Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 20, 2010

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864
VOLUME 20, 2010
ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH – 2010
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

the associated member of Lithuanian Scientific Society and ICASE
(International Council of Associations for Science Education)
The articles appearing in this scientific journal are indexed and abstracted in EBSCO:
Education Research Complete (http://search.ebscohost.com),
Copernicus Index (http://www.indexcopernicus.com),
the Asian Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/education_journals_index_P.php)
and list of Science Education Journals (http://homepages.wmich.edu/~rudged/journals.html)
Publisher
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the associated member of Lithua
nian Scientific Society and International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE)
Editor
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of

Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Dr., prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr., prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr. Yuriy Pelekh,
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Copyright of this scientific collection entitled Issues in Educational Research – 2010 is the property of
Scientific Methodical Centre “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania. All rights reserved. No part of this bo
ok may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the copyright holders.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific
journal, issued by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“.
Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: problemsofeducation@gmail.com
Phone: +370 687 95668
WEB page: http://www.gu.projektas.lt; http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/Problems_of_Education.htm
ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2010

© Authors, 2010
The authors of the articles and studies are responsible for the scientific content and stylistic aspects of the texts
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Contents
Editorial
DISAGREEMENTS AND PARADOXES OF EDUCATION...........................................................5

Vincentas Lamanauskas
Articles
RANKING OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS IN NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS:

THE PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS............................................................ 10
Jane K. Amunga, Maurice M. Amadalo, Julius K. Maiyo
Statistics & Probability Education in South Africa:

Constraints of Learning......................................................................................... 25
Anass Bayaga
TWO EUROPEAN RESPONSES TO ASSURE QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION..................... 36

Andrea Bernhard
The successful integration of foreign-born instructors

in the academe: Lessons from Israel’s largest public college.......................... 44
Ya’arit Bokek-Cohen, Nitza Davidovich
REFLECTIVE LEARNING MODELS IN THE CONTEXT OF HIGHER EDUCATION:

CONCEPT ANALYSIS....................................................................................................... 58
Remigijus Bubnys, Vilma Žydžiūnaitė
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF STUDY PROGRAM MANAGERS:

TOPICALITY AND ESSENCE............................................................................................. 71
Daina Celma, Ausma Golubeva
Differences between learning facts and complex phenomena A

learning study in history based on Variation Theory........................................ 80
Mona Holmqvist, Karmen Björkman, Malin Ohlin
TWO COMPLEMENTARY ASPECTS OF CONTEMPORARY vocal pedagogy........................ 93

Vaike Kiik-Salupere, Jaan Ross
THE PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES OF THE 21ST CENTURY SCHOOL TEACHER.............. 104

Ketevan Kobalia, Elza Garakanidze
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION AS A CRITERION

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN POLAND.................................................. 109
Marzena Okrasa
CULTURAL CAPITAL AND THE RICHES OF MANNA: INTEGRATION OF IMMIGRANT

SCIENTISTS IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA.............................................................................. 118
Nitza Davidovitch, Dan Soen, Zila Sinuany-Stern
Reading activeness and reading preferences of THE 6th

grade students of basic school in estonia........................................................ 135
Anne Uusen
Russian-Estonian Bilingualism Research and its Practical Meaning

for Estonian Schools............................................................................................. 146
Natalia Zamkovaja, Irina Moissejenko, Natalia Tshuikina
Standards for Field Evaluations of Modifications to

Educational Settings............................................................................................. 156
Albert Ziegler, Diana Schimke, Heidrun Stoeger, Peter Merrotsy
Общее понятие и законы формирования социального заказа

в области образования......................................................................................... 170
Тамара А. Арташкина
Особенности инклюзивного дополнительного образования детей

с ограниченными возможностями развития.................................................... 182
Надя Бизова
Герменевтический подход к проектированию образовательного

процесса в системе высшего профессионального образования.................. 191
Ирина М. Бродская, Наталья О. Верещагина
Модель-конструкт интерактивного модульного учебника

(направление подготовки «реклама и связи с общественностью»)............. 199
Ольга Н. Кравченко
Внедрение ИКТ в практику управления образовательным учреждением...... 206

Наталья Вронская
Information
„Information & communication technology in natural science

education – 2010“.................................................................................................... 214
Journal of BALTIC Science Education................................................................... 215

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
DISAGREEMENTS AND PARADOXES OF EDUCATION
Vincentas Lamanauskas
University of Šiauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt
Listen, watch and keep silence if you want to enjoy life...

Heritage language
Introduction
Why the 21st century scholars start raising their voices while facing troubles and difficulties
in the field of education. To identify the situation, it is worth having a closer look at the present
schooling system. Post-modern life and education more and more frequently are coming into force.
Superficiality becomes a common phenomenon. Only available regularly used and easily with no ef
fort achieved attractive things are greatly appreciated. What is more, only minimal efforts are taken
to gain a broader educational background. Quite a few countries display similar tendencies. On the
other hand, education is frequently treated as a product or a kind of service. The laws of the wild
market fail to get round this area of life. The chosen life style (including education) rather than the
meaning of life and education itself often play a crucial role.
Living with Disagreements on Education!
There is no need to be an expert perfectly knowing matters of education to find out not eve
rything works in the system of education. Also, it seems to be clear that the evaluation of those
working in the ‘fields’ of education cannot be rejected. I suppose the latter are not the majority as
more and more frequently ‘strangers’ gain access to the education system. Discussions with the
representatives of other countries have revealed that those currently studying educational subjects
at universities usually fail to understand what the school is and what role they are going to play in
this institution. The most important point is studying and receiving a diploma. Modern education
encounters a large number of different problems the answers to which can be hardly found.
Thus, the very first disagreement is one between the necessities of providing a creative, social
ly changeable and alteration determining environment and the prevalence of applying verbal-boo
kish methods for educational purposes. Although teachers expend enormous efforts, a decision on
the above mentioned disagreement is not reached and only a very slight hope can be seen it will be
made in the future. A similar situation exists while generating a discussion on the need for ‘having
the lead’ in the field of changes (alterations) and a conservative education system reflecting the al
ready produced changes in life. To some purpose, a teacher (present) brings past (knowledge) for
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010

the future (children). No one can deny that another disagreement can be noticed which is one bet
ween the need to purposefully pedagogically manage the development of every single personality
and actually existing dissolution of the educational process (unreal separation) combined with the
inconsistency of pedagogical impacts (teachers often work separately from one another on the basis
of their personal knowledge and understanding). Despite taken into account all wishes the present
ly observed abundance of different guidelines and reorganizations remains broken into pieces. The
suppression of such situation is a regular event proposing this is different. A number of produced
theories about how to make the educational process more effective are left unrealized due to vario
us reasons. First, schooling practice is something different. Theories lose their vitality. On the one
hand, requirements for how to increase activities of learners as the main subjects of the educational
process are imposed, whereas on the other - their status stays passive and similar to that of passive
objects having a pedagogical impact which is objective truth as in the binary process of the interac
tion between learner and teacher, their activity has inverse correlation. High activity of one of the
components holds down activity of the other. Systematically, any kind of education is more or less
constraint. Education, as a rule, is organized, purposeful, coordinated (being coordinated) activity
with objectives established by a certain society (the so called social order). However, a problem of
how to achieve a proper balance between the elements of constraint and personal freedom occurs.
Though an emphasis is put on the necessity of making the educational process more intensive,
nevertheless, extensive ways of improving it are actually prevailing, e.g. the number of lessons
increases, different informal educational activities are undertaken etc. In this case, another disagre
ement between the continuous quantitative development of the education system and a consistent
increase in education quality can be noticed. The latter process goes with the depreciation of evalua
tions (points and marks) and diploma. The analysis of university curricula in some countries reveals
that these documents suffer from a lack of holistic planning and clear philosophical proposals. The
introduced situation results in a compilation of incoherent courses and is particularly faced in the
countries of Eastern and Central Europe, the places where unified education has prevailed for a long
time. The rapid diversification of education is a common occurrence often taking the wrong move.
Influenced by the regularities of the market, in the name of survival, schools usually sacrifice the
quality of their activities in a broad sense.
‘Buying’ diploma is another related problem. Quite a few discussions have been generated and
will likely be held in a number of countries in the future. The Internet is full of web sites offering si
milar kinds of services with the established prices. Thus, the market imposes the rules of the game.
Supply and demand always go together.
Despite the fact that a continuous process of increasing the volumes of scientific and social
information is taking place, however, limited terminology on learning/studying used by educational
establishments is regularly observed. Moreover, the Bologna process requires cutting the standing
of studies. No attention is paid to the evaluation of the promoted idea. The pace of life necessitates
growth in any area thus leaving behind rivals etc. Nevertheless, the logic of life clearly shows that
when gaining one thing you lose another. There is no question of getting anything you want here
and now. Everything has a price, and therefore the only question about how expensive, when and to
whom money will be paid needs to be answered.
Disagreement between an objective need for a continuous improvement on educational content
(is there anyone who will dare to say it is needless) and a traditional pedagogical requirement for en
suring the stability of educational content is another field of the initiated discussion. A try at impro
ving things is closely related with the extensive development of education, for example, more and
more alternative course books and information sources for learners are prepared which disintegrates
the content of education. Disagreement between the increased abstractness of education influenced
by growing theoretical knowledge and the necessity of improving practical learners’ training should
be mentioned. An opinion that the process of learner/student training is too much theoretically sup
ported can be frequently heard. In this case, a huge number of reasons could be suggested.
Employers also often complain that the young generation coming onto the market is not pro
perly trained. However, the other side of the medal exists. Some of the teachers either have no
Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS. Disagreements and Paradoxes of Education
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
connection with practice or it is very weak. Therefore, the only decision to be taken is to prepare
the would-be specialists on theoretical grounds. Disagreement between the increased degrees of
education and the importance of educational individualization in order to show the immanent po
wers of every child (learner) should be considered. In most instances, comprehensive school keep
these powers unnoticed and unexpanded. To some purpose, the U.S.A. always refers to the priority
of making education individual. Therefore, in this case, a question of how to achieve a balance bet
ween mass and elite education is faced. Every country is confronted with problems common for a
certain area.
An interesting disagreement occurs between objectively growing public demand for having
creative, highly qualified teachers/lecturers and limited possibilities of satisfying such need. As
mentioned above, more and more schools fail to choose strongly motivated personalities able to get
on with pedagogical work. First of all, this should be a concern for those formulating educational
policy at different levels.
Information sources suggest that regarding education, a public opinion of quite a few countries
is highly positive and this makes us feel happy. However, on the other side, regularly disseminated
information that public gladly accept provided education seems to be too provoking in order to hear
the opinions of colleagues from other countries and to realize that work at school becomes more
and more arduous. During the last few years, several countries have faced strikes and protest actions
organized by teachers’ organizations. On the one hand, public requirements for increasing teachers’
professional skills are constantly growing, whereas on the other, individual teachers’ possibilities
of ‘catching the right pace of life’ remain objectively limited (time spent for self-training decrea
ses). Different types of attestation, teacher training etc. prevent from concentration on the main
subject – education in the classroom. Society has an abstract position on the issue that their children
should be provided with an appropriate background, and therefore it has cherished a false hope for
versatile harmonious education. With reference to such situation, education players neglecting con
trol functions and ability to think often transfer all subjects and create adverse circumstances and
heavy physical and emotional overload. This is a frequent discussion held by physicians asserting
that students and teachers’ state of health is getting worse. The so called state owned comprehensive
schools fail to provide the learners with expected education. To solve these problems and compen
sate misfortunes, private tutors are called for help.
Another disagreement is worth being discussed. Education requires more and more invest
ment, particularly reformation of education systems (for example, the U.S.A. spends approx. 300
billion dollars annually). Nevertheless, different international investigations reveal that education
quality is being reduced. For instance, presently, Russia more and more often comes across the
doctrine of degrading education. Finally, from a financial point of view, various types of reformed
education are recipient. The forthcoming result can be hardly predicted. Time is also an important
factor as negative after-effects can be visible following the required amount of time. In this case,
new reforms are usually introduced and the cycle is repeated again.
Another disagreement is extremely controversial and can be either accepted or rejected. Civili
zation is not being created by bright students who were brilliant at all subjects studied at school and
not by those awarded gold medals, but by ordinary learners who were often ignored by teachers and
never had a chance to study at a college or university.
Certainly, even more objectively existing disagreements can be discussed. However, the pro
blem is not the one they cannot be properly resolved as first of all, they need to be indentified and
only at a later stage – possible ways of finding an appropriate solution should be developed.
Common Education Paradoxes
The above discussed paradoxes are closely related to the so called education paradoxes worth
being looked over.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010

The first paradox to be mentioned is the one that human have different rudiments of physical
and physiological experience, and thus their education entirely depends on them. When children are
‘placed’ in the same school to be properly educated, even pressure on them cannot help with achie
ving good results. Parents prefer their children should be tutored in subjects that hardly ever will
bring success in the future rather than look for ways of developing their innate abilities. On the one
hand, these are additional income, whereas on the other – expenses and health problems. In another
way, tutors are not always teachers having necessary qualifications. Tutoring is an old phenomenon
widespread in all countries at all times. The conception is similar at all points – a person providing
a learner with additional lessons on the subjects difficult to be acquired at school (the learner is eit
her has no wish or is not interested in dealing with learning things). The carried out research points
out three main criteria for taking a tutor: preparation for the final exams, to make the taken course
more systematic and to better acknowledge a particular subject. The latter involves the second para
dox – motivation which is the driving force of teaching (learning). In an opposed way, motivation
may ‘prevent’ from the teaching (learning) process. The genetic system determines the purpose of
self-realization. One type of activity is easily accepted and stimulated, the other – ignored (only obe
yed and imitated) and the third type is not suitable to perform any action despite all possible didactic
methods and even coercive measures. In this case, the effect achieved by the tutors is temporary and
has no sense. This event is stimulated by a policy of general education inadequate for the existing si
tuation. It should be taken into account that a teacher is one of the oldest professions. However, like
thousands of years ago, s/he tells stories, explains ideas, imposes penalties, encourages and makes
evaluations. Although psychologists agree that children’s cognitive activity in the classroom plays
a crucial role, teachers suggest it must be under control and at minimum expenditure (economists’
point of view). But what is the right option when classrooms in schools are overloaded? Finally,
who will dare to point out the exact number of children in the classroom in case we admit that indi
vidual education is the most effective? The number of learners in the majority of African schools
makes 45 – 50 students. In some countries of the continent, the amount of those is even higher and
reaches 70. Though the situation is different in other countries, still, it depends on the variety of
circumstances, not only on economical potential.
One more paradox should be explained. A teacher plays a leading role which is reality that can
not be denied either by the wide society (masses) or politicians and other members of public (elite).
Nevertheless, the fact of teachers’ remuneration for the work they do shows different. There are
only a few countries where teacher’s job is a highly-paid one.
Systemic paradox should also be highlighted. All elements of the education system have plen
ty of drawbacks, and therefore the whole system as such contains defects. A partial modernization
of the system has no sense (following the principles of system functioning, any implant will be
rejected). Any system can be replaced with the one that seems to be more attractive. Those respon
sible for education policy and execution often choose the easiest way based on steeling ideas or
plagiarism, i.e. they combine different reforms and put the models developed in other countries
into practice. Nonetheless, it does not mean that the same model gladly accepted in one country
will be successfully adopted in the other. Then, we are proud of how clever we are and what great
our achievements can be. Such ‘implants’ very frequently fail in succeeding and turn into ‘horrible’
disasters.
Forming classes in schools concerning age can also be treated as an intriguing paradox. When
a part of schoolchildren get bored, the others encounter difficulties. Consequently, the new methods
of teaching (for example, ‘active’ methods of teaching) are introduced. Why not to form classes
taking into account cognitive abilities, thus leaving behind this problem forever? Establishing the
terminology of general education is another ambiguity. Why must all learners ‘sit in the classroom’
from bell to bell all year round until they have graduated from school? Setting an individual pace
should be a more rational decision and help with gaining formal education at different time of stu
dies.
Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS. Disagreements and Paradoxes of Education
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Epilogue
Life and education with no problems is a hardly acceptable idea. However, a wish to stay at a
distance in order not to face the existing problems is one of most awful disasters presently seen in
the education system. It might be money can solve all problems as according to Marx, ‘They have
by no means merely one mode of affirmation, but rather that the distinct character of their existen
ce, of their life, is constituted by the distinct mode of their affirmation. In what manner the object
exists for them, is the characteristic mode of their gratification. Wherever the sensuous affirmation
is the direct annulment of the object in its independent form (as in eating, drinking, working up of
the object, etc.), this is the affirmation of the object... By possessing the property of buying everyt
hing, by possessing the property of appropriating all objects, money is thus the object of eminent
possession. The universality of its property is the omnipotence of its being. It is therefore regarded
as an omnipotent being. Money is the procurer between man’s need and the object, between his
life and his means of life...’ (The Power of Money, Marx, 1844) I strongly reject this idea. The pro
blems of education cannot be solved only on financial grounds. Everyone figures out that vast and
broad knowledge as well as full understanding are required to overcome the encountered problem.
Education is not a stable system made of insecure and poorly defined components. To find it more
reliable, it must contain excess supply, i.e. guided by the principle of redundancy. More investments
in education are necessary so that to expect at least minimal results and it makes no account that this
idea passes over the presently prevailing liberal economic logics.
Vincentas Lamanauskas Professor, Siauliai University, Natural Science Education Research Centre, 25-119 P.Vi
šinskio Street, LT- 76351, Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 687 95668.
E-mail: lamanauskas@projektas.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.projektas.lt
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
10
RANKING OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND

STUDENTS IN NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS:
THE PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS AND
STUDENTS
Jane K. Amunga, Maurice M. Amadalo, Julius K. Maiyo

Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya
E-mail: jnamunga@yahoo.com, maiyokip2004@yahoo.com
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate the teachers’ and students’ perception of ranking schools and
students in national examinations. A descriptive survey design was used and secondary schools in Kaka
mega south district formed the study population. The sample frame consisted of 75 secondary schools
stratified according to performance into low, average and top ranked categories. The sample size con
sisted of 36 schools (12 from each performance category) selected by simple random sampling and 252
respondents selected purposively from the 36 schools. Data collection instruments were questionnaires.
Reliability was established by use of test retest technique. Most of the students and most head teachers
approved of ranking while most of the teachers disapproved of ranking. Despite this stand on ranking,
both the teachers and students felt that ranking should be improved and thus called for a system of asses
sment that encompassed all the aspects instead of focusing on academic performance only. This would
ensure that ranking of schools and students did not glorify academic achievement at the expense of talent
and other virtues.
Key words: ranking, perception, performance, talent and virtues.
Background
Ranking in Kenyan education history started after the establishment of Local Native Council
(LNC) and independent schools (Bogonko, 1992). These schools were ranked alongside the exis
ting missionary schools and by the early 1940s, their performance was way above that of missio
nary schools. Ranking was also done among the Government African Schools (GAS) whose first
batch of pupils sat the Primary School Examinations (PSE) in 1938. During colonial period, exami
nations were organized by the British. After independence, the organization of examinations was
localised in East Africa. The Cambridge syndicate that was conducting examinations was replaced
by East African Examinations Council in 1973 which offered East African Certificate of Education
(EACE) and East African Advanced Certificate of Education (EAACE). In 1980, an act of parlia
ment empowered the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) to manage examinations in
Kenyan schools (Eshiwani, 1993).
With the introduction of 8-4-4 system of education, Certificate of Primary Education (CPE)
was replaced by KCPE from 1984. The Kenya Junior Secondary Examination (KJSE), Kenya Cer
tificate of Education (KCE) Examination and Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education (KACE)
Jane K. AMUNGA, Maurice M. AMADALO, Julius K. MAIYO. Ranking of Secondary Schools and Students in Na-
tional Examinations: the Perception of Teachers and Students PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Examination were also phased out in 1985, 1987 and 1989 in that order (Eshiwani, 1993). Under 11
the 8-4-4 system, the four year secondary school education cycle ends with the Kenya Certificate
of Secondary Education (KCSE) examination which replaced KCE in the old 7-4-2-3 system of
education. This was followed by a radical change in the ranking of schools according to a perfor
mance index. Up to 2007, there have been seven categories of ranking examination results at the
secondary school level used. These are: the overall, National schools, Provincial schools, District
schools, Private schools, most improved schools and Students’ categories. The publication of mean
performance statistics for the top schools in the respective categories and top students in the nation
and provinces was meant to make it possible for schools to compare their performance with other
schools. This form of ranking was strictly based on students’ academic performance in national. It
also fails to take into consideration the difference in facilities and students’ intake mark in form one
among other factors.
To enhance equity and quality of education, the report on Totally Integrated Quality Educa
tion and Training not only focussed on teacher training and motivation but also recommended that
school ranking system be abolished (Republic of Kenya, 1999). The pressure of examinations and
ranking of schools according to performance were blamed for lack of depth in learning and the
teaching process. Teachers geared their teaching to the examinations encouraging rote learning.
Focusing on exam results ignored many other important outcomes of schooling like physical well
being, life skills, integrity, confidence and deportment. It also led to a narrowing of the curriculum
due to the neglect of non-examined subjects (World Bank, 2001).
The issue of assessment is critical to the functioning of schools. It serves as a motivator of stu
dent performance. In addition, it provides a feedback to the teacher on the effectiveness of teaching
and student achievement. It also communicates to the students, parents and others what has been
learnt (James 1998). The publication of league tables showing performance in public examinations
is both a symptom and a cause of greater competition (Bray, 2003). The publication of results may
lead to schools that are perceived to be doing well to attract students of high levels of ability while
those perceived to be doing badly will be left with lower achieving students (Kellaghan 1996). It
may also lead to the transfer of more able teachers, lower morale in individual schools and create
ghetto schools. Although, Burgess et al (2002) argue that, provision of information on school per
formance is a pre-requisite for informed parental choice, the World Bank (2001) feel that where
parents with social and/or economic advantage are encouraged to support schools with good results,
morale and performance in poorer performing schools can be depressed.
In the United States, teachers’ unions, school leaders, principals and teachers have tended to
oppose policies linking assessment to accountability on the grounds of perverse effects including
narrowing the curriculum to the practice of teaching to the test and incentives for teachers to cheat
(Evers and Walberg, 2003). Evidence suggests that agencies alter the timing of their actions and
engage in cream skimming in response to specific performance measures (Hickman, Henrick and
Smith, 2002). They exclude weak students from sitting for examinations. Cheating was mentioned
as another unproductive type of response to accountability incentives and misreporting of school
dropout rates (Peabody and Markley, 2003). Schools also excluded weak students by engaging in
cream skimming at the point of admission. This is because the higher the ability of students admit
ted, the better the out-put and the higher the schools relative position in the league tables (Wilson,
2001).
Performance tables for England have been published annually since 1992 (Wilson, 2003).
Currently they are used to describe the difference between ‘materials brought in and the finished
product’ and thus measures the value added by the production process (Wilson, 2003). However,
other studies indicate that, despite the use of league tables in Kenya, Senegal and elsewhere, several
factors indicate that their use is complicated and misleading. If students differ from school to school
in their level of achievement when joining the schools, a measure of achievement at a later date that
does not take this into account will be inequitable and misleading in that it will not adequately re
flect a schools success in moving students from their initial entry level to their present level of achie
vement as reflected in a public examination (Kellaghan and Greaney, 2001b). At a general level,
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
12
high stakes may be associated with malpractice. In their effort to obtain high grades, students and
sometimes teachers resort to various forms of cheating designed to give a candidate unfair advanta
ge over others. This takes many forms including copying from other students during examinations,
collusion between students and supervisors, use of material smuggled into the examination rooms
and purchasing of examination papers (Kellaghan and Greaney, 1996b).
In New South Wales, a student’s final mark in each subject is determined by a combination of
school-based assessments conducted throughout the Higher School Certificate (HSC) component of
the course which forms 50% and externally administered final examinations held in October or No
vember of every year (Board of Studies-NSW, 2008). In Chile schools are evaluated on the basis of
their improvement in student assessment scores, physical improvements by school administrators,
working conditions of teachers, equality of opportunity through retention rates, promotion and avoi
dance of discrimination practices on basis of gender or disability and teacher- parents integration
in school. The factors are weighted and adjusted to arrive at a final score entitlement for school.
Enrolment in the winning school accounts for 25 % of the score. The schools are stratified into ho
mogeneous groups so that competition is roughly between schools that are comparable in terms of
student population, socio-economic status of the community where the school is based. Schools are
ranked within each group according to score index and awards given to teachers of schools in that
order to be divided among themselves according to hours worked (McMakin, 2000).
In Kenya, the low levels of transition rates between standard 6 and 7 was partially explained
by the fact that schools discouraged weaker pupils from taking KCPE for fear that it would lower
the mean scores in published league tables (Akers, Migoli and Nzomo, 2001). The publication of
mean performance statistics for each school and for each district in league tables made it possible
for schools to see where they stood with respect to other schools in the district and for districts to
compare themselves with other districts. This was a key feature of the Kenya examination reform in
which this kind of information was called incentive information (Somerset, 1987). The underlying
idea was that dissemination of information would create competition between schools which would
motivate teachers to change their instructional practices (Chapman and Synder, 2000). However,
according to Ndago (2004), there is no moral justification in ranking schools where no genuine
competition really existed because some schools admit the best KCPE candidates and have the
best resources which creates uneven playground. In addition, IPAR (2004), maintain that ranking
in national examinations at the individual student and also at the school level has resulted in fierce
competition. The fierce competition sometimes led to departure from teaching to preparation for
passing examinations. Ndago therefore argued that, instead of ranking schools using the percentage
of candidates who attained a certain level of performance, we should use deviations (positive or
negative) of the KCSE grades from the KCPE mark. Marenya (2007) also argued that the annual
ritual ranking was not in keeping with the best practice internationally. In addition, it was immoral
to rank schools as if they were competing on equal terms when others were facilitated to do well by
taking the cream of standard 8 candidates, giving them reasonable facilities and ensuring that they
were taught by competent and conscientious teachers while students in other schools were condem
ned to inescapable failure by the absence of the same conditions. He advocated for a grading system
that captures and rewards everything that the school teaches and nurtures including talent.
Statement of the Problem
Ranking of schools and students in national examinations encourages positive competition. Ho
wever, the extent to which this affects society and schools in particular has been evidenced by the
anxiety of the stake-holders during release of Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE)
results in February every year, when the names of champion students and schools have graced the
print and electronic media. The posting of results has reinforced a widely held belief that there are
good and bad schools in Kenya. The national ban of ranking not withstanding, schools are still ran
ked at the provincial and district level. This system of ranking has been criticised for promoting un
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
fair competition among schools because the comparison between schools fails to take into account 13
differences in the KCPE intake mark, social and physical conditions under which the different scho
ols operate. Ranking individual students and schools creates fierce competition which sometimes
leads to departure from teaching to preparation for passing examinations and cheating. Therefore, it
is against this background that this study intended to investigate students’ and teachers’ perception
of ranking.
Objectives of the study

