gender difference, though minimal, may be due to
the fact that female caregivers also have the responsibility to initiate young children to various
tasks; they could think that play has no benefits to children and that it is just for passing time.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
It was discovered during the interview with children that they have a strong desire of 99
playing with their parents and teachers. It is natural for children to have desire to play with their
parents and to get attention from the latter as much as they can get it in matters of play. So
caregivers should develop interest in playing with children since it benefits children in various
developments. Play provides a golden chance for caregivers to build strong relationships with
children and an occasion to teach them moral values and important social skills. Most boys,
90% (18 out of 20 boys) reported that their usual game is football while 100% of girls indicated
that they play agapira/ agatenesi which means in Kinyarwanda, the local language, a type of
handball game usually played by young girls or boys. Few children mentioned that they some-
times play with skipping rope, dolls, cars, or mabigibigi which in local language, a game played
by young girls by chasing and touching each other. It is important that caregivers consider such
moments of playing to impart societal values to children.
With regard to where the children source their toys, some of them, especially the young-
er ones (5-7 years old) reported that they could get toys from older siblings or parents while the
majority of older children indicated that they could make balls out of available materials such
as used clothes or banana leaves or they could borrow them from friends or siblings. Although
most of the children expressed the need of being involved in various play activities such as vol-
leyball, basketball, swinging, riding bicycles, swimming, playing cars, and using marbles, they
also indicated that they could not find appropriate toys or materials. This finding shows that
either the majority of caregivers in Rwanda do not have adequate finances to buy playing mate-
rials for children or, they simply do not know the role of a variety of toys in children’s play.
The results of the study revealed that some children did not have enough of playtime
due to school and domestic work, mostly children from 8-10 years reported that they were not
getting enough time to enjoy play activities. This could be explained by the fact that in the
Rwandan public schools, children have to attend classes both in the morning and afternoon. In
addition to the heavy schedule, they also carry homework and the majority of school children
have also to perform some domestic chores which include: washing dishes, caring for younger
siblings and fetching water, among the other activities that parents or guardians assign them
to do. It has been noticed that even in other parts of the globe, playtime for children has been
reduced due to increased academic work, video shows, and computer games. These activities
prevent children from active play with their peers. Subsequently social, physical and cognitive
developments are hindered.
Indeed by visiting different locations in Kigali city, it is easy to observe that except for
some few private schools, the majority of schools (both public and some private) have been
built without provision for proper playgrounds and equipment for play activities. In the four
locations where the study was carried out, schools and student centers do not have proper
playground. Additionally, most Rwandans homes are very crowded and there is congestion of
houses in Kigali city. These factors suggest that there is no adequate space for children to play
(especially boys when they want to play football or play hide and seek or run about with each
other). The children normally use streets or alleys available in their neighbourhood or have to
look for nearest schools that may have playgrounds in order to have a place to play. Parents/
guardians seemed not to have seen this lack of adequate space as a major hindrance. One rea-
son given by some of the parents is that they are busy working toward catering for basic needs
(food, shelter, clothing, school fees) for the family and so they do not have time to be concerned
with children’s play. Besides, it may also be due to the fact that some caregivers are not fully
aware of the importance of play. Thus, the caregivers needed the support of school and local
authorities in order to promote play activities in their communities.
Nevertheless, when children were interviewed, it was revealed that they value toys so
much. Playing with toys make the children enjoy play. When asked about what were the great-
est challenges in the area of play, 95% of girls (19 out of 20) and 85% of boys (17 out of 20)
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
100 mentioned that their greatest hindrance was the lack of toys. Caregivers do not provide toys
for children at home; moreover, school authorities too pay less attention to play materials for
children while the children are at school. This is due to ignorance of caregivers of the vital role
of play in the life of children; play provides optimal development of children of any age. Boys
revealed that they like to play football very much; but it was very difficult to find a ball which
was professionally made. Children usually play football with hand-made balls called karere
in local language meaning a ball made out of banana leaves, but according to children, such
balls do not last for many days and so they need ready made playing materials like footballs.
Likewise, girls were enjoying playing agapira, but it was not easy for them to find balls unless
they made some out of used clothes or banana leaves.
These findings are inconsistent with the observation of Kiminyo (1992) who carried out
a study in Kenya and reported that when children improvise playing materials then they will
not have interest in ready made ones. 30% of girls (6 out of 20) and 45% of boys (9 out 20)
reported that school work and domestic chores were other hindrances and that they need more
time for them to enjoy play. Play grounds and playmates were other requirements mentioned
by children that would facilitate their enjoyment as far as playing is concerned. Though this
was mentioned by relatively few children (20% girls and 25% boys) but nonetheless, it is a very
important factor in determining how play can be effective.
Conclusion
Play has an essential role for optimal development for children. Time for play is the
most enjoyable moment in the life of children. This study has underscored the fact that children
are able to learn various skills with great enthusiasm, they become explorative of their envi-
ronments besides being able to discover their potentials during play experiences. It is recom-
mended that caregivers understand the necessity of play and recognize it as children’s right.
The results of the study have showed that there is significant relationship between caregivers’
perceptions and age of a child. The majority of caregivers had a more positive attitude on
younger children’s play than for older children. There was no significant relationship between
caregivers’ perception on children’s play and gender of children. However, on the issue of play,
findings showed small differences; some caregivers felt that grown up girl children (8-10 years
old) were to be handled differently as they need to learn to do domestic chores. This study has
shown that educational background of caregivers had some influence on their perception of
children’s play. The more educated caregivers are, the more they provide supportive network
for children’s play. From informal conversation with caregivers, it was indicated that traditions
and cultural background, lack of know-how, inadequate time and non-availability of playing
material were found to be hindering factors for caregivers to support children’s play.
References
Beaver, M., & Brewster, J., & Neaum, S., & Tallack, J. (2004). Early years care and education. U.K.: Nelson
Thornes Ltd.
Bruner J.S. (1976). Nature and uses of immaturity. In J.S. Bruner & A. Jolly & K. Sylva (Eds.) Play – its
role in development and evolution. England: Penguin.
Cohen, L. J. (2001). Playful parenting. New York: Ballantine Publishing Group
Davenport, G. C. (1994). An Introduction to Child Development (2nd Ed.). London: HarperCollins Pub-
lishers.
Dreyer, H. J., & Duminy, P.A. (1983). Education 2. A course in Psychopedagogics. Cape Town.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 101
Hughes, F.P. (1991). Children, play and development. London: Allyn & Bacon.
Kiminyo, D. M. (1992). Child development (2nd Ed.). Nairobi: Educational and Research Publications
Ltd.
Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton.
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child – The definitive summary of the work of the
world’s most renowned psychologist. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Santrock, J.W. (1994, 6th Ed.). Child development. Madison, Wisconsin: Wm. C. Brown
Sargent, L.W. (2003). The power of parent – child play. Colorado Springs: Alive Communications, Inc.
Shapiro, L. E. (2003). The secret language of children. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks Inc.
Tassoni, P., & Beith, K., & Eldridge, H., & Gough, A. (2002). Child care and Education. Oxford: Heine-
mann Educational Publishers.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Appendices
Appendix 1
Interview schedule for children
Age of respondent:
Sex of respondent:
Class:
1. What are your usual play activities or games?
2. How often in a week do you get time to enjoy play activities?
( very often, sometimes, no time)
3. Where do you get good opportunity to enjoy play?
- At home - At school - Other place (name of place)
4. Where do you get toys/playing materials? (parents, teachers, siblings, friends,
or others).
5. Who do you play with at home in most of your play activities? –
- Siblings - Other kids - Parents - Others (who are they)
6. Who do you play with at school in most of your play activities?
- Friends - Classmates - Teachers - Siblings - Others
7. Who else would you be pleased to play with?
- Friends - Relatives - Parents/guardians - Classmates
- Teacher - others
8. What are your greatest hindrances for you to enjoy play?
- Lack of toys - Lack of enough time - lack of playgrounds
- lack of playmates
Appendix 2
Interview for caregivers
Respondent’s age:
Respondent’s sex:
Education level:
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
102 1. What playing materials/ toys do you provide?

• To your child age between 5 and 7 years old?
• To your child age between 8 and 7 years old?
• To your daughter:
• To your son:
2. How do you think toys / playing materials are important for
• Children between 5 and 7 years old? (Very important, important, not important)
Explanation: ………………………………………………………………………
Explanation: ………………………………………………………………………
• Girl children? (Very important, important, not important) Explanation: …………
• Boy children? (Very important, important, not important) Explanation: …………
3. How important is it for you to provide playing time for
• Children between 5 and 7 years old? (Very important, important, not important) Ex-
planation: ……………………………………………………………………
Explanation:………………………………………………………………………
• Girl children? (Very important, important, not important) Explanation:………
• Boy children? (Very important, important, not important) Explanation: …………
4. How often in a week do you take time to play with your? Explanation: ………………
• Children between 5 and 7 years old? (very often, sometimes, Never) Explanation:
• Children between 8 and 10 years old? (very often, sometimes, Never ) Explana-
tion:..……….……………………………………………………………
• Girl children (very often, sometimes, never) Explanation: ………………………..
• Boy children (very often, sometimes, never) Explanation: ……………………….
5. How do you think children’s play is or is not important in terms of: (choose correct
answers and explain)
• Impact on their mental development?
• Impact on social development?
• Impact on emotional development?
• Impact on physical development?
6. What do you do to promote children’s play in terms of program, provision of
playing materials, space or time?
Adviced by Bob J. O. Mbori, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya
Peter Odera Dr., Senior Lecturer, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Box
190-Kakamega, Kenya.
E-mail: poajagempj@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.mmust.ac.ke/
Rosette K. Murigande Director, Wellspring Academy, P. O. Box 7486, Kigali-Rwanda.

E-mail: rosettemk@yahoo.com
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
103
THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN

THE BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS
EDUCATION: THE CASE OF
GREEK BANKS
Vassilis Orfanos, Michalis Evripiotis
Hellenic Open University, Greek Telecommunication Organization, Athens, Greece
E-mail: vassorf@ote.gr, mevripio@ote.gr
Abstract
The swift technological development compels an enterprise manager for additional education of em-
ployees. The survival of an organism depends on his ability to learn faster from his competitors. This is
achieved with systematic and long-lasting effort.
Each employee owes to enrich permanently his knowledge so that he is capable to face the new market
requirements. A lot of projects are cancelled because the enterprise personnel cannot cope with their
requirements. Changes essential for the reorganization of enterprise are suspended because her person-
nel cannot accept them. These problems are possible to be solved with the permanent training, briefing,
education and training of employees. This responsibility of enterprises for the aid of employees with new
knowledge and dexterities is recognized more and more, while the human capital constitutes nowadays
the more important productive factor. However, while many times over we invest millions in installations,
instruments, offices, material and software of computers, we neglect the investment in the persons, those
that is to say that shape, develop and give added value in the material elements of production.
Aim of this article is to present the policy of Greek banks in the business-to-business education giving ac-
cent in the way of resolution of problems that they face. Furthermore, the banking sector is the eminently
branch that requires continuous education of personnel.
Key words: banking system, business-to-business education, educational technology, Greek banking in-
dustry, professional training.
Introduction
As business-to-business education (education in the enterprise environment) is defined

the organized education at process that aims to the performance of the employees. It is a pro-
grammed process that aims to the acquisition and improvement of the knowledge, to the capa-
bilities and professional skills growth as well as to the modification of the employee attitude
and behavior. As means it uses the teaching and the programmed experience in order to achieve
effective performance in an activity or a series of activities that are performed in the frames of
the company. Its aim in the enterprise environment is to improve the employees’ performance in
order to satisfy the current and future organization necessities and aid to its target accomplish-
ment.
Although sometimes the terms employees training and education are used alternatively,
there is a difference in the breadth that they cover. Education can be used for a broader knowl-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
104 edge field (practical and theoretical) as well as for any hierarchy level. On the contrary, training
assumes a knowledge level and usually includes more theoretical – scientific issues. Thus, the
term training is confined to the executives, while the term education includes all the hierarchy
levels of the enterprise.
Management Education usually appeals to young people who are to be occupied profes-
sionally with the organization or enterprise management that precedes training. Therefore, it
extends a long-termer in the view of the usage by the executive education. It is clear that this
education is placed more in the process of the Highest Educational Institutions. The programs
of those institutes have as a basic aim to offer to student a general knowledge frame and develop
some basic professional skills which will make the graduate capable of undertaking administra-
tion duties in several positions and in a variety of financial units.
The term human resources involves a procedure of education which aims to the em-
ployee knowledge, techniques, skills acquisition and develops attributes and behaviors which
will make him effective in his work. Namely the business-to-business education has a work-
centered character. The human resources development (Alessi, & Trollip, 2005) is also an edu-
cational procedure, but it has a longer-term horizon the target of which is the employee to
acquire knowledge and develops faculties that will enable him to use in the future, in businesses
that demand more responsibility and initiative. Therefore, the development, more has a human-
centered character, since all the procedure aims at how the employee will be efficient and self-
developed as a personality, in order to cope with situations in the future, to take initiatives and
make decisions that are not related only with the technical dimension of the work, but also with
the solution of organizational problems. However, the absolute distinction between those two
terms is difficult to be made and maybe arbitrary. After alls, the approaches, which are used in
the educational and development programs, are usually the same.
Reasons which Make Necessary the Business to Business Education
The reasons that make the employee education necessary are related with the changes or
the prevalent conditions in the external and internal environment of the enterprise. Indicative
reasons (Fioreti, G., 2007) are the following:
• Technological progress: it demands new specialties, new knowledge, and application
of new methods and processes of work execution.
• Consumer demands and necessities: they demand work places with new or different
content (for quality, variety, facility, speed, personal service, new products or ser-
vices).
• Merges and buying out: they demand new organizational culture, new work places,
and different work content.
• Functions re-planning and organizing changes: they demand new competences, wid-
ened duties, and different work content.
• Performance gap and non-effective exploitation of productive resources that are due
to the employee insufficiency or their differentiation in the value system and their
attitude towards work.
Target of Business to Business Education
Fundamental targets of business to business the enterprise education are to aid the enter-
prise to achieve its strategic targets by valuing the work of the employees. Education means hu-
man investment in order to have a better performance (Wang, Y. & Wang, H. & Shee, D. 2005)
and to make better usage of their natural capabilities. Partial targets of the business-to-business
education are the following:
Vassilis Orfanos, Michalis Evripiotis. The Use of New Technologies in the Business-to-Business Education:
the Case of Greek Banks
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
• Development of the current employee business competencies in order to improve 105