1. To investigate teachers’ perception of ranking
2. To investigate students’ perception of ranking.
Instruments and Methods
The study was a descriptive survey design. This design was deemed most ideal for this study
because although the study covered the 2003-2006 period, the practice was ongoing and its effects
were still being felt. It was also appropriate in assessing the teachers’ and students’ perceptions of
ranking. To obtain a representative sample, the 75 schools in the district were stratified into three
categories of 25 schools each. The schools were ranked from the best to the last and divided into
three even categories of 25 schools each. This stratification was based on mean performance in
KCSE examination results between 2003–2006. A total of 12 schools were randomly selected from
each of the categories. This sample of 36 schools comprising 48% of the target population was con
sidered neither too small nor too big for the study (Mulusa, 1990; Cohen et al, 2000 and Polland,
2005). A purposive sampling technique was used to select the participants for the study. Teachers
and students participating in the study were therefore purposively selected to include head teachers
of participating schools and three teachers from each school (1 head of an academic department, 1
head of a non-academic department, and 1 teacher in a non-administrative position in the school).
Three students were also purposively selected from each school. The study selected the head-stu
dent, the games captain and one student in the school who was not a prefect. It was assumed that
this selection achieved even representation of the teacher and student population found within the
school community. In addition, it was also assumed that the selected participants could provide the
required information. Therefore, a total of 252 respondents participated in the study. The summary
is provided in table 1.
Table 1. Respondents and the number from each category.
School Performance No. of H/

No. of schools No. of teachers No. of students Total
Category teachers
Top 12 12 36 36 84
Average 12 12 36 36 84
Low 12 12 36 36 84
Total 36 36 108 108 252
Perceptions of the teachers and students were presented using cross-tabulations and percenta
ges. The chi square was then used to determine whether there were any differences in the percep
tions of the different respondents.
Teachers’ and Students’ Perception of Ranking
The teachers’ and students’ perception of ranking were determined by use of a variety of open
and closed ended questions which sought to establish their own assessment of their school position
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
14
in the 2006 KCSE results and effects related to their schools’ ranks. The choice of this particular
year was influenced by the fact that it was the latest examination year and the results were still fresh
in the respondents’ mind. In addition, it was assumed that most of the teachers who were involved
in the preparation of the candidates were most likely to be still in their stations. The questions also
tried to establish what they thought was the most important factor that contributed to their school
rank in that particular year, how the resultant school rank affected their self esteem, progression and
their schools’ relationships with other schools. In addition, the respondents were expected to state
their state whether they approved or disapproved of ranking and if this practice had improved re
sults. The analysis of perceptions was done at the levels of the respondents (head teachers, teachers
and students). The chi-square statistical test at 0.05 level of significance was used to determine whet
her there were significant differences among the head teachers, teachers and students in their percep
tions of ranking. In educational circles, the 5 per cent(0.05) used as level of significance indicates
that the difference would have resulted from error in less than 5 out of 100 replications. Conversely
there is a 95 per cent probability that the difference was not due to a sampling error.
Assessment of School Rank in the 2006 KCSE Results
Head teachers, teachers and students of the sample schools were asked to rate their school
positions in the district in the 2006 KCSE results. A total of 47 (18.7%) of the respondents ra
ted their schools’ performance in 2006 KCSE as good while 171 (67.9%) rated them as average
and 34 (13.5%) as poor. Generally, most respondents rated their schools’ performance as average
(Table 2).
Table 2. Assessment of school position in 2006 KCSE results.
Statement H/ teachers Teachers Students Total %

Good 8 19 20 47 (18.7)
Average 24 75 72 171 (67.9)
Poor 4 14 16 34 (13.5)
Total 36 108 108 252 (100)
From the information collected using the questionnaires, those who rated their schools’ po
sitions in the 2006 KCSE results as good felt that they had realised a positive performance index
denoting an improvement as compared to the previous year while others attributed the mean grade
to the commitment of the teachers and industry of a few of the students that led to positive perfor
mance index.
Those who rated their schools as average pegged this assessment on the low ability of students
they admitted. They also thought that the performance was a mere average because the majority of
the students lacked self-drive so that since the teachers input was more than that of the students and
this could not translate into sterling performance. This is according to the justification of their rating
obtained from the questionnaires.
Those who agreed with the fact that their schools realised poor results felt they could have done
better with support from the community in terms prompt payment of fees and a positive attitude.
However, some of the communities had given up on the schools and so had the students. It was
pointed out that after registration which is usually in term one, some candidates stayed away from
school and only resurfaced to sit for exams. This was one of the factors that contributed to the poor
performance. The others who rated their performance as poor in spite of having been grouped in
the top ranked schools category regarded their position and mean scores as a challenge and thought
they should have done much better given the fact that most of the students they admitted had very
high KCPE marks.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Factors that Contributed to the School Position in 2006 KCSE Results 15
Factors that were found to directly affect school ranking were teachers, students, the school ad
ministration, the community and the government. The majority of the respondents (94, 37.3%) felt
that the students contributed greatly to the school rank. Teachers were named by 75 (29.8%) of the
respondents. Only 4 (1.6%) said the government played a role in the ranking (Table 3).
Table 3. The factor that contributed to the school position.

Teachers 14 30 31 75 (29.8)
Students 13 36 45 94 (37.3)
School administration 5 28 26 59 (23.4)
Community 4 12 4 20 (7.9)
Government - 2 2 4 (1.6)
Total 36 108 108 252 (100)
In cases where there was poor performance, it was blamed on students who had very low abili
ty on admission because of very low entry marks. It was reported that, parents insisted on admitting
students with the lowest KCPE marks in low ranked schools but struggled to take those with better
marks to other schools. Some of the candidates stayed away from school after registration and only
resurfaced to sit for examinations. Most district schools were co-educational as well as day schools.
As a result, student love affairs were prevalent in most of these schools which divided the attention
of the candidates.
According to the responses received, the communities were reported to have failed to develop
and equip the schools. They were uncooperative, and encouraged laziness among the students. In
addition, they condoned indiscipline and failed to pay fees and support school activities. Students
blamed the poor performance on fellow students being uncooperative, not following instructions,
lacking commitment, being generally undisciplined and creating unrest in the schools. The students
lacked a competitive spirit and self drive. In addition, they had poor study habits, were generally
lazy and undisciplined. They were blamed for unrest in some schools which interfered with perfor
mance. The government was blamed for lack of financial resources in some schools because it was
felt that it had not provided adequate bursary funds. Incidentally, the teachers were not mentioned
by both students and teachers in relation to poor performance and a low school rank.
Where good performance was realised, the teachers were complemented for their hard work
and sacrifice which resulted in a positive improvement index in some schools. This was because of
their support and guidance of students, early syllabus coverage through the teaching of extra lessons
that paved way for thorough revision, rigorous testing and marking, and general selflessness. The
school administration not only motivated teachers and learners but also provided a conducive envi
ronment for learning and teaching.
Effect of the School Rank on the Respondents’ Self Esteem
A total of 57 (22.6%), most of who were students said their school rank made them feel supe
rior; 44 (17.5%) said it made them feel inferior while the majority 151 (59.9%); most of who were
head teachers and teachers said it made them feel neither superior nor inferior (Table 4). This shows
that generally, the school rank has no effect on the self esteem of the respondents.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
16 Table 4. Effect of school rank on respondents’ self esteem.

Superior 3 11 43 57 (22.6)
Inferior 3 14 27 44 (17.5)
Neither 30 83 38 151 (59.9)
Total 36 108 108 252 (100)
Table 4 shows that there was a difference in the perceptions of the Head teachers, teachers and
students. While the majority of the head teachers and teachers experienced no effect on their self
esteem, most of the students felt superior as a result of their school rank. Those who felt superior
might be the members of the schools which maintained a positive improvement index during the
four years and were therefore proud of their positions. This shows they were proud of being associa
ted with what they considered good results. The majority and most of who were head teachers and
teachers, felt that the school rank had no effect on their self esteem because they regarded their role
in these schools as a duty. A smaller percentage of 44 (17.5%) felt inferior showing that they did not
regard teaching or enabling students to perform well as being good enough.
The Effect of the School Rank on Respondents’ Progression
This study also sought to establish teachers’ and students’ perceptions of how their schools’
ranks affected their progression in terms of promotions for the teachers and promotion to the next le
vel of education for the students. The majority of the respondents 118 (46.8%) felt that their school
rank determined to a large extend whether they were promoted or passed KCSE. Those who felt that
their school rank decreased or had no effect on their progression were 65 (25.8%) and 69 (27.4%)
respectively.
Table 5. Effect of school rank on respondents’ progression.

Increases chance 14 25 79 118 (46.8)
Decreases chance 13 34 18 65 (25.8)
No effect 9 49 11 69(27.4)
Total 39 108 108 252 (100)
Chi-square value 60.23 df 4 p value 0.0001
There was a significant difference in the responses of the Head teachers, teachers and students
in their perceptions of how the school rank affected their progression (p value 0.0001, table 5) at
0.05 level of significance. The chi value of 60.23 is greater than the critical value of 9.49. General
ly, the majority of the students felt that their school rank increased their chance of success in KCSE
while the majority of teachers felt that the school rank had no effect on their promotion.
The Effect of the School Rank on the Inter-school Relationship
The majority of the respondents 147 (58.3%) felt their school rank earned their school respect
from other schools, 61 (24.2%) said it earned their schools disrespect from other schools while the
minority 44 (17.5%) said it had no effect on their inter-school relationship.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Table 6. Effect of school rank on Inter-school relationships. 17

Respect 20 51 76 147 (58.3)
Disrespect 8 29 24 61 (24.2)
No effect 8 28 8 44 (17.5)
Total 36 108 108 252 (100)
Analysis by chi-square shows that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of the
Head teachers, teachers and students on the effect of the school rank on their schools’ relationship
with other schools (p value 0.002, table 6) at 0.05 level of significance. The chi value of 16.71 is
greater than the critical value of 9.49.
Respondents seemed to unanimously agree that being in a school that performed well in KCSE
earned their schools respect from other schools implying that it is prestigious to be in a what they
considered good performing schools. Despite being in average and low performing schools, some
respondents were still proud of their performance in the 2006 KCSE examination results. Probably
they realized an improvement that they were proud of the school rank and classification notwithstan
ding. However, a significant number felt that their school ranks earned their schools disrespect from
other schools.
Respondents’ Views on the Ranking of Schools Using National Examination

Results
Respondents were asked to state whether they approved or disapproved of national ranking.
Those who approved were the majority at 146 (57.9%) of the 252 respondents. The approval rating
was highest among students at 90 (83.33%) as compared to 34 (31.48%) of the teachers and 22
(61.11%) of the head-teachers (Table 7).
Table 7. Respondents views on the ranking-Respondents.

Approves 22 34 90 146 (57.9)
Disapproves 14 74 18 106 (42.1)
Total 36 108 108 252 (100)
Analysis by chi-square shows that there was a significant difference in the stand taken on ran
king taken by head teachers, teachers and students (p value 0.0001, table 7) at 0.05 level of signifi
cance. The chi value of 59.75 is greater than the critical value of 6.00. While the head teachers and
students approved of ranking, the teachers did not. Most students felt that ranking encouraged posi
tive competition among schools and students which was bound to improve performance. It also hel
ped weak learners and low performing schools to identify their weaknesses and map out strategies
for improvement. It also provided informed choice to the parents and students on which schools to
choose. Other proponents of ranking said it provided a score card upon which schools evaluated
their previous and current performance so as to arrest falling standards and lay down strategies for
improvement like bench-marking. Such consultation helped schools to identify and strengthen
their weaker areas leading to improved performance. The spiral effect of improved performance
was a better position in the school rank, increased self-esteem by the students and teachers, increa
sed enrolment and attraction of better quality KCPE products.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
18
Those who disapproved felt that it made both the teachers and students to abandon low ranked
schools for the top ranked ones leading to under staffing, under enrolment and under development
in those schools. Conversely it caused over staffing, over enrolment and infrastructural develop
ment in the receiving schools. It made weak students to be registered in the low ranked schools
further lowering their mean scores and affected promotions to senior positions. It also resulted in
cheating to maintain a positive improvement index and false rank, low self esteem among some stu
dents from low ranked schools and general indiscipline.
There were those who felt that ranking was unfair because competition was skewed by a num
ber of factors for example, schools did not have level playing ground as they were diversified in
terms of availability of resources and the entry behaviour of the students. It led to teachers being
overworked. Some schools and students resorted to unorthodox ways of achieving good results like
teaching exam oriented materials in order to maintain or improve their ranking. It also violated so
me of the national educational objectives like education for all because of enforced repetition that
sometimes resulted in dropping out of school altogether.
Factors that Should be Considered in the Ranking Schools and Students in Na
tional Examinations
Respondents were asked to suggest any other factors that could be used in ranking schools
and students in national examinations. From the study, 50 (19.8%) of the respondents felt that the
re should be use of continuous assessment tests, 39 (15.5%) recommended the use of entry marks
at KCPE and value added at the end of form four and extra –curricular activities while 37(14.7%)
wanted the number of candidates put into consideration during ranking and 23 (9.1%) of the respon
dents offered no suggestion (Table 8).
Table 8. Other suggested factors for consideration in ranking.
Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Students Total %

Extracurricular Activities 4 14 21 39 (15.5)
Entry and value Added 9 25 5 39 (15.5)
Available resources 4 8 5 17 (6.7)
Level of wastage - 2 1 3 (1.2)
Do regional ranking 1 2 4 7 (2.7)
Continuous assessment 6 15 29 50 (19.8)
Just rank students 5 10 7 22 (8.7)
Consider discipline 1 5 5 11 (4.4)
No suggestion 4 8 11 23 (9.1)
Number of candidates 2 16 19 37 (14.7)
Consider gender - 3 1 4 (1.6)
Total 36 10 108 252 (100)
Most of the head teachers and teachers formed the bulk of those who favoured the use of entry
marks and value added. It was important to assess what value a school had added to a student given
the KCPE mark during ranking since some schools put in little effort and added very little value yet
they received all the glory while others went unrecognized even after adding a lot of value to very
low KCPE marks.
Most of the students wanted the use of continuous assessment tests. This is because students
were tested and graded throughout the four years they were in school so it was only fair that their
cumulative achievement during this entire period of study forms part of the final assessment.
A significant number of teachers and students also suggested that extra curricular activities
because it was felt that they contributed to the building of an all round individual. This would also
facilitate nurturing of talent which had been stifled by some parents and schools in favour of the
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
academic work. In addition, even schools considered as non-performing because of the emphasis on 19
the academic would also get a chance to show where they can excel as talent is equally important
to the development of the nation.
The number of candidates entered for the examination should was the other key factor for con
sideration. This is because some schools registered too many candidates while others cut down on
their numbers through repetition and registration in other centres in order to attain a positive mean
score. This would also be an indirect way of checking wastage in schools. The levels of wastage and
gender consideration were the least favoured factors (Table 8).
A General Assessment of the other Effects of Ranking
Respondents were asked to generally assess the effects of ranking by use of a likert scale. Head
teachers and teachers had a six item likert scale while the students had a two item likert scale.
Teachers and students were asked whether ranking of schools and students destroyed their
morale by creating jealousy. A summary of their responses shows that, 123 (48.8%) agreed, 121
(48.0%) disagreed, while only 8 (3.2%) were undecided (Table 9).
Table 9. The effect of ranking on morale and jealousy.

Disagree 17 25 78 121 (48.0)
Undecided 3 3 2 8 (3.2)
Agree 16 80 28 123 (48.8)
Total 36 108 108 252 (100)
Most of the respondents who agreed were teachers while those who disagreed were students.
This means that, while the students felt that ranking did not destroy their morale by creating jealou
sy, the teachers on the other hand felt that ranking actually did just that and this explains why they
had disapproved of ranking.
Respondents were asked to say to what extend they felt that ranking inculcated a spirit of com
petition and hard work among schools. A few 34 (13.5%) disagreed and the majority 211 (83.7%)
agreed. Only 7 (2.8%) were undecided (Table 10). From the response of the overwhelming majori
ty it can be concluded that ranking indeed had the positive effect of creating competition and hard
work.
Table 10. The effect of ranking on competition and hard work.

Disagree 4 24 6 34 (13.5)
Undecided 1 4 2 7 (2.8)
Agree 31 80 100 211 (83.0)
Total 36 108 108 252 (100)
The spirit of competition and hard work is clearly depicted by what is happening in most se
condary schools where teachers and students have doubled their efforts in order to improve their
ranking in the local league tables. This has been done through bench marking, extra teaching and
remedial lessons for early completion of the syllabus and rigorous revision.
When asked to show to what extend they agreed or disagreed with the suggestion that results
could be improved by promoting teachers who excelled in their respective subject areas irrespective
of school rank, 74 (51.4%) of the respondents and most of who were teachers disagreed. Those who
strongly agreed and most of who were head teachers were 65 (45.1%). Those who were undecided
were only 5 (3.5% table 11).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
20 Table 11. Improvement of results dependence on teachers’ promotions.
Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Total %

Disagree 11 63 74 (51.4)
Undecided 1 4 5 (3.5)
Agree 24 41 65 (45.1)
Total 36 108 144 (100)
From the findings, it can be concluded that generally, results cannot be improved by promoting
teachers who excel in their respective subject areas irrespective of school rank.
Respondents were also asked to say to what extend they agreed or disagreed with the fee
ling that promotions in the service were based on the mean score of ones school in national exa
minations. Generally respondents disagreed with this observation as shown by the fact that 76
(52.8%) disagreed and only 50 (34.7%) agreed but 18 (12.5%) of the respondents were undecided
(Table 12).
Table 12. Ranking leads to promotions in the service.

Disagree 23 53 76 (52.8)
Undecided 3 15 18 (12.5)
Agree 10 40 50 (34.7)
Total 36 108 144 (100)
This shows that promotions in teaching service are not necessarily based on the performance
of ones school in national examinations because there are other factors that come into play like ex
perience and number of years in the service.
Respondents were asked to say to what extend they agreed that results had been improved by
promoting teachers from top ranked schools to headship positions in low ranked schools. A total of
96 (66.0%) disagreed, while 39 (27.3%) agreed but 10 (6.0%) were however undecided. Half of the
head teachers disagreed while most of the teachers either disagreed (Table 13).
Table 13. Ranking and headship.

Disagree 23 73 95 (66.0)
Agree 12 27 39 (27.1)
Total 36 108 144 (100)
That an overwhelming majority refuted this shows that results had not been improved by pro
moting teachers from top ranked schools to headship positions in low ranked schools.
Finally, respondents were asked to state to what extend they felt results had been improved
by ranking schools and students in national examinations. A total of 67 (46.5%) respondents, most
of who were teachers disagreed, 69 (47.9%) most of who were head teachers agreed while only
8 (5.6%) of the respondents were undecided (Table 14).
Table 14. Ranking and improvement of results.

Disagree 14 53 67 (46.5)
Agree 21 48 65 (47.9)
Total 36 108 144 (100)
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
The difference between those who disagreed and agreed is only 2 (1.39%) leading to the conc 21
lusion that, there is no significant relationship between ranking and performance as the respondents
are divided on whether ranking has actually improved results.
Discussion of Findings
Teachers and students are the primary stakeholders in education and they are more affected
by the posting of examination outcomes either positively or negatively more than anybody else.
It was therefore found necessary to establish their perceptions of ranking and to begin with, they
were asked to assess their schools’ positions in the district in the 2006 KCSE examinations. Most
of them assessed their schools’ performance as average (table 2). On the most important factor that
contributed to the stated school position in 2006, the majority of the respondents, 37.3%, said the
student was responsible. They focussed on a number of student factors especially their entry beha
viour. Top ranked schools had the priority over low ranked schools during form one selection and
were therefore regarded as admitting the cream of the students in the district. In addition, they had
better learning and teaching resources. Respondents felt that the system of ranking was therefore
unfair in so far as it did not take into consideration the entry behaviour of the students and the fa
cilities thus concurring with sentiments that were expressed by Ndago (2004) and Kellaghan and
Greaney (2001b).
Where the school administration was rated positively by 59 (23.4%) of the respondents, it was
instrumental in contributing to the school position through motivation of teachers, creating team
work and a conducive environment for teaching and learning. The Report of the Provincial Working
Committee on the Improvement of Education in Western Province (1998) similarly noted that, there
was motivation in some schools by the PTA members who bought and gave awards to performing
school teachers and students in order to stimulate hard work. In Chile, there was a clear cut motiva
tion practice where the schools were ranked within each group (student population, socio-economic
status of the community where the school was based whether the school were rural or urban) accor
ding to the score index and awards given to teachers of schools in that order to be divided among
themselves according to hours worked (McMakin, 2000).
The perception of the effect of ranking on self esteem received mixed reactions with the ma
jority of the students responding that it made them feel superior and therefore the better the school
rank the higher the self esteem. On the contrary, the head teachers and teachers felt that their school
rank made them feel neither superior nor inferior (table 4). Similarly, the majority of students felt
that their school rank determined to a great extend whether they were promoted to the next level of
education. The teachers felt that it really had no effect on their progression (table 5). The majority
of respondents from all the categories were unanimous in their perception of the effect of the school
rank on their schools’ relationship with other schools. A good school rank earned it respect from the
other schools (table 6).
On their views on ranking, the majority of respondents (57.9%) approved of it. An equally lar
ge number (42.1%) disapproved of it (table 7). The majority who approved of ranking felt that it
was the perfect performance measure which also stimulated competition that led to improvement
in performance. It kept teachers and students on their toes as it helped them to evaluate themselves
and step up the pressure of hard work. This agrees with James (1998), that the issue of assessment
is critical to the functioning of schools as it served as a motivator of student performance. It also
serves the function of providing a feedback to the teacher and communicates to the students, pa
rents and others what had been learnt. Similarly, it agrees with Somerset (1987) who adds that the
publication of mean performance statistics for each school and for each district in the league tables
made it possible for schools to see where they stood with respect to other schools in the district and
for districts to compare themselves with other districts. Proponents of ranking also felt that ranking
of schools and students provided informed choice to the parents and students on which schools to
choose which equally agreed with the findings of Burgess at al (2002).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
22
Those who disapproved of ranking said that it was unfair because competition was skewed by
a number of factors. Schools did not have level playing ground as they were diversified in terms
of availability of resources and the entry behaviour of the students which is in line with Kellaghan
(1996) and Ndago (2004). Other opponents of ranking also felt that in order to maintain or improve
their ranking teachers were over-worked. Some schools and students resorted to unorthodox ways
of achieving good results like cheating and teaching exam oriented materials. This concurs with
IPAR (2004), that ranking in national examinations at the individual student and the school level
had resulted in fierce competition which sometimes led to departure from teaching to preparation
for passing examinations. According to Kellaghan and Greaney (1996b), at a general level, high
stakes were associated with malpractice because in their effort to obtain high grades. Students and
sometimes teachers resorted to various forms of cheating designed to give a candidate unfair advan
tage over others. This took many forms including copying from other students during examinations,
collusion between students and supervisors, use of material smuggled into the examination rooms
and purchasing of examination papers.
It was found that ranking made both the teachers and students to abandon low ranked schools
for the top ranked ones leading to under staffing, under enrolment and under development in those
schools. It caused over staffing, over enrolment and good development in the receiving schools.
This agrees with Kellaghan (1996) that publication of results may lead to the transfer of more able
teachers, lower morale in individual low ranked schools and create ghetto schools.
Both those who approved and disapproved of ranking felt that it should be improved upon by
putting into consideration a number of other factors. A total of 19.8% of the respondents, most of
who were students, recommended the use of continuous assessment tests (table 8). This suggestion
agrees with the practice in New South Wales where the examination system at the secondary school
level consists of continuous assessment and final examinations (Board of Studies-NSW, 2008).
The other factors that were heavily favoured were the use of co-curricular activities (15.5%)
and the use of the KCPE entry mark and value added measure at the end of form IV (15.5%). This
concurs with the grading system in England where before 2003, the league tables were based only
on raw output– unadjusted test scores–and information was provided at the school average level but
since then, the league tables have also included indicators of the value added by the school between
key stages. The value added measure is used to describe the difference between ‘materials brought
in and the finished product’ and thus measures the value added by the production process (Wilson,
2003). This is the measure also recommended by Ndago (2004) when he suggested that that instead
of ranking schools using the percentage of candidates who attained a certain level of performance,
we should use deviations (positive or negative) of the KCSE grades from the KCPE mark. This ob
servation is in line with the findings of the study where 39 (15.5%) of the respondents suggested the
use of entry marks at KCPE and value added at the KCSE.
Additionally, the number of candidates, available resources, regional ranking, level of wastage
were suggested for consideration during ranking students. This would be in line with what happens
in Chile where schools were stratified into homogeneous groups so that competition was roughly
between schools that were comparable in terms of student population, socio-economic status of the
community where the school was based whether the schools were rural or urban. Enrolment in the
winning school accounted for 25% of the score (McMakin, 2000).
On the general assessment of the other effects of ranking, most respondents affirmed that it
created competition and hard work which again concurs with Somerset (1987). While ranking was
highly favoured by the students, the teachers felt that it destroyed the morale of the teaching force
by creating jealousy, suspicion and distrust. The study also found that results could not be improved
by promoting teachers who excelled in their respective subject areas irrespective of school rank. Si
milarly, results had not been improved by promoting teachers from top` ranked schools to headship
positions in low ranked schools. The respondents’ views on whether results had been improved by
ranking had a mixed reaction with 46.53% disagreeing while 47.92% agreed.
Generally, the teachers and students called for a system of assessment that encompassed all
the aspects instead of focusing on academic performance only. This view agrees with the argument
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
that the grading system should capture and reward everything that the school teaches and nurtures, 23
including talent (Marenya, 2007). This would be in line with the practice in England (Wilson, 2003)
and in Chile (MacMakin, 2000).
Recommendations
Schools and students should be graded on the basis of continuous assessment tests, extra-curri
cular activities, entry mark and value added and the candidature. This will ensure that grading does
not glorify academic achievement at the expense of talent and other virtues.
Schools and communities should be sensitized to the realization that a schools’ and students’
mean scores provide a score card upon which schools evaluate their performance so as to arrest fal
ling standards and lay down strategies for improvement. Therefore while good mean scores should
be celebrated, a poor one should invite concerted effort from all the stakeholders to improve on it.
References
Akers, J., Migoli, J. & Nzomo, J. (2001). Identifying and Addressing the causes of Declining Participa
tion Rates in Kenyan Primary Schools. International Journal of Educational Development 21, 361–
374.
Board of Studies; NSW (2008). Studying for New South Wales Higher School Certificate: An Informa
tion Booklet for Year 10 students. Sydney: Board of Studies; NSW.
Bogonko, S. N. (1992). A History of Modern Education in Kenya (1895–1991). Nairobi: Evans Brot
hers.
Bray, M. (2003). Adverse effects of private supplementary tutoring: Dimensions, Implications and Go
vernment Responses. Paris: UNESCO.
Burgess, S., Propper, C. & Wilson D. (2002). Will more choice improve outcomes in education and He
alth care? Evidence from Economic Research. Bristol.
http//www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/CMPO/Choice.pdf Retrieved 15 July, 2007.
Chapman, D. W. & Synder, C. W. (2000). Can High Stakes National Testing Improve Instruction? Re-
examining Conventional Wisdom. International Journal of Educational Development 20, 457–474.
Eshiwani, G. (1993). Education in Kenya since Independence 35–189. Nairobi: East African Publis
hers.
Evers, W. and Walberg, H. (2003). School Accountability, An Assessment of by Kovet Task Force on
K-12 Education. Stanford, C. A: Hoover Institution Press.
Hickman, J., Henrick, C. J. & Smith, J. (2002). The Performance of Performance Standards. Journal of
Human Resources, 37(4), 778–881.
Institute of Policy Analysis and Research (IPAR, 2004). The sociology of Private Tuition, 10 (7).
James, M. (1998). Using Assessment for School Achievement. Oxford: Heinman.
Kellaghan, T. and Greaney, V. (2001 b).Using Assessment to Improve the Quality of Education, 9-29.
Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
Kellaghan, T. & Greaney, V. (1996). The Integrity of Public Examinations in Developing Countries. In.
Goldatein, H and Lewis, T (Eds.), Assessment: Problems, Developments and Statistical Issues, 167-188.
New York: Wiley.
Kellaghan, T. & Greaney, V. (2003). Monotoring Performance: Assessment and Examinations in Africa.
Paris: Association for the Development of Education in Africa.
Kellaghan, T. (1996). Can Public Examinations be used to Provide Information for National Asses
sment? In. Murphy, P., Greaney V., Lochhaed E., and Rojas, C. (Eds), National Assessments: Testing
the system 33–48. Washington .D.C: World Bank.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
24
Marenya, G. (2007, March 13). Needed is an Education System that Rewards and Values all. The Daily
Nation, p. 6.
Mulusa, T. (1990). Evaluation Research for Beginners: A Practical Study Guide. Bonn: Deutsche Stif
tung fur internationale Entwicklung.
McMakin, R. (2000). Competition, Parental Involvement and Public School Performance. Toronto: Na
tional Tax Association Proceedings.
Ndago, A (2004, September 3). Tyranny of Ranking Uneven Schools. Nairobi: The East African Stan
dard, p. 4.
Peabody, Z. and Markley, M (2003). State may Lower HISD Rating: Almost 30,000 dropouts miscoun
ted. Houston Chronicle.
Polland, R. J (2005). Essentials of Education Research and Analysis: Methods for Determining Sample Size.
http://www.unf.edu/dept/cirt/workshops/survey/Poland Manual.pdf.
Republic of Kenya (1999). Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET). Report of the
Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya chaired by Davy Koech. Nairobi: Govern
ment Printer.
Western Province Secretariat (1998). Report of Provincial Working Committee on Improvement of Edu
cation Standards in Western Province. Unpublished Report.
Somerset, A. (1987). Examination Reform in Kenya. Washington D.C: World Bank.
Wilson, D. (2001). Information, Incentives and Insurer Behaviour: An Analysis of Selection in Health
Insurance Market. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Bristol.
Wilson, D. (2003).Which Ranking? The Use of Alternative Performance Indicators in the English Secon
dary Education Market 2–37. University of Bristol.
World Bank (2001). Alternative Schools and Roma Education; A review of alternative Secondary School
Models for the Education of Roma Children in Hungary. Budapest: Raja Press.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Council for Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) for
recognizing, approving and funding this study. Special thanks also go the 252 members comprising
Head teachers, teachers and students from the 36 secondary schools in the district which formed the
study sample. Their cooperation in filling the questionnaires is highly appreciated.
Adviced by Laima Railienė, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania
Jane K. Amunga Lecturer, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya.
P.O. Box 190 Kakamega, Kenya.
Phone: 0722830454.
E-mail: jnamunga@yahoo.com
Maurice M. Amadalo Senior Lecturer, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology
Department of Science and Mathematics Education, P.O. Box 190, Kakamega, Kenya.
Website: http://www.mmust.ac.ke/
Julius K. Maiyo Lecturer at Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Department of Educa
tional Planning and Management, Kenya.
P.O. Box 190, Kakamega, Kenya.
Phone: 254-721-223-154.
E-mail: maiyokip2004@yahoo.com
Website: http://www.wust.ac.ke/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
25
Statistics & Probability

Education in South Africa:
Constraints of Learning
Anass Bayaga
University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa
E-mail: abayaga@ufh.ac.za
Abstract
The purpose of this empirical study was to investigate the difficulties of learning statistics and probabili
ty amongst students pursuing Postgraduate Certificate of Education (PGCE) programme in University
of Fort Hare in South Africa.
The approach was a mixed method, sampling 43 students, in which case a quantitative analysis (RM-
ANOVA, RM-MANOVA & ANCOVA) dominated to test four propositions.
The findings revealed four conclusions: (1) students receiving deliberate instruction in how to solve pro
blems do become better and are able to ‘think statistically’ (2) there was good reason to suggest that stu
dents’ level of specific mathematics skills impact on their statistical ability (3) in contrast, there was not
enough supporting evidence to suggest that students’ intuitive notions of probability does get stronger
with age and lastly (4) efficacy of computers in guiding design of instruction is an important component
of statistical learning.
Most important implication of the study was that the use of strategies to improve students’ rational
number concepts and ratio/proportion reasoning assists to recognise and confront common errors in
students’ statistical and probability thinking.
Key words: statistics, probability, mathematics learning, South African education.
1. Background of the Study
The purpose of this empirical study was to investigate the difficulties of learning statistics and
probability (S&P) amongst students pursuing Postgraduate Certificate of Education (PGCE) pro
gramme in University of Fort Hare in South Africa.The PGCE is a one-year course in only the de
partment of education in the University of Fort Hare. Generally in South African education, a PGCE
course mainly focuses on developing teaching skills, and not on the subject a candidate teacher in
tends to teach. For this reason, the candidate teacher is expected to have a good understanding of a
chosen subject(s), but mathematics compulsory – usually to degree level – before starting training.
The study discusses the nature of the discipline in South Africa; which subsequently necessitated
the test of four hypotheses. But, first the general consensus regarding learning and for that matter
teaching of S & P is as discussed.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
26
Following the inception of the Revised National Curriculum Statement-RNCS (2002) for mat
hematics, there has been a growing concern to improve learning and teaching of S & P in both Gene
ral Education Training (GET) and Further Education Training (FET) bands, as part of basic literacy
in mathematics in South African education. One of the main reasons as authors (North & Zewotir,
2006:1) maintained is that it can:
…be attributed to the fact that statistics virtually played no role in the South
African school education system at that time. The Associated Mathematics
Teachers of South Africa (AMESA) and the South African Statistical Asso
ciation (SASA) independently held annual seminars, workshops, think tanks
and conferences with no interaction between them. It was only in 1998, when
South Africa won the bid to host the Sixth International Conference on the Te
aching of Statistics (ICOTS-6), that the Education committee of SASA was
tasked with reaching out to AMESA, with the intention of including school
teachers in some of the proposed ICOTS-6 initiatives. The hosting of ICOTS-
6 in South Africa thus dove-tailed beautifully with introduction of statistics
into the school curriculum as national and international attention was focused
on this initiative.
Ironically, although many articles in the education literature recommend how to teach mathe
matics better, there is little published research on how students actually learn S & P concepts as
literature (North & Zewotir, 2006:1) maintained is that in South Africa,
scholars were promoted on the basis of a combination of class work and for
mal summative testing (content-based testing played a progressively larger
role in the higher grades). During their twelve years of schooling, students
were introduced to graphical methods of data representation in the earlier gra
des (bar graphs, pictograms, etc.), but this was never developed to the next
level! After this very early introduction to graphical displays of data, it was
only in the grade 9 mathematics syllabus that some statistics was mentioned
again! Here a small section was devoted to basic statistical measures such as
mean, median, mode, range, variance and standard deviation.
However, there are two main reasons for the growing concerns as noted by current studies
(Stohl, 2005). The first reason is that the experience of psychologists, mathematics educators, and
statisticians alike is that a large proportion of students, even in University, do not understand ma
ny of the basic S & P concepts they study leading to inadequacies in prerequisite statistical skills
(Stohl, 2005). In support of inadequacies in prerequisite statistical skills, survey of literature sug
gests that at any level, students appear to have difficulties developing correct intuition about funda
mental ideas of S & P, especially probability/chance (Stohl, 2005). The difficulty as implied by the
literature was that students have an underlying trouble with rational number concepts and propor
tional reasoning, which are used in calculating, reporting, and interpreting probabilities (North &
Zewotir, 2006). Even past studies (DeWet, 2002; Russo & Passannante, 2001; Kent, Hoyles, Noss
& Guile, 2004; Ernest, 1984) have long indicated that students are generally weak in rational/irra
tional number concepts and have difficulties with basic concepts involving fractions, decimals, and
percentages.
The second concern as asserted by both local and international studies (North & Zewotir, 2006;
Stohl, 2005) was attributable to abstract reasoning as part of the problem. Consistent with this se
cond view, research studies (North & Zewotir, 2006) assert that students have already developed
distaste for S & P through having been exposed to its study in a highly abstract and formal way.
For this reason, a past study (Freudenthal, 1973) cautioned against teaching any technique of ‘mat
Anass BAYAGA. Statistics & Probability Education in South Africa: Constraints of Learning
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
hematical statistics’ even to University first years. This second key reason is consistent with other 27
research studies in cognitive science, which lamented that there is prevalence of some ‘intuitive’ wa
ys of thinking that interferes with the learning of correct S & P reasoning (North & Zewotir, 2006).
This interference of intuitive as argued by recent study (North & Zewotir, 2006) suggested that
inability of both teachers and learners in translating verbal problem statements plagues S & P. Thus
ideas of S &P often appear to conflict with students’ experiences and how they view the world.
In a sharp contrast though, elements of S & P have become requisite for a wide range of fields
of study. This is reflected in both print and electronic media, where ordinary readers almost daily
find reports of medical, economic, or psychological reports that need to be understood and evalua
ted only with some understanding of S & P principles.
In the United States (US), S & P were major themes in publications of the US National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). The American Statistical Association (ASA) and the NCTM,
through their Joint Committee on the Curriculum in S & P, also have emphasised the desirability
of such a curriculum. The ASA-NCTM Joint Committee has published a document with recom
mended guidelines for teaching statistics within the K-12 mathematics curriculum, which includes
rudimentary statistics activities as early as Grades 1 to 3. This is an indication that the enthusiasm
for S & P in the curriculum among US specialists in both statistics and mathematics education is
generally endorsed.
In the United Kingdom (UK), the Schools Council Project on Statistical Education (SCPSE)
has published materials for secondary students covering topics that illustrate how S & P are used in
meaningful contexts in different subject areas. The emphasis of these materials was on developing
concepts rather than carrying out calculations.
Above accounts from US and UK suggest that S & P curricula development projects are being
attempted to produce and test sets of materials for students and teachers. Implying that S & P to
pics are important, thus emphasises should be placed as early as the primary school curriculum.
The below sub section elaborates the nature of S & P in South Africa and motivation for research
hypotheses.
Statistics and Probability Education in South Africa: Motivation for Research

Hypotheses
Data handling as a scientific discipline is usually first taught at the General Education Training
(GET) Band level in South Africa (the paper uses the term ‘data handling’ to refer to the study of
S & P, as is common in South Africa). The introductory course is usually divided into three pha
ses: foundation, intermediate and senior phases. The topics typically included in phase are listed in
Table 1.
Table 1. Data Handling focus areas in each of the phases of Curriculum

2005 (C2005): Source (North & Zewotir, 2006:3).
GET: Foundation Phase: Grade R (reception year), Grades 1 to 3
At the end of this phase, it is expected that a scholar is able to

Sort objects and data in different ways, based on their features (colour, shape, etc.)
Represent data or objects in different forms (Bar graphs, pictograghs, etc.)
Interpret the representation of data or objects
There must be awareness that the selection of attributes used for sorting will influence how the data is represen
ted.

Readers are requested to read Curriculum 2005 (C2005) of the South African Revised National Curriculum State
ment (RNCS) for mathematics or North & Zewotir (2006) on different bands of Education in South Africa.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
28 Continued to Table 1
GET: Intermediate Phase: Grades 4 to 6
Different questions reveal different features of a situation

Different forms of representation highlight some aspects of data, while hiding others
Introduction to the idea of chance (Probability):
Developing an awareness of certainty/uncertainty
Random experiments and associated events
No calculation of probabilities, just an awareness of the fact that some events might be more
likely to occur than others, i.e., grading of levels of uncertainty of outcomes of groupings thereof
GET: Senior Phase: Grades 7 to 9
Application of tools and techniques already learnt to investigate and solve problems
(including design of questionnaires)
Critical awareness of use/abuse of data representations and interpretations
Further development of probability concepts in order to engage with expressions of
change in their daily lives (e.g., true understanding of uncertain in weather predictions, etc.)
Since the year 2002, much of the literature on learning and teaching data handling in South
Africa has been at the University level (North & Zewotir, 2006). It is only in recent times that data
handling has been introduced into the matriculation exams of the Further Education and Training
(FET) Band (Revised National Curriculum Statement for mathematics – RNCS, 2002). The current
literature has been filled with comments by instructors about both students and teachers not attai
ning an adequate understanding of basic data handling concepts and not being able to solve applied
S & P problems. In fact authors (North & Zewotir, 2006:2) argued that:
…reality was that students entered tertiary institutions with no prior exposure
to statistics. Statistics, at South African tertiary institutions, very much mir
rors what is the case in many countries – a small number of students opt to stu
dy statistics as a three year major, possibly followed by further post graduate
studies in statistics. The majority of students, registering for statistics courses
at tertiary institutions, register for one of the many, varied introductory sta
tistics service courses which are compulsory to students from Engineering,
Commerce, Medicine, Pharmacy, etc. These service courses in statistics are
often taught by the relevant faculty members themselves and not by statisti
cians. The result is that these courses are generally taught using the classic
formula-based approach, as these lecturers have not kept up with develop
ments in statistics education, and thus teach in the way that they were classi
cally taught. It is thus not surprising that Statistics has a very negative image
amongst the majority of students at tertiary institutions in South Africa.
The above cited studies suggest that university students in education (candidate teachers),
social and exact sciences in introductory data handling courses do not understand many of the con
cepts they study. This implies that students often tend to respond to problems involving S & P in
general by falling into a ‘number crunching’ mode, plugging quantities into a formula or procedure
without forming an internal representation of the problem. Thus, they (students and teachers alike)
may be able to memorize formulas and the steps to follow in familiar, well-defined problems, but
only seldom appear to get much sense of what the rationale is or how concepts can be applied in
new situations. Consequently, within the conceptual underpinnings, the details they have learned or
memorised, for whatever use they might be, soon fade.
With reference to the South African mathematics education literature in general, attention has
not focused on the processes involved in solving S & P problems and the need for basing statistics
courses on problem solving (Stohl, 2005; Vithal, Adler & Keitel, 2005; Mullis, Martin, Gonzalez
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
& Chrostowski, 2004; Reddy, 2004). This is supported by authors (North & Zewotir, 2006:5), who 29
lamented that in South Africa, “curriculum 2005 recognises the cross-curricular need for statistics
literacy and data analysis skills as an anticipated outcome, thus large amounts of statistical material
is present in the syllabus. This content however has to be taught by teachers with little or no training
in Statistics”. Most mathematics education research in South Africa currently focus attention on le
arning outcomes 1-4 in the mathematics Revised National Curriculum Statement-RNCS (RNCS,
2002).
There does not appear to be substantial evidence yet for improved practice in pre-university le
vel in SA. Most of the recent literature about pre-university data handling instruction falls into two
categories of Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS, 2002): (1) statements concerning
the need for instruction at the pre-university level (Stohl, 2005) and (3) descriptions of the role of
statistics curricular (Stohl, 2005).
Only the last category is of interest here, research on students’ understanding of statistics is
more extensive than research on probability and has developed as an area separately. There has be
en one distinct line of research on statistics understanding; one that focuses on university students
(North & Zewotir, 2006). Despite the enthusiastic development of new instructional materials for
learning and teaching of S & P in England and the US, little seems to be known about how to teach
and learn S & P effectively in South Africa. For example, in the introduction of the RNCS, it was
noted that some problems still remain in learning outcome 5 (LO5) in the RNCS; these include the
learning and teaching of S & P. Research (Stohl, 2005) suggest that instructional methods contain
different mixes of logical argument on statistics topics in schooling. Thus, S & P learning and te
aching is almost entirely taught on experience of what has not worked and speculation about what
might work. What may be needed is similar research on statistical instruction and students’ ability
to ‘think statistically’.
Hence, it is the intent of this paper via problem solving technique to test the first proposition
that students receiving deliberate instruction in how to solve problems do become better problem
solvers and are better able to ‘think statistically’. Another proposition includes a students’ general
mental maturity, thus impact of age and learning of data handling. This proposition steams from the
second NAEP mathematics assessment, which produced subjective evidence that students’ intuiti
ve notions of probability gets stronger with age, but were not necessarily correct as suggested by
(Stohl, 2005). Consistently, a test of hypothesis of, specific mathematics skills and understanding
of S & P will be conducted.
Although strong arguments have been made those students learn best when instruction is cou
ched in the context of students’ ‘real world’ knowledge (Stohl, 2005), there is still only a little publis
hed research on the effectiveness of this approach or any other. This lack of research is perhaps due,
as research (Stohl, 2005) believes, to the difficulty of conducting this type of empirical research.
The author (Stohl, 2005) provides a catalogue of problems that have limited the interpretation of
empirical research on probabilistic concepts. A related problem is a lack of research on the design
and use of instruments to measure statistical understanding (Stohl, 2005). A few instruments have
been designed to measure students’ attitudes and anxiety toward statistics and some research has
appeared that shows the role of factors influencing general achievement in a statistics course (Stohl,
2005).
The aforementioned past and present studies make it clear that far more research has been done
on the psychology of statistical than on other probability concepts. In spite of this research, learning
and teaching a conceptual grasp of S&P still appears to be a very difficult task, fraught with ambi
guity and illusion as noted above.
In conclusion, the hypothetical literature has explained the relationships of various variables
and S&P concepts. Indeed, it is difficult to drive and substantiate such ideas without test of hypothe
ses. These and other research contestations form the basis of formulating the research hypotheses.

For details see Curriculum 2005 (C2005) of the South African Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS)
for mathematics.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
30 Research Hypotheses
Below are the lists of the main hypotheses to be tested. These include the test of the impact of
instructions (problem solving techniques), level of mathematical skills, intuitive notions of proba
bility (maturity) and lastly computerisation of statistics on learning of data handling. With regards
to hypothesis 1, studies (DeWet, 2002; Russo & Passannante, 2001) have showed that students
receiving deliberate instruction in how to solve problems do not become statistically better. Thus it
contradicts with what have been revealed by other literature (Kent, et al., 2004) who suggested the
converse is true. For this reason if Ho is proven to be correct then it suggest that students receiving
deliberate instruction in how to solve problems do not become statistically better, if not Ha which
is converse of Ho is accepted.
Following hypothesis 2, Ho is in tandem with studies (Stohl, 2005) which indicated that stu
dents’ level of specific mathematics skills does not impact on S&P ability. The author (Stohl, 2005)
emphasised that specific mathematics skills does not impact on S & P ability, but this is opposed by
other literature (North & Zewotir, 2006). In thid connection if Ho is proven to be correct then it sug
gest that specific mathematics skills does not impact on S & P ability, if not, Ha which is converse of
Ho is accepted. Hypotheses 3 and 4 as contested by both past and present literature have opposing
views, these hypotheses for the same procedure as in the case of hypotheses 1 and 2.
Hypothesis 1
Ho= Students receiving deliberate instruction in how to solve problems do not become statis
tically better.
Ha= Students receiving deliberate instruction in how to solve problems do become better sta
tistically
Hypothesis 2
Ho= Students’ level of specific mathematics skills does not impact on S&P ability.
Ha= Students’ level of specific mathematics skills impacts on their S&P ability.
Hypothesis 3
Ho= Students’ intuitive notions of probability does not get stronger with age.
Ha= Students’ intuitive notions of probability does get stronger with age.
Hypothesis 4
Ho= Statistical experimentation with the role of computers does not improve learning of
S&P.
Ha= Statistical experimentation with the role of computers does improve learning of S&P.
2. Methodology of Research
The purpose of the study was to investigate whether there are any significant differences in
the mechanisms of students statistical learning ability among PGCE (43) students over a period of
two-years. Following the context of the study and the hypotheses, the paper investigated individual
differences between genders and their interactive nature with the corresponding academic tracks of
data handling. Four distinct academic tracks were monitored thus; instructions (problem solving
techniques), level of mathematical skills, intuitive notions of probability, and lastly computerisation
of statistics.
The approach was a mixed method (quantitative and qualitative) in which case a quantitative
procedure dominated due to the hypotheses. The research design was a case study, following the hy
potheses, a questionnaire was used to sample 43 students pursuing postgraduate certificate of educa
tion programme in University of Fort Hare in the Eastern Cape of South Africa over a period of two
academic years. Meanwhile, an interview schedule was prepared for the purpose of in-depth analy
sis of responses of the unit of analysis. Data analysis was conducted using multivariate analysis of
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
variance (MANOVA) and repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) including analysis of 31
covariance (ANCOVA). Noting that a reliability test conducted revealed a 0.85 Cronbach’s alpha,
confidently suggesting a high reliability of instrument (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
The reason for the above data analysis (MANOVA, ANOVA and ANCOVA) is for the purpose
of revealing any difference between selected socio-demography factor and statistical ability, inferen
tial analyses such as ANOVA and MANOVA were utilised for determining any relationship betwe
en selected sociodemographic factor and statistical ability (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
2.1 Procedures
School of Initial Teacher Education (GET) of faculty of education: University of Fort Hare was
used in this study, with a total number of 43 PGCE students admitted in the academic years of 2007
and 2009. The performance was based on a combination of the class tests and assignment conducted
over the two years. Additionally, anonymous questionnaires were given to the candidate teachers
related to the four distinct academic tracks which were instructions (problem solving techniques),
level of mathematical skills, intuitive notions of probability, and lastly computerisation of S&P.
The questionnaire, designed for the purpose of this study, was based on the relative internatio
nal literature (creswel, 2007; Stohl, 2005; Vithal, Adler & Keitel, 2005; Mullis, Martin, Gonzalez
& Chrostowski, 2004; Reddy, 2004) (cf. context of study and hypotheses) and it was adjusted to
the special characteristics of the sample of candidate teachers as well as the focal point (purpose),
thus teaching and learning of statistics. The questionnaire also included demographic questions
(cross reference to section 3.1 for details). The last unit was composed of open questions. The rest
of units consisted of closed questions with a 5-point Likert- type (Creswel, 2007; Tabachnick, & Fi
dell, 2001) scale and the participants were asked to indicate how much each item characterises the
teaching and learning of statistics. Due to the instrument used and the scale of measurement used, it
necessitated the use of repeated-measures Analysis of Variance (RM-ANOVA) and RM-MANOVA
following specific assumptions (cross reference to section 3 for details).
3. Results of Research
Based on the research hypotheses and scale of measurement (ordinal/ranked scale), the ana
lysis of the results were in two halves. While, one-half of the analysis took repeated-measures
analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA)- a univariate approach that is most commonly recognised and
suitable for this analysis, the second half focused on the multivariate generalisation applying a
RM-MANOVA approach to the same data (Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2001). The main purpose was to
analyse and represent the results of the research. While the general approaches are fairly similar the
re are fundamental differences between the assumptions as well as the subsequent follow-up tests
(assumptions) needed to be conducted. This section describes the various statistics used and some
of assumptions. But first the socio-demographic findings are as described below.
3.1 Socio-demographic findings: Descriptive Statistics
The average age of participants was 24.5 years. The age of participants ranged from 23 to 41
years (M = 24.5, SD = 5.02). The results suggested that age was non-normally distributed, with
skewness of 1.69 (SE = 0.05) and kurtosis of 3.80 (SE = 0.11).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
32 3.2 Test of Assumptions
Multivariate normality of the data was investigated using information from two sources. First,
the multivariate interrelationship between all response variables was assessed using individual facto
rial group by-case computed leverage values. Critical cut-off values for these were computed based
on the corresponding Mahalonobis Distance critical chi-square values with the appropriate group
sample size and an alpha level of .01. The results suggested that none of the group’s maximal leve
rage values exceeded the critical cut-off. From this, the researcher could infer that given the data,
there were no multivariate outliers in the dataset for this hypothesis (cross reference section 3.1 for
details). Secondly, the multivariate skewness and kurtosis were investigated using normal distribu
tion. Again, the two groups showed no deviation from an assumed multivariate normal distribution.
Thus, none of the distributional coefficients were significant, suggesting a multivariate normal distri
bution of the data. With this particular assessment it was appropriate to proceed with the analysis.
3.3. Hypothesis 1
The first investigation of the data revealed the separate means (M = 65.3, SD = 8.15; M = 64.5,
SD = 9.4 and M = 65.1, SD = 9.6) on the problem solving technique (PST) measure for each of the
groups respectively; goal of S&P (SP); nature of mathematical activity (NMA); origin of mathe
matical knowledge (OMK) respectively as seen in Table 1. It followed that there was a significant
change in the PST scores across the groups, F (3, 729) = 29.03, p < .05. Both the F and p values
suggested and confirmed that there was a significant change between PST and the other groups as
aforemention, noting that in this intance socio-demographical data was excluded (this is considered
in hypotheses 2 and 3.
Following the above results, the study conclusively rejected the null hypothesis and accepted
that students receiving deliberate instruction in how to solve problems do become better able to
think statistically.
Table 1. Means and Standard deviations of groups.
Groups Mean(M) Standard deviation (SD)