their performance.
• Employee supporting in the development of different or new business skills in order
to undertake new duties and future enterprise necessities as well as possible by the
existing employees.
• Reduction of the necessary educational time during the undertaking of a new position
(employment, movement or advancement), the adaptation to the new necessities as
soon as possible and with the minimum cost.
The sectors that can be improved (Prior, J., 2000) with the education in proportion to the
already existing qualifications of every executive are the following:
• Knowledge: Knowledge is a stock of observations, facts and information that con-
cerns the procedures, the personnel and the typical duty of each work place.
• Skills: Skills refer to the skills by which some activities are done. The skill devel-
opment includes the mental and personal skills improvement so that the employee
action efficiency can be increased, such as the competency problem analysis, deci-
sion-making, personal communication.
• Attitudes: They include the predisposition of a person to act and react in a specific
and predictable way. The attitude change usually leads to the behavior change and
aims to make the way by which the employees correspond to a variety of environ-
ment factors more efficient. Attitudes which aim to be enhanced and which lead to
the desirable behaviors are the cultural changes tolerance, self-confidence, the desire
undertake responsibilities, etc.
• Business Competencies: They include the total of personal business characteristics,
knowledge, skills and behaviors that are demanded so that an employee can execute
his work properly. Many enterprises apply specialized education in the necessary
business competences of each position, known as competency-based training. Busi-
ness competencies are distinguished in five clusters (Brettaros, G. etc, 2004):
- Target and attitude oriented management
Interest in the results: Effort for impact on others, interest for prestige and fame.
Diagnostic meanings usage: Effort for interpretation of facts by the use of specific
meaning frames.
Effectiveness orientation: Effort for better achievements.
Activity: Predisposition for attitude undertaking in order to achieve something.
- Leadership
Configuration of a notional frame: Development based on the experience of a mean-
ing that describes a procedure or a structure.
Self-confidence: Decisiveness and awareness that is correct that what he does is right.
Oral Presentations: Ability in oral presentations whether concerning one interlocutor
or hundreds of people.
- Human resources management
Society force usage: The use of several kinds of influence with result in the creation
of alliances, networks, coalitions and groups.
Group management processes: Encouragement of the rest to effectively work in
groups.
- Subordinate guidance
Making always better collaborators and subordinates. Initiative and exercise of pow-
er is also important.
- Others
Objective perception: Ability of relative objectivity and avoidance of prejudices and
partiality.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
106 Self-control: Ability of controlling personal necessities and desirables for the fulfill-
ment of organizational targets and necessities.
Resistance and adaptability: Ability of resistance in a lot of work hours. Being flex-
ible and adaptable to changes in the life and in the organizational environment.
Many enterprises configure competency lists or framework. These competencies have
a general character (Skerlava, M., 2007) and constitute an essential condition so that someone
can work in the enterprise. According to a research made by the “Competency” magazine that
took place in 1996 in 126 enterprises, the ten prevalent categories of business competencies
were the following:
• Communication
• Results/ achievements orientation
• Customer focusing
• Team work
• Leadership
• Programming and organization
• Comprehension of the enterprise environment
• Flexibility/ adaptability
• Problem solution
• Development of others.
Advantages of Business to Business Education
Profits for the Enterprises
• The reduction of the learning time for the achievement of the acceptable execution.
It’s achieved in by the organized training of the new employees by instructors in suit-
able learning conditions.
• The best execution in the current project.
The employee training has as a result the improvement of their performance. The
quality of produced quantity is increased.
• The increased production.
The enrichment of the competencies and the knowledge usually leads to the increase
of the produced quantity as well as to the decrease of the mistakes that arise by mis-
understanding and delay. The demands of the present work places impose systematic
training in order to evaluate the abilities of new technology, which is the basic imple-
ment for the increase of productivity nowadays.
• Modulation of behavior/ attitude.
Behavior and attitude are developed in order to support the enterprise activities, for
better cooperation and greater dedication (Fisher, C. & Schoenfeldt, L. & Shaw, J.
2006). This could be achieved by using specific programs or as a result of general
training. However, the employee’s moral is increased since the rendering of neces-
sary competences for the correspondence to the basic human necessities, such as
the sense of security is vital. The supply of business-to-business education is able to
satisfy the highest personnel development and fulfillment necessities.
• The reduced supervision.
The trained employee is able to execute his duties with reduced supervision, a fact
that is positive for both the employee and the enterprise because of the ability of ini-
tiative undertaking of the former and the supervision cost reduction for the latter.
• The organized stability and flexibility.
The stability, namely the ability of an enterprise to maintain its effectiveness despite
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
the loss of experienced personnel, can be encouraged by the creation of a specialized 107
employee stock that is directly able to replace the loss. The flexibility, namely the
ability of direct adaptation to the oncoming changes of the objective or the way of the
enterprise operation, it presupposes the existence of a personnel with several abilities
so that the movement of employees to places with different demands is possible.
• The aid for the functional problem solution.
It includes the assistance to reduce the separations, the absences, the number of com-
plains, the material waste, the insufficient work methods and the low level services.
• The increased enterprise attractiveness as an employer.
By the application of a complete training program, the enterprise attracts high quality
employees because they estimate the fact that the enterprise provide them with learn-
ing and developing opportunities, it increases the competitiveness level and enriches
their skills.
• The development of culture oriented to the enhancement of performance.
The consistent, general and specific learning offer aids to the development of a posi-
tive culture that is oriented to the continuous enhancement of performance.
• The filling of in personnel vacancies.
Nowadays, in many enterprises there are difficulties in the recruitment of a sufficient
number of technicians. The best way to resolve a problem like this is the existence of
the business-to-business education.
• Accident reduction.
Most of the accidents are provoked be the personnel insufficient knowledge insuf-
ficiency, the wrong maintenance of the equipment and the ignorance of security mea-
sures. A suitable training, provided it develops abilities that concern the work, the
maintenance and informs on the security measures, can effectively contribute to the
reduction of the accident percentage.
Benefits for the Employees

The employees with the training acquire new abilities and knowledge. They increase
their value in the market place as well as their ability to earn more. Besides, they encourage
their security in their work and they acquire qualifications for promotion to places of higher
responsibility with the proportional increase of their payment and their prestige.
The Business to Business Education Philosophy

The philosophy of training of an enterprise expresses the significance that is attributed
to it. Some enterprises believe that the employees are able to discover by themselves what they
have to do. Usually, when those enterprises ascertain the lack of the abilities, they attempt per-
sonnel attraction from enterprises that invest in the education. On the contrary, the enterprises
with a positive training philosophy are aware that they exist in a world where the comparative
advantage is achieved through the employment of personnel with more qualifications than the
personnel of other enterprises and that the investment on their employee faculties and compe-
tencies development is necessary. In fact, these enterprises confront the training as an invest-
ment. They perceive that the estimation of this investment performance is difficult, but it is
believed that the profits overbalance the cost. However, since the conviction that training helps
is not sufficient, the application of the business-to-business education contributes to the final
results. Here are some principles on which a training philosophy focused on the results can be
based.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
108 • Education that is related with the performance.

The training must related with the satisfaction of specific and significant enterprise
necessities. The philosophy of a business-to-business education that is related with
the performance includes the direct correlation of training with the employee perfor-
mance to the work place and the demands coverage for specific skills of several plac-
es. Unfortunately, there are some enterprises that are occupied only with the training
for the training’s sake.
• Continuous development.
The training is should not be confronted as a rendering of long-term and isolated
course in different periods of an employee career. It is essential it be a continuous
procedure, added to a continuous development policy.
• Training Policies.
The training policies express the enterprise training philosophy. They provide the
basic principles for the quality, the quantity, the expenditure, the programming and
the responsibility for the training.
The training philosophy (Harrison, R. 2002) that is associated with the performance
management demands on the part of the executives to regularly examine the performance in
relation with the initial targets as well as the factors that have influenced the progress of training
necessities. The satisfaction of those necessities demands the cooperation among the execu-
tives, the teams and the individuals so that an effective training organization and materialization
can be achieved.
Learning Principles
Training is more complete and more efficient when it is based on the following principles:
• Motivations
An employee-training program should cover the motivations for learning and self-
improvement that any person has (internal motivations) and the opportunities for
better earnings or promotions that the education provides (external motivations). For
the trainees training education it is essential that their trainers excite their interest and
their desire for education.
• Results and progress knowledge
The results knowledge and the feedback related with the performance aid to the learn-
ing achievement. When the trainee knows his progress and when the good perfor-
mance helps him to correct his faults, have self-confidence and to show more interest
for further learning.
• Learning by doing
The more senses used and the more opportunities for practice offered to the trainee,
the more completed the learning is. When the trainee executes what he hears, he
reads or sees, his faculties are tested, this is evaluated and he acquires self-confi-
dence. This principle should not only be applied in the learning of technical issues
(e.g. handling of a machine) but also in theoretical issues with the use of various
techniques such as role playing, problems solution, case studying, oral discussion
and issues.
• Interrupted exercise
According to researches, education is more effective, when the efforts take place at
interrupted periods. The interrupted exercise helps in apprenticeship/ training
programs. In these programs the alternation among meetings in the teaching room
and in practical application is advisable. The practice and the repetition are important
for the new faculties learning.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
• General picture presentation 109

It is easier to learn when you comprehend the whole at first and have a general image
and then deal with the individual particular.
• Learning by repetition
Repetition gives birth to learning. People forget as time goes by and for this rea-
son the main points that were taught in the past must be reminded. The continuous
repetition as long as it concerns the practical exercise is essential for the following
reasons:
- It helps the memory
- Behavior becomes more automatic
- It increases the quality of execution in under pressure conditions.
- Aid the trainees to transmit what they have learned faster and more properly to
work place.
• Learning moving dexterities
When moving dexterity is involved the trainer has to show and explain the mate-
rial and the tools or the machines that he will use. A demonstration follows and af-
terwards the trainer is called to apply what he was taught with comprehension for
what he does and with the possibility to interpret each action. The trainer guides and
re-informs the trainee with regard to his progress.
• Learning of meanings and attitudes
The meanings and attitudes learning is more complicated than the moving dexteri-
ties learning. It is reinforced with the active participation of the trainees in problems
and exercises, and the encouragement is of great importance so that problems and
situations in-depth can be researched and can discover relationships and principles
by themselves. The trainer should organise the material and present it in a reasonable
and explicit way. A big amount of the required knowledge and faculties in an enter-
prise is found in the space of human relations. Thus, a big amount of the executives’
education takes place with methods of big team cooperation and intercommunication
such as discussions, meetings, case studies and sensitivity training (T-group train-
ing).
• Presentation of target learning
With the presentation of the program targets the trainee knows from the start why this
program takes place, what precisely he will learn by the end and where it will benefit
him. In this way, his interest grows and he tries more. It is essential the main learning
points be known before the beginning of the learning process
• Maintaining of the learning results
What they were taught during the education is likely to be immediately applied prac-
tically after the educational program. This direct application encourages the further
study and the retention in the memory of the educational material. However, in sever-
al situations the knowledge that was acquired applied in application after a long time.
In these cases the activities of practical application regularly (e.g. annual re-educa-
tion) can limit or even deter the loss of faculties that was acquired in the educational
program. Moreover, it is believed that the learning beyond the predetermined and
desirable point can create more durable faculties in the loss in periods of lack of
practice.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
110 Other Factors which Contribute
Apart from the comprehension and the application of the learning principles, there are
certain factors that help the more complete learning. These factors are:
Learning Material
It is easier for the trainees to comprehend and remember later the material which is
meaningful. There are some ways to make the educational material more meaningful:
• The material should include a variety of examples.
• The material should be organised in a reasonable way and be separated in contextual
units.
• The use of terms and meanings that are already known is preferable
• The use of audiovisual material helps better comprehension.
Trainers
In a big percentage the success of the educational program is related with the trainer
sufficiency, which should allocate characteristics and faculties such as:
• Good know edge of the learning object.
• He should be well prepared (e.g. lecture organization).
• He should be sincere (in what he supports and his answers).
• He should have and show interest in what he teaches.
• He should be interested and help individually those who seem to have a weakness or
have comprehension problems.
• He should face his trainees politely and sympathetically.
• He should be explicit and comprehensible.
• He should show that he enjoys what he does.
• He should have a sense of humour.
• He should be adapted to the learning pace of the trainees.
Furthermore, it should be conceivable that in the case of business-to-business education
we have to do with the education of adults. The employees are adults and they have certain dif-
ferences from the children as long as their ability to learn is concerned:
• They already have enough knowledge and experiences and this helps them to learn.
• They want to have the responsibility for what, how and how much they will learn.
• They want to learn things that will help them in the resolution of their problems.
• They focus their attention and their interests on real problems.
An adult is able and wants to ascertain himself his learning necessities, to determine his
learning targets himself and evaluate himself. As a result, the trainer should accommodate the
discussions and work less as a teacher, recognizing their experiences and their knowledge and
build up on them by adding new knowledge.
Training Programs Materialization
In proportion with what each employee should learn, the suitable learning method is
chosen. The methods that are used for the business-to-business education are the following:

On the job training
It is the training or the personal guidance that is provided by the directors, group leaders,
trainers or mentors, in the office or the work stand. It is characterized by directness and realism,
while the trainee works, learns and is specialised at the same time. His effectiveness greatly
depends on the quality and the thoroughness of the provided guidance.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
The advantages of this method are that it is simple to conceive and implement it, presents 111
relatively small application cost, it allows the direct evaluation of the employee course, the
interest remains high, it help the direct correction of the employee faults, the performance is
immediately increased and it is not essential the employee be moved from his work place.
The disadvantages of this method are: loss of time on the part of the instructor, the ab-
sence of a systematic training process, the training is usually interrupted, the regular work im-
plementation is slowed down and there can be destructions or damage by the trainee.
The basic methods that belong to this category are the following:
• Demonstration
It is mainly used for new employees in an introductory level. It consists of the oral
presentation of knowledge and information from the introducer (older employee) to
the trainees. It includes the creation of a list with all the essential steps of a particular
work. The effectiveness of the method is disputed, because of the lack of active at-
tendance on the part of the trainees.
• Training by a mentor (Mentoring)
Specifically educated, experienced executives provide advice and guidance of the
new executives. This relationship of “the protector-protected” functions informally
as a supplement to the official training that the employee receives from the enterprise.
Mentoring includes advices in order to shape programs of self-growth or learning
and development contracts, as well as advice on the confrontation of administrative,
technical, interpersonal problems that he may meet. In practice, it is used when it is
considered that some executives have the faculties and the qualifications to develop
and are intended for administrative evolution. The results of this method are posi-
tive, both to the enterprise (creation of executives), and the trainees (fast growth and
development).
• Training through guidance (Coaching)
The trainee is educated in his work place by an older holder of the post. The instruc-
tor helps the trainee to rightly execute his duties, to comprehend what he needs to
learn additionally, while each incident on the work functions as a chance of learn-
ing.
• Job Instruction Training
The method of education by job training is usually applied to cases of further train-
ing in new job posts. It includes four stages. At the first stage trainees are prepared
and informed with regard to the learning that is going to receive. At the second stage
the job’s requirements and particularities are presented. What follows is a practical
ordeal in the issues that were covered at the previous stage. Afterwards, the trainees
are placed in the new job place and a supervisor is appointed so that the trainees can
address to him for potential queries. The use of a supervisor should have limited du-
ration so that the likely employee dependence on him can be avoided.
• Apprenticeship program
When the knowledge or the skills that should be transmitted are complicated (eg
Medicine, Legal) faculties, a lot of companies or professional associations before
they give the professional permit authorisation choose the apprenticeship method.
In these programs the trainee is called “specialised”, “practised”, or “apprentice”
and works in a controlled environment where he acquires the essential knowledge.
This method has usually bigger duration than the rest, however, it produces positive
results. The trainee is rewarded with symbolic or basic salary by law.
• Job Enrichment
It includes the progressive increase of trainee competences. The trainee undertakes
new duties, acquires new knowledge and dexterities and thus his possibilities for
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
112 the acquisition of an administrative job are increased. In this method the study and

the planning are essential, so that the employee can correspond to his new duties in
an effective way.
• Attendance in committees
This method is advisable for enterprises that have permanent committees to han-
dle various subjects. The trainee executive participates as a regular member in per-
manent or special committees. In this way the employee acquires experiences in
the problem resolution and decision-making process. Furthermore, he is given the
chance to learn about problems and processes that concern the entire enterprise or its
departments. A disadvantage of this method is the likely loss of time of the committee
members that can be avoided with suitable planning.
• Job Rotation
The employee is usually moved to a series of jobs with different content for about
3-6 months, so in the end he can execute a wide job spectrum. It is one of the most
applied methods, with a lot of benefits for both the employee and the enterprise. The
trainee acquires experiences in different functions, knowing in this way the aims
and their problems and acquires a better image and perception for all the enterprise,
while he is identified more easily with the culture and its values. The executive does
not limit himself to a career of an expert but acquires more general knowledge, expe-
riences and faculties that will help him to undertake jobs of a more general adminis-
trative nature.
• Assignments and Projects
The trainee is called to work out researches and projects that are used as a test in
the end of the educational process and can help in the connection of knowledge that
was acquired in the job. With this method the initiatives undertaking, the informa-
tion search and analysis, the ideas configuration and the results presentation are rein-
forced.
• Internships
The practical exercise is used mainly by the Academic Institutions so that the stu-
dents can acquire practical experience in the object that they study. It usually lasts
from 3 to 12-months and is affected by collaborating companies or organisations.
The student has the chance to be exposed to the labour reality. The disadvantage of this
method is that serious duties are not usually assigned, because of the limited time.
Out of Work Place Training
There is an abundance of training methods outside the work place.

• Lecture
The most usual method of education and growth outside the working place is the
lecture. The trainer presents a series of information and analyzes their content. The
lectures are used in various cases: e.g. for explanation of each operational objective
to achieve, for the introduction and presentation of a subject, presentation of material
as a background for oncoming activities. The lecture method is simple, economical
and transmits huge information in a small short time. Its effectiveness, however, is
disputed because there is lack of active attendance of trainees, which only achieves
decreased learning.
• Seminar
The seminars have a more participative nature than the lectures and are addressed to a
smaller number of participants. They usually last certain days and they can be used in
various ways. The trainer after presenting the subject guides the discussion and en-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
courages the attendance. The advantage of seminars is that the trainees actively par- 113
ticipate in the discussions and in this way they are led to deeper comprehension and
learning.
• Case Studies
It is a popular training method that concerns the description of a problem that is
analyzed by the trainees in order to diagnose it causes and solve it. The trainees are
usually separated in small groups for the solution of the problem. The objective is
the trainee to learn to analyze and compose data, so that they comprehend the com-
plexity of problems in administrative level and the number of factors that influence
decision-making. In the studying cases the trainee actively participates in the solu-
tion of (usually) real problems, while the trainer functions simply as a coordinator
of discussion among the members of each group. The Participating learn that there
seldom exists a most excellent solution and that seldom a proposed solution totally
erroneous, because as it happens in reality, the data are not always complete.
• Management Games
In a typical case of this method, the trainees are separated in 5 or 6 groups, each of
which group represents an enterprise and one competes another for the achievement
of concrete objectives, in a hypothetical market environment. Each group is called to
make a series of concrete decisions while each group does not know the decisions of
the other one. There is usually a big sense of excitement and amusement during this
method. It is effective in the growth of leading skills and strengthens teamwork. Its
disadvantage is the high cost, especially when computers are used. Also, the partici-
pants select their decisions from a list, while in fact the creation of young innovative
ideas is sought.
Leading Method Vroom –Yetton
The training program Vroom-Yetton concerns decision-making. It is based on the theory

of leadership that was developed by Vroom and Yetton and it reports that the decision-mak-
ing should be supported by criteria such as quality, acceptance and time of decision-making.
The executives learn the theory’s basic data and learn to use the tree of decision-making in
order to determine the most effective style of leadership for decision-making.
• Behaviour Modelling
By this method the configuration of desirable attitudes and behaviours in the working
place is sought. An education is provided that helps in the handling of interpersonal
relations (e.g. directives supply, discussion of efficiency problem), in the practice
and the criticism acceptance, in the transactions or frictions handling with the subor-
dinates (such as the recognition benefit, the discipline maintenance). The success of
behaviour is due to the application of various learning ways and principles, while the
trainees actively participate and real examples are used.
• Sensitization Training (T-Groups)
It is related with the configuration of behaviour and aims to self-knowledge, the
comprehension of other, the creation of team spirit, to the perception the group has
about itself and the growth of positive attitudes and behaviours to his colleagues. The
trainees are separated in groups (T-Groups) usually up to 10 individuals and discuss
various issues. The trainees realise the wrong behaviour and experiment in new ways
of behaviour. For the effectiveness of the method the participants should accept other
behaviors that regularly they would not accept and should not feel pressured or have
difficulty in expressing their feelings about the others. Nowadays, the education of
sensitization is not applied so much as in the past, while it has fervent supporters and
several critics.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
114 • Role Playing

In role-playing the trainees react in specific conditions adopting the role of people
who are hypothetically involved in an incident. The objective of the method is that
the participants who impersonate someone else comprehend his responsibilities.
Role-playing can also result in case studies, if the trainees are called to try the solu-
tion that they gave by undertaking the role of the people involved. Role-playing is a
pleasant and costless way of education. It is used in order to give the executives, the
group leaders and the commercial representatives’ experience in the application of
procedures that require interaction between two or more people.
• Simulations
The trainee is submitted in conditions that are similar to the real ones and the method
is used for both executives and not clerical personnel. Simulation is used in a lot
of technical jobs and has the advantage that it familiarizes the trainee with the real
working place that he will meet, while it decreases the danger of wrong handlings.
• Outdoor training
The outdoor training is realised in exterior areas, in adventurous trips and it aims to
strengthen the bonds among the team members, to test their body and psychologi-
cal resistance in under pressure conditions, to increase their self-confidence, and re-
define their personal objectives. It includes games and exercises that require team
collaboration, inventiveness and co-ordination. Despite the positive results of this
method, which are reported by the enterprises that apply it, we should be reserved for
the need and the results of such training.
• Action learning
The action learning method combines the learning in the teaching room and learn-
ing through the practice. A project is assigned to the trainee executives in another
department of the organization, where they are completely occupied for a couple
of months. The trainees attend administrative, decision-making, methodology of re-
search courses for one or two weeks and receive directives for the solution of the
problem. As long as the trainees deal with the analysis and resolution of the problem
the executives who have undertaken the project come together in order to exchange
information and discuss the project progress. Finally, the trainees present the results
of their work to the top management.
• Group Dynamics and Team Exercises
The objective of this method is that all the trainees should learn how to solve prob-
lems and develop solutions as a group. The problem that each group is called to
solve may turn into a case study or an entirely irrelevant to work problem.
• New Age Training
It is a contemporary training method in the teaching room that lasts from few days
to some weeks. The trainees are separated in groups and are called to reveal their
sentimental and mental world, as well as very personal matters of them. The training
includes the techniques of speculation, yoga, ideas bombardment, with the aim to
changing trainee attitudes, values, convictions, believes as well as behaviour. This
method has received intense criticism, which is based on the philosophy of brain-
washing, invades private life, offends their personality and forces them to change
their religious believes.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Financial Data 115
The enterprises spend important sums of money to cover the educational needs caver.
In a relative research that took place in 1998 in Europe, the enterprises spent on average the
2% of their salary for training, France and Britain being the first ones. The roughly same per-
centage also appears to be spent by the American enterprises according to research of the Euro-
stat and the CEDEFOP that took place in 1994. In European enterprises training programs the
highest attendance have the administrative executives on average 3-4 days more than the cleri-
cal and man-technical personnel. In Greece, only the 16, 4% of enterprises offers continuous
professional training programs (against the 57, 4% in average of the 12 European countries of
research). The cost of training programs per trainee roughly reaches the 1000 Euros against the
1500 Euros in Belgium and the 1200 Euros in Holland. It is a distinguishing feature the fact that
in this small percentage of Greek enterprises that offers professional training the 13% of em-
ployees participate and each trainee allocate 139hours, triple the average time of Europe.
European Community Fund (E.C.F.) Programs Exploitation
The European Union and the organization of Workforce Employment (W.E.) occasion-
ally announce subsidised employees continuing training programs. These programs constitute
an essential and precious source of financial aid for the employee education and the training
and a lot of enterprises develop them effectively. However, there are some enterprises that
simply do training programmes in order to follow the rules. Usually the content of the provid-
ed training is irrelevant to the real needs of the employees. The general and vague theories to
individuals who do not know the basic issues of their job do not offer particular help. On the
contrary, in these cases the economic profit is much smaller than the damage that results in the
enterprise and the employees who leave their job in order to hear for one more time things that
perhaps are right, but do not concern their job.
Case Studies in Business-to-Business Education in the