1. goal of S&P (SP) 65.30 8.15
2. nature of mathematical activity (NMA) 64.50 9.40
3. origin of mathematical knowledge (OMK) 65.10 9.60
3.4 Hypothesis 2
The literature (North & Zewotir, 2006) suggested that students’ level of specific mathematics
skills impacts on statistical ability. In this analysis, the results were statistically significant. Since
the F ratio for this hypothesis was very large [F (2, 143) = 3772.3, p = .0001, η2 = .56], the study
could confidently reject the null hypothesis and conclude that students’ level of specific mathema
tics skills impacts on statistical ability, with a significant level of effect (η2 = .56). The value of η2
explains the strength of the significance level, in this case above 0.5 suggesting moderate effect and
F ratio very large, indicating a significance level (Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2001). This implies that
there is sufficient reason to encourage teachers that students’ level of specific mathematics skills
impacts on statistical ability. This suggest that it is important students mathematical skills are at par
with their statistical ability which is consistent with previous studies (North & Zewotir, 2006).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
3.5 Hypothesis 3 33
The NAEP mathematics assessment produced evidence that students’ intuitive notions of S&P
get stronger with age. Data was analysed using a mixed-design ANOVA with a within-subjects
factor of subscale of ages (23–26 yrs; 27–31 yrs; 32 yrs and more) and a between-subject factor of
sex (male, female). The predicted main effect of age was not significant, F (1, 732) = 2.00, p = .16,
η2 = .003, nor was the predicted main effect of intuitive notions of probability, F (1, 732) = 3.25,
p = .072, η2 = .004.
An ANCOVA [between-subjects factor: sex (male, female); covariate: age] revealed no main
effects of intuitive notions of probability, F (1, 732) = 2.00, p = .16, η2 = .003. Thus, the study conc
luded that students’ intuitive notions of probability do not get stronger with age. The value of η2
explains the strength of the significance level, in this case above 0.5 suggesting moderate effect and
F ratio very large, indicating a significance level (Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2001).
What the result suggests is that the study accepted the null hypothesis and concluded that stu
dents’ intuitive notions of probability seemed not to get stronger with age. The above suggest that
for many students, a considerable improvement of skills in dealing with abstractions may be neces
sary before they are ready for much of the S&P reasoning and thus leading to hypothesis testing
that underlie basic statistical inference. For some students, teachers may have to be content to forgo
abstraction and to convey what statistical ideas they can in simpler and in concrete terms.
3.6 Hypothesis 4
Next, the study turn attention to the null hypothesis that; in an attempt to help students think
statistically there should not be experimentation with the role of computers in learning data hand
ling. In this regard, several exercises were given out before and after computerising the teaching
of data handling. These exercises were in two forms; firstly this included representing data or ob
jects in different forms using graphs (bar graphs, pictographs, frequency polygon, histograph etc)
and secondly exercises related to measures of central tendencies and locations. By examining the
Wilks’ value for this test (.976) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), its associated F value, and p value
[F (2, 286) = .859, p< .001, η2= .81], the study concluded that any statistical experimentation with
the role of computers to a large effect (η2 = .81) improves learning of data handling. The value of
η2 explains the strength of the significance level, in this case well above 0.5 suggesting high effect
and F ratio very large, indicating a significance level (Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2001).
Hence the null hypothesis was rejected. An interaction with a respondent (Senior) noted that:
…the increasing prevalence of computers in schools has already had some

influence on learning and teaching and is producing its own statistics students
especially data analysis. Computers have been used in several ways to aid in
the teaching of introductory courses.
This is an indication that students may access computers and use statistical packages, such as
Excel to do the number-crunching operations for them (students). Noting that advance forms such
as SPSS, SAS or MINITAB could also be used, but needs caution due to the complexities invol
ved.
4. Discussion of Study
With reference to the results and the hypotheses; firstly, students receiving instruction in how
to solve problems do become better to think statistically. Thus, it gives a prediction that to improve
learning of statistics and probability; students should receive instruction in how to solve problems.
This means that teachers should provide more problem solving opportunities for students in S & P.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
34
Additionally, students’ level of specific mathematics skills was proven to impact on statistical abi
lity. The data gained proved that students’ level of specific mathematics skills correlates with S&P
learning.
In contrast though, there was no supporting evidence to suggest that student’s intuitive notions
of statistics and probability does get stronger with age. This result suggests that attention should be
concentrated more in terms of strengthening their knowledge, and skills as emphasised by author
(North & Zewotir, 2006). They (North & Zewotir, 2006) together with this study suggest that the
older the students to be, it does not necessarily impact on S&P performance. Previous study (Stohl,
2005) showed that age does not affect statistical ability, thus it is consistent with what have been
revealed by this study, whic suggests that difference of age could not be a potential factor for statis
tical ability.
Lastly, efficacy of computers in guiding the design of instruction is an important component in
statistical learning. This is in tandem with previous study (North & Zewotir, 2006) which indicated
that there were significant association between computers usage and statistical teaching. Consistent
with the previous study (North & Zewotir, 2006), this research has showed that improvement of
statistical ability could be improved through the use of computerisation.
5. Conclusion and Implication
From this study, the are four conclusions that are made, thus the results revealed: (1) students
receiving instruction in how to solve problems do become better to think statistically (2) additional
ly, students’ level of specific mathematics skills impact on statistical ability (3) in contrast though,
there was no supporting evidence to suggest that students’ intuitive notions of probability does not
get stronger with age (4) efficacy of computers in guiding the design of instruction is an important
component in statistical learning. Thus, the study found that any statistical experimentation with
computers improves learning of statistics.
While, some of these results are consistent with previous literature, others (H3) were inconsis
tent with the general notion. Nonetheless, the four conclusions implied that teachers should introdu
ce topics through activities and simulations, not abstractions. Additionally, S & P teachers should
try to arouse in students the feeling that mathematics relates usefully to reality and is not just sym
bols, rules, and conventions. A proposal of this kind may include using the same class’s population,
height, age or race in teaching mathematics, statistical and probability concepts and as well use
them for interpretations. This should be linked with the use of visual illustration and emphasise ex
ploratory data methods with computers. Suggesting that S & P teachers should point out to students
common uses of statistics (for instance, in news stories and advertisements). Importantly, there is
the need to use strategies to improve students’ rational number concepts before approaching propor
tional reasoning. This could assist to recognise and confront common errors in students’ statistical
and probability thinking and hence create situations requiring S & P reasoning that correspond to
the students’ views of the world.
References
Adler, J. & Reed, Y. (Eds). (2003). Challenges of teacher development: An investigation of take-up in
South Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five traditions, 2nd ed:
Thousand Oaks: Sage.
DeWet, J. I. (2002). Teaching of statistics to historically disadvantaged students: The South African
experience. In B. Phillips (Ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Teaching of Statis
tics, Cape Town. Voorburg: The Netherlands: International Statistical Institute.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Ernest, P. (1984). Introducing the concept of probability. Mathematics Teacher, 77, 524–525. 35
Fitz, G.E. (2005). Numeracy and Australian workplaces: Findings and implications. Australian Senior
Mathematics Journal, 19(2), 27–40.
Freudenthal, H. (1973). Mathematics as an educational task. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.
Johnson, R. A. & Wichern, D. W. (2007). Applied multivariate statistical analysis. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kent, P., Hoyles, C., Noss, R., & Guile, D. (2004). Techno-mathematical Literacy in Workplace Activi
ty: International Seminar on Learning and Technology at Work, Institute of Education, London. www.
ioe.ac.uk/tlrp/technomaths/Kent-LTWseminar. Retrieved March 17, 2009.
Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., Gonzalez, E.J., & Chrostowski, S.J. (2004). TIMSS & PIRLS International
Study Centre. http://timss.bc.edu/timss2003i/mathD.html. Retrieved April 27 2008.
North, D. & Zewotir, T. (2006) Introducing statistics at school level in South Africa. In A. Rossman &
B. Chance (Ed), Proceedings of the seventh International Conference on Teaching Statistics. Salvado,
Brazil: International Statistical Institute and International Association for Statistical Education. www.
Stat.auckland.ac.nz/iase/publications. January 27 2009.
Reddy, V. (2004). Performance scores in international math and science study reflective of South Afri
can Inequalities (TIMSS Media Release). Human Sciences Research Council: Pretoria.
Revised National Curriculum Statement – RNCS (2002). Mathematics, Grade R-9. Pretoria: Department
of education.
Russo, L.M & Passannante, M. R. C. (2001). Statistics fever. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle Scho
ol, 6(6), p. 370–376.
Stohl, H. (2005). Probability in Teacher education and development. In G. Jones (Ed) Exploring proba
bility in schools: challenges for teaching and leaning. New York: Springer.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. (4th ed). Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Vithal, R., Adler, J. & Keitel, C. (2005). Researching mathematics Education in South Africa: Perspec
tives, practices and possibilities. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council.
Anass Bayaga Lecturer, University of Fort Hare, Saxilby Court 15, Amalinda, East London, South Africa.
Phone: 027 43 704 7020.
E-mail: abayaga@ufh.ac.za
Website: http://www.ufh.ac.za
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
36
TWO EUROPEAN RESPONSES TO ASSURE

QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Andrea Bernhard
University of Graz, Austria
E-mail: andrea.bernhard@uni-graz.at
Abstract
Looking at the “European Higher Education Area” in terms of their different quality assurance systems
one can clearly identify a great diversity. This situation reflects the creativity of all countries to estab
lish a system compatible with their own cultural, economic and social background. This article shall
highlight examples of two European countries, Germany and the United Kingdom, and their efforts to
develop a comprehensive quality assurance system. A systematic and historical approach of these two
nations will be based on literature research, scientific studies and personal experience. The article will
provide a general perspective on two different national quality assurance systems as well as their current
political discussions drawn from an Austrian perspective. The external view but nonetheless European
perspective shall maintain a more objective review and assessment of these countries. Although there are
diversified quality assurance systems all over Europe, there is a need and a will to cooperate between
this diversity while still keeping the individuality of the own country. Thus, I am interested in the develop
ment, the challenges as well as problems of these systems and possible ways for improvement.
Key words: European Higher Education Area, quality assurance, diversity, comparative research.
The Rise of Quality Assurance in European Higher Education
Quality was a central concern in Europe since the emergence of universities (Neave, 1994,
p. 116) but the reasons for and roots of today’s quality assurance procedures primarily date back to
the last century. Universities around the world are strongly influenced by two European models: (1)
the German model which was based on the ideas of Wilhelm von Humboldt with the principals of
academic freedom, the unity of teaching and research, the autonomy of institution and the freedom
of learning, and (2) the British model with a close teacher-student relationship and an emphasis on
personality development through liberal education (Gellert, 1993, pp. 237f). However, universities
changed over time, lost their monopole position towards a much more diversified higher education
system and had to react on massive expansion processes in terms of student numbers and higher
education providers (Trow, 1973). Consequently, ministerial control and funding have reached their
limits followed by economic depressions in the 1970s and 1980s which led to numerous reforms
of the steering mechanisms of European higher education systems. Hence, in the 1980s and 1990s
Andrea BERNHARD. Two European Responses to Assure Quality in Higher Education
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
quality assurance has become as a very important issue in Europe and countries started to create and 37
establish quality assurance systems (Westerheijden et al., 2006, p. 2) to go in line with “the demands
of a modernising state” (Neave, 1994, p. 119).
In Europe the first formal national quality assurance policies date back to the mid 1980s with
national initiatives in France (1984), in the United Kingdom (1985) and in The Netherlands (1985)
mainly because of financial shortcomings. These first quality assurance schemes influenced other
European countries and abroad. The starting point for systematic quality assurance at higher educa
tion institutions in Europe trace back to an ad hoc working group by the European Union in 1991
and was followed by a pilot EU-project on Evaluating Quality in Higher Education in 1994 (Wester
heijden et al., 2006, pp. 2f). Diverse external dynamics determined the design of a next generation of
quality assurance to gain more transparency and legitimacy in European higher education systems
through increased internationalisation. Consequently a European Network of Quality Assurance
Agencies was established in 2000 to better European cooperation in terms of quality assurance. The
network was renamed in 2004 into the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Edu
cation (ENQA). The claim for a European Quality Assurance Register for quality assurance bodies
arose in the last years to highlight comparable criteria and methodologies. This process is currently
on the way and the register already comprises seventeen European quality assurance agencies.
All these initiatives happened within the scope of the Bologna Declaration of the European
Union Ministers of Education in 1999. The so-called Bologna Process created a completely new
situation and is the starting point for lots of transformations in Europe. One of the main goals of
the Bologna Process is to create a European Higher Education Area and as one cornerstone to
promote European co-operation in quality assurance, stressing the necessary links between quality
assurance and recognition and the need for closer co-operation between actors in these two fields
at institutional, national and European levels. This process influences national policies, f.e., to es
tablish a structure for quality assurance and accreditation at a European-level. An important project
at European level is the Joint Quality Initiative (JQI) with several important goals: to collaborate
and disseminate good practices in terms of quality assurance and scenarios of mutual evaluation, to
accept of different accreditation/certification mechanisms and to establish of a common framework
for the Bachelor/Master-structure in the Bologna model. Furthermore, there is a network solely res
ponsible for management studies on higher and further education called the European Quality Link
(EQUAL) and the European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS) which operates in Europe as an
accreditation agency. To recognise educational and vocational qualifications at national/European
level National Academic Recognition Centres (NARIC) and the European Network of Information
Centre (ENIC) have been founded.
Till the end of the 20th century most of Western European countries have created formal quality
assurance systems and established a national quality assurance body but only a small number also
included European co-operation in quality assurance. Nowadays quality is an important task at ins
titutional and political agendas of higher education policies but with diversified solutions of each
single European country. In this regard I want do emphasis on two European higher education sys
tems that have a long history in higher education Germany and the United Kingdom and a different
approach on quality assurance. With the perspective of an Austrian researcher in the field of higher
education I will figure out the differences and possible similarities of these two countries.
System Approach: Germany
Germany is the largest country within the European Union concerning the number of inhabi
tants (about 80 million) and accounts for approximately 20% of the GDP of the EU-25. Germany
comprises 16 federal states (Länder) which are in charge of their individual higher education sys
tem as a principle of sovereignty. The wide range of higher education institutions are governed un
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
38
der the Framework Act for Higher Education (Hochschulrahmengesetz) and additionally all Länder
adopted their own acts on higher education (Witte, 2006, p. 135).
As per February 2010, Germany counted nearly two million students with the majority of stu
dents enrolled at public institutions (95%) next to small numbers in the church and private sectors.
Currently there are 370 state and state-approved higher education institutions with their different
profiles: 110 universities, 205 Fachhochschulen (universities of applied sciences), and 55 colleges
of art and music (HRK, 2010). Higher education is mainly publicly funded through the individual
budget system of the Länder while some expenditure is also provided by the federal government.
As higher education institutions are autonomous and flexible in terms of budgeting they gain more
opportunities to deposit accrued reserves and revenues but also need to set up suitable management
instruments and new types of reporting. Some Länder introduced lump sum budgets and formula-ba
sed funding. Therefore, various methods to assess the budget are implemented, such as performance
criteria or target agreements (Hartwig, 2004, p. 13). The private higher education sector is primarily
financed through private funds but occasionally private projects are also publicly funded as some
reform goals are more easily to realise than in the public sector (Pechar, 2001, p. 261).
With the upcoming of a modern bureaucracy the first quality assurance mechanisms developed
and they can be found to a large extent till the late 20th century (Neave, 1994, p. 116). Then in the
1970s and 1980s there have already been debates on reforms when the Science Council started pe
riodical evaluations to strengthen teaching (Serrano-Velarde, 2008, p. 39). Nonetheless, Brennan
et al. (1992, p. 9) stated in a comparative pilot study on economics: “With not much more than
appropriate exaggeration it can be said that the comparative quality issue does not exist in higher
education in Germany”. One can even say that till the 1990s the term quality assurance concerning
higher education was rarely used in scientific debates. In the political context it was only mentioned
because of doubts in the efficiency and effectiveness of higher education performance because poli
ticians were more concerned about a way of unification of higher education than about the quality
problem. The main reasons for the absence of quality assurance discussions have been (de Rudder,
1994, p. 204): (1) peer-review procedures for research was already prevailing, (2) universities are
not pedagogical institutions and students are responsible for their studying by themselves, and (3)
there was a low unemployment rate of graduates as university degrees have been considers as hig
her than other certificates.
Though, aroused from the pilot study of Brennan et al. (1992) next to in huge expansion of stu
dent numbers and a lack of funding and staff (de Rudder 1994, p. 201) the policy on quality assuran
ce changed radically and Germany was forced to take part in the international discussion process on
evaluations and quality assurance in higher education. The rise of German quality assurance in hig
her education is mostly seen in the EU pilot project Evaluating Quality in Higher Education (1994)
when the Rector’s Conference (HRK) started to test new evaluating procedures (Serrano-Velarde,
2008, p. 39). Consequently, some states developed evaluations and assessments of higher education
performances (de Rudder, 1994, p. 201) which are summarized by Serrano-Velarde (2008, pp. 113f)
as three different types of evaluations: internal evaluations systems, evaluations by networks of hig
her education institutions (Verbund agencies) and regional evaluation agencies.
As higher education objectives are in the responsibility of the Länder, there is “no single asses
sment system at national level” (Hartwig, 2004, p. 65) but several different federal solutions have
been found. The general basis for all states is that higher education institutions are now responsible
for their quality assurance and have to establish their own quality assurance system (Serrano-Velar
de, 2008, pp. 63ff). Though, each institution is free to decide on the respective system of internal
quality assurance and the instruments and procedures to assure quality in research, teaching and
administration by themselves. Only with these systems they have to be accountable which conse
quently gives them more autonomy (Mittag & Daniel, 2008, p. 281). Starting in 1994 several eva
luation agencies have been established until 1998 the Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK) decided on
a twofold system of quality assurance: evaluation on the one hand and accreditation on the other
hand. Therefore, impartially accreditation agencies have been established with a Council consisting
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
of representatives from the market, the politics and higher education institutions. Accreditation is 39
different to the state approval procedures and shall guarantee minimum standards and check the
employability of academic degrees (Serrano-Velarde, 2008, p. 69). At the same time the Projekt
Qualitätssicherung was established as platform for quality assurance issues which was necessary
to coordinate this diversified system. Furthermore, the Accreditation Council (Foundation for the
Accreditation of Study Programmes in Germany, AC) was set up to regulate the different accredi
tation agencies. On application from the agency, an accreditation process is carried out by the AC
that decides on the accreditation or reaccreditation. Hence, each agency itself must be subject to an
accreditation process before it is given the authority to award the Quality Seal of the Foundation
for study programmes to those programmes that have successfully accomplished an accreditation
procedure. Currently there are nine accredited agencies which are situated primarily in Germany
but there are also one Swiss and one Austrian agency in operation.
Since 2003 programme accreditation is compulsory for all bachelor and master programmes in
Germany. Due to critics on the immense time and effort for programme accreditation next to other
quality assurance procedures higher education institutions seek for a new way of quality assurance
mechanism. Therefore, Germany shifted from programme towards system accreditation to reduce
the workload for accreditation as far the accreditation of higher education institutions also includes
the accreditation of all study programmes. In 2007 the AC decided on Criteria for System Accre
ditation and General Rules for Carrying Out System Accreditation Procedures as basis for a new
way of German quality assurance. System accreditation shall accredit the quality assurance system
for the development and carrying out of study programmes (Mittag & Daniel, 2008, p. 284). Each
institution is now free to decide on the respective system of internal quality assurance and the instru
ments and procedures to assure quality in research, teaching and administration. Moreover, they can
choose between these two types of accreditation and although the ‘object’ of the review processes
differs between programme and institutional level, the new system accreditation has close links to
the programme approach (Hopbach, 2009, p. 83).
In summary this complex higher education system has a quite long history of evaluation pro
cedures carried out by different agencies throughout the country. The change towards an approach
on accreditation was a start of a more organised system of quality assurance and thereby the AC
acts as central organisation within this variety of accreditation agencies. The recently occurred shift
towards system accreditation can be seen as final step in a long discussion process but there is still
a long way to go.
System Approach: United Kingdom (UK)
The United Kingdom (UK) is divided into four regions, namely Northern Ireland, Scotland,
Wales and England – each with a different education system. UK’s higher education sector compri
ses universities, higher education colleges and a few university colleges. These institutions differ a
lot in size, mission and history. 80% of the population in the UK is located in England and this is
also reflected in the context of higher education: in 2007/08 out of about 2,3 million students appro
ximately 80% are studying and out of 166 higher education providers 80% are located in England
(HESA, 2007/08). Most significant for UK higher education was the Further and Higher Education
Act in 1992 when polytechnic institutions received university status and the funding and evaluation
procedures became a new structure (Tavenas, 2004, p. 48).
Universities and Colleges are self-governing and legally independent bodies with a high de
gree of autonomy, some as higher education corporations and as entities acknowledged by an Act of
Parliament (QAA, 2005, p. 7). Some steering issues of higher education are organised at regional
level while others are kept by state departments of the UK government. The public funding of UK
higher education is twofold: the bulk of funds is directed from the four regional Higher Education
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
40
Funding Councils (HEFCs) and further funding from the Research Councils. These councils are
regional, independent and non-departmental bodies and in charge of the financial support of all hig
her education institutions in terms of teaching and research. The money from the HEFCs is given
to the institutions as a “block grant” that gives them the freedom to set their own priorities (Leisyte,
2007, p. 37).
The current quality assurance system in the UK has its legislative roots in the late 1980s and
early 1990s, a time of massification in student numbers as well as higher education institutions.
For that reason more accountability and measurable outputs and outcomes have been inevitable
and a shift “from a reliance on the judgement of professional staff delivering the service towards
inspectorial-style judgements made by external bodies” (Universities UK, 2008, p. 17) can be seen.
Till 1992 there was no (external) quality assurance in the UK except of already existing external
assessments of the polytechnics and colleges as well as programme accreditation for those that we
re eager to be recognised by some professional or statutory body (Brown, 2004, pp. 35/37). Due
to internal and external pressures the first step was to establish four UK higher education funding
bodies (HEFCs) as recommended in the White Paper on the Future of Higher Education in 1991.
This paper also differentiated between two types of external quality assurance mechanisms (Univer
sities UK, 2008, p. 17):
• Quality audit – external scrutiny aimed at providing guarantees that institutions have suitab
le quality control mechanisms in place; within the responsibility of a unit owned by higher
education institutions; and
• Quality assessment – the external review of, and judgments about, the quality of teaching
and learning in institutions; within the responsibility of the funding councils.
Starting with the Further and Higher Education Act of 1992 the HEFCs monitored the quali
ty of their funded academic programmes and therefore established the Higher Education Quality
Council (HEQC) which was accountable for (1) auditing the effectiveness of institutions’ quality as
surance arrangements, (2) promoting quality enhancement, (3) co-ordinating sector-wide networks,
and (4) organising good practice forums (Leisyte, 2007, p. 53). For the next years the funding coun
cils created quality assessment committees to assess the quality of their funded sectors (teaching
quality assessment, TQA) and these procedures were completed in Scotland and Wales in 1997 and
four years later also in England and Northern Ireland (Universities UK, 2008, pp. 17f).
In terms of quality assessment of research the UK established the Research Assessment Exer
cise (RAE) in 1986 as the first “explicit and formalised assessment process of the quality of rese
arch” and as a “discipline-based expert review process” of peers (RAE, 2010). Starting in 1992 the
HFCEs based their funds on the performance identified by the RAE within an expert review by
discipline-based panels. The last exercise dates back to RAE 2008 which was a highly selective pro
cedure and made judgements according to a graded profile. Nevertheless, the RAE will be reformed
and a new system will maybe replace the peer review based assessment exercise: metrics that are
based on qualitative measures shall simplify the assessment procedure and avoid unintended effects
of the RAE (Leisyte, 2007, pp. 55f).
Due to blurred boundaries between quality assessment and academic audit as well as increased
bureaucracy the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) has been created by the
state in 1997. HEQC and the quality assessment divisions have been absorbed by the QAA and con
sequently two separate external processes became one single mechanism (Universities UK, 2008,
p. 18). At the beginning QAA was responsible for periodical institutional and programme evalua
tions but these expensive and complicated procedures did not have a great impact as only 0,2% of
all evaluations have been negative (Tavenas, 2004, p. 48). After a consolidation phase of this new
agency a shift from accountability towards quality enhancement was visible (Williams 2009, p. 1)
because it also gives advises on possible improvements. Thus, QAA changed their procedures to
“institutional audits” with evaluations of internal quality evaluation and management procedures
while the decision on programme evaluations have only been conducted if any problems have been
detected (Tavenas, 2004, p. 48). This was the end of subject reviews and the gathering of all reviews
on institutional and subject levels because they were assessed as part of an institutional audit with
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
the focus on quality enhancement. This new method of institutional audit was first implemented 41
in Scotland and later in England, Northern Ireland and Wales from 2001 till 2002 (Leisyte, 2007,
p. 53). Furthermore, the national QAA created an assessment process for teaching quality as well as
Frameworks for higher education qualifications and subject benchmark statements for numerous
academic fields of study. In summary, as UK’s higher education institutions are responsible for aca
demic standards and quality by themselves whereas QAA only has to check “how well they meet
their responsibilities, identifying good practice and making recommendations for improvement”
and to publish “guidelines to help institutions develop effective systems to ensure students have
high quality experiences” (QAA, 2009, p. 1ff).
England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales show different approaches on quality assurance
but in total all systems are quite similar, especially the systems of England, Northern Ireland and
Wales (Universities UK, 2008, p. 21). Thus, the UK system is characterised by a strong focus on qu
ality assurance in terms of higher education research (RAE), although this highly elaborated system
has to be reformed and more simplified. The UK system also changed towards quality improvement
rather than the previous strong emphasis on accountability. Only one national quality assurance
agency is in charge of all procedures within this national system. Moreover, the new approach of
institutional audits shall help to reach a high level of quality in higher education in the UK. It can be
stated that the prevailing quality assurance system changed from a “more inspection-based model”
towards a “culture of continuous improvement and enhancement” of higher education institutions
that handle their own quality and standards in an effective manner (ibid., p. 3). Currently there
are numerous uncertainties in terms of quality assurance in higher education in the UK but “there
should be no need to fear the future”, Peter Williams (2009, pp. 1f) argues.
An External Perspective
The growing interest for quality in higher education is closely linked to expansion processes
with increased costs and a change of the traditional role of the government. The examples of Germa
ny and the UK illustrate two different approaches in their individual economic, cultural and social
contexts. In the following I address the differences and similarities of both higher education and
what future perspectives can be figured out. I built on the insights from the two system approaches
and on already existing comparative studies. Both countries have undergone fundamental reforms
in terms of governance, funding and, of course, in terms of quality assurance. They have been con
fronted with elementary shifts in their higher education system and had to change their attitude in
academic affairs. Germany and the UK look back on a long history of higher education but their
concentration on quality issues is rather young and still under development. In the UK the first steps
towards a quality assurance system started mainly in the 1980s and in Germany a decade later. Ho
wever, both countries put quality assurance on the top of their political agendas and institutionalised
respective mechanisms by the end of the last century.
The UK has taken two fundamental initiatives to assure their quality in higher education: (1)
Research Assessment Exercise to evaluate the quality of research and (2) Academic Audit process
to assess quality assurance processes in all academic institutions. Primarily responsible for these
efforts in UK quality assurance have been financial measures, such as performance-based state fun
ding. The hallmark for German higher education system is the competition between various quality
assurance agencies within the country. The highly diversified German higher education system has
a quite long history of evaluation procedures carried out by different agencies throughout the coun
try. Thus, the German quality assurance system is much more organised since the change towards
accreditation and finally the upcoming of system accreditation. The growing interest on institutional
quality audits and a decline in invasive, discipline-based quality assessments are also found in other
European countries and abroad.
The main predominant cornerstone that highlights the differences between these two systems
is their governance model: the UK is traditionally based on the “Anglo-Saxon governance model”
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
42
while Germany is based on the “Continental model” (Clark, 1983). The role of their governments
opened up because more opportunities for creative solutions are given to the higher education ins
titutions themselves. The UK shifted their governance from a more liberal orientation towards a
stronger state regulation which affected funding as well as quality assurance matters. This happened
in line with increased accountability, efficiency and a loss of trust towards higher education institu
tions from the state. Germany went the opposite way from a previous strong state control towards
deregulation and more university autonomy. Aspects of accountability, such as performance-based
funding and reporting, reached German higher education policies rather late. On the one hand these
transformations led to a new way of university management and both countries integrated a busi
ness-like behaviour in higher education matters. On the other hand it resulted in the establishment
of various different organisations: the HEFCs and QAA in the UK and the AC as well as lots of
further quality assurance agencies in Germany. Concerning funding the UK went a quite strong way
with their periodic RAEs while Germany has changed to performance-based funding next to lump-
sum budgets which are not directly linked to quality assurance mechanisms.
Nevertheless, Europe needs to develop a system concerning both the qualification of formal
knowledge, as well as the knowledge of quality. Furthermore, the most important conclusion is
that the international pre-conditions for improving recognition across the European Higher Educa
tion Area have been created. Although there is no European or EU model of quality assurance the
closest form is set up in the Bologna Declaration. With the goal of a development of comparable
criteria and methodologies in terms of quality assurance Europe is on the road towards a common
European understanding of quality, which, while it does not yet contemplate the establishment of a
supervening European Quality Assurance Agency, does encourage collaboration between national
agencies on a European and regional basis (Farrington, 2005, p. 53). Also Germany and the UK are
integrated in the international discussion processes and are involved in the work of European Net
works (members of various quality assurance networks).
Looking at these country reports concerning their quality assurance procedures tremendous dif
ferences but also some similar approaches have been figured out. Both countries have taken great
initiatives to assure their quality in higher education and their procedures reflect their cultural and
historical background. Their quality assurance systems cannot be exchangeable or some approaches
can be applied by another country. From an Austrian perspective – without going to much in depth
of both systems – I would argue that both countries similar to other European countries try to shift
towards a more comprehensive approach. System accreditation in Germany or institutional audits
in the UK shall be the future procedures instead of the previous piecemeal mechanisms with a high
degree of bureaucracy and burden of work for higher education institutions. Nevertheless the next
years will show if these two approaches will be a functioning alternative within the high complexity
of quality assurance mechanisms in Europe and abroad.
References
Brennan, J. et al. (1992). Towards a Methodology for Comparative Quality Assessment in European
Higher Education. A Pilot Study on Economics in Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.
London/Enschede/Hannover: CNAA/CHEPS/HIS.
Brown, R. (2004). Quality Assurance in Higher Education. The UK Experience since 1992. London/
New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Clark, B. R. (1983). The Higher Education System. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of Cali
fornia Press.
De Rudder, H. (1994). The Quality Issue in German Higher Education Policy. European Journal of Edu
cation, 29(2), 201–219.
Gellert, C. (Ed.) (1993). Higher education in Europe. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Hartwig, L. (2004). National Report of Germany for the OECD/IMHE-HEFCE project on financial 43
management and governance of higher education institutions. München: Bayerisches Staatsinstitut für
Hochschulforschung und Hochschulplanung. (Monographien: Neue Folge, Vol. 69).
HESA (2007/08). Students in Higher Education Institutions. Retrieved on 12 February 2010, from http://
www.hesa.ac.uk.
Hopbach, A. (2009). Germany. In Kohler, A./AQA (Ed.): Trends of Quality Assurance and Quality Ma
nagement in Higher Education Systems (pp. 83-87). Vienna: Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG.
HRK (2010). Hochschulkompass. Retrieved on 12 February, 2010, from http://www.hochschulkompass.
de.
Leisyte, L. (2007). Higher Education in the United Kingdom. IHEM Country Report. Enschede:
CHEPS.
Mittag, S., & Daniel, H.-D. (2008). Qualitätsmanagement an Hochschulen. In Kehm, B. (Ed.). Hochschu
le im Wandel. Die Universität als Forschungsgegenstand. Festschrift für Ulrich Teichler (pp. 281–294).
Franfurt/New York: Campus Verlag.
Neave, G. (1994). The Politics of Quality: developments in higher education in Western Europe 1992–
1994. European Journal of Education, 29(2), 115-134.
Pechar, H. (2001). Privatuniversitäten. In Hanft, A. (Ed.) (2001). Grundbegriffe des Hochschulmanage
ments (pp. 359–362). Neuwied: Luchterhand.
QAA (2009). An Introduction to QAA. Gloucester: QAA.
RAE (2010). RAE2008. Research Assessment Exercise. Retrieved on 12 February, 2010, from
http://www.rae.ac.uk
Serrano-Velarde, K. (2008). Evaluation, Akkreditierung und Politik. Zur Organisation von Qualitätssi
cherung im Zuge des Bolognaprozesses. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Tavenas, F. (2004). Quality Assurance. A Reference System for Indicators and Evaluation Procedures.
Brussels: EUA.
Trow, M. (1973). Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education. Berkeley: Carnegie
Commission on Higher Education.
Universities UK (2008). Quality and standards in UK universities: A guide to how the system works.
London: Universities UK.
Westerheijden, D.F. et al. (2006). Lines of Change in the Discourse on Quality Assurance. An Overview
of Some Studies into What Impacts Improvement. Paper presented to the 28th Annual EAIR Forum,
Rome, 30 August to 1 September 2006. Retrieved on 12 February, 2010, from http://www.utwente.
nl/cheps/documenten/2006eairlinesofchangewesterheijden.pdf.
Williams, P. (2009). Great Expectations. Higher Quality, 30, 1–2.
Witte, J. (2006). Change of degrees and degrees of change: Comparing adaptations of European higher
education systems in the context of the Bologna process. Doctoral thesis. Enschede: Center for Higher
Education Policy Studies (CHEPS)/Universiteit Twente.
Adviced by Hans Pechar, University of Klagenfurt, Austria
Andrea Bernhard Research Fellow, Institute of Educational Sciences, University of Graz, Austria.
Merangasse 18/II, 8010 Graz, Austria.
E-mail: andrea.bernhard@uni-graz.at
Website: http://www.uni-graz.at/paedwww/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
44
The successful integration of

foreign-born instructors in the
academe: Lessons from Israel’s
largest public college
Ya’arit Bokek-Cohen, Nitza Davidovich

Ariel University Center, Israel
E-mail: ybokek@gmail.com, d.nitza@ariel.ac.il
Abstract
Similarly to other industries, the academic world has increasingly become a ‘global village’, in which
foreign-born instructors constitute a large proportion of university faculty. Most studies on foreign-born
faculty members have documented various difficulties in the integration of foreign-born instructors in
academic institutions. This paper presents data indicating the successful integration of foreign-born in
structors in Israel’s largest public college, and identifies the factors that contributed to this success. Data
are based on several measures used to assess faculty members on an annual basis in teaching, research,
administration, and community service. Linear discriminant analysis (LNA) was performed to examine
whether faculty assessment scores distinguish between Israeli-born and foreign-born instructors. Fin
dings show that foreign-born instructors have become successfully integrated in the institution. Four
complementary explanations for their successful integration are proposed. We conclude with a discus
sion of managerial implications for institutions seeking to diversify their staff and successfully integrate
foreign-born instructors FBF in higher education institutions.
Key words: foreign-born instructors, faculty assessments, social networks theory, similarity-attraction
paradigm.
Introduction
For many decades, American universities have attracted a large number of faculty members
from all over the world (Lee, 2004). These immigrants are attracted by the high standards of li
ving, academic freedom, better work environment, absence of corruption, and above all, superior
opportunities created by a system of meritocracy unparalleled in the world (Bradford, 1990). This
global trend has expanded and intensified since 1999, when the Bologna Accords were signed by
the education ministers of the European countries. The treaty aims to make it easier for students
and researchers to access European education systems. Now signed by 45 countries and reinforced
by the Lisbon Recognition Convention, the impact of the Bologna process extends beyond the Eu
ropean boundaries.
The job market in U.S. has become less accessible to young workers in science and engine
ering fields, relative to many other high-level occupations. While these obstacles discourage US
Ya’arit BOKEK-COHEN, Nitza DAVIDOVICH. The Successful Integration of Foreign-born Instructors in the Academe:
Lessons from Israel’s Largest Public College PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
students from being active in these fields, the benefits are still sufficient to attract large immigrant 45
flows, particularly from developing countries (Freeman, 2005). The growing number of attractive
job opportunities in the US economy for native college graduates and the low rate of return of
investments in graduate education have led to a rise in the percentage of foreign-born faculty in
American universities, especially in technical areas. After completing their academic work, many
foreign students remain in the US to serve as academic instructors, government scientists, or indust
rial researchers fueling the US economic engine further towards greater level of success (Gwynne
& Kay, 1999). According to Finkelstein et al. (1998), foreign-born faculty members comprise more
than one-sixth (16.9%) of all new entrants, compared with only one-ninth (11.5%) of all senior fa
culty members.
Despite the ever-increasing number of foreign-born scientists in the US, very few studies have
examined the research activity and performance of this group; This field is often termed an “unders
tudied topic” (Manrique & Manrique, 1999; Mervis, 2004). This lack of knowledge may conceal a
serious gap between national policies to encourage immigration and internal institutional practices
in academic research institutions The main objective of this research is to provide policymakers
empirical evidence of successful integration of foreign-born scientists at the largest Israeli public
college, reflected in these scientists accomplishments in teaching, research, and community service.
Universities and colleges around the world may use the Israeli experience to enhance their unders
tanding of the integration of foreign-born scientists and the benefits this process offers.
Our paper opens with a review of the literature on foreign-born instructors, highlighting their
complicated status. Their impressive achievements are contrasted by the discrimination, stigma,
and loneliness they suffer. In the second section of this paper, we report a study on foreign-born
instructors at Israel’s largest public college. Findings reveal successful integration of foreign-born
instructors, measured in their performance scores in the areas of teaching, their research publication
record, and their academic ranks. The paper concludes with a discussion of the possible factors that
contribute to this success.
Foreign-born Faculty Members
The rise of America has historically benefited from imported talents, and higher education has
traditionally played a crucial role in the areas of pure and applied sciences (Lin, Pearce & Wang,
2009). According to the findings of Stephan and Levin (2001), foreign-born scientists contribute dis
proportionately to the knowledge production of US science. They found that 19.2% of the members
of the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and 23.8% of those of the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS) were foreign-born. Not only do foreign-born faculty members enhance the offering
of various academic programs, they also write “hot papers” that have higher than average citation
rates (Gwynne & Kay, 1999). In fact, Khafagi (1990) suggests that “without the use of foreign-born
faculty, universities would have suffered difficulties in handling the educational and research pro
grams that are currently supported” (p. 69).
A study of 750 expatriate faculty members found that the respondents are generally productive
researchers. More than 35% have each published more than 20 refereed journal articles; 12% have
published between eleven and 20 articles; 29% have published between five and ten articles; and
the remainder have published fewer than five articles. Thirty-five percent have published books or
written chapters in books. They have also published numerous proceedings and participated in ma
ny conferences (Quazi, Quddus, Debnath, & Tandon, 2004).
Using multiple indicators, Lee (2004) found that foreign-born scientists do not differ significant
ly from their native-born counterparts in research collaboration and grants. In terms of publication
productivity, however, foreign-born scientists are consistently more productive than their native-
born colleagues. Even when relevant variables are controlled, being foreign-born still has a strong
positive effect on publication productivity. This study also examined the impact of being foreign-
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
46
born on research collaboration. Collaboration and grants have a significant positive effect only on
the productivity of native-born scientists, whereas the strong research preference of foreign-born
scientists contributes to their relatively higher productivity (Lee, 2004). Foreign-born scientists ha
ve a similar number of collaborators, a similar strategic motivation for collaboration, and a similar
number of co-authorship pools as do native-born scientists. Mamiseishvili http://www.springerlink.
com/content/223x16q25j64v522/ – ContactOfAuthor1#ContactOfAuthor1 and Rosser (2009) also
found that international faculty members were significantly more productive in research, but less
productive in teaching and community service activities compared to their US-citizen colleagues.
In contrast to the data shown above, some research findings suggest that minority faculty exhi
bit lower research productivity, a strong teaching orientation, and substantial commitment to institu
tional service. According to Olsen, Maple & Stage (1995) have found that compared to native-born
scientists, foreign-born scientists are less engaged in collaboration and have fewer grants and are
slightly less productive especially during the first three years after their PhD, though the difference
is not statistically significant.
Furthermore, although most studies indicate that foreign-born academic scientists and engi
neers are more productive than their US-born peers in all areas, they face various difficulties and
challenges. Any academic embarking on a teaching career is continually evaluated on her ability to
teach, conduct research, publish, and perform other duties. Foreign-born faculty members working
in US universities, however, face a unique set of challenges that differ from those faced by their
native-born colleagues (Collins, 2008).
Despite expectations, higher education appears to lag substantially behind society as a whole in
terms of diversification efforts, at least with regard to the composition of its faculty. Diversity trends
in higher education have most closely paralleled local and national population efforts in disciplines
where pay for faculty and program graduates is comparatively low. Where compensation for faculty
and graduates is high, the diversification process is substantially retarded (Micceri, 2003).
If they are invited to serve in the administration, foreign professors often find themselves left in
the lower echelons as program advisers, coordinators, or chairpersons. Moreover, average salaries
and work satisfaction levels for foreign-born scientists are lower than for US-born scientists (Cor
ley & Sabharwal, 2007). Asian- Americans do not derive comparable benefits from several charac
teristics associated with higher salaries for Caucasian Americans and appear to have more limited
pathways to higher salaries (Lee, 2002).
Micceri (2003) examined the relationship between ethnic origin of faculty and academic ran
king. He found that minority and female faculty growth is more prominent in the lower salaried
ranks; Since the diversity initiative began (1996), only for associate professors has the curve ste
epened upward for minorities and females, while the assistant professor trend flattened for both
groups.
Some researchers have claimed that cultural bias, racial profiling, and sheer nepotism impede
advancement and scholarship on some campuses (Ngwainmbi, 2006). For example, with a nation
wide survey of 2,265 foreign-born faculty members of US universities, Manrique and Manrique
(1999) found that 38% of the respondents felt that they had been discriminated against either by
fellow faculty or by administrators. Furthermore, nearly one-half of the respondents knew other
foreign-born faculty who had been targets of discrimination. Although discrimination is largely
subjective, immigrant scientists are more likely to have some forms of discrimination-related di
sadvantages that might affect their research activities (Heylin, 1992). Some PWIs (Primarily White
Institutions) have been accused of preventing tenure-seeking minority professors from enjoying
the same academic freedoms as their White colleagues. In many cases, PWIs have implemented
narrowly defined scholarship policies that are inconsistent with the broader spectrum of academic
freedom. By doing so, tenure committees have undermined cultural research. These constitute sig
nificant aspects of the research interests of many minority professors, and hence the professors are
more often denied tenure. Some institutions are notorious for racially profiling candidates before a
“suitable” one is selected for a teaching and/or administrative position. Others recruit persons who
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
fit a geographic, ethnic or gender profile without seriously evaluating his/her credentials. The majo 47
rity of women and minority are concentrated at less prestigious two – and four-year colleges, and at
the lower end of the faculty ranks, or in non-tenure track positions.
According to a Scientist magazine survey (Park, 2001), a majority of foreign-born scientists
responded that communications pose their greatest problem in research due to the language diffe
rence. Communication problems may also adversely affect foreign-born faculty members’ social
and psychological well-being. Drawing on several office-hour interactions between international
teaching assistants and American college students, Chiang (2009) examined the linguistic and cul
tural sources of communication problems. Collins (2008) also presented findings on the negative
reactions of students to the accent of foreign-born instructors.
As reported in a recent Science article (Mervis, 2004), even foreign-born scientists who gradu
ated from the US universities still have language problems in their early career stage as a faculty
member. Some foreign-born faculty members said that students are reluctant to have them serve as
thesis committee members, and relatively few students registered for classes taught by foreign-born
instructors. Racial and cultural biases exist in the classroom as well. White students often openly
question the intellectual caliber of their Black professors, while African-American students automa
tically accept the authority of White professors. Both groups often minimize the talents and contribu
tions of foreign-born faculty (particularly African and Asian professors). Some people believe that
students learn less with foreign-born professors because of their accents and problems articulating
American phonetics. Many students, parents, and legislators doubt the ability of foreign-born in
structors to ensure that students secure adequate achievements (Alberts, 2008).
Cultural differences in educational practices can lead to misunderstandings between faculty
members and students (Collins, 2008). In her survey of 30 foreign-born faculty members from dif
ferent countries, Collins found that 87% of the respondents reported stress arising from the need
to cope with cultural differences, such as the degree of formality deemed appropriate in social or
professional relationships. Sixty-three percent of the respondents reported feelings of isolation and
loss of contacts with friends and family members. Although some respondents mentioned support
groups that were designed to fill their social needs, these groups are apparently not very active or
well publicized. Two potential sources of support, the chairs of the departments and the institu
tion’s international office; were found to offer inconsistent assistance, which led to the negative
feelings of going through the adjustment process alone with very little help. About one-third of the
professors at historically Black colleges and universities come from developing countries, mainly
Africa and India. Though highly qualified, many of these foreign-born instructors report being over
worked, underpaid, underappreciated, and face discrimination from African-American professors,
students, and staff.
FSU Immigrant Faculty in Israeli Academia
In 1989, the former Soviet Union opened its gates to citizens who wished to emigrate. This
event triggered the second wave of immigration to Israel from the FSU (after the first wave of im
migration from the Soviet Union in the 1970s). By 2008, the number of FSU immigrants to Israel
from this second wave exceeded one million. The FSU immigrant population is highly educated
relative to the Israeli-born population. Between 2000 and 2008, 31% of the immigrants had acade
mic or scientific occupations or technical and professional occupations (Ministry of Absorption,
2008). These immigrants came to Israel seeking new socio-economic opportunities, and viewed
employment as a major element of their integration in Israel (Menahem & Geist, 1999). Today
there are 15,700 scientists in Israel who immigrated from the FSU in the last wave of immigration
(Mei-Ami, 2008).
The complexity characterizing the status of foreign-born instructors in academic institutions is
evidence of the asymmetry in benefits and drawbacks in terms of their integration. The meaning of
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
48
these asymmetric data is that there is a gap between rhetoric and reality, and this gap may diminish
the ability of academic institutions to benefit from the impressive potential of foreign-born instruc
tors.
The study reported herein assumes that an important goal of policymakers is to establish a mo
re racially and ethnically diverse academe. The study explores the achievements of foreign-born
instructors at Ariel University Center, Israel’s largest public college, measured by faculty asses
sment scores, compared to those of Israeli-born faculty members, as an indicator of the successful
integration of foreign-born instructors. Faculty members at academic institutions perform a wide
range of activities, including: teaching, research, research publications, presentations at conferen
ces, submitting research grants, academic administration, community service, etc. Assessments of
faculty activities and achievement-based rewards have become important topics over the past four
decades (Altbach, 2000; Gillespie, Hilsen & Wadsworth, 2002; Hearn, 1999; Tarquinio, Dittus, Byr
ne, Kaiser, & Neilson, 2003; Wadsworth, 1994).
Methodology of Reseaerch
The main research question of the present study is whether foreign born faculty members have
integrated successfully into Ariel University Center (AUC). Successful integration means that their
achievements are not inferior to the accomplishments of their native-born peers, as measured by
faculty assessment scores in several fields.
Ariel University Center is the largest Israeli public college and is in the process of securing
recognition as a university. Ariel University Center of Samaria was established in 1982 as a college
in Kedumim. Its academic history began as an extension of the Bar-Ilan University in 1990 with the
move to the Science Park in Ariel. That year, a Research Institute was founded, hiring a group of
new immigrant researchers from the former USSR. The decision to establish the Research Institute
was based on the understanding that research is an integral part of an academic institution. Several
of these researchers constitute the core of the academic faculty in a number of Engineering and
Natural Science Departments. AUC’s four faculties (Engineering, Social Sciences and Humanities,
Natural Sciences, and the School of Health Sciences) offer undergraduate degree programs in 23 de
partments. Four of these departments award masters degrees. The AUC also offers 9 double-major
programs, as well as programs in the School of Architecture and School of Communications.
AUC has established its status as the largest public academic institution in Israel that is not
a research university, both in number of students, number of senior faculty members, and variety
of degree programs. In the 2008-9 academic year, the student body comprises more than 8,000 stu
dents.
As seen in Figure 1, the faculty at AUC comprises four main ethnic groups: (a) Israeli-born, (b)
US-born, (c) FSU-born, and (d) other foreign-born instructors (i.e., Argentina, France, and Syria).
The rector of AUC is a FSU immigrant who arrived to Israel in 1992. He is the first FSU-born
professor to achieve such a high academic rank in Israel. He earned a Dr. Sc. degree in physical che
mistry at the USSR Academy of Science, Institute of Metallurgy. Shortly after his arrival to Israel he
became a faculty member in the Department of Physics At AUC. Sixteen years later, he was elected
to the position of Rector of AUC.
The Dean of the Faculty of Natural Sciences is also a FSU-born immigrant who arrived to
Israel 20 years ago; the head of the Department of Molecular Biology immigrated from FSU 13
years ago. The head of the Department of Electric engineering was born in the US and immigrated
to Israel 18 years ago; the head of the Department of Communication was born also in the US and
immigrated to Israel 20 years ago.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Other; 14; 49
7%
U.S. born;
24; 12%
FSU born;
166; 81%
Figure 1. Ethnic origin of AUC faculty.
Sample
This study is based on 206 academic faculty members from the AUC. 62.6% of the faculty
members are native Israelis, 19.4% are immigrants from the FSU, 12.1% are US-born, and 5.8%
came from other countries (See figure 1 above). FBF in this study are professors that arrived to Is
rael after 1989, the year in which the mass immigration from FSU has began. In order to examine
the correlation between faculty member demographic data and assessment scores, faculty members
were divided into four groups of origin: Israel, FSU, USA, and others.
At the AUC, faculty members who hold at least a 2/3 full-time teaching position, and are ran
ked in the top 60% of assessment scores earn an annual bonus, based on their achievements during
the previous year. Bonuses range from 7.5% (the lower 20% of the excellence scores) to 15% (the
middle 20% of the excellence scores) to 20% (the top 20% of the excellence scores), according to
the number of points accumulated. This study calculates average scores based on five measures of
assessment, and primarily peer evaluations of academic activities by senior colleagues, including
deans, and student evaluations of teaching quality.
Results of Research
The first part of the study examined links between personal and professional data of academic
faculty and their country of origin with the aim of analyzing differences between native Israeli and
immigrant faculty members. Items analyzed are gender, age, seniority, departmental affiliation, em
ployment status and rank. On the whole, it was found that there is no link between age, status and
rank on one part, and country of origin on the other. Concurrently it was found that there is a link bet
ween gender, seniority and departmental affiliation on one side, and country of origin on the other.
Table 1. Breakdown of Faculty Members and Country of Origin by Gender.
Origin Israel FSU USA Others Total

Gender Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Male 86 66.7 32 80 18 72 11 91.7 147 71.4
Female 43 33.3 8 20 7 28 1 8.3 59 28.6
Total 129 100 40 100 25 100 12 100 206 100
Table I and regression analyses indicate a significant link between gender and country of ori
gin: There is a significantly higher percentage of women among native Israeli faculty members than
among immigrant faculty members. Furthermore, males dominate the faculty: 71.4% of faculty
members are male and 28.6% female. This gender breakdown does not compare favorably with the
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
50
national picture. According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, in 2006/7 females constituted 43.6%
of the faculty of social sciences and humanities on the national level; 29.3% of the faculties of exact
sciences, and natural and life sciences; and 37.6% of the faculties of health sciences and medicine
(CBS, 2008, Table 8.58).
Table 2. Breakdown of Faculty Members by Seniority at the Academic

Institution and Country of Origin.