Greek Banking Industry
A. Methodology
The research is based on our personal investigation in the main banking institutions of
Greece. The main sources of pumping of information from the banks are the interviews from
the responsible of Human Resources Department as well as the Annual Reports (basic source
for our research, especially the references and dedicated chapters on the educational programs
of the banks) and the Websites of the banks.
The websites of the main Greek banks that are used in our research are the following:
http://www.atebank.gr
http://www.bankofcyprous.gr
http://www.emporiki.gr
http://www.geniki.gr
http://www.marfinegnatiabank.gr
http://www.nbg.gr
http://www.pireausbank.gr
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
116 B. National Bank
The National Bank has a long tradition in the educational sector. In 1975 the “Service
of Education” was created, while nowadays the Training of the Bank personnel is expressed
through the “Department of Personnel Development”, which has constituted an Independent
Unit since 1996. Today except the educational Centre of Athens, there are schools in Thessal-
onica, in Larissa and in Patras. The management continuously and in various ways supports the
work of the Department and considers the professional training, training and permanent educa-
tion of the Bank personnel, a decisive development factor and its main competitive advantage.
The educational programs of the Bank give priority and emphasis on the covering of
the objectives of its modernisation support, the aid of its leading place in the domestic mar-
ket and its appointment as a leading Bank in the region of South-eastern Europe. The biggest
part of the programs is realised business-to-business. The training of the Bank personnel refers
to the following sectors: Basic Education, Banking Jobs, Commercial Training, Management
Training, Financial Training, General Training and PC programs. The training programs are
evaluated by the trainees as well as the instructors, the opinions of whom constitute a feed-
back source for their effectiveness. Moreover, the Bank renews and strengthens its effort frame
in order to contribute to the enterprise human resource so that it cope with its permanently
increasing educational needs, it advanced one more step to the distant professional training
by offering educational programs for the first time in electronic form (e-Book). By develop-
ing the possibilities of the internal Internet of Bank (intranet), the Department of the Person-
nel Development attempts to educate from a distance providing knowledge for basic products
and services. Simultaneously, it supports the policy of environmental management that the
Bank has adopted.
Attendance in Programs in Greece and Abroad
The attendance of the personnel in seminars and congresses of professional training ap-
proved institutions, in and out of Greece, contributes to the follow-up of developments in the
banking industry and the Bank Management supports each useful apart from the business-to-
business education training.
The Bank Management attributes high importance to the continuous training of its per-
sonnel and in postgraduate level, strengthening the institution of Postgraduate Study Support and
the attendance of the personnel in the Long-lasting Programs of Professional Training.
Foreign Languages Programs
The National Bank supports fervently the learning, improvement or the specialisation of
knowledge of the personnel in the foreign languages and particularly in English. The objective
of this activity is to give the possibility to the employees to correspond more effectively to their
contacts with the public, update their knowledge and supplement their lacks in the particular
sector, so as to offer continuously high services.
Training of the Bank Group Personnel
The election of National Bank Group in reliable and with a leading place force in the
Balkans and particularly in the region of the South-eastern Europe, it presupposes the complete
and continuous educational support of its Group personnel in these countries.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
U.U. Programs 117
These programs are subsidised either directly by the European Union or are included in
the frame of Community Frames of our country. The study, the follow-up/information and the
evaluation of the attendance expediency in European Union programs examine and promote
educational and/or more general interests of Bank issues, which constitute actions that serve the
qualitative training of the personnel.
Other Activities
The Bank educational activity is not exhausted in the “classic” educational actions, but
is extended to a crowd of other sectors, such as:
• Activities in the frame of Social Responsibility
• Briefing meetings over Greece, with common objective the medium-sized enterprises
for their effective operation in the contemporary financial environment.
• Attendance in the Program of Business dexterity of Young people (collaboration
with the Ministry of National Education and Religion and the ASSOCIATION OF
GREEK INDUSTRIALISTS).
• Presentations in High schools for the Greek Banking system in the frame of course of
“Career Advising”.
• Students’ support for the development of their academic projects.
• Investigation of Educational needs.
• Facilitation in the accomplishment of practical exercise in a number of selected stu-
dents in the frame of their curriculum.
C. Bank of Piraeus
In alignment with the orientation of Piraeus Bank for the maintenance and the intensifi-
cation of a high yield culture and continuous investment in the human resource of the Bank and
the subsidiary companies of the Group, there is a wide program of development and exploita-
tion of the available human resource faculties. Its main objective is the continuous improve-
ment of the provided services, both to exterior and internal clients, the knowledge exploitation
and diffusion in the organization frames and the creation of fulfilment conditions of jobs that
results in the Group mainly through the internal recruitment.
For the training materialisation in the Piraeus Group the following means/tools and poli-
cies are systematically developed:
• Inter-banking Training Programs.

• Out-banking Training Programs.
• Additional Briefing Circles (Rotation in the job).
• On the Job Training.
• Local Trainings.
• Training through Intranet.
• Distance Learning.
• Postgraduate Education Programs subsidy policy.
• Learning and/or improvement of Foreign Languages subsidy policy.
According to the educational objectives, both the knowledge intensification in products

and services of the Group, and the technical knowledge that constitute the background for the
creation of complete financial advisers, as well as the guarantee of quality of the Group opera-
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
118 tion are sought. Totally during 2006 1.479 training programs were organised. In the total of the
programs 287.984 man-hours were recorded, increased at 40% related with 2005. The train-
ing man-hours per individual for the Bank of Piraeus amounted to 37 (from 33 during 2005),
while the 68% of the employees participated in one at least educational program during the
year. The corresponding size for the Group was shaped in 31 training man-hours per individual
compared with the 25 man-hours during 2005. It must be marked that the programs that were
materialised in the classroom were on average evaluated as of exceptional quality by the em-
ployees of Piraeus Bank, achieving medium degree of satisfaction 87%.
By the man-hours total, the 51% were dedicated to the financing knowledge develop-
ment, while the 22% were dedicated to the development of products and services sale and
knowledge faculties. The 9% were dedicated to the continuous improvement of function and
customers service quality, the 8% to the development of personal and management faculties,
the 7% to the strengthening of knowledge regarding the computer systems of the Bank and the
3% to the development of specialised technical knowledge.
During 2006 the extensive use of e-learning was continued, adding important benefits to
the trainees, such as the direct cover of an education necessity at the moment that is located, the
elasticity of attendance duration, their possibility to be trained through Internet. The participa-
tions in e-learning programs in the Bank Piraeus during 2006 amounted to 4.962 representing
the 51% of the total of training man-hours. It is important to be clarified that a big part of par-
ticipations in e-learning programs is recorded in the frames of accomplishment of completed
programs that are materialised with the exploitation of programs in the classroom, e-learning
or other means of learning.
It deserves to be remarked, that the materialisation of completed “Schools” was con-
tinued also during 2006 in the Bank. Today, there are already 5 “Schools” that aim to differ-
ent jobs or to different experience levels, while 4 “Schools” of executives were planned and are
to be materialised, during 2007. During 2006, the Bank of Piraeus continued the particularly
successful program of development of new executives support, financing the attendance of
38 selected individuals in undergraduate or postgraduate programs. Finally, the emphasis that
is given in the organisation of individualised training programs in the working place and/or
rotation to different working places was maintained. The individual programs for the 2006
amounted to 223 and had medium duration 120-hours.
D. Alpha Bank
The human resources development constitutes a critical factor of Alpha Bank success.

Three departments deal with this object: the training department, the Human Resources depart-
ment, and the Department of Human Resources development. In the past few years, a progres-
sive attendance in the training programs increase is observed because of the increased require-
ments in the frames of the “Proteus 21” project, but also because of the creation of new prod-
ucts and services, that require convenient and rapid personnel briefing in the bank branches.
The vision of Training Department is to convert the bank into a “learning organization”.
For this reason, efforts are made for the change of Training Department role from management
to strategic, aiming at the alignment of the training objectives with the Bank’s strategic objec-
tives.
The Training Department of the Alpha Bank reports important investments in the busi-
ness-to-business education sector and it includes more and more the use of technology in its
educational processes. The job post through the Intranet as well as through Internet at home
provides the education. The educational actions of the Training Department are directed to all
the personnel of the bank and the Group’s companies. The completed participations in the edu-
cational programs of the bank are continuously increasing with a rate of at least 30% per year.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
The business-to-business education program is in time announced in the corporate 119

network and the trainee candidates submit their application forms to the Director, who since
he evaluates them, he promotes them to the Training Department. Since there are limited soft-
ware use authorisations, the access passwords for the electronic courses are distributed to the
trainees for a limited time period. Previously, the trainees had only one chance to attend the
course. If they wrote under 60% in the evaluation tests, the system prohibited their access
and they had to communicate again with the department so as to acquire a second chance.
Henceforth this restriction has been suppressed. The trainees can execute the evaluation tests
as many times as it is required so that they achieve the base (60%). The degree is nowhere
registered, there is only an indication of “completed” or “not completed”. There are 24 elec-
tronic courses from which the 21 have an evaluation test in the end. When the courses stop to
be available, they are charged on the Intranet, so that the employees have direct access and be
able to resolve their queries.
The electronic courses are installed on the Lotus Learning System (LLS) 5.0.1 platform
of IBM. As an infrastructure there is a core and a collaboration server. At the moment, only the
core server is used, which maintains the data and the user passwords in order to do the identi-
fication and give permit of entry, as well as data for the users connections with the system. For
the use of this platform 550 authorisations have roughly been bought. This platform is used at
the moment only as a means of electronic courses provision. The objective of Training Depart-
ment in charge is the further utilisation of the platform so that further integration problem does
not occur in the future.
Distance Learning
In the frame of the program of distance learning adoption methods, there is the possibil-
ity of executives and employees attendance in proportional programs. Distance learning con-
stitutes a contemporary method for the acquisition of professional knowledge, materialises in
the living place of the participants and is based on special specifications curriculum. In 2002
a small reduction of the attendance in the distance learning programs was marked because of
the extension of e-learning Alpha Bank programs and the locomotion in those programs. In
general, both methods (distance learning and e-learning) are used in the educational programs
of the bank with the second one gaining continuously ground.
The Alpha Bank e learning also provides the possibility of education in the business or
at home, increases the efficiency and the degree of new knowledge adaptation and assimilation.
The programs offered concern banking issues (housing/consuming loans, alternative networks)
as well as issues of information technology. The attendance of the courses is mainly based on
the Internet, either exclusively (58%) or partially (42%). The 98% of the participating in the
distance learning programs intend to re-use the e learning for covering of future educational
needs.

E. Emporiki Bank (Commercial Bank)
Emporiki Bank gives particular importance to essential, dynamic and training develop-

ment of its personnel, so that this corresponds effectively with the constantly altered conditions
of the banking system. In the frame of System Professional Education and Training operation
the Bank the Human Resources Department:
1. Organises business-to-business programs of professional training in the constitution
of the completely equipped Training Centre that it allocates.
2. Adopts distance learning.
3. Subsidises the postgraduate studies of its employees in Greece and abroad.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
120 4. Subsidises the employees’ tuition fees of foreign language learning.

Main emphasis is given to the connection of the education with each new role that the
employees are called to execute, in the light of the conditions that prevail in the market.
Training Center
The bank allocates in Athens a certified, modern training centre and additional infra-
structure (classrooms and equipment) in Thessalonica. During the year 2004, the attendances of
the operations in business-to-business programs specialised in banking or administrative train-
ing as well as microcomputer studies amounted at 3.747.
Distance Learning
Among the pioneers in the application of innovations in the professional training, Empo-

riki Bank established during 2001 the method of distance learning, with essential profits – both
for the trainee (operators of removed Shops or operators with part time working hours) and for
the Bank itself (simultaneous training of a big operators number without cost of locomotion and
with direct knowledge channelling in all the pyramids of hierarchy).
Since June 2005 there has been an educational platform in Bank Intranet and the provi-
sion of educational programs with the base of electronic distance learning system (e-learning),
which replaces the traditional form of teaching in the classroom. E-learning is an important in-
novation in the educational services provision sector, which has a comparative advantage both
in the operation of banking branch competitiveness and in the relations among cost - productiv-
ity - effectiveness. Taking into consideration that the executive resources of the Bank should
have access to sources of knowledge that strengthen their skills, immediately and without loco-
motion, in the first place, the possibility of distance learning is provided in the personnel, with
Computer studies and Banking specialisation and dexterities courses. The provided courses
are friendly to the trainees and maintain undiminished their interest, since they have been de-
veloped with the implementation of multimedia and with interactive communication between
user-course. Someone who is interested has access to the courses of the Bank’s educational
platform, using their computer from their working place, through the local network (Intranet).
In the future the possibility of access from their house through the Internet will be provided, on
condition that they posses their own computer with Internet connection.
Foreign Languages Learning
The bank regards the knowledge of foreign languages as an essential supply for the pro-
fessional training and the official exploitation of its operations and for this reason encourages
and finances their learning. In 2004 532 executives of the Bank participated in this program.
Interconnection with the Academic Community
According to the prospect of future executives gathering, the Bank maintains narrow

interconnection with the Academic Community through its attendance in programs of practical
exercise of students of economic universities and development of postgraduate projects. At the
same time in the frame of Students Exchange International Programs of International Union
of Economic and Commercial Sciences Students (AIESEC) and the International Organisation
IAESTE, the Bank occupies foreign students, giving them the chance of acquisition of experi-
ences in a real professional environment.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
D. Bank of Cyprus 121
The Bank Cyprus received the first reward in the Sector of Education and Development
of Human Resources from the international company of advisers KPMG, in the frames of the
6th Conference of Human Resources, which were organised by the company during the 3rd and
4th of April 2003. It is an essential success that awards the avant-garde of Bank of Cyprus in the
sector of human resources development, after having been elected winner among 100 big Greek
and multinational companies. The evaluation criteria were the emphasis that the Bank of Cy-
prus gives to the cover of contemporary employee educational needs in step with the promotion
of the organisation values and the innovative methods that apply to the education. Maximum
executives of enterprises, human resources directors and academicians constitute the commit-
tee, which evaluated the participations and elected winner the Bank of Cyprus. This success
deserves a reward of the systematic effort of the Bank of Cyprus and the particular emphasis
that it gives to its human resources growth, so that it continuously offers opportunities of learn-
ing and personal development inside the Bank as well as to ensure the professional customer
service. To this direction, the Bank of Cyprus has adopted alternative training activities such as
the outdoor activities, the educational games, the education in a virtual shop, the conduct of in-
ternationally known programs on issues of changes management etc. Indicatively, during 2003,
358 seminars were realised in which 3.505 employees in total participated.
F. Geniki Bank (General Bank)
The training and the development of the personnel considerably contribute to the dy-