Seniority Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
3 years or less 21 16.3 9 22.5 4 16 1 8.3 35 17.0
3-5 50 38.8 6 15.0 6 24 2 16.7 64 31.1
6-10 26 20.2 14 35.0 3 12 1 8.3 44 21.4
11+ 32 24.8 11 27.5 12 48 8 66.7 63 30.6
Total 129 100 40 100 25 100 12 100 206 100
Table II and chi-square test results indicate a statistically significant correlation between years
of seniority at the academic institution and country of origin (χ² (9) = 22.95, p > .01). Approxima
tely one-quarter of native Israeli and FSU-born faculty members have been working at the present
place of employment for 11 years and more, while among US-born faculty members 48% have been
associated with the institution for over 11 years. Among immigrants from other countries, 66.7%
have over 11 years of seniority.
Table 3. Breakdown of Faculty Members by Faculty and Country of Origin.

Faculty Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Architecture 6 4.7 0 0 2 8 3 25 11 5.3
Health Sciences 11 8.5 0 0 1 4 0 0 12 5.8
Engineering 27 20.9 15 37.5 4 16 0 0 46 22.3
Soc. Sciences & huma
74 57.4 7 17.5 16 64 4 33.3 101 49.0
nities
Natural Sciences 11 8.5 18 45 2 8 5 41.7 36 17.5
Total 129 100 40 100 25 100 12 100 206 100
Table III and chi-square test results indicate a statistically significant correlation between de
partmental affiliation and country of origin (χ² (12) =63.66, p>.001). 57.4% of native Israelis and
64% of US-born faculty members teach at the Faculty of Social Sciences and the Humanities, while
only 17.5% of immigrants from the FSU teach at this faculty. In addition, 45% of immigrants from
the FSU teach at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and 37.5% at the Faculty of Engineering. There
are almost no immigrant instructors (from the FSU, USA, and other countries) at the Faculties of
Architecture and Health Sciences. Their academic staff is primarily Israeli-born.
Finally, in order to examine to what degree background variables distinguish between immig
rants and native Israelis, a discriminant analysis was performed. No differences were found betwe
en native Israelis, immigrants from the FSU, immigrants from the USA and from other countries.
However a borderline significant tendency towards differences between native Israelis and all im
migrants was found.
The predictors of differences between Israelis and others included the following variables:
seniority, age, sex, academic rank, tenure (background variables), and assessment scores (achieve
ment variables). This series of variables was found to have a borderline significant contribution to
the distinction between immigrant and Israeli-born faculty members (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.94, df = 6,
Chi Square = 12.22, p = .057). As mentioned above, the following three variables were found to
contribute to the distinction between immigrants and native Israeli faculty:
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
* Seniority (F (1,204) = 4.30, p < .05): Immigrant faculty members have greater seniority 51
than native Israelis.
* Scoring on excellence criteria (F (1,204) = 4.45, p < 0.05): A greater percentage of immig
rant faculty members versus native Israelis satisfied the criteria for salary bonuses.
* Gender (F (1,204) = 3.75, p = 0.054): Among native Israeli faculty members there is a hig
her percentage of women than among immigrant faculty members.
* Departmental affiliation (χ² (12) = 63.66, p > .001): Whereas the majority of the native
Israelis and the faculty members born in the US work in the Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities, the great majority of FSU-born faculty members are affiliated with the faculties
of natural sciences and engineering.
The second part of the study examined relationships between faculty members’ assessment
scores and their country of origin, with the aim of analyzing differences between native Israeli and
immigrant faculty members.
Table 4. Breakdown of Faculty Members by Scores on Bonus Criteria and

Country of Origin.
Israel FSU USA Others Total

Satisfies criteria Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Yes 86 66.7 20 50 16 64 4 33.3 126 61.2
No 43 33.3 20 50 9 36 8 66.7 80 38.8
Total 129 100 40 100 25 100 12 100 206 100
Table IV and chi-square test results indicate a significant correlation between assessment sco
res and country of origin (χ² (2) = 7.74, p < .05). One-half (50%) of FSU-born faculty members met
the criteria for an annual bonus, as did 66.7% of faculty members from other overseas countries
(except the US); However only 36% of US-born faculty members and 33.3% of native Israelis met
the criteria for the bonus. In all faculty assessment categories, foreign-born faculty members scored
higher than Israeli-born faculty members.
Faculty members also are awarded points for participating in institutional, national or interna
tional academic committees (e.g. teaching committees, admission committees), and for serving as
a chairperson of such committees. Results of the analysis of variance indicated statistically signifi
cant differences in scores for academic administration by origin (F (3, 76) = 4.56, p < .01). Faculty
from the US and other countries received higher scores for academic administration than native
Israeli and FSU-born faculty members (see Table V).
Table 5. Means and Standard Deviations of Faculty Scores for Academic

Administration in 2007 by Country of Origin (maximal scoring: 10).
Origin Mean SD N
Israel 3.63 3.56 43
FSU 2.25 2.34 20
USA 7.67 9.75 9
Other 7.50 3.93 8
Total 4.05 4.69 80
Discussion and Conclusion
Most academic institutions in Europe and the US hire large numbers of foreign-born faculty
members. However, research on higher education has not paid adequate attention to documenting
the special issues and difficulties they face. This paper offers an attempt to contribute to our unders
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
52
tanding of the challenges and opportunities of foreign-born instructors in academic institutions.
We believe policy makers of academic institutions should take steps to facilitate the integration of
foreign-born instructors in academic institutions to benefit from their accomplishments in teaching,
research, and community service.
This study compared achievements of foreign-born and native-born faculty members in Isra
el’s largest public college. The study was based on 206 academic faculty members from the Ariel
University Center, where 37% of all faculty members are foreign born. These scholars might be
deemed a success story, as the research findings indicate that they have become well integrated at
the institution. Far from suffering from discrimination and inferior accomplishments, the immigrant
faculty members produced outstanding achievements. We believe a combination of the following
four factors has yielded good results for both faculty and the institution: (a) a fit between supply
and demand for faculty; (b) supportive social networks; (c) strong motivation; (d) the herd effect
and cultural superiority.
(a) Supply and demand

A major factor that may explain the impressive achievements of foreign-born faculty members
in Ariel University Center is the correlation between the high level of demand for experts in the
fields of natural sciences and engineering in Israel in general, and at AUC in particular, due to the
limited number of native-born experts in these areas. Thus, foreign-born faculty members, and es
pecially FSU immigrants, who specialized in these areas in their country of birth have faced little
competition in the workplace and have attained high academic ranks with little obstacles.
According to the Coordination and Budget Committee of Israel’s Council for Higher Educa
tion) CHE, 2008), Israel’s seven universities offers a total of 18,720 faculty positions. Three of
these universities are located in the geographic area of AUC. Between the 2004–2005 and 2005-6
academic years, the number of positions in these fields declined by 1.5% – 2.9% in two of the three
universities, while five jobs were added at the third. At the same time, the number of candidates for
these positions continued to increase steadily. It is impossible to estimate the number of applicants
for each academic position, since this information is classified. We can estimate this number by the
number of doctoral students who were awarded their doctoral degree. According to CHE figures
(2009), 450 people received a doctorate degree in 1989-9; in the 1999-2000 academic year this
number had risen to 800; in 2002–2003 999 doctorate degrees were awarded; and in 2003-2004, the
number rose to 1,135. In percentage terms, the annual increase in the number of doctorate degrees
awarded also rose from 5.9% in 1999–2000, to 13.6% in 2003–2004. The large number of PhDs cre
ates a large pool of potential applicants who compete for the limited number of university positions.
The scarcity of academic positions in Israeli academic institutions has increased migrant scientists’
motivation to excel.
This factor provides empirical support for the Pipeline Argument. This argument holds that
the lack of representation of ethnic minorities among professors in general, and particularly at the
rank of full professor, is simply a lack of qualified candidates (Sanderson et al., 2000). This argu
ment may suit American academia, and receives validation in Israel in which the opposite situation
occurs: a large pool of highly qualified candidates leads to the successful integration and even over
representation of immigrant professors.
Another factor that facilitates the entrance of immigrant professors to academe and their pro
motion within the academic institution is the positive stereotypes associated with Soviet culture in
Israel. In Israel, Russian culture is considered more prestigious by both veteran Israelis and FSU im
migrants. For example, findings a recent survey of FSU immigrants indicate that 62% of the respon
dents believe that Russian culture is superior to the Israeli culture, and 43% prefer to educate their
children according to Russian cultural values. Communication researchers have pointed to popular
satirical articles that portray native Israelis as uncultured boors who lack basic manners.
Native Israelis tend to attribute to FSU immigrants positive traits such as high-quality human
capital and a good level of education. A study by Peres and Lissitsa (2000) also found an apprecia
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
tion among native Israelis for FSU immigrants’ professional and educational capabilities. Accor 53
ding to this study, native Israelis believe that FSU immigrants excel in two fields – science and tech
nology, and discipline and working relations. A study by Schwartzwald and Tur-Kaspa (1997) also
found that immigrants are positively evaluated for their accomplishments and intellectual skills.
Moreover, studies by Gal (1994) and Vadana (1997) found that native Israelis have a positive evalu
ation of the immigrants’ contribution in two key fields – culture and the economy.
(b) Supportive social networks

As described in the literature review, a large number of foreign-born faculty members experien
ce negative feelings of loneliness and suffer from a lack of social support. It is reasonable to assume
that this emotional state adversely affects their psychological well-being and academic productivi
ty. In contrast to the poor social support for foreign-born faculty members in the US and Europe,
foreign-born faculty members in Israel live in dense social networks. Most are immigrants who
arrived with their nuclear families and/or friends from their homelands; They tend to live in clusters
of FSU immigrants, which provide social and emotional support. Three aspects of the social net
work can shed some light on the density of social networks of FSU immigrants: Satisfaction with
social relationships, frequency of social interactions, and number of family members. According to
data from the Social Survey of the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), immigrants express
moderate levels of satisfaction with their social and familial relationships; compared to the levels
expressed by their veteran counterparts, these levels are a little lower, though not significant, on all
measures (Bokek-Cohen & Lissitsa, 2009).
Policy makers in higher education institutions should enhance social support for foreign-born
faculty members and facilitate their emotional and psychological well-being. This support can be
given either formally, by a special office that is designed to provide appropriate support, or infor
mally, by assigning a mentor to each foreign- professor, to assist in the professor’s acculturation
process, help her become familiar with local values, and provide social support.
(c) Motivation
One of the most frequently cited differences between immigrants and natives is work moti
vation: Immigrants tend to be more motivated to work and to achieve success. In American and
European academe, the legal status of foreign scientists increases their motivation in their research
endeavors (Espenshade & Rodriguez, 1997), because US immigration laws prohibit off-campus em
ployment of professors. In contrast, immigrant professors in Israel automatically receive citizenship
according to Israel’s Law of Return and benefit from generous public assistance programs designed
to facilitate their social and economic integration.
Most foreign-born faculty members who arrive in the US plan to stay for a short term: They
view their academic experience outside their homeland as a means to boost academic career and
will help them secure a promotion when they return. Accordingly, their efforts at integration are a
reversible experience. In contrast, one of Israel’s main national goals is to attract returning Jews,
especially those who are highly educated, and to help them to integrate in society. Accordingly, fo
reign-born faculty members in Israel are immigrants with full citizenship, and the vast majority of
immigrants do not wish to return to their countries of origin. Accordingly, their motivation to excel
is very different, though not necessarily greater.
(d) The herd effect and cultural superiority

The Ariel University Center of Samaria was established in 1982 as a college in Kedumim,
which is a small village near the city of Ariel. Its academic history began as an extension of the
Bar-Ilan University in 1990 with the move to the Science Park in Ariel, where a rapid expansion of
the College’s programs took place. That year, a Research Institute for Mathematics and Physics was
founded, hiring a group of new immigrant researchers from the former USSR.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
54
It is well documented in organizational research that small organizations are more likely to rely
on informal methods of recruitment (Tanova, 2003). As the original members of the Research Insti
tute were FSU immigrants, it is assumed that the recruitment of additional scientists to the institute
was based on a “herd effect” whereby FSU immigrant scientists invited colleagues from their wide
social and professional network to join the institute.
Epstein and Hillman (1998) present their “herd model” for immigrants’ decisions in the host
country. They consider individuals making sequential decisions regarding emigration. Each indivi
dual receives a signal that conveys private information regarding preferred locations abroad, and
also observes the decisions made by previous emigrants. The herd behavior which ensues gives rise
to geographical concentration in host countries of immigrants from a single location. Herd effects
can be expected to have both positive and negative consequences. On one hand, immigrants bene
fit the social support of immigrants of their ethnic origin, including information and advice. On
the other hand, if there is a scarcity of jobs in a specific geographic location, immigrants are more
likely to suffer from unemployment or bad employment conditions because of the large supply of
candidates for each job.
A major strength of the present study is its quantitative data about scientists of the same ethnic
origin. Data from the large group of FSU-born professors enable us to identify common features
of this ethnic group rather than analyzing individual professors of diverse ethnic origins. If, for
example, discrimination were present against a particular ethnic group, data of the promotion and
ranks of all the professors of this group would enable us to explore this discrimination. Another
source of the advantage in studying scientists of the same ethnic origin is the possibility to control
for linguistic/cultural characteristics that are commonly shared among people of the same ethnic
background.
The measurements used in this study have strong advantages. The faculty bonus criteria do
not focus only on the number of journal articles published as the measure of research productivity;
rather, the quality of research and other outputs (e.g. patents and conference proceedings) are also
included. However, the publication score does not take into account the quality of journals and the
impact or quality of the published articles. Patents are a major research output, particularly in some
engineering fields (such as mechanical engineering and bio-engineering). Conference proceedings
(with peer review) are equally important in some disciplines (e.g. computer science and computer
engineering).
Nonetheless, the sample has two limitations. First, data was collected only from professors at
a single institution, the AUC. Although this offers some benefits (such as the similar organizational
culture and organizational design) in comparing research activity and performance, the sample is
not representative of the entire group of foreign-born scientists in Israel, and a broader sample is
needed that represent this group in all academic faculties in Israel. Secondly, the professors sampled
in this study are engaged in several disciplines. Considering the different nature of disciplines, this
diversity limits our ability to draw causal inferences available from the analysis. A sample of profes
sors in a single discipline might yield results with a much more powerful explanation of cause and
effect. For example, scientists of natural sciences and engineering tend to secure more funds than
other social researchers.
As for the measures used to evaluate foreign-born faculty members’ integration, the bonus cri
teria used in this study also includes faculty members’ success in securing research funding. This
performance indicator is problematic since it depends on the financial state of funds all over the
world. There are also time lags between fundraising and publication productivity. The survey data
lacks some important variables that could significantly improve the causal inference. Specifically,
the data lack information on professors’ level of language proficiency, cultural assimilation, and
reasons for immigrating to Israel.
Future research should be conducted using a qualitative approach in order to provide social,
emotional, and psychological insights to foreign-born faculty members’ experience in academy. Se
veral strong points of the study warrant replication. Our knowledge of the process of foreign-born
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
faculty members’ integration has been advanced by examining the context in which successful and 55
less successful instructors work. In doing so, this research has filled a gap in our understanding of
the factors that influence academic performance in general, and those of foreign-born faculty mem
bers in particular.
The literature review indicates that there is a contrast between goals of diversity (equal oppor
tunities) and the reality of minority representation in faculty ranks in many institutions. AUC repre
sents an academic institution in which these goals go hand in hand, to the benefit of all sides. Our
paper highlights several factors that reconcile rhetoric and reality. We hope our findings may help
policymakers of academic institutions establish a more racially and ethnically diverse faculty, to the
benefit of students, faculty, and the society at large.
References
Alberts, H. C. (2008). The challenges and opportunities of foreign-born instructors in the classroom.
Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32(2), 189–203.
Altbach, P.G. (Ed.) (2000). The changing academic workplace: Comparative perspectives. Chestnut
Hill, Mass: Boston College.
Bokek-Cohen, Y., & Lissitsa, S. (2009). Spousal influence strategies in the purchase decision process:
an ecological perspective, working paper.
Bradford, C. (1990). Why droves of foreign profs toil in U.S. groves. The Wall Street Journal, March
29, A12.
Chiang, S. Y. (2009). Dealing with communication problems in the instructional interactions bet
ween international teaching assistants and American college students. Language and Education,
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t794297816~tab=issueslist~branches=23-
v2323(5), 461–478.
Collins, J. M. (2008). Coming to America: Challenges for faculty coming to United States’ universities.
Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32(2), 179–188.
Corley , E. A., & Sabharwal, M. (2007). Foreign-born academic scientists and engineers: producing mo
re and getting less than their U.S.-born peers? Research in Higher Education, 48(8), 909–940.
Coordination and Budget Committee, Council for Higher Education (2008), data on academic positions.
Retrieved from: http://www.che.org.il/download/files/vatat-3_1072.pdf.
Council for Higher Education (2009). Number of recipients of doctorate degrees. Retrieved from: http://
www.che.org.il/articles/article.aspx?ArticleId=2.
Epstein, G. S., & Hillman, A. L., (1998). Herd effects and migration, CEPR Discussion Papers 1811,
C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
Espenshade, T. J., & Rodriguez, G. (1997). Completing the Ph.D: Comparative performances of U.S.
and foreign students, Social Science Quarterly, 78(2), 593–605.
Finkelstein, M. J., Seal, R. K., & Schuster, J.H., (1998). The new academic generation: A profession in
transformation. London: John Hopkins University Press.
Freeman, R. B. (2005). Does globalization of the scientific/engineering workforce threaten U.S. econo
mic leadership? NBER Working Paper No. W11457.
Gal, R., (1994). A public survey regarding the attitude of the Jewish population in Israel toward the im
migration and the immigrants. Tel Aviv: Pori Institute.
Gandal, N., Hanson, G. H., Matthew, M. J., & Slaughter, J. (2004). Technology, trade, and adjustment
to immigration in Israel, European Economic Review, 48, 403–428.
Gillepsie, K. H. (ed.), Hilsen, L. R., & Wadsworth, E. C. (Ass. eds.) (2002). A guide to faculty develop
ment. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
56
Gwynne, R. N., & Kay, C., (1999). Latin America Transformed: Globalization and Modernity. Califor
nia: Arnold Publications.
Hearn, J. C. (1999). Pay and performance in the university: An examination of faculty salaries. The Re
view of Higher Education, 22(4), 391–410.
Heylin, M., (1992) Foreign-born Chemists Ponder Career Prospects, Chemical Engineering News, 37–
38.
Khafagi, B., (1990). Influence of international students on the U.S. educational system and professional
practice. Civil Engineering – ASCE, 60(11), 67–69.
Lee, S. M., (2002). Do Asian-American faculty face a glass ceiling in higher education? American Edu
cational Research Journal, 39(3), 695–724 .
Lee, S., (2004). Foreign-born scientists in the United States – Do they perform differently than nati
ve-born scientists? Doctoral dissertation presented to the School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of
Technology.
Lin, Z., Pearc, R., & Wang, W. (2009). Imported talents: demographic characteristics, achievement and
job satisfaction of foreign born full time faculty in four-year American colleges. Higher Education,
57(6), 703–721.
Mamiseishvili , K., & Rosser, V. J., (2010). International and citizen faculty in the united states: An exa
mination of their productivity at research universities. Research in Higher Education, 51(1), 88–107.
Manrique, C. G., & Manrique, G. G. (1999). The multicultural or immigrant faculty in American society.
New York: The Edwin Mellen Press.
Marvasti, A., (2005). U.S. Academic institutions and perceived effectiveness of foreign-born faculty.
Journal of Economic Issues, 39, 39–54.
Menachem, G., & Geist, A. (1999). Language, employment, and affiliation with Israel among immig
rants from the CIS in the ‘90s. Megamot: Journal for the Behavioral Sciences, 40(1), 132–148. (in
Hebrew).
Mervis, J. (2004). Many origins, one destination, Science, 304, 1277.
Mervis, J. (2004), Perceptions and Realities of the Workplace, Science, 304(5675), 1285–1286.
Mey-Ami, N. (2008). Integration of immigrants in industry, business, and science. Submitted to the com
mittee for immigration, absorption, and the Diaspora. (in Hebrew).
Micceri, T., (2003). Evidence suggesting that salaries relate negatively to the percentage of underrep
resented minorities and females at a metropolitan university, Paper presented at the Association for
Institutional Research Annual Forum, Tampa, FL, May 18–21, 2003.
MOIA (2008). Data on immigrant scientists for the years 1989-1999. Ministry website: www.moia.gov.
il/Moia_he/Statistics/Stat+89-99, Retrieved on January 10, 2009. (in Hebrew).
Myers, S. L., & Turner, C. S. (2004). The effects of Ph.D. supply on minority faculty representation.
American Economic Review, 94(2), 296–301.
Ngwainmbi , E. K., (2006). The struggles of foreign-born faculty. Diverse Issues in Higher Education,
23(10), 28.
Olsen, D., Maple, S. A., & Stage, F. K. (1995). Women and minority job satisfaction. The Journal of
Higher Education, 66(3), 267–293.
Park, P. (2001). Managing the scientific multitudes. The Scientists, 15(19), 31.
Peres, Y., and Lissitsa, S. (2000). FSU immigrants – identity development and integration processes – re
search report, Yitzhak Rabin Center for the Study of Israeli Society.
Quazi, R. M., Quddus, M., Debnath, S., & Tandon, S. (2004). Foreign-born professorate in American
institutions: a case study. Paper presented at IABPAD conference, Tunica, Mississippi, March 2004.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Sanderson, A. R., Dugoni, B. D., Hoffer, T., & Myers, S. L. (2000). Doctorate recipients from united 57
states universities: Summary report 1999. National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chica
go.
Stephan, P. E., & Levin, S.G., (2001). Exceptional contributions to US science by the foreign-born and
foreign-educated. Population Research and Policy Review, 20, 59–79.
Tanova, C. (2003). Firm size and recruitment: staffing practices in small and large organizations in North
Cyprus. Career Development International, 8(2), 107–114.
Tarquinio, G. T., Dittus, R. S., Byrne, D. W., Kaiser, A./ & Neilson, E.G. (2003). Effects of performan
ce-based compensation and faculty track on the clinical activity, research portfolio, and teaching mission
of a large department of Medicine. Academic Medicine, 78(7), 690–701.
Vadana, Y. (1997). Attitudes of the Israeli public toward immigrants from the Former Soviet Union, Re
search Report, Shvakim Panorama Public Opinion Institute (in Hebrew).
Wadsworth, E.C. (Ed.) (1994). To improve the academy resources for faculty. Instructional and Organi
zational Development, 13, pp. 109–120.
Zilberg N. (1995). In-group humor of immigrants from the Former Soviet Union to Israel, Israel Social
Science Research, 10(1), pp. 1–22.
Adviced by Gabi Liberman, Ariel University Center of Samaria, Israel
Ya’arit Bokek-Cohen Ph.D. in Sociology, Lecturer at Ariel University Center of Samaria, Israel.
p.o.b. 3, Ariel, Israel.
Phone: 972-50-2498585.
E-mail: ybokek@gmail.com
Website: http://www.yosh.ac.il/
Nitza Davidovich Head, Academic Development & Assessment Unit, Ari’el University Centre, Ari’el Isra
el.
E-mail: d.nitza@ariel.ac.il
Website: http://www.ariel.ac.il
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
58
REFLECTIVE LEARNING MODELS IN