namic growth of the Bank with result in the educational programs being planned with particular
attention. The new educational approach is based on contemporary adult training pedagogic
techniques and methods. It is planned in a way so that it covers specialised cognitive objects
and is concrete, participative, and laboratorial and follows the following structure:
• explicit and precise localisation of various educational needs of the personnel,
• creation of suitable educational material from permanent introducers,
• utilisation of a great variety of educational methods, and
• evaluation of educational process and follow-up of its effectiveness.
Every new professional need, which results from the new Bank's organisational struc-
ture, requires concrete knowledge and dexterities, which are provided through corresponding
completed educational program.
As a result, the training department organised during 2004 a number of educational sem-
inars inside the bank in which 1.578 employees participated and 9.624 man-hours and outdoor
seminars with 74 attendances and 4.237 educational man-hours were spent.
G. The Agricultural Bank of Greece (ABG)
The ABG Bank human resource constitutes the most important capital. The Bank’s an-

thropocentric character is reflected in the nodal role that the Human Resources Department
has undertaken, as an essential collaborator in the configuration of the corporate culture and
the strategic management of its personnel, in an unbreakable unit with the total operational
strategy, in its dynamic route of development and achievement of its corporate objectives. The
Human Resources Department gives emphasis to the development of human resources devel-
opment operations and in the modernisation of these operations support systems.
In particular:
• It attempts to the systematic personnel knowledge and dexterities upgrade with edu-
cational and training aimed programs.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
122 • It evolves the evaluation systems so that they finally connect with the diagnosis of the
educational needs, the career development and the wage connection with the yield.
• It shapes recognition and reward processes improving the systems of benefits and
motives.
• It takes care of the aid of business-to-business communication, the collaboration
spirit and the teamwork culture and the climate of confidence development.
H. Marfin-Egnatia Bank S.A.
The benefits and the educational programs that Marfin-Egnatia Bank offers, aim at the
growth and the development of people who belong to its Group, so that its members have the
competitive advantage and be the best.
The main characteristics of the Marfin-Egnatia Bank educational programs are the fol-
lowing:
• Objective Evaluation based on the results and the records, so that the conditions for
meritocratic development are ensured.
• Competitive Wages and Professional Development depending on the abilities and the
performance, providing the chances that will promote the employees’ uniqueness and
will lead them to the success.
• Continuous education and growth, providing their people with the supplies for the
upgrading of their professional level.
• Pleasant and positive environment of work, with human working conditions, that are
characterized by safety and confidence.
Conclusions

The conclusions from the study of business-to-business education with the use of new
technologies and their utilisation by the Greek Banking Industry are the following:
• The use of new technologies in the educational processes of enterprises brings impor-
tant profits.
• The technologies that are already used by the enterprises, by using the suitable treat-
ment and minimal cost, are able to support educational programs.
• The Bank Industry gives particular importance to the business-to-business education
and in the advantages that it carries.
• It applies educational methods and techniques that are based on the learning princi-
ples.
• Suitably trained personnel staff the sectors of the Education and the Growth.
• It utilizes the new technologies regarding the personnel training.
• The educational programs are evaluated for their effectiveness.
• It plans the use of new and innovative educational technologies.
References
Alessi, S. & Trollip, S. (2005). Multimedia and education. Methods and Development. Athens: M. Gki-
ourdas Publications.
Armstrong, M. (2006). Strategic Human Resource Management. London: Kogan Page, 3rd Edition.
Brettaros, G. etc (2004). The learning through PC Networks and cyberspace. Athens: Kleidarithmos
Publications.
Denisi, A. & Griffin, R. (2004). Human Resources Management. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Fioreti, G. (2007). The organizational learning curve. European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 123
177, Issue 3, pp. 1375-1384.
Fisher, C. & Schoenfeldt, L. & Shaw, J. (2006). Human Resource Management. Boston: Houghton Mif-
flin Company.
Foot, M. & Hook, C. (April 1999). Introducing Human Resource Management. Longman, United King-
dom.
Harrison, R. (2002). Learning and Development, 3rd Edition. London: CIPD.
Κanellopoulos, Χ. & Papalexandri, Ν. (1990). Personnel utilization by executive development and orga-
nization improvement. Athens: International Publishing Publications.
Κanellopoulos, Χ. (2002). Personnel – Human Resources Management. Athens.
Κiriazis, Α. & Bakogiannis, S. (2003). New technologies use in the education. Coexistence of instructive
action and technology. Αthens.
Papalexandri, Ν. & Bouradas, D. (2002). Human Resources Management. Αthens: Benou Publications.
Pagkaki, G. (1998). Human Resources Management. Athens: A.N. Sakkoula Publications.
Prior, J. (2000): Εducation & Development. Αthens: Εllin Publications.
Skerlavaj, M. (2007). Organizational learning culture-the missing link between process change and
organizational performance. International Journal of Production Economics, Vol. 106, Issue 2, pp. 346-
367.
Skoulas, Ν. & Ikonomaki Κ. (2002). Human Resources Management and development. Αthens: Kapa
Publications.
Wang, Y. & Wang, H. & Shee, D. (2007). Measuring e-learning systems success in an organizational
context: Scale development and validation. Computers in Human Behaviour, Vol. 23, Issue 4, pp. 1792-
1808.
Xatzipantelis, P. (2003). Human Resources Management. Αthens: Metaixmio Publications.
Xenos, D. (2003). Human Resources Management Systems. Αthens: Papazisis Publications.
Xitiris, L. (2001). Human Resources Management. Αthens: Interbooks Publications.
Adviced by Grigoris Chondrocoukis, University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece
Vassilis Orfanos Dr., Lecturer in Hellenic Open University, Senior Manager in OTE S.A., 21 Vourleza str.,
19003, Porto-Rafti, Markopoulo Attikis, Greece.
E-mail: vassorf@ote.gr
Mihalis Evripiotis Dr., Lecturer in Hellenic Open University, Senior Manager in OTE S.A., 4 Aghisilaou str.,
166 75, Glyfada, Athens, Greece.
E-mail: mevripio@ote.gr
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
124
METHODOLOGY for implementing

learning outcomes in a study
program as basis for future
RECOGNITION OF PRIOR LEARNING
Agnese Rusakova, Andrejs Rauhvargers
University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
E-mail: agnese.rusakova@lu.lv, andrejs.rauhvargers@lu.lv
Abstract
One of the most important problems of the next decades in the context of lifelong learning is the inte-
gration non- formal and informal learning achievements of individuals with formal learning so that
non- formal and informal learning can be used for their formal promotion –gaining credits and/or whole
qualifications.
One of the means for integrating the achievements is through translating knowledge, skills and compe-
tencies obtained through alternate forms of learning into learning outcomes (further in text- LO). It is
necessary to implement LO approach in the formal system of education to prepare it for recognition of
prior learning.
The objective to be reached is understandable and so is the rationale to do so. However unclear is the
way how to translate the theory into a working practice. In the following article the authors will address
this problem by proposing and examining a methodology for implementing LO in a program, discussing
the possibility to improve the quality of program through this action.
The LO approach reflects change from „teacher-centered” to „student-centered” learning. The first re-
sults of surveying the lecturers involved in the analyzed program show that the LO are currently imple-
mented rather formally. It is necessary to do more explanatory work in order to benefit from the LO as
quality instrument.
Key words: lifelong learning, learning outcomes, National Qualifications Framework, quality.
Introduction
Interest in lifelong learning, in its modern sense, revived in the early 1990s, particularly
in Europe and the United States. A fresh round of studies and reports popularized the idea of
lifelong learning, and it became part of national policy discussion, particularly as global compe-
tition and economic restructuring toward knowledge-based industries became more prevalent.
The focus on learning shifted from personal growth to human resource development
The aging of the society results in need for lifelong learning to stay competitive and
mobile on labor market. It also becomes important to recognize the nonformal and informal
learning and integrate it into the formal qualification framework easily, because many laws
require the candidate for work placement or employee to be able to prove having specific quali-
fication. Within this respect the society runs the danger of insufficient human resource employ-
ment, as the lack of formal documents might automatically defer the suitable candidate from
Agnese Rusakova, Andrejs Rauhvargers. Methodology for Implementing Learning Outcomes in a Study Program as Basis for
Future Recognition of Prior Learning
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
getting the position. The significance of recognition of prior learning also increases due to the 125
increased geographic mobility of the labor force. Even such reasons as previous involvement
of individual in unregistered employment may provide knowledge, skills and competences that
are hard if not impossible to prove.
Recognizing what people know or can do – regardless of where they have acquired
these knowledge, skills and competences – is indeed likely to be a strong incentive for them to
resume learning formally as they will not have to start from scratch. This also cuts the tradi-
tional costs (time, tuition fees, transportation costs, etc.) and opportunity costs (forgone earn-
ings, etc.) of formal learning. Cost is often an issue, particularly for the low-skilled who are
also generally the lower-paid. One relatively simple and low-cost way of improving the overall
skills base of the workforce without having to create new qualifications is create new routes to
access existing qualifications.
Problem of Research
Existing national qualifications systems need to be changed with respect to validating

learning forms such as non-formal and informal learning to become adapted to a fast-changing
knowledge economy. According to “Criteria and procedures for referencing national qualifica-
tions levels to the EQF” the LO approach is fundamental to the EQF and the national framework
or qualifications system and its qualifications should be demonstrably based on LO. At the same
time strong links with the use of LO are a central element for the recognition of prior learning.
The thorough implementation of LO is thus to be further advanced. Implementation of LO may
serve as quality instrument (Adam, 2006; Jenkins and Unwin, 2001) - providing more transpar-
ency, time economy, clearly set responsibility and target orientation.
Research Focus
The objective to be reached is understandable and so is the rationale to do so. However

unclear is the way how to translate the theory into a working practice. In the following article
the authors will address this problem by proposing and examining a methodology for imple-
menting LO in a Bachelor program.
There are two main approaches to conduct the implementation of LO in a program. The
top-down approach is useful, when the study program is already functioning, then the course-
level LO are adapted to the LO as specified for the major. The bottom-up approach can be ap-
plied in cases when the program LO will be inferred from LO of existing courses or modules.
At the point of introducing LO in the bachelor program “International Economics and
Commercial Diplomacy” at the Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Latvia,
it was already a fully operational and accredited study program. This allowed for choosing the
top-down approach which would also enable the study program director to better coordinate the
implementation process and address the program in a holistic manner. For formulating the LO
the authors decided to apply action verbs as suggested by Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, 1975).
To draw conclusions about the current state of implementation of LO in the program the
authors created a questionnaire and began to interview the lecturers in June 2010. The conven-
ience sample consisted of six lecturers (18 % of lecturers involved in the program). The use of
convenience sampling provides results that are limited in generalization and inference making
about the whole population – which in this case would be a team of 33 lecturers. However the
six interviewed lecturers form the core team and are profoundly involved in the program by
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
126 holding more than one lecture at the above mentioned program. It is planned to question the
remaining 27 lecturers as well.
Results of Research
After having taken conceptual decisions the authors proceeded by ensuring that the LO
of the program are formulated correctly (see Figure 1). The many of the intended outcomes
in accreditation documentation of the program were clearly formulated in a way to reflect the
teacher’s intentions:” to provide theoretical and practical knowledge in international econom-
ics, commercial diplomacy, as well as in fields of political science, culture and legislation”.
Thus the LO of the program had to be reformulated in a student-centered way. The accredita-
tion documentation of the program was prepared before the National Qualification Framework
(NQF) was adopted to the EQF- the outcomes of the entire program had to be adjusted to the
respective level descriptors of the NQF of Latvia (see Table 1).
C onceptual decisions
- top- down/bottom- up
- taxonomy
Formulation of
program’ s LO
- NQF
- curriculum
Mapping the program’s

LO to separate courses
- detailed LO
- methods & assessment
- responsibility
Feedback from
stakeholders
Figure 1: Proposed methodology for implementing LO in the study

program (top-down approach).
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 1. Cycle Descriptors of NQF of Latvia and the LO of the bachelor 127
study program “International Economics and Commercial
Diplomacy”.
NQF of Latvia LO of the bachelor study program “International

descriptors for tertiary education, bachelor cycle (EKI level 6) Economics and Commercial Diplomacy” at the
Faculty of Economics and Management, Univer-
sity of Latvia
demonstrate general and specialized knowledge 1. Demonstrate theoretical and practical knowl-
and understanding of the corresponding to the field edge in international economics, commercial
of profession facts, theories, causal relationships diplomacy, as well as in fields of political science,
Comprehension
Knowledge and
and technologies culture and legislation
· based on analytical approach, conduct practical

tasks in the corresponding profession
Application of
· demonstrate skills, that allow to find creative solu-

Knowledge
tions to professional problems
· independently acquire, select and analyze infor- 2. Analyze and assess these processes, by
mation, know how to apply it applying statistical, econometrical, as well as
Analysis, Synthe-
sis, Assessment
· take decisions and solve problems in the cor- qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis
responding academic discipline or profession and apply the acquired results of analysis for
· comprehends professional ethics improving the performance of company or institu-
· assesses the impact of own professional activities tion, comprehending the professional ethics in
upon environment and society international business environment;
· formulate and analytically describe the informa- 3. Defend the national or corporative interests in
tion, problems and solutions in own academic international trade, finance or other economical
Communication
discipline or profession, explain them and discuss activities, by being part of different national or
them by being able to justify own viewpoint both to international institutions, as well as local, private,
specialists and non-specialists national and multinational companies and
corporations, and do so by applying knowledge
of several languages;
· independently structure own studies, direct the 4. Demonstrate competency in knowledge
own continuing education and the continuing edu- acquisition sources (related to the comprehen-
Continuing Edu-
cation of subordinates, as well as the professional sion of processes of international economics

perfection and commercial diplomacy), paying attention to
the development tendencies of leading national
cation
economies, foreign investment attraction and

promotion of export growth;
· demonstrate scientific approach in solving the 5. Apply competency of presentation and scien-
problems tific polemics, communication skills, team work
· undertake responsibility and initiative, by conduct- abilities with the aim to analyze the application of
Other Generic
ing the work individually, in teams or by leading the theory in hypothetical and real situations.
work of others
Skills
· take decisions and find solutions in changing or

unclear conditions
The next step is to continue the top-down approach and link the program’s LO to the
individual courses of the curriculum. By taking a closer look at the formulated LO, it becomes
clear that the LO can be further divided into several sub-LO. Thus the LO No.2 can be divided
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
128 further into three distinctive parts and those can be linked by logic to several courses of the
curriculum. Apparently the part “Analyze and assess these processes, by applying statistical,
econometrical, as well as qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis... ” corresponds to
the following courses - Economic Informatics I, Statistics of Economics and Business, Econo-
metrics. The part “...and apply the acquired results of analysis for improving the performance
of company or institution...” correlates to the LO of the Management Theory, International Eco-
nomics, Research Workshop. And, finally, the part “... comprehending the professional ethics in
international business environment” conforms to the intended LO of the courses - Economics
and World Security, Comparative Analysis of World’s Regions etc.
If one assumes that these are the courses that will indeed address the specific program’s
LO, it will mean an unavoidable jeopardy of running into quality problems – the overlapping
and redundancy of course content. This requires more discussion among the teaching staff in
order to eliminate the possible repetition of the study material.
Also the part of the LO No.3 “... and do so by applying knowledge of several languages”
seems to be best allocated to the courses - Business English, English for Business and Law,
Business Correspondence in English, French. However, this would be a too simplified and
confined approach. Excluding other lecturers from addressing this LO, the overall quality of the
program may suffer or at least may reach unsatisfactory results.
Such curriculum constituents as defense of Bachelor thesis, defense of internship are
presumed to take care of the more generic LO No. 5 Nevertheless improvement of generic skills
can become and often is part of all courses. The generic nature of this LO may lead to a too
scattered perception of own responsibility in leading students to the achievement of this LO, as
the lecturer of the individual, specialized course (such as f.ex. World’s Religions) most prob-
ably does not feel obliged to make sure that the students advance in achieving this LO. In most
severe case this LO is not reached at all by the graduates of the program as all lecturers expect
other lecturers to take care of it. To avoid such unwishful consequences it is necessary to further
interpret and define the responsibility of individual course lecturers in achieving this LO.
As a matter of fact the generic skills can also be further divided –f.ex. team work abili-
ties (take on initiative, work with people from different backgrounds etc.). Even in the case
when the lecturers state that they take care of the generic skill “team work abilities”, by regu-
larly assigning the students with team projects, it is necessary to check the extent and emphasis
of lecturers’ approaches within this respect. Thus it may happen, that all lecturers allow the stu-
dents to form teams according to own preferences. In such a way the development of sub-skill
„work with people from different backgrounds” is impeded. Per contra, if the group of lecturers,
that assign team projects during their lectures agree in advance, that one of them will always
group the teams in a random way, the other will group the team by students sitting next to each
other etc, the achievement of the sub-skill and correspondingly the umbrella-skill „team work
abilities” will be achieved in a more qualitative way.
Therefore to support the further implementation of LO it is necessary to develop a map
(see Table 2) of detailed LO (aim) -> teaching methods (how to reach it?) -> assessment tools
(is it reachable?) -> courses (responsible lecturer), which can serve as basis for discussing the
responsibilities of individual lecturers.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Table 2. Mapping detailed LO to the individual courses. 129
LO: the graduate is able. How to reach this LO, how to Who will be responsible?
assess it?
.. find solution to the problem by providing a case studies Commercial Diplomacy
list of possible actions
..select and concentrate the most important create a title and annotation to ?
information an article
..explain and justify own viewpoint in a written report, A4 dispatch, write critical Economics and World’s
form review Security
On the basis of such a map (developed in close collaboration with the director of the
study program) the authors created the questionnaire.
The first results of interviewing the lecturers involved in the analyzed program show
that the LO are currently implemented rather formally. Insufficient understanding of the term
LO and student centered learning has been detected. Thus the annotations of individual courses
of two lecturers were not formulated according to the main principles of LO – they contained
formulations that were teacher centered. One lecturer stated that she is covering all LO’s of the
program within her course, which is also a sign that the approach is rather superficial – as it
can not be ensured that all aspects of the program are covered by one lecturer only. Apart from
discrepancy with the student centered learning philosophy, the lack of understanding creates a
resistance to change among the teaching staff.
The survey showed that the majority of the questioned lecturers do not consider the
teaching of generic skills as their full responsibility; this is especially observable with relation
to presentation skills of the students.
Discussion
The chosen top-down approach was useful, since the study program was fully opera-
tional and accredited. Also the fact that many of the LO’s of the individual courses still have to
be adjusted to student centered approach speaks in favor of the top-down approach as it is easier
to change the learning outcomes of individual courses than the learning outcomes of the whole
program as stated in the accreditation documentation.
While formulating the LO the authors followed the guidelines (Kennedy, 2007) outlined
by Dr. Declan Kennedy, making sure that the LO are: Observable; Measurable; Student-cen-
tered; 5-8 in total and that LO “are written at minimum acceptable or threshold (pass / fail)
standard” (Moon, 2005); and that they should serve as tool of transparency for the stakeholders
– “ for those who pay the bills—taxpayers, parents, and students—to evaluate critically what
they get for their money from public education” (Frye, 1999). The LO have to relate to external
reference points (qualifications descriptors, levels, level descriptors) (Adam, 2004)
It was noticeable that the interviewed lecturers improved their attitude towards the con-
cept, once it was explained that “learning outcomes” is not just another bureaucratic reformula-
tion of existing term “study aims” but involves a new learning paradigm that can serve as qual-
ity instrument. As result of the improved attitude the lecturers became more cooperative.
In order to fully benefit from learning outcomes as quality instrument it is necessary to
check not only the formal implementation, but also the quality dimension thereof. Even though
five of the interviewed lecturers require the students to prepare a presentation in at least one of
their lectures, however they do not pay attention to such details as – whether each of the stu-
dents has the chance to present at least once (especially in the case of group presentations), or
whether the students receive a constructive feedback that could help to improve the respective
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
130 generic skills.

The map of detailed LO to the individual courses can help to: identify the attained clus-
ter of knowledge, skills and competences of the average graduate of the program based on the
activities undertaken in sum by the team of lecturers; identify the cluster that currently is being
attained at an unsatisfactory level; provoke discussion on the conformity of the LO of the pro-
gram to the content provided.
To gain more complete picture of the current state of implementation of LO in the pro-
gram it is necessary to interview the remaining 27 lecturers as well.
The further research would require checking the opinion of the stakeholders (such as
graduates and employers) on the implementation of LO in the program. According to the results
it will be most necessarily to adjust the program’s LO and restart the cycle, entering the process
of an ongoing aspiration for quality. Once formulated the LO can serve as basis for recognition
of prior learning.
Conclusions
• Currently the learning outcomes in the analyzed program are implemented rather
formally;
• Due to still insufficient understanding of the concept „learning outcomes” among the
teaching staff it is necessary to do more explanatory work;
• Formulation of learning outcomes does not only include choosing the taxonomy, but
also making sure that other aspects are complied with – such as reasonable number of
learning outcomes etc.
• The generic skills are often considered of second importance and are left out of the
field of responsibility of the lecturers’ team, as they strive to make sure that the stu-
dents know mainly the specific content of their courses;
• Correctly implemented learning outcomes may serve as quality instrument;
• The map of detailed LO to the individual courses can serve as basis of discussion for
implementing learning outcomes in a program.
References
Adam S., (2004). A consideration of the nature, role, application and implications for European educa-
tion of employing learning outcomes at the local, national and international levels. Report to the UK Bo-
logna Seminar, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland. Retrieved October 9, 2010, from pedagogy.
ir: learning environment, performance & lifelong learning Web site: http://www.pedagogy.ir/images/pdf/
using-learning-outcomes-eu.pdf
Adam, S., (2006). An introduction to learning outcomes , A consideration of the nature, function and posi-
tion of learning outcomes in the creation of the European Higher Education Area. Bologna Handbook, BH
1 00 06 07 1, B 2.3-1, 1–24. Retrieved October 9, 2010, from Bologna Process, Ministry of Education,
Youth and Sports, Czech Republic Web site: http://www.bologna.msmt.cz/files/Adam_IH_LP.pdf
Bloom, B.S. (1975). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook 1: cognitive domain. New York,
USA: Longman.
European Commission. (2009). Criteria and procedures for referencing national qualifications levels to
the EQF (EQF Advisory Group, Ares (2009)89092), Retrieved October 9, 2010, from European Commis-
sion Web site: http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc/eqf/criteria_en.pdf
Frye, R., (1999). Assessment, accountability, and student learning outcomes. Dialogue, Issue No. 2, 1-12.
Retrieved October 9, 2010, from University of Kentucky Web site: https://www.uky.edu/IRPE/assess-
ment/references/dialogue.pdf
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Jenkins, A. & Unwin, D. (2001). How to write learning outcomes. Retrieved October 9, 2010, from 131
National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis Web site: http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/educa-
tion/curricula/giscc/units/format/outcomes.html
Kennedy, D. (2007). Writing and using learning outcomes: a practical guide. University College Cork.
Cork, Ireland: Watermans Printing.
Moon, J. (2005). The module and programme development handbook: a practical guide to linking levels,
outcomes and assessment criteria. London, UK: Routledge.
Adviced by Andris Kangro, University of Latvia, Latvia
Agnese Rusakova M.sc., Doctoral Student, Faculty of Education Psychology and Art, University of
Latvia, Raina Blvd. 19, Riga, LV-1586, Latvia.
E-mail: agnese.rusakova@lu.lv
Website: http://www.lu.lv
Andrejs Rauhvargers Dr.chem, Professor, Faculty of Education Psychology and Art, University of Latvia,
Raina Blvd. 19, Riga, LV-1586, Latvia.
E-mail: andrejs.rauhvargers@lu.lv
Website: http://www.lu.lv
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
132
ВЛИЯНИЕ ПСИХОЛОГО-
ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОГО СОПРОВОЖДЕНИЯ
НА ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТЬ ОБУЧЕНИЯ
И ВОСПИТАНИЯ СТУДЕНТОВ
ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА
Ольга Логашенко
Кубанский государственный технологический университет, Россия
Э-почта: lagus-olga@ yandex.ru
Татьяна Шапошникова
Кубанский государственный технологический университет, Россия
Э-почта: shtale@yandex.ru
Абстракт
В данной работе исследуется проблема влияния психолого-педагогического сопровождения (ППС)

обучения и воспитания студентов технологических вузов в контексте формирования личности
будущего специалиста- технолога. Основными критериями, подтверждающими эффективность
влияния ППС, нами выбраны следующие показатели когнитивного и личностного развития: анали-
тичность мышления, уровень интеллектуального развития, импульсивность и нравственность.
Основными направлениями ППС процесса обучения и воспитания студентов технологического
вуза явились: применение психолого-педагогической диагностики; использование разнообразных
способов воспитания; учет положительных профессиональных качеств и психологических осо-
бенностей студентов; формирование у студента адекватной самооценки; обучение методике
самостимуляции положительного поведения.
Выделенные направления осуществлялись следующими методами: организация и проведение бе-
сед и семинаров по самовоспитанию в рамках разрабатываемой в университете системы нравс-
твенного просвещения студентов; проведение лекций по психологии и педагогике для усиления
гуманитарно-нравственного компонента профессиональной подготовки; социально-психологи-
ческий тренинг, направленный на формирование навыков общения, на развитие способностей
устанавливать контакт с окружающими, помогающий снять внутренние барьеры, мешающие
эффективному взаимодействию, способствующий сознанию своих личностных качеств; самоот-
четы студентов, стимулирующие внутреннюю активность и работу самосознания.
Эффективность влияния ППС на обучение и воспитание студентов технологического вуза под-
тверждена тем, что у студентов возросла аналитичность мышления, повысился уровень интел-
лектуального развития, снизилась импульсивность и поднялся уровень воспитанности.
Представленная модель ППС является частью разрабатываемой нами на протяжении ряда лет
инновационной системы психолого-педагогического сопровождения профессиональной подготов-
ки студентов в вузе.
Ключевые слова: психолого-педагогическое сопровождение, аналитичность мышления, интел-
лектуальное развитие, импульсивность, воспитанность.
Ольга Логашенко, Татьяна Шапошникова. Влияние психолого-педагогического сопровождения на эффективность
обучения и воспитания студентов технологического университета
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Введение 133
Современные тенденции научно-технического и социального развития заставляют