THE CONTEXT OF HIGHER EDUCATION:
CONCEPT ANALYSIS
Remigijus Bubnys,
Siauliai University, Šiauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: rbubnys@gmail.com
Vilma Žydžiūnaitė
Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius, Lithuania
E-mail: vilma.zydziunaite@mruni.eu
Abstract
The article presents reflective learning models in higher education. While presenting the reflecting pos
sibilities in teaching / learning in higher education, researchers refer to Kolb’s model, which does not
elaborate the reflection as an essential process and feature by applying it in higher education. The re
searchers view reflecting / reflective learning as a basic for successful learners’ activity analysis and
learning from one’s own experience. Research focus in the article is conceptual relationship between
reflective learning models and context of higher education. The aim of research is to substantiate the
relationship between reflective learning and context of higher education by comparing reflective lear
ning models and illustrating possibilities of implementation of reflective learning in higher education.
Research design: conceptual modeling. Method: conceptual analysis. Research outcomes: integration of
models while organizing teaching/learning at the higher education enhances the interrelationship betwe
en learning experience and reflective activity. Reflective learning as a continuous educational process at
the individual and collective levels encompasses the content, process, premises, and is an endless loopy
process. Such process starts with reflection for action, orientation towards links of new information and
continues with reflection in and on action.
Key words: reflection, reflective learning, higher education, concept analysis
Introduction
Scientific society has paid a lot attention to training and development of young specialists at
a higher education institution, e. g. teachers applied different teaching methods, modelled educa
tional strategies, emphasised students’ learning by separating it from teaching, etc. During most
decades, researches of education science have been directed to the analysis of knowledge rende
ring, which is done by more experienced people to people who know less (Strauss et al., 2002). At
present implementation and development of reflective learning in the context of higher education
Remigijus BUBNYS, Vilma ŽYDŽIŪNAITĖ. Reflective Learning Models in the Context of Higher Education:
Concept Analysis PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
is the common aim of most educational programmes at higher education institutions. Reflective le 59
arning and development of students’ reflection more often become the focus of research: reflective
practice of studies in the context of transformation of higher education paradigm (Baranauskienė,
1999, 2000, 2003), students’ empowerment for motivated studies by referring to problem-based
teaching and reflections (Žydžiūnaitė, 2001), development of self-reflection skills (Ivanauskienė,
Liobikienė, 2005), teacher’s reflection in an academic situation (Kepalaitė, 2005), modelling of
meta-cognitive strategies at university studies (Zuzevičiūtė, 2005), reflective teachers and learning
activity (Stanikūnienė, 2006; Jucevičienė, 2006). The foreign scientists analyse the phenomenon
of reflective learning more thoroughly (Boyd, Fales, 1983; Usher, 1985; Atkins, Murphy, 1993;
Calderhead, Gates, 1993; Loughran, 1996; Cowan, 1998; Brockbank, McGill, 1998; Moon, 1999;
Rogers, 2001; Ramsey, 2003; Osterman, Kottkamp, 2004; Johns, 2004; Boud et al., 2005, etc.). In
the works of the above-mentioned authors the concept of reflective learning is most often used to
define teaching / learning, during which reflection is applied as one of the main means to analyse
the experience. However, comparison of different reflection models and analysis of its practical
application by substantiating it are missing because this would facilitate their direct transformation
to educational process of learners in higher education both in theoretical and practical studies. Du
ring reflective learning it is sought to identify, assess and change the essential beliefs and premises,
theories, which directly influence actions. Knowledge cannot be simply transformed. In order the
learning would take place, it is important to be motivated to learn and be active in projecting lear
ning direction through advancements.
The character and organization of research on reflection modelling and implementing into curri
culum (Loughran, 1996; Cowan, 1998; Moon, 1999; Johns, 2004; Boud et al., 2005) is determined
by political and social context of a country, traditions and aims of a higher education institution. The
analysis of most works (Whitaker, 1995; Moon, 1999; Jarvis, 1999, 2001; Sugerman et al., 2000;
Teresevičienė, Gedvilienė, 2001; Ivanauskienė, Liobikienė, 2005, etc.) allow stating that coherence
of reflective learning concept to the conception of Kolb’s (1984) experience-based learning (which
emphasises the importance of learners’ experience in educational process) dominates. However, it
does not elaborate reflection as essential element in learning from own experience. Such concept of
reflective learning can be treated as insufficient in disclosing possibilities of reflection application
in higher education.
Research question: What are the key stages of reflecting and reflection in higher education?
Research focus is conceptual relationship between reflective learning models and context of
higher education.
The aim is to substantiate the relationship between reflective learning and context of higher
education by comparing reflective learning models and illustrating possibilities of implementation
of reflective learning in higher education.
Research Methodology
Sample
Selection of scientific literature resources had been criterion-based. The criterions were the
following: (1) resource should be scientific (based on research or conceptual evidence and publis
hed as article, monograph, PhD dissertation or research report); (2) keywords for selection were
reflection, reflecting, higher education, learning, teaching by integrating them as a complex words,
where reflection or reflecting were the leading terms, e.g. reflection and higher education, reflecting
and higher education, reflection and learning, etc.; (3) resource could be written in Lithuanian or
English languages.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
60
Method
In this article as a method was employed a review of the literature (Stumme et al., 1998; Tay
lor, 2010). A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to reader what
knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic. As a piece of writing, the literature review
is defined by a guiding concept (e.g., research aim, the problem the author discusses). It is not just
a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries. The performed steps of the review
of the literature were following (Taylor, 2010): (1) organizing the literature selection and review by
relating it directly to the research question the author develops; (2) synthesizing results into a sum
mary of what is and is not known; (3) identifying areas of controversy in the literature; (4) raising
questions that need further research.
A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarizing one piece
of literature after another (Stumme et al., 1998; Taylor, 2010).
Reflection – the Premise for Educational Transformation of Experience into

Learning
Philosophy of learning based on reflection begins from everyday experience at a higher educa
tion institution. Reflection, which can strengthen learning and corporate personal as well as profes
sional efficiency help to outlive and to give a sense of experience; thus analysis of experience has to
be one of the main goals of learning at a higher education institution. Reflection activates learning,
self-analysis, as well as solution of problems. It is important and valuable both at the beginning of
experience accumulation as well as later, i.e. when obtained information is being systemized and
by analysing own psychic processes and states that formed during learning. The ability to speak for
oneself and others what we have experienced allows reacting and rewriting scenarios of everyday
life; it enables forming schemes and narratives of mental reference, which give meaning to our and
other lives (Schratz, Walker, 1998). Modern paradigm of learning and its implementation in higher
education transform the settled viewpoint to knowledge production when students ‘are only passi
ve status quo knowledge recipients’ (Baranauskienė, 2003, p. 61). A learner when interacting with
environment on the basis of his / her previous experience creates his / her individual knowledge. It
is not important how distinctly and precisely the rendered knowledge will be related to possessed
beliefs and understanding by creating own personal implication (Jérôme, 2006).
Reflection should be integrated into entire education process by not separating it from self-edu
cation aims. Reconstruction of experience is central, as well as it is a continuous aim. In order lear
ners to have achieved this aim, they should reflect by analyzing their values, attitudes and emotions,
which in their turn transform the understanding as well as give new meanings for ideas by relating
them to previous knowledge and obtained information. Reflection, when learning from own expe
rience, stimulates taking of responsibility for one’s actions and decisions. It is an active creation
of information, its revision and creation of new theories. In acquiring only theoretical knowledge,
the ability to learn by oneself is lost, and this means that reflective abilities do not form and ‘the
essence of a reflective method is forgotten, i.e. ‘learning is not a result but a process [...] when we
reflectively think over not only positive but also negative experience we understand our weaknesses
and strengths’ (Baranauskienė, 1999, p. 65–66). Jarvis (1999), contrasting impulsive and reflective
activity of a learner, states that reflecting students are subject to think over more alternative strate
gies before decision-making in theoretical and practical studies at a higher education institution. Im
pulsive students, having approached problem-solution, try it. However, they think it spontaneously
do not reflect in projecting possible choices as well as performing their activity.
Reflection should be related to the ability to learn life-long as well as be considered as one of
the most essential premises for development of ability to learn, which creates conditions to clearly
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
realize own experience, to disassociate from every day events and usual reality of things. Possibi 61
lities become one of the most important education aims, which induce feeling, experiencing, and
understanding. Reflective learning is transformational, enabling students for their personal unrest
ricted independent activity by analyzing own experience, habits of learning, as well as relating
theoretical and practical knowledge, developing abilities to identify and solve problems, changing
own attitudes and becoming more tolerant (Morrison, 1996). Reflection as component in reflective
learning emerges from professional experience as well as it involves reflective thinking in forming
a situation when it is referred to personal system of viewpoints, attitudes and values, constantly lea
ving an open possibility re-form. Reflective thinking is closely related to critical thinking, as Lipins
kienė (2002) states; the latter is the basis of reflective thinking. The attention should be paid so that
Schön (1991) calls this activity as reflective practice, which is a ‘key’ attribute of reflective learning.
Following Schön’s ideas, Barnett (1992), Brockbank et al. (2002) state that all students of a higher
education institution can exercise reflective practice, which, according to Balčiūnienė (2006), cre
ates conditions to observe the change of students’ development as well as provides teachers with
new insights how to improve the study subject being delivered and to strive for teaching / learning
quality. Alongside it is the process of reproduction of past experiences, individual expression and
transformation of professional knowledge to specific situations and contexts (Yip, 2006). Reflective
learning is an active activity and interest is not only in means and technical efficiency, but also in
learning aims and its impact (Pollard, 2006). The analysis of scientific sources (Schön, 1991; Calder
head, Gates, 1993; Loughran, 1996; Brockbank, McGill, 1998; Moon, 1999; Osterman, Kottkamp,
2004) Boud et al., 2005) showed that by reflective learning a student is empowered to coordinate
theoretical and practical knowledge, to create own personal theories and understanding about future
professional activity at a higher education institution.
Models of Reflective Learning
Different models of reflection for analysis of experience are offered in scientific literature sour
ces. Different authors mention the latter as the models of learning from own experience, reflective
thinking / learning or activity. In planning students’ learning at a higher education institution it is
possible to use successfully schemes of these models when formulating assignments for theoretical
lectures, seminars and practical classes, as well as when organizing students’ independent work or
practical classes. In analyzing different models of reflective learning and their stages, most authors
point out inter-coordination of practical knowledge and its relation in this process (Shön, 1987,
1991; Baranauskienė, 1999; Sugerman et al., 2000; Jarvis et al., 2004; Ivanauskienė, Liobikienė,
2005). Theoretical and practical knowledge are two inseparable parts of cognition process: theory
allows finding new ways for practice, and practice contributes to improvement of practice (Šernas,
2006). Thus, in any stage of own performed activity, learning / teaching and reflections, theoreti
cal basic of sciences and practical as well as true-life experiences always entangle. Rogers (2001),
having performed the critical analysis of reflection concept and its application in higher education,
draw a conclusion that scientists use complicated terms by striving to define reflective processes:
it is reflection in action, meta-cognitive reflection, reflective learning, critical reflection, reflective
thinking. Some authors use the term of reflection alternately with terms of introspection (Sherman,
1994, in Rogers, 2001) and cogitation (Holland, 2000, in Rogers, 2001). The analysis of concepts
discloses important common features in defining reflective process. Reflection is a cognitive pro
cess or activity (Dewey, 1933; Shön, 1987; Loughran, 1996; Cowan, 1998). Alongside the cognitive
aspect Boud et al. (2005) point out the importance of experienced emotions in reflective learning.
Dewey (1933, 1938) is recognised as the main creator of the reflection concept (Hatton, Smith,
2006). Dewey (1933) defines learning as dialectic process, which integrates experience and ideas,
observations and activity. ‘A routine action’ contrasted to ‘a reflective action’, where the latter in
volves the frame to constantly assess and develop oneself ‘a routine action’ is static, not resounding
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
62
to changing priorities and circumstances (Pollard, 2006). The concept of reflection in the Dewey’s
model is compared to a research process. Learners reflectively think over and analyse their activity
by checking the hypotheses they formulated (Ramsey, 2003). Reflective learning is understood as
problem solution, a way of thinking in order to solve an issue, which contains active convergence,
as well as careful coordination of thoughts. Dewey’s main ideas are fundamental and show that re
flection can be treated as active and deliberative cognition process, which consists of the sequence
of interrelated thoughts by considering the reasoning beliefs and knowledge. In general, reflective
thinking solves practical problems and it allows doubting and addling before making possible deci
sions.
Atkins, Murphy (1993), Moon (1999), having performed the analysis of the different reflection
processes presented by several authors (Boyd, Fales, 1983; Gibbs, 1998), distinguish three main
stages that are repeated in all models. The first stage of reflective process is emergence of unplea
sant feelings and thoughts due to the experience being outlived and the need to solve the situation
that caused these experiences. This emerges from understanding that in certain situation it is not
enough to explain what has happened through applied knowledge. Boyd, Fales (1983) name this as
the stage of emergence of internal discomfort feeling. The second stage is critical and constructive
analysis of a problem or specific situation as well as own feelings, which involves possessed and
necessary new knowledge to solve a problem. The third stage is development of new viewpoint to
a situation by projecting possible ways for acting at particular future situations. In this stage emotio
nal and cognitive changes, which lead to behaviour changes, take place.
The model of reflective learning by Boud et al. (2005) most thoroughly illustrates the process
of reflection on action when experience is turned into learning. Three main stages of reflection are
distinguished in the model: return to experience, attention to feelings and repeated assessment of
experience (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Reflection process (According to Boud et al., 2005).
Boud et al. (2005) state that one of the ways to stimulate learning is to strengthen interrela
tionship of learning experience and reflective activity, which forms by dedicating some time for
reflection in learning activity. Firstly it is sought by dialogue when thoughts are expressed and the
acquired experience is shared within a group; secondly, by individual writing where events and ex
perienced reactions are described. Positive states stimulate reflection, for example, a successfully
performed assignment, which earlier seemed to be overwhelming. This can stimulate to assess other
assignments repeatedly as well as to plan other experiences. Personal synthesis of knowledge, integ
ration and validation of personal knowledge, new emotional state or decision to get involved into a
future activity can become a result of reflection.
At the first stage – return to experience – the experience is a new reflected and analysed by at
tempting to reproduce and understand what reactions as well as reasons induced to behave one way
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
or another. Identification, denomination as well as analysis of the feelings caused by the experience 63
are important at this stage. Learners who do not observe and do not analyse emotional dimension
of their experience can harm the value of their reflection in limiting it by any aspect of reaction to
environment and thus creating artificial obstacles for their reaction to experience.
At the second stage – attention to feelings – two aspects become important: employments of
positive feelings and elimination of inadequate ones. Subject to circumstances and intentions it is
important to analyse own emotional experiences by finding ways to avoid them or to maintain and
strengthen them if the latter are positive. In experiencing positive feelings both cognitive and emo
tional areas of learning are being developed. It is important to pay attention to the impact of the
processes taking place in this stage upon experience learning as well as to how an individual could
learn to handle own reflective activities (Boud et al., 2005). At the third stage – repeated assessment
of experience – once more it is getting deeper into experience by relating new knowledge to the pos
sessed and by integrating the first one into learner’s conceptual scheme. Such learning is applied in
order to check its authenticity and to plan further activity, during which this learning is implemented
in professional activity. At the last stage – results – four aspects of reflection, which can improve re
sults, are distinguished: association – relation of new data to already known; integration – search of
relations among these data; validation – identification of authenticity of emerged ideas and feelings;
assimilation – assumption of knowledge for oneself. In summary, it is possible to state that in this
model the reflection process can take place consistently. However a lot of other cycles, important
elements related to repetitions of especially important components can emerge as well.
The model of experience learning by Kolb (1984) is the most popular and is applied in the
practice of a higher education institution. Cowan (1998) points out that the model usually is refer
red to Kolb (1984); however the origin of the model is attached to Lewin (1951). The Kolb model
is effective in the cases if one is able to get involved into solution of most different situations com
pletely openly and without preconceived attitudes as well as to acquire new experience; to observe
oneself on the outside, to consider own experience in most different aspects, to reflect it; to form
concepts and principles that generalize what has been observed; to apply theoretical knowledge to
solve problems as well as to accumulate new experience (Linkaitytė, 2003). Learning is understood
as four-stage cycle: relevant experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and acti
ve experimentation. These abilities involve two dimensions of cognitive development and learning:
relevant abstract dimension and active / reflective dimension. The essence of the model is learning
cycle when experience is turned into concepts (theories, conceptions), which in their turn into gui
delines to choose new experiences. Direct relevant experience is the basis of reflective observation.
Learning material consisting of different information, facts or events is conveyed to students. Iden
tification of a problem is the main factor, which induces moving forward by the cycle to reflective
observation. Scientists (Moon, 1999) discuss the importance of processes of particular experience,
when experience can be interpreted as physical involvement into situation – ‘pure experience’ – le
arning in practice or as conceptual material, which has been perceived at a lecture. It is recognized
that experience in learning process should be stated as sustainability of ‘pure’ and conceptual mate
rial, i.e. conditions to transform conceptual experience into pure experience would be created. The
stage of reflective observation in the Kolb’s cycle is essential because students reflect their activity
by collecting information to expand and to understand experience; they analyse their behaviour,
viewpoints, aims, feelings and experiences. Other (e.g.: Boyd, Fales, 1983; John, 2004) models of
reflective / experience learning use the concept of reflection. In the stage of abstract conceptualiza
tion a student elaborates new ideas by projecting the perspectives, which would help more effecti
vely solve problems in the future: theoretical and practical knowledge are related, new information
and ideas are integrated into practice (Lipinskienė, 2002). The stage of active experimentation – is
application and checking of new ways, premises and ideas by active and purposeful acting at particu
lar practical situations. Kolb’s (1984) model of learning from experience, called learning cycle, be
gins with primary experience and after reflective observation and conceptualization the idea, which
can stimulate experimentation and new experience, is being formed. According to King (2002), in
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
64
the cycle of learning from experience it is possible to identify three different types of reflection: re
flection in action, reflection on action, and reflection for action (see Figure 2).
Reflection in
Action
Concrete
Experience
Active Reflective
Experimentation O bservation
Abstract
Reflection for Conceptualisation Reflection on
Figure 2. Integration of experience learning and reflection models

(According to King, 2002).
Schön’s (1987) reflection in action can be related to a particular experience, which expresses
reflection that reflects implicit / tacit knowledge applied in activity by transferring experience. New
ly outlived experiences as well as future inevitable experience are considered. It involves implicit
/ tacit thoughts and their analysis. This is reflection-oriented to more innovative or at least delibera
tely thought-out activity. Though it can become the reason of active experimentation at the place,
reflection in action has great importance, but it is least presumptive that it will be referred when
learning and performing such assignments as reflective writing. Schön’s (1987) reflection on action
is the first stage of creation of meaning after emergence of experience. In fact one turns back to the
action of previous experience, tries to analyse and to sum up the previous experience and thus to ma
ke generalizations, which will be useful in the future. Such reflection can also manifest in the stage
of reflective observation where it fluctuates from substantiation of experience importance to iden
tification of problems or questions that emerge from experience as well as in the stage of abstract
conceptualization, where concepts and hypotheses are being formulated and being applied. Reflec
tion for action (Cowan, 1998) is naturally indicated at the cycle’s stage of active experimentation
where meanings of ideas, conceptions are being checked, as well as types of problems, which were
hoped to have been solved more effectively than in the past, were cogitated. This is the reflection,
which determines priorities for future learning by identifying needs, objectives and goals, which
afterwards will remain in the memory of a learner. However it can also manifest in the cycle of hy
potheses’ formation, i.e. in the cycle of abstract conceptualisation. These two reflection forms – re
flection on action and reflection for action – can most successfully be implemented and applied for
development of students’ reflective competence as well as stipulate the reflective learning process
at a higher education institution.
In summary it is possible to state that in the model of learning from experience reflection is a
component of certain sequence, which combines certain experience and approaching generalization.
According to Schön (1987), reflection (it does not matter which variation is chosen) is unfinished acti
vity even though for short time withdrawn from an action by possessing outcomes that really are not
predicted in advance, but they are thought-out during the process and which existence is not necessary
for an action to take place. At a higher education institution, when implementing the latter model for
theoretical and practical education of students, specific experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization and active experimentation is ‘yet implemented hard enough’ at traditional universi
ty studies (Alifanovienė, 2005, p. 51). Kolb (1984), according to Cowan (1998), does not discuss the
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
character of observation and reflection stage in detail by disclosing the very reflection process and its 65
elements; thus this model is often mentioned as not thorough enough and not disclosing the very re
flection process, which is almost the most important in the cycle of learning from experience. Cowan
(1998) also states that endless movement of the Kolb’s cycle is oppressive and misleading from the
beginning, which is hard to be identified. Thus in order to present a clearer scheme of analysis, he
presented the diagram, which integrates Schön’s concepts and cohesions postulated by Kolb. This
diagram is a substantiated practical model, which explains or at least predicts how learning in prac
tice can take place and be influenced by it (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Reflection diagram (According to Cowan, 1998).
Cowan (1998) elaborates that every student when learning possesses very important previous
experience. Its part is general ‘true-life’ experience, which students acquired by learning at school
before studies at a higher education institution. A wide spectrum of previous situations of learning
acquired in studying at university makes a significant part of experience. When learning, students
reflect their previous experience by getting ready for activity, i.e. they perform a specific assign
ment or solve a problem (reflection for action). During reflection for action (see Figure 3, Loop
A) students are stimulated to analyse and reflect their activity, which is well thought (Loop B). Stu
dents strive to relate new information to what they have already learnt, and, having analysed it, to
use what can be necessary to perform a new activity. When acting, it can be suggested to analyse
and to try necessary ideas, which a teacher or colleagues-students present and which emerge from
corporate group reflection experience. In transitional reflection in action (Loop C), however, it is in
principle analytical though an evaluative element is envisaged. The essence of analytical reflection
– is to find answers to the following questions: ‘How have I to do it?’ and ‘How should I do it?’
Reflection is valuable namely due to its closeness to an action. During it, classification and genera
lization takes place by defining what has been learnt. Advantages, difficulties and their reasons, the
need for help at different stages of assignment accomplishment, as well as limitations, which have
to be eliminated, are identified and named. The latter sequence of the Cowan’s (1998) diagram cor
responds two cycles of Kolb’s (1984) learning from experience: reflective observation and abstract
conceptualization. In the next stage (Loop D) action-consolidating material, which is offered by
teachers, is considered. Learners, by using the provided material, plan and apply the offered ideas
in practice, and this is the essential moment in this stage of activity, which corresponds the cycle of
abstract conceptualisation in the Kolb’s (1984) model. Students are motivated to correct drawbacks,
which they have observed in learning, by trying to consolidate reflective analysis of achieved pro
gress, but yet without final reflection of own activity performance. Though distantly but students
already face the opportunity to apply new acquired knowledge in practice (Loop E). This is reflec
tion activity concentrated to what every student have learnt about learning, how he / she reflected
his / her thinking because it is being oriented to reflection in comparison to former activity and
thinking at previous loops. In this loop the intervened learning and development is identified and
defined, i.e. such learning, which has to be continued and the knowledge acquired during reflection
has be applied for learning process in the future. A possibility that the last loop of action reflection
is always accessible; if the need or aim occurs, reflection for action can change. If it happened, a
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
66
learner would move to another sequence, in which his / her activity would previous experience in
tegrating into the next sequence. Thus the Cowan’s (1998) diagram is not closed and final, opposite
than the Kolb’s (1984) model. When thinking reflectively, it is important not to make preconceived
decisions based only on own experience; to the contrary, it is necessary to critically estimate a situ
ation (event), to give a sense and to assess it by considering new theories, as well as identifying its
strengths and weaknesses. Johns (2004) formulates a lot of questions, which help to follow certain
consistency in reflection process, in the model of structured reflection (see Figure 4).
Figure 4. Model of structurized reflection (by Johns, 2004).
The questions make five separate blocks (description of a situation, reflection, alternative stra
tegies, influencing factors, learning), which are consistently ranged one by one. Four blocks of the
questions are integrated into the entirety by the fifth block – learning. Learning results are identified
not only in analysing and searching for an answer to the questions of the last block, but also they
emerge in performing the description of a situation.
The use of models or schemes for inducement of students’ reflective learning is not answering
particular questions, but it is support to disclose the acquired experience by relating theoretical and
practical knowledge, by analysing experience and by identifying what has been learnt. As the mo
dels are descriptive but not normative, it is meaningful to treat them as filters of the process, which
allow seeing what can be learnt. Integration of models’ schemes in organizing students’ teaching /
learning at a higher education institution induces students’ reflective learning, as well as it streng
thens the interrelationship of learning experience and reflective activity, which forms in dedicating
enough time for reflection in learning activity.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Conclusions 67
Reflection oriented to integration of theory and practice as well as contemplation of learning ac
tivity at theoretical and practical studies creates premises for improvement of ‘structures’ of the pos
sessed knowledge and understanding of learners, which consist of interrelated and interdependent
dimensions. The first dimension is integral and involves coordination of possessed true-life practi
cal experience and theoretical knowledge acquired at university. The second dimension creates con
ditions for educational environment and activity being performed to reflect as well as involves ele
ments of theoretical and practical learning contexts. The third dimension involves interactions with
participants of educational process and directly influences students’ involvement into reflection.
The latter dimension creates premises for the fourth dimension to form – formation of professional
identity of a student as future specialist and his / her autonomy when studying.
Reflective learning as conception is transformational process of future specialists at a higher
education institution being actualised at theoretical studies in two levels: personal (individual re
flection) level by reflecting theoretical material of learning and by creating individual knowledge
related to outlived experience; interpersonal level (corporate reflection) with teachers initiating and
supporting reflection processes in providing and getting feedback as well as colleagues-students
together reflecting outlived experience. Reflection is a continuous process, which is inseparable
from the transfer of theoretical knowledge in practical studies by acting individually and reflecting
activities being performed in interactions with colleagues, teachers-practitioners, children, teachers
and relatives.
Reflective learning as continuous educational process taking place at individual and corporate
levels involves content (analysis of a problem / situation by projecting action ways and strategies),
process (choice of problem-solution strategies and assessment of their effectiveness), premises (ana
lysis of personal premises oriented to decision-making) and it is endless loop process beginning
from reflection for action by orienting to links of new information in reflecting with what is known
as well as projecting what can be necessary to perform new activity. This process continues in the
activity when a person reflects present situation as well as orients to difficulties and their reasons by
estimating the need for help at different stages of assignment accomplishment, identifying strengths
and weaknesses of actions being performed. Reflection on action continues after the activity when
a learner retrospectively reflects and assesses acquired new understanding by reflecting in action as
well as what he / she can apply in his / her further learning.
References
Alifanovienė, D. (2005). Refleksyvinė socialinio pedagogo praktika. Socialinių pedagogų praktikos

(pp. 48–51). Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.
Atkins, S., Murphy, K. (1993). Reflection: a review of the literature. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18,
1188–1192.
Balčiūnienė, I. (2006) Refleksyvių metodų analizė ir įvertinimas dirbant pagal kooperuotų studijų progra
mą. Jaunųjų mokslininkų darbai, 4(11), 44–53.
Baranauskienė, R. (1999). Reflektyvaus mąstymo metodo taikymas rengiant mokytojus universitete.