принципиально по-новому ставить вопрос о месте человека в меняющемся мире.
В современной психологии и педагогике разрабатывается проблема соответствия
состояния и характеристик человеческого потенциала меняющимся социокультурным,
информационным и технологическим условиям в современной России. Актуальность темы
обусловлена также реальным снижением уровня школьной подготовки, недостаточной
мотивационной направленностью к получению технологического образования,
социальной дезадаптацией молодежи, что составляет угрозу технологической
безопасности государства.
Значимость проблематики сохранения, развития и реализации человеческого
потенциала выпускников политехнического университета особенно важна в современных
условиях, и, прежде всего – на тех предприятиях, которые непосредственно обладают
высокотехнологичными видами оборудования. Вопреки сложившимся в прежние времена
и до сих пор еще не изжившим себя стереотипам, именно человек, его способности,
его потенциал, включая его образование и воспитание, являются ключевым ресурсом
на современных предприятиях. Высокий уровень общей и специальной подготовки,
воспитанность, интеллигентность выступают в качестве необходимых условий, вне и
помимо которых невозможно эффективное взаимодействие человека с современным
высокотехнологичным оборудованием.
При этом путем развития и реализации человеком собственного потенциала в
большинстве случаев обеспечиваются интересы, как самого этого человека, так и того
трудового коллектива, в которое он включен. Данное обстоятельство имеет множество
следствий, в частности, в практике и методах организации обучения и воспитания
специалистов технологического профиля.
Проблема обучения и воспитания студентов технологических вузов рассматривались
в работах педагогов, психологов и преподавателей высшей школы. Однако многие аспекты
этой проблемы до сих пор не получили должного освещения. К их числу может быть
отнесено влияние психолого-педагогического сопровождения на обучение и воспитание
студентов технологического университета в аспекте формирования личности будущего
специалиста- технолога.
В настоящее время эта проблема является актуальной из-за складывающегося
противоречия между постоянно повышающейся ответственностью специалиста-
технолога в связи с усложнением технологических процессов современного производства и
недостаточно эффективной профессиональной и гуманитарно-нравственной подготовкой.
Из этого вытекает необходимость воспитания профессионально компетентной и морально
ответственной личности на основе личностно ориентированного подхода в обучении и
воспитании будущих специалистов технологического профиля.
Вышеизложенное подтверждает актуальность изучения влияния психолого-
педагогического сопровождения на эффективность обучения и воспитания студентов
технологического вуза.
Проблемой, поставленной в данной работе, является выявление особенностей
познавательной и эмоционально-нравственной сферы современного студента
технологического университета.
Объект исследования: когнитивные и личностные характеристики студентов
технологического университета.
Предмет исследования – аналитичность мышления, уровень интеллектуального
разития, импульсивность, нравственное развитие студентов.
Целью настоящей работы является выявление влияния на показатели познавательной
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
134 и нравственной сферы студентов психолого-педагогического сопровождения (ППС)

процессов обучения и воспитания.
Методология исследования
Методологическая основа

Методологической основой исследования явились:
- комплексно-деятельностный подход как способ изучения и организации про-
цесса формирования личности, подготовки специалиста,
- психологическая теория личности (Выготский, 2000; Леонтьев, 1983; Рубинш-
тейн, 2003);
- теория деятельности как формы активного отношения к окружающему миру,
обусловливающая познание человеком действительности и развитие его лич-
ности (Леонтьев, 1983; Ананьев, 2001; Бодалев, 2000; Гальперин, 1980; Петров-
ский 1978);
- теория обучения в высшей школе (Архангельский, 1980; Беспалько, 1977; Пид-
касистый, 1998; Талызина, 1999);
- концепция личностно-профессионального развития студентов (Бодалев,1995;
Зимняя,2001) раскрывает основные этапы личностного и профессионального
становления будущих специалистов, обучающихся в вузе.
Методологический инструментарий.
В ходе исследования применялись следующие методы:

- анализ документации по успеваемости студентов;
- интервью со студентами для выявления их биографических данных;
- тестирование студентов для определения аналитичности мышления, уровня ин-
теллектуального развития, импульсивности и уровня воспитанности по методи-
кам: методика «Исследования аналитичности мышления» (Пашукова&Допира&
Дьяконов, 1996); тест для определения общих способностей (40 заданий из
теста Айзенка) (Гамезо& Домашенко, 1998); тест «Исследование импульсив-
ности» (Пашукова&Допира& Дьяконов, 1996); методика диагностики уровня
воспитанности учащихся (Крылов&Маничева, 2003);
- методы статистической обработки полученных данных (корреляционный и
кластерный анализ) с помощью компьютерной программы SPSS (статистичес-
кий пакет обработки данных в психологии и социологии) (Наследов, 2007).
Моделирование
Психолого-педагогическое сопровождение (ППС) профессиональной подготовки,

на наш взгляд, это система взаимодействия преподавателя и студента в вузе, направленная
на создание оптимальных психологических условий для успешного обучения, воспитания
и профессионально-личностного развития студента (Логашенко&Шапошникова, 2008).
На протяжении ряда лет нами разрабатывается система психолого-педагогического
сопровождения профессиональной подготовки студентов в вузе, создание которой
обусловлено, на наш взгляд, необходимостью подъема общекультурного и творческого
потенциала обучающихся, отказа от стандартного мышления, ориентированного на
узкое понимание своих задач, развития инициативы и творчества в профессиональной
деятельности (Шапошникова & Логашенко, 2007; Логашенко&Шапошникова, 2008;
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Логашенко&Ломакина, 2009). 135

Психолого-педагогическое сопровождение профессиональной подготовки
включает:
- в качестве психологического аспекта: диагностику динамики профессиональ-
ного развития студентов и их личностных особенностей; помощь в развитии
профессионально-личностного потенциала; психологическую поддержку в
преодолении трудностей при выполнении самостоятельных заданий творческо-
го характера; консультирование по вопросам профессионального становления;
- в качестве педагогического аспекта: создание гуманистического образователь-
ного пространства, направленного на интеграцию всех субъектов учебного вза-
имодействия; создание высокоорганизованного студенческого и педагогическо-
го сообщества; оптимизацию профессионального партнерства.
Схема элементов психолого-педагогического сопровождения повышения
интеллектуального и нравственного уровня студентов технологического университета,
основанного на программе самовоспитания, представлена на рисунке 1.
Аналитичнос т Интеллект Импульсивност Воспитанност
Обучение Воспитание
ППС
профессиональной
подготовки
студентов
Мероприятия
Задачи ППС
ППС
1. Применение педагогической диагностики. 1. Семинары по самовоспитанию.

2. Использование разнообразных методов 2. Беседы по самовоспитанию.
воспитания. 3. Система нравственного
3. Включение студента в социальные и просвещения студентов.
внутриколлективные отношения. 4. Лекции-беседы по психологии.
4. Учет положительных качеств и способностей 5. Самоотчеты студентов.
студентов. 6. Социально-психологический
5. Формирование у студента положительной тренинг.
самооценки.
6. Обучение методики самостимуляции
положительного поведения.
Рисунок 1. Схема элементов ППС.

problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
136 На семинарах по самовоспитанию рассматривались следующие вопросы:

основные понятия о личности и психических процессах; самовоспитание - сознательная,
планомерная работа над собой; воспитание волевых и нравственных качеств; развитие
нравственного самосознания - необходимое условие процесса самовоспитания;
самоконтроль - основной путь к самовоспитанию.
При проведении бесед мы старались показать связь самовоспитания с решением
главных моральных проблем, которые специфичны в юношеском возрасте (формирование
жизненных планов, самоопределение, нравственное самоусовершенствование, идейное
мировоззрение).
Система нравственного просвещения студентов включала, с одной стороны,
разъяснение значение профессионального развития, а, с другой стороны, раскрытие
сущности основных нравственных категорий (патриотизм, гуманизм, долг, честь и др.).
Углубление знаний студентов по вопросам психологии способствовало повышению
их интереса к возможности собственного профессионального развития и личностного
изменения.
Организуя самоотчеты, мы стремились к тому, чтобы студент осознал себя как
субъект коллективных отношений и деятельности, осознавал требования, которые к нему
предъявляет общество и коллектив, определял пути совершенствования своей личности
и деятельности в свете этих требований. Тем самым мы стремились стимулировать
внутреннюю активность, работу самосознания студента
Социально-психологический тренинг был направлен на формирование навыков
общения, на развитие способностей устанавливать контакт с окружающими. Он помогает
снять внутренние барьеры, мешающие эффективному взаимодействию, способствует
сознанию своих личностных качеств.
Этапы исследования
Исследование осуществлялось в три этапа:

- диагностический (констатирующий) этап, цель которого – определение ис-
ходного уровня развития познавательной сферы студентов (аналитичность
мышления, уровень интеллекта) и их нравственной сферы (импульсивность,
воспитанность);
- формирующий этап. Основная цель этапа - разработка и внедрение психолого-
педагогического сопровождения процессов обучения и воспитания студентов
технологического университета с целью улучшения показателей их интеллек-
туального и нравственного развития;
- контрольный этап, цель которого в выявлении эффективности внедренных ме-
роприятий ППС на основе сравнения изменений в «группе риска».
Исследование проводилось в 2009-2010 учебном году со студентами первого и

второго курса факультета компьютерных технологий, автоматизированных систем и
защиты информации (ФКТАС) ГОУ ВПО «Кубанский государственный технологический
университет» в количестве 128 человек.
Результаты исследования
После осуществления предварительного тестирования мы получили результаты,

представленные в таблице 1.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Таблица 1. Результаты диагностического этапа исследования. 137
Методы исследования Показатели Состояние показателей Количество

студентов (%)
Высокий 34
Методика «Исследо- Уровень аналитичности
вание аналитичности мышления Средний 33
мышления»
Низкий 33
Высокий 37
Тест для определения Уровень интеллекта
общих способностей Средний 33
Низкий 30
Высокий 30
Тест «Исследование Уровень импульсивности
импульсивности» Средний 40
Низкий 30
Высокий 19
Методика диагностики Уровень воспитанности
уровня воспитанности Средний 52
Низкий 29
По результатам диагностического исследования для выявления «групп риска»

нами применен кластерный анализ компьютерной программы SPSS. Кластерный ана-
лиз разделил студентов по общему уровню интеллектуального и нравственного развития
(таблица 2).
Таблица 2. Группы студентов по общему уровню интеллектуального и

нравственного развития.
Общий уровень интеллектуального

№ группы % студентов
и нравственного развития
1 группа нормальный 63
2 группа «группа риска» 37
Выделенные нами студенты, входящие в «группу риска», имеют проблемы как

интеллектуального, так и нравственного развития, и требуют повышенного внимания со
стороны педагогов и психологов.
На формирующем этапе исследования нами разработана программа ППС, которая
реализуется в «группе риска» и включает:
- мероприятия самовнушения, которые повышают уверенность студента в себе,
снижают его сомнения в возможности справиться с собой;
- мероприятия самокорректировки, которые помогли преобразовать негативные
мысли и чувства, разрушающие жизненный потенциал, в гармоничную струк-
туру, и это преображение, происходившее сознательно, привело к более эффе-
кетивному использованию жизненной энергии личности;
- мероприятия саморегуляции позволили обучить студентов следить за внешни-
ми проявлениями эмоциональных состояний, регулировать свое внутреннее
психическое состояние, уверенно вести себя в конфликтной ситуации;
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
138 - мероприятия самостимуляции, которые включают методы самопоощрения и

самонаказания, что оказывает большую помощь в самовоспитании.
Для определения влияния разработанной нами программы ППС на эффективность
обучения и воспитания студентов политехнического университета проведено сравнение
изменений в «группе риска» после ее внедрения. (таблица 2).
Таблица 3. Сравнение результатов диагностического и

контрольного этапов исследования.
№ группы % студентов
Общий уровень интеллек-
туального и нравственного до внедрения после внедре- изменение
развития ППС ния ППС + или -
1 группа нормальный 63 81 +18
2 группа «группа риска» 37 19 -18
Результаты сравнения показывают, что в группе студентов технологического уни-

верситета получены обнадеживающие результаты (увеличение студентов с нормальным
общим уровнем интеллектуального и нравственного развития на 18% и уменьшение
«группы риска» на 18%).
Корреляционный анализ компьютерной программы SPSS показал достоверные из-
менения успеваемости, аналитичности мышления, уровня интеллектуального развития
(показатели эффективности обучения) и импульсивности, уровня воспитанности (пока-
затели эффективности воспитания), которые, в определенной мере, можно связать с раз-
работанной и внедренной системой ППС (таблица 4).
Таблица 4. Результаты корреляционного анализа.
аналитичность интеллект импульсивность воспитанность

успеваемость
коэф.корреляции +0,489 +0,581 -0,658 +0,624
эначимость 0,005 0,001 0,000 0,000
аналитичность
коэф.корреляции +0,948 -0,515 +0,548
эначимость 0,000 0,003 0,002
интеллект
коэф.корреляции -0,628 +0,621
эначимость 0,000 0,000
импульсивность
коэф.корреляции -0,554
эначимость 0,001

Полученная значимость находится в пределах менее 0,05, что позволяет достоверно
говорить об определенном влиянии ППС на эффективность процессов обучения и
воспитания студентов технологического вуза.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Дискуссия 139
Основной задачей технологического вуза является профессиональная подготовка

специалистов, знакомых с основными принципами современного производства. Однако,
следует отметить, что профессиональная деятельность не только тесно связана, но
более того, она обусловлена культурой. Основными составляющимися духовной
культуры многие исследователи считают нравственность, нравственное поведение и
интеллектуальное развитие (Ломов, 1991).
Изучение доступной нам литературы показало, что вопросы психолого-
педагогического сопровождения процессов обучения и воспитания в технологическом
вузе освещены явно недостаточно. Существующие работы (проведенные не по
технологическим, а по другим вузам) исследуют влияние ППС только на усвоение
учебного материала (Ершова, 2007) или всесторонне рассматривают, в основном,
воспитательные эффекты ППС (Трушкин, 2006).
Мы стремились, чтобы разработанное в данном исследовании психолого-
педагогическое сопровождение повлияло и на эффективность обучения, и на
эффективность воспитания в технологическом вузе. Положительная динамика результатов
нашего исследования показывает:
- повышение уверенности в своих силах, раскрепощение своих возможностей
и способностей, регуляция своего психического состояния может дать студентам
дополнительный стимул к приобретению знаний для профессионального становления;
- создание фундамента личности будущего специалиста, основанного на устойчивой
и длительной мотивации студента на овладение профессией, позволит в дальнейшем
успешно адаптироваться к трудностям профессиональной деятельности, правильно
строить взаимоотношения в коллективе и конструктивно реагировать на возникающие
производственные и жизненные проблемы.
Представленное исследование является еще одной ступенью к пониманию
психолого-педагогического сопровождения студентов как системы, которая помогает
студентам понять, что приобретаемые ими квалификация, знания и навыки важны и
значимы не только для будущего успешного выполнения профессиональных обязанностей,
но и для развития собственного личностного, человеческого потенциала.
Выводы
Результаты проведенного исследования доказывают, что психолого-педагогическое

сопровождение студентов технологического вуза:
• связанно с повышением интеллектуального уровня, что, безусловно, приведет
к повышению эффективности обучения;
• повышает уровень воспитанности, что повлияет и на нравственное развитие
будущих программистов-технологов;
• помогает совершенствовать систему содержания обучения в высшей школе;
• способствует развитию у обучаемых потребности в самопознании;
• вырабатывает навыки саморегуляции.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
140 Литература
Ананьев Б.Г. (2001). О проблемах современного человекознания. Санкт-Питербург.: Питер.

Архангельский, С. И. (1980). Учебный процесс в высшей школе, его закономерные основы и мето-
ды. Москва: Просвещение.
Беспалько, В.П. (1977). Основы теории педагогических систем. Воронеж: Издательство ВГУ.
Бодалёв, А.А.(2000). Восприятие и понимание человека человеком. Москва: Изд-во ЭКСМО-
Пресс.
Выготский, Л.С. (2000). Психология. Москва: Изд-во ЭКСМО-Пресс.
Гальперин, П.Я., Данилова В.Л. (1980). Воспитание систематического мышления в процессе ре-
шения малых творческих задач. Вопросы психологии, № 1.
Гамезо, М.В., Домашенко, И.А.(1998). Атлас по психологии: Информ.-метод. пособие к курсу
“Психология человека”. Москва: Российское педагогическое агентство.
Ершова, Н.Г. (2007). Профессионально-личностное развитие студентов в условиях психолого-пе-
дагогического сопровождения в вузе физической культуры. Великие Луки: Великолукская госу-
дарственная академия физической культуры и спорта.
Зимняя, И.А.(2001). Педагогическая психология. Ростов на Дону: Феникс.
Крылов, А.А., Маничев, С.А. (2003). Практикум по общей, экспериментальной и прикладной пси-
хологии. Санкт-Петербург: Питер.
Леонтьев, А.Н. (1983). Избранные психологические произведения: В 2 т. Москва: Просвещение.
Логашенко О.И., Ломакина Л.И. (2009). Современное образование и сохранность здоровья студен-
тов в контексте психолого-педагогического сопровождения профессиональной подготовке в вузе.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century (Contemporary Issues in Education), Vol. 13, p. 183-191.
Логашенко О. И., Шапошникова Т. Л., Ломакина Л. И. (2008). Эффективность психолого-педаго-
гического сопровождения научно-практической деятельности студентов-психологов. Problems
of Education in the 21st Century (Peculiarities of Contemporary Education), Vol. 7, p. 180-192.
Наследов А. Д. (2005). SPSS: Компьютерный анализ данных в психологии и социальных науках, 2-е
изд. Санкт-Петербург.: Питер.
Пашукова Т. И., Допира А.И., Дьяконов Г.В. (сост.) (1996). Психологические исследования. Прак-
тикум по общей психологии для студентов педагогических вузов. Учеб. пособие. Москва: Изда-
тельство “Институт практической психологии”.
Петровский А. В., Шпалинский В.В. (1978). Социальная психология коллектива. Москва: Просве-
щение.
Пидкасистый П. И., Портнов М.Л. (1998). Искусство преподавания. Москва: Российское педаго-
гическое агентство.
Рубинштейн С. Л. (2003). Проблемы общей психологии. Санкт-Петербург: ПИТЕР.
Талызина Н. Ф. (1998). Педагогическая психология. Учебник. 3-е изд., стереотип. Рек. МО РФ.
Москва: Академия.
Трушников Д. Ю. (2006). Воспитание в вузе: гуманистический аспект. Тюмень.
Шапошникова Т. Л. & Логашенко О.И. (2007). Обоснование и методология психолого-педагоги-
ческого сопровождения научно-практической деятельности студентов-психологов. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century (Variety of Education in Central and Eastern Europe), Vol. 2, p. 166-174.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
Summary 141
INFLUENCE OF PSYCHO-PEDAGOGICAL SUPPORT ON

LEARNING EFFICIENCY AND EDUCATION OF
STUDENTS AT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Olga Logashenko
Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia
Tatyana Shaposhnikova
Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia
In the given work the problem of training and education of students at higher technological schools in the
context of the personal formation of a future expert – technologist under the influence of psycho-peda-
gogical support (PPS) is investigated. The basic criteria confirming the efficiency of PPS helped us to
choose the following indicators of cognitive and personal development: thinking, intelligence, impulsive-
ness and morals.
The primary PPS goals of training and education of students at higher technological school were: appli-
cation of pedagogical diagnosis; use of various methods of education; consideration of merits and abili-
ties of students; formation of a positive self-appraisal; training of the self-stimulation positive behavior
technique.
To solve the highlighted problems the following methods have been applied: the organization and holding
of conversations and seminars on self-education within the limits of the developing at the university sys-
tem of students’ moral education; holding some lectures on psychology and pedagogics for strengthening
the liberal-moral component of vocational training; the socio-psychological training directed on the for-
mation of communicative skills, the development of abilities to come into contact with associates, helping
to remove the internal barriers, disturbing the effective interaction but promoting the consciousness of
personal qualities; the self-reports of students stimulating internal activity and work of consciousness.
The efficiency of PPS influence on training and education of students at the higher technological school is
confirmed by the fact that students have increased their analyticity of thinking, have raised their IQ level
while impulsiveness has decreased and the indicator of good manners has improved.
The presented PPS model is a part of the innovative system of psycho-pedagogical support of vocational
training of students at higher school that we have been developing throughout a number of years.
Key words: psycho-pedagogical support, analyticity of thinking, intellectual development, impulsive-
ness, good manners.
Adviced by A.I. Chernyx (А. И. Черных), Kuban State Technological University,

Krasnodar, Russia
Olga Logashenko Associate Professor of the Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar,
Russia.
Phone: 8-961-524-87-41.
E-mail: lagus-olga@yandex.ru
Website: http://kubstu.ru/?uid=210010
Tatyana Shaposhnikova Professor of the Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia.
Phone: 8-961-524-87-41
E-mail: shtale@yandex.ru
Website: http://kubstu.ru/?uid=210010
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
142
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION
ISSN 1648-3898
Information about
Journal of Baltic Science Education
(publication prices and other important information for 2010)
1. Ordering information
• We will invoice everyone for material ordered;
• Orders have to be renewed annually not later than till December, 15th of current year;
• It is possible to order for the two years period. In that case the discount is not stipulated.
• Cancellations are not accepted;
• The frequency is: 3 times a year – March, August, November;
• In 2010 we plan to publish : Vol. 9, issue 1, issue 2, issue 3;
2. Price information
• Foreign regular price is 30 EUR (excluding postage) for one copy of journal;
• Domestic regular price is 30 LTL (excluding postage) for one copy of journal;
• To continual customers (not individual) the discount at a rate of 5 percent is applied.
• To individual customers the discount at a rate of 10 percent from the regular prices is ap-
plied;
• Copies of JBSE 2007-2008: 10 EUR for one copy.
• Methods of payment: payment has been made direct by bank transfer (settle the account)
/but not by cheque/.
3. Contact details
• Telephone number is: +370 687 95668.
• E-mail address is: mail.jbse@gmail.com
• Home page is: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt
• The postal address is: SMC „Scientia Educologica“
Donelaicio Street 29
LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
• Editor-in-Chief of JBSE is prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Lithuania.
4. Other important information

The articles appearing in this journal are indexed and abstracted in:
• British Education Index, Copernicus Index and EBSCO: Academic Search Complete;
• Social Scisearch (Thomson Reuters) - http://science.thomsonreuters.com/index.html (from
Vol. 7, 2008);
• Journal Citation Reports / Social Sciences Edition (Thomson Reuters) - http://thomsonreu-
ters.com/products_services/scientific/Journal_Citation_Reports (from Vol. 7, 2008);
• The Asian Education Index - http://www.asian-education-index.com/sciences_index.php
5. Last, but not least

Editorial Board of JBSE expresses gratitude to all who is interested in our remarkable academic
journal.
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 26, 2010
International Scientific Conference 143
„Information & communication

technology in natural science
education – 2011“
09-13 November 2011, Siauliai, Lithuania
Dear Colleagues,
We invite you to take part in the international scientific conference “Information &
Communication Technology in Natural Science Education - 2011”, which will
take place 09 – 13 November 2011 in the Conference centre of Siauliai University in
Siauliai.

Organizer of the Conference
Siauliai University, Faculty of Education, Natural Science Education Research Centre,

Lithuania, http://www.gutc.su.lt/
Ways of Participation
• Paper Presentation
• Oral Presentation
• Interactive Poster Presentation
• Workshop
• Listener
Important Dates
Early-Bird Registration Deadline 30 June 2011

Late Registration Deadline 25 September 2011
Final Submitting of Manuscripts 30 September 2011
Reviewing Manuscripts and Contacting
10 October 2011
Authors
Transfering Conference Fee From 01 June 2011 to October 25 2011
Final Confirmation of Participation 02 November 2011
Announcement of the Final Conference
05 November 2011
Program
Conference Dates 09 – 13 November 2011
* It is desirable to present the manuscripts as early as possible.
Conference Website: http://www.gutc.su.lt/informacija_en.htm

E-mail: ict2011lithuania@inbox.lt
Phone: +370 41 595736; Fax: +370 41 595710
© NSERC, Siauliai University, 2010
Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864
Volume 26, 2010
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė, Lina Banuškevičienė
Paste-up artist Indrė Linkutė-Andrijauskienė
Contact person Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)
30-11-2010. Publishing in Quires 11,25. Edition 200
Publisher SMC „Scientia Educologica“,

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: gu@projektas.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm
Contact person: Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)

Printing K. J. Vasiliauskas`s enterprise Lucilijus,

5 stoties Street, apt. 6, LT-77156 Šiauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: info@lucilijus.lt, phone/fax +370 41 421 857.
http://www.lucilijus.lt
Contact person: Danguolė Vasiliauskienė (info@lucilijus.lt)

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 26, 2010

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 26, 2010

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864

Volume 26, 2010

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic

Dr., prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2010

Ecologization of the World Outlook aS THE KEY purpose of

GIVEN COMPETENCIES BY HIGHER EDUCATION VERSUS EMPLOYERS’ DEMANDS

A STUDY ON HOW THE USE OF ICT IN TRAVELLING PERIODS INFLUENCES

PRE-SERVICE EDUCATOR ATTRITION INFORMED BY SELF-DETERMINATION

PERCEPTION OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS’ EXTENSION METHODOLOGY

PRE-SERVICE STUDENT TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:

THE University as an Agent of Knowledge Transfer:

A STUDY OF INVOLVEMENT OF CAREGIVERS IN CHILDREN’S PLAY IN

 THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN THE BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS EDUCATION:

METHODOLOGY for implementing learning outcomes in a study

ВЛИЯНИЕ ПСИХОЛОГО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОГО СОПРОВОЖДЕНИЯ НА

Journal of BALTIC Science Education 142

Ecologization of the World

 level. The shape of the concept is established.

Scientific Interaction Ecology - based

Figure 1: The interaction of the two components.

• Continuous, systematic actualization of the principles of human morality. 

Birnbacher, D. (Hrsg.)(1980). Ökologie und Ethik. Stuttgart.

 Аквилева, Г.Н., Клепинина З.А. (2001). Методика преподования естествознания в начальной

GIVEN COMPETENCIES BY HIGHER

10 • natural structure is a network,

General Background of Research

Expectations of Labour Market about Competencies

The research hypotheses were:

12 Table 1. Characteristisc of sample.

Asked groups Number of samples Number of universities/companies

- qualitative method by semi – structured interviews

Table 2. The rank of required competencies according to students’ 13

Students’ opinions Leaders’ opinions

372 340 1. Profession (Knowledge) 462 4,4 0,741 2.

Table 3. Rank of possessed competencies according to students’ and

Students’ opinions Possessed competen- Leaders’ opinions

14 359 192 6. Language knowledge 413 3,7 0,900 2.

Table 4. Labour market requirements and acquired competencies

Acquired obedience vs. expected obedience 398 201 139 58

Acquired knowledge vs expected knowledge 406 291 93 22

Acquired adaptivity vs expected adaptivity 402 247 118 37

Acquired flexibility vs expected flexibility 404 245 132 27

Acquired collaboration vs expected collabora- 402 120 27

Table 5. Expectations of enterprises from employees.

16 Table 6. Results of KMO and Bartlett’s Test.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0,847

Table 7. Factors about expectations of enterprises towards employees.

Should have realistic expectations of tasks. 0,849 0,241 0,187 0,815

The extracted factors were named:

To operate a knowledge management system in organizations successfully depends on

Adviced Laszlo Jozsa, Széchenyi István University, Hungary

A STUDY ON HOW THE USE OF ICT IN

Norway is currently characterized as a multicultural country where we normally think

Background: “Romanies from Childhood to Adults” a School Project

With this background one of the Romani organizations, “Taternes Landsforening”, in

The Researcher’s Role

The concept of intercultural education describes an interaction between individuals or

Use of ICT in School

Methodology of the Research 23

THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN THE BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS EDUCATION:

level. The shape of the concept is established.

• Continuous, systematic actualization of the principles of human morality.

Аквилева, Г.Н., Клепинина З.А. (2001). Методика преподования естествознания в начальной