Šiuolaikinės specialiosios ir socialinės pedagogikos problemos: mokslinės konferencijos medžiaga
(pp. 65–66). Šiauliai: Šiaulių universitetas.
Baranauskienė, R. (2000). Reflektyvaus studijų modelio ypatumai mokymosi kontekste. Socialiniai

mokslai: Edukologija, 5(26), 60–67.
Baranauskienė, R. (2003). Anglų kalbos mokytojų studijų reflektyvioji praktika-aukštojo mokslo para
digmos virsmo ir jo raiškos įgalinimo veiksnys. Socialiniai mokslai, 2(39), 61–69.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
68
Barnett, R. (1992). Improving Higher Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Boyd, E., Fales, A. (1983). Reflective Learning: Key to learning from experience. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology, 23(2), 99–117.
Boud, D., Keogh, R., Walker, D. (2005). Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning. London and
New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Brockbank, A., McGill, I. (1998). Facilitating Reflective Learning in Higher Education. Buckingham:
SRHE and Open University.
Brockbank, A., McGill, I., Beech, N. (2002). Reflective Learning in Practice. Burlington: Gower Pub
lishing.
Calderhead, J., Gates, P. (1993). Conceptualizing in Teacher Development. London, Washington, D. C.:
The Falmer Press.
Cowan, J. (1998). On Becoming an Innovative University Teacher. Buckingham: Open University.
Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think. New York: D. C. Heath.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience in Education. New York: Collier Books.
Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Oxford: Further Edu
cation Unit, Oxford Brookes University.
Hatton, N., Smith, D. (2006). Reflection in Teacher Education: towards Definition and Implementation.
Australia: Sydney University, School of Teaching and Curriculum Studies. Available on line at <http://
alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/LocalResource/originals/hattonart.rtf> [accessed on 2008-04-12].
Ivanauskienė V., Liobikienė N. (2005). Socialinio darbo studentų savirefleksijos gebėjimų ugdymas te
oriniuose kursuose. Socialinis darbas, 4(1), 118–121.
Yip, K. (2006). Self-reflection in Reflective Practice: a Note of Caution. British Journal of Social Work,
36, 777–788.
Jarvis, P. (1999). The Practitioner–Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice. San Francisco: Jos
sey-Bass.
Jarvis, P. (2001). Mokymosi paradoksai. Kaunas: VDU Švietimo studijų centras.
Jarvis, P., Holford, J., Griffin, C. (2004). The Theory and Practice of Learning. London: Routledge Fal
mer.
Jérôme, P. (2006). Constructivism: A re-equilibration and clarification of the concepts, and some po
tential implications for teaching and pedagogy. Radical Pedagogy, 8(1). USA: Athabasca University,
International Consortium for the Advancement of Academic Publication. Available on line at <http://ra
dicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue8_1/proulx.html> [accessed on 2009-09-20].
Johns, C. (2004). Becoming a Reflective Practitioner. A reflective and holistic approach to clinical nur
sing, practice development and clinical supervision. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Jucevičienė, P. (2006). Mokymas aukštajame moksle: dėstytojas kaip besimokantysis. Socialiniai moks
lai, 3 (53), 72–79.
Kepalaitė, A. (2005). Pedagogo refleksijos ypatumai akademinėje situacijoje. Acta Paedagogica Vilnen
sia, 14, 51–56.
King, T. (2002). Development of Student Skills in Reflective Writing. Australia: Western Australia Uni
versity, Organizational and Staff Development Services. Available on line at <http://www.osds.uwa.
edu.au/__data/page/37666/Terry_King.doc> [accessed on 2009-10-13].
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. New 69
Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Sciences. New York: Harper and Row.
Linkaitytė, G. M. (2003). Lietuvos suaugusiųjų švietimo naujovės: kontekstas ir patirtis. Profesinis ren
gimas. Tyrimai ir aktualijos, 6, 52–65.
Lipinskienė, D. (2002). Edukacinė studentą įgalinanti studijuoti aplinka. Daktaro disertacija: Socialiniai
mokslai (edukologija). Kaunas: Kauno technologijos universitetas.
Loughran, J. (1996). Developing Reflective Practice: Learning about Teaching and Learning Through
Modelling. London: Falmer Press.
Mezirow, J. (1990). How Critical Reflection Triggers Transformative Learning. In J. Mezirow and Asso
ciates, Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood. (pp. 1-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Moon, J. A. (1999). Reflection in Learning and Professional Development. Theory and Practice. London
and New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Morrison, K. (1996). Developing reflective practice in higher degree students through a learning journal.
Studies in Higher Education, 2(1), 317–332.
Osterman, K. F., Kottkamp, R. B. (2004). Reflective Practice for Educators. Professional Development
to Improve Student Learning. California: Corwin Press.
Pollard, A. (2006). Refleksyvusis mokymas. Veiksminga ir duomenimis paremta profesinė praktika. Vil
nius: Garnelis.
Ramsey, S. H. (2003). Reflecting on the Future Education in the Third Millennium. Curriculum and Te
aching Dialogue, 5(2), 123–130.
Rogers, R. (2001). Reflection in Higher Education: A Concept Analysis. Innovative Higher Education,
26(1), 37–57.
Schön, D. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. (1991). The Reflective Practitionier. How professionals think in action. Great Britain, Lon
don: Maurice Temple Smith Ltd.
Schratz, M., Walker, R. (1998). Towards Ethnography of Learning: Reflection-on action as an experien
ce of experience. Studies in Cultures, Organizations and Societies, 4, 197–209.
Stanikūnienė, B. (2006). Reflektyvūs dėstytojai aukštajame moksle: skirtingas suvokimas ir veikla jų

mokymosi aplinkose. Socialiniai mokslai, 3(53), 59–71.
Strauss, S., Ziv, M., Stein, A. (2002). Teaching as a Natural Cognition and its Relations to
Preschoolers‘Development of Theory of Mind. Cognitive Dvelopment, 7, 473–787.
Stumme, G., Wille, R., Wille, U. (1998). Conceptual Knowledge Discovery in Databases Using Formal
Concept Analysis Methods. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Sugerman, D. A., Doherty, K. L., Garvey, D. E., Gass, M. A. (2000). Reflective Learning. Theory and
Practice. Kendall / Hunt Publishing Company.
Šernas, V. (2006). Studijos, jų organizavimo principai. Lietuvos mokslas. Akademinė edukologija. Vil
nius: VĮ Mokslotyros institutas.
Taylor, D. (2010). The Literature review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. Canada: Toronto University.
Available on line at <http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/ literature-re
view> [accessed on 2010-01-21].
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
70
Teresevičienė, M., Gedvilienė, G. (2001). Mokytojo profesinio tobulėjimo galimybės: patirtis ir refleksi
ja. Pedagogika, 51, 133–145.
Usher, R. (1985). Beyond the anecdotal: Adult learning and the use of experience. Studies in the Educa
tion of Adults, 17, 59–75.
Whitaker, P. (1995). Managing to Learn: Aspects of reflective experiential learning in schools. New
York: Cassell.
Zuzevičiūtė, V. (2005). Metakognityvinių strategijų modeliavimas universitetinėse studijose. Edukologi

jos daktaro disertacija. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas.
Žydžiūnaitė, V. (2001). Farmakotechnikos specialybės studentų įgalinimas motyvuotoms studijoms, re

miantis probleminiu mokymu ir refleksijomis. Studija. Kaunas: Kauno medicinos mokykla.
Adviced by Darius Gerulaitis, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania
Remigijus Bubnys PhD., Associated Professor, Siauliai University, Visinskio 25-201 Street, LT-76351 Šiau
liai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 686 84 841.
E-mail: rbubnys@gmail.com
Website: http://www.su.lt
Vilma Žydžiūnaitė Professor, PhD of Social Sciences (Education), Mykolas Romeris University, Ateities
Street 20, LT - 08303 Vilnius, Lithuania
E-mail: vilma.zydziunaite@mruni.eu
Website: http://www.mruni.eu/lt/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
71
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
OF STUDY PROGRAM MANAGERS:
TOPICALITY AND ESSENCE
Daina Celma
University of Liepaja, Latvia
E-mail: daina.celma@liepu.lv
Ausma Golubeva
University of Latvia, Latvia
E-mail: ausma.golubeva@lu.lv
Abstract
As today is the time of rapid changes, the activities of academic personnel become more and more com
plicated. This also refers to study program managers, who are the responsible persons for higher educa
tion study programs.
Study program managers are not specially trained to manage study programs. It is usually assumed that
anyone with enough academic experience and specific academic degree can become a study program
manager and manage it through its existence. However, being a study program manager entails a wide
range of different responsibilities which underlies a need for study program manager to possess many
competences that a manager in any other organization or position should have - specific knowledge,
skills, abilities and also -preferably- certain personal traits. Taking this relevant issue into account, a re
search was carried out in two Universities of Latvia, where both lecturers and study program managers
were asked to fill in questionnaires in order to define a set of professional competences a successful and
effective study program manager should possess. Besides, it was concluded that study program mana
gers do need further education and training regards improving their competences and acquiring new
ones. Not surprisingly, this need for further education was more stressed by the lecturers than by study
program managers themselves.
Key words: competences, management, professional development, study program manager.
Introduction
The social and economic processes that take place in the rapidly changing society of today af
fect all spheres of life, all economic sectors and education, of course, as well.
Personnel employed in the area of education can play an effective role during the process of
changes; they can be both – active participants and supporters of this process. It is being consistent
ly required that higher educational institutions are able to satisfy permanently growing and diversi
fying students’ learning needs. Thus, the quality of education in higher educational institutions be
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
72
comes more and more important and it is therefore essential that the higher educational institutions
can maintain their potential at a high level and even increase it.
It is possible in various ways – by promoting and supporting the development of science, by
effectively managing work of higher educational institutions and their structural divisions, by suc
cessfully organizing study process etc. As regards the later, it needs to be noted that besides good
administration of study process, also the issue of study programs is relevant – whether study pro
grams are up-to-date and consistent with labor market needs, whether they satisfy the requirements
of the society and how coordinated and targeted the actions of study program managers and lectu
rers are. Consequently, more focus is laid on the diversity of study programs and their compliance
with market needs, as well as on the quality of study programs’ content, possibilities to improve it,
professionalism of lecturers implementing study programs and effective management of programs.
This article will focus on the later, namely, the management of study programs, and competences
and professional development of persons responsible for it – study program managers. Study pro
gram manager can be defined as a person who is responsible for a higher education study program
and whose activities become increasingly complicated.
The aim of the research, which is discussed in this article, was to examine whether study pro
gram managers need professional development and what its essence should be. Thus, these two
previously mentioned issues were the research objects. The research questions were as following:
• do study program managers support further professional development on program manage
ment issues;
• do lecturers involved in the programs consider such further professional development of stu
dy program managers relevant and necessary;
• what issues/topics should be included in the content of further professional development.
Defining the Problem
In order to perform successfully in an organization, institution or enterprise, its manager needs

knowledge, and skills and abilities that are obtained through learning and practice, as well as his/
her own position and motives for actions and the ability to create a competitive working environ
ment through purposeful activities (Dāvidsone, 2008; Delamare le Deist & Winterton, 2005; Green,
1999; Spencer & Spencer, 1993; Sveiby, 2003).
Competitiveness is one of the necessary leading motives for successful performance. In this
context, manager’s personal traits, readiness and skills to manage people, willingness and ability to
take risks and be responsible, willingness to achieve higher results, wish to learn on an ongoing ba
sis, also from one’s mistakes and other’s experience and ability to orientate oneself towards change
become very important (Tamkin, Barber, 1998).
Today also knowledge and skills in the area of information technologies and knowledge of
foreign languages are of great relevance for managers. Besides, the actions of the manager are also
influenced by the following factors - how he/she perceives his/her role, functions and tasks, what
position he/she takes as regards the employees and what his/her working style is – how the manage
ment process is implemented, how manager uses his/her power, whether the manager has authority,
whether he/she is also a leader, what competences manager possesses in order to perform manage
ment effectively and successfully. It should be emphasized, however, that it is relevant that the ma
nager develops him/herself on an ongoing basis as it is possible to learn to be a good manager.
Although theories on managers and competences have mainly been developed within the con
text of business management, it has been admitted that there is no good reason why they could not
be equally used and attributed to managers in educational institutions (Gaither, 2007). Of course,
the peculiarities of academic environment and specific features of activities that are performed in
this area need to be taken in due account.
It has been concluded in the researches on management issues that competences can be uni
versal (thus can be applied to any working environment). However, differences also can be obser
Daina CELMA, Ausma GOLUBEVA. Professional Development of Study Program Managers: Topicality and Essence
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
ved – manager in an academic organization differs from that in a business enterprise because the for 73
mer alongside with being a manager is also a researcher, he/she manages process of creation among
academic personnel, manages study process and is engaged in other specific activities (Spendlove,
2007; Wisniewski, 2007).
As regards study program managers, it has to be noted that they are not specifically trained to
manage study programs. It is usually assumed that anyone from the academic personnel of the hig
her educational institution after having worked in a university for some time and obtaining certain
scientific degree, as well as professional and social status, at the same time acquires skills needed
to be a manager. Thus, study program can be managed by any academic employee, of course, accor
ding to the Rules on the study program manager, adopted by the higher educational institution.
Unmistakably, work experience has to be taken into an account, it needs to be analyzed, asses
sed and used when applicants are chosen. Quite often a person who is invited to become study pro
gram manager or who brings forward his/her own candidacy clearly has an outstanding competence
in a scientific area he/she represents, is very skillful and knowledgeable lecturer, has obtained nume
rous academic degrees, is very successful researcher, often takes part in conferences etc. However,
in the process of program management this person has to deal with many problems that can be of
organizational nature or linked to issues of communication and cooperation etc. This is because a
tight interaction exists between study program manager and lecturers, students, representatives of
administration, employees of other structural units/departments/universities, and this cooperation is
especially important to gain and increase results. The above mentioned means that also the manager
in a higher educational institution just like in any other organization needs to be able to critically
evaluate and deal with different kinds of information; he/she has to be competent in many issues,
such as organization, cooperation, communication or any other activity; to use his/her knowledge
and skills in practice; to adapt to changing circumstances, to take risks, to be ready to acquire new
experience through learning new things or to develop already existing competences. To conclude,
in order to be a good manager, also in an educational institution, an individual needs to possess dif
ferent competences. In this context, ability to manage oneself can be named as one of the important
competences a good manager should have.
It is even being stressed that it is not possible to successfully manage others before one has
obtained the ability to manage oneself – his/her working style, attitude; before an individual has
recognized the necessity to develop him/herself (McCaffery, 2004).
Continuous learning and gaining experience during work process is one of its manifestations.
Actually, willingness and readiness to develop oneself is considered as one of the most relevant
traits of a good and powerful manager. Although it is not an easy process, a manager needs to de
velop him/herself, to take care of him/herself and try to be him/herself. An individual can develop
him/herself professionally all life long, independently to the profession and job position. However,
everybody has a specific vision on the process of his/her further education which is influenced by
particular needs, necessities, possibilities, wishes and many other factors.
As Fulan notes, change is inevitable, development – possible; it is not possible to choose whet
her to change or not, but it is possible to choose how to react (Fulan, 1999).
The topicality of professional development is determined by whether the manager – study pro
gram manager – possesses competences that are required for performing a specific job and what
the level of those competences is. The most common way, how to determine if one is suited for ma
nager’s role, is to evaluate one’s competences, then - to focus on deficiencies and weak points and
to elaborate an action plan to eradicate those drawbacks and to develop necessary skills and gain
necessary knowledge.
Besides, it is also very important whether the professional development of study program mana
ger as a manager, not only as a professional in a specific academic domain is being highlighted and
supported by the work place, in this case – educational institution. (Bolden, Gosling, 2006).
It can be done in various ways, for instance, by assessing study program manager’s competen
ces and their level, by emphasizing the opportunities a good study program manager as a manager
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
74
can provide for the study program and everybody linked to it or – quite on the contrary – how ac
tivities of study program manager or lack of such activities could endanger the existence of study
program, and its further development, and thus – eventually – even study quality.
“Continuous professional development should not be, nor should you consider it, a matter of
optionality. It is no less than a lifetime obligation and responsibility.” (McCaffery, 2004, p. 294).
Methodology of Research
A quantitative and qualitative research was carried out in year 2008-2009 in two Universities
of Latvia in order to study the role and activities of study program manager in the process of study
program implementation.
During the first phase of the research both study program managers and lecturers participated
in a survey which was carried out in order to examine:
1. what are the necessary competences for study program managers – knowledge, skills, abili
ties, personal traits;
2. how is the work during the study process organized;
3. what is the organizational role of the study program managers during the implementation of
the study process;
4. whether study program managers need professional development;
5. what the essence of further professional development should be.
To inquire into the above mentioned issues, a questionnaire was elaborated; study program ma
nagers and lecturers, who are involved in the implementation of study programs, were asked to fill
in the anonymous questionnaire.
During the second phase of the research representatives of the administrations, as well as heads
of faculties and departments, under the guidance of who or in close cooperation with who study pro
gram managers work, were interviewed. Interviews were recorded (audio recording) and allowed
to study the opinions of the previously mentioned university officials on the following issues – the
competences that are relevant for study program managers in order to manage programs effectively;
the organization of the study process and the role of study program managers in successful imple
mentation of the programs. The results and analysis of issues included in the interviews are however
not included in this article.
The research was a case study due to the particular interest of the researchers to study the roles
and activities of study program directors in these institutions - two faculties of University of Latvia
and University of Liepaja. Both Universities differ in terms of number of study program managers,
students and lecturers and types and quantity of study programs that are implemented there. Total
number of respondents - study program managers, lecturers, representatives of administrations, as
well as heads of faculties and departments of two university type higher educational institutions –
University of Latvia (two faculties) and University of Liepaja – was – 292 (85.38% from 342).
260 respondents – 51 study program manager and 209 lecturers involved in implementation of the
programs – took part in the quantitative survey; 91% of all questionnaires (48 and 191 accordingly)
were received back. 32 respondents were interviewed.
This article summarizes the results from one part of the research, namely, the answers of the
respondents to the questions included in the questionnaire as regards the relevance and necessity
of professional development of study program managers and the essence of further professional
development.
A question “Is further education – professional development – necessary in order to manage a
study program or manage it better?” was included in the questionnaire. Both study program mana
gers and lecturers were asked to answer this question. Answer options were the following - “fully
agree”, “agree”, “do not agree”, “other answer”, “no answer”.

The total number of academic employees working in the two faculties of the University of Latvia and University
of Liepaja.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Study program managers and lecturers were also asked to provide answers to the question 75
“What are the issues on which study program managers should receive further education and trai
ning?”. As regards lecturers, their experience working with different study program managers was
to be taken into an account. Both groups of respondents could choose from already prepared answer
list; they were asked to rank the answers in the order of priority; there was also an option to write
in their own replies.
Results of Research
The analysis of the obtained answers to the question – “Is further education – professional
development – necessary in order to manage a study program or manage it better?” shows that
43.8% of the respondents – study program managers – fully agree and 25.0% agree to it (table 1).
That testifies – the majority study program managers realize the relevance and necessity of further
development; besides, almost half of the respondents, as mentioned before, support this principle
unconditionally.
Table 1. Professional development of study program managers.
Managers (n=48) Lecturers (n=191)

Answers’ options
n % n %
Fully agree 21 43.8 129 67.5
Agree 12 25 53 27.7
Do not agree 6 12.5 5 2.6
Other answer 8 16.7 0 0
No answer 1 2.1 4 2.1
In total: 48 100 191 100
However, quarter of the respondents, while agreeing to it in principle, are not absolutely con
vinced, and, obviously, consider that certain conditions should be met before further development
becomes a pending matter. Such conditions could be, for instance, increasing requirements for
quality of education and study programs, changing provisions for study program elaboration and
evaluation, etc.
Although this clearly shows a positive trend among study program managers towards profes
sional development, as many as 12.5% of all respondents do not agree that further development is
necessary and 16.7% have another answer. In their extended answers respondents mainly use such
explanations – additional education and training as regards management is not needed because this
process does not require any specific knowledge and skills; previous experience in managing pro
grams and academic experience is sufficient for being able to manage programs effectively; it is
enough to have regular professional development in the particular academic domain or specialty,
there is no need for specific training in management issues. In this context an interesting correlation
was observed between study program managers’ experience in program management and opinions
on the relevance of professional development – managers with longer management experience and
longer academic experience support further professional development less. As understanding the
relevance of professional development is a very important precondition for engaging in further edu
cation and training activities, some concerns arise that the lack of such understanding might negati
vely influence not only the development of study program manager him/herself, but a wider range
of issues that are dependent on the manager – study process smooth functioning, its quality etc.
The replies of the lecturers provide a different perspective – as 67.5% of the respondents fully
support and 27.7% of the respondents support professional development of the managers, and only
2.6% think that it is not necessary. A conclusion can be drawn from these responses that the issue
of further education and training of study program managers is not only relevant for lecturers; it is
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
76
even more important for them than for the study program managers themselves. And, indeed, lectu
rers in their elaborated answers wrote that study program managers often lack knowledge and skills
for positive and open communication and cooperation within the program, they are weak leaders
in the program or do not possess leader traits at all, they are not able or do not want to motivate
those working in the program, they sometimes are chaotic in dealing with administrative issues;
frequently are not satisfied and lack self-control expressing their emotions; are not interested in the
development of the program; some are described as authoritarian.
Probably, one of the reasons, why managers are more skeptical towards further education and
training, is their perception of it as something undesirable; if admittance that some professional de
velopment is necessary and good might undermine their qualification.
To sum up, as regards issue of further professional development of study program managers,
the majority of the respondents – study program managers (68.8%), support it. As the approval of
such necessity was obtained also from lecturers (95.2%) involved in implementation of study pro
grams, a conclusion can be drawn that this issue is topical and relevant.
In order to study what are the issues, on which study program managers should receive further
education and training, responses were received from study program managers and lecturers. As
regards lecturers, their experience working with different study program managers was to be taken
into an account. Differences were observed after comparison of study program managers’ and lec
turers’ responses. (Table 2).
Table 2. The content of professional development of study program

managers.
Managers Lecturers
Content issues
n1
% n2
%
Management theory 14 10.7 92 14.2
Quality management 28 21.4 118 18.2
Communication and cooperation 19 14.5 136 20.9
Health 7 5.3 38 5.8
Competences 22 16.8 129 19.8
Learning and improving knowledge of foreign
23 17.6 64 9.8
languages
Work with Internet resources 14 10.7 63 9.7
Another answer 4 3.1 10 1.5
In total: 131 100 650 100
Table 2 shows that 21.4% of the respondents – study program managers – consider program
quality management to be the priority. Learning foreign languages and improving the existing know
ledge (17.6%), topics on the issue of competences (16.8%) and cooperation and communication
(14.5%) received little less support; however, the percentage difference between the above men
tioned issues is not significant. Apparently, as the higher educational institutions lately pay parti
cular attention to the qualitative functioning of study process, as the requirements of students and
societies in general towards the quality of education have changed in the past years, as the study
programs tend to become more and more competitive, study program managers more than ever ne
ed to focus on promoting qualitative study process, on contributing to program development and
attracting highly professional lecturers, also guest lecturers, to work in the program. Clearly, it is
linked to the improvement of knowledge and skills – managers need to know and understand latest
developments in the European education space, need to be able to integrate them in the managed
program; it is also important to be able to orientate in the “record keeping tunnels”; to know how
to develop program in order to make it competitive, to promote further education and professional
development of lecturers.

Number of times mentioned as the first priority.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Issues connected with management theory – 10.7% and working with Internet resources – 77
10.7% received equal, but less support. Good work organization and distance communication today
can not be imagined without usage of modern technologies and possibilities offered by the Internet.
However, likely, this experience is being obtained during the every day working process and no
additional training is particularly required. Therefore it is rather understandable and explainable
why this issue does not seem to be of the highest relevance. On the other hand, surprisingly, that
management theory issue received as much (or – more precisely – as little) support and, accordin
gly, in the opinion of the respondents does not seem that important. Authors of the article believe
this issue is not irrelevant and should have received more support. However, as already mentioned
above, probably, managers perceive their previous program management and academic experience
as sufficient grounds for successful and effective management of study programs.
Lecturers’ opinions differ from the point of view of managers as regards the primary topics
on which managers should receive further education and training. Lecturers hold the view that the
priority for the study program managers should be the improvement of their knowledge on commu
nication and cooperation issues – 20.9%. These replies show that from the viewpoint of lecturers,
the most significant are social and personal competences – cooperation, interaction and communica
tion skills. These skills should be obtained and developed. In every work place positive emotional
background creates pleasant and favorable working conditions, motivates employees, increases
their productivity and improves their performances. The issues of cooperation and communication
are followed by topics on competence – 19.8%, quality management – 18.2%, and management the
ory – 14.2%. Lecturers comprehend that today issues like student interest in the program and the
number of students participating in it, as well as positive feedback and evaluation of the program,
support for the program from the management of the university etc. are very significant for the pro
gram.
However, only a small number of respondents from both respondent groups (5.3% of the pro
gram managers and 5.8% of the lecturers) agreed that health issues should be included in the essen
ce of professional development. Notwithstanding the fact that program management requires major
emotional efforts, creative approach and that frequent tension and stress situations and exhaustion
moments occur, most of the study program managers and also lecturers did not think that additional
information and knowledge as regards health promotion issues is necessary. One of the explana
tions could be that long work experience and professional approach, as well as the way managers
perceive and interpret events allow them to deal with stress effectively. Another explanation – res
pondents are supporters of healthy life style already and thus they do no have any health problems,
or do not see the necessity to publicly mention any.
Meanwhile, an assumption can be made that this answer does in general comply with the par
ticularities of Latvia’s society, namely, taking into account overall economic and social problems,
it might seem inappropriate and irrelevant to emphasize such a personal and even obvious issue.
However, as nowadays stress in the work place and its negative consequences is a very common and
serious problem, it would not be correct to disregard it.
However, despite the low relevance of personal health issues, the following extra issues and
topics were stressed by respondents in their open answers as rather important – time management,
“self-management”, conflict recognition and solving, new trends in the area of education, ways of
relaxation. That proves that lecturers and – more important – also managers realize that many issu
es and aspects are important for a good manager – manager. They understand that not only formal
administrative skills and general communication abilities are important; but a broad set of various
issues has to be covered if one wants to be a good, effective and successful manager. Besides, it is
not only possible, but also necessary to acquire these competences.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
78 Conclusions
The aim of the research was to examine whether study program managers need further profes
sional education and development and what its content should be.
It has been concluded during the research that in general both - study program managers and
lecturers - support further development of the managers. It was also concluded that:
• study program managers realize the necessity of further professional development, besides,
almost half of all respondents accept such principle unconditionally, but a quarter of res
pondents apparently consider that professional development becomes a pending matter in
certain circumstances, when certain conditions are met. Consequently, in general, a positive
trend can be observed as regards professional development;
• the issue of further professional development of study program managers as managers is not
only relevant for lecturers, who work under their guidance and supervision, but even more
important than for managers themselves;
• views on the priorities of the content of further training and education vary: study program
managers more support issues that are linked to quality management, learning foreign lan
guages or improving the existing knowledge; on the other hand, lecturers stress topics on
communication and cooperation, and, then, also quality management and competences.
The analysis of the obtained data allows considering the issue of program managers’ further
professional development to be topical; it also gives the possibility to outline the essence of further
professional education and training.
However, it should be underlined that issues of professional development and its content spe
cifically for managers – study program managers – have been rarely examined and studied in the
theoretical literature. Therefore this research was built mainly on general theoretical conclusions on
management and managers of different levels in the higher education.
Yet, this discussion has some limitations – firstly, opinions of representatives of educational
institutions’ administrations and heads of the departments, in subordination of who or in coopera
tion with who study program managers work, were not discussed in this article. However, their
viewpoints and attitudes are important, as the support from educational institution’s administration
or requirement to be a professional employee - study program manager – can promote further profes
sional development. Secondly, as regards the research - the results of it apply to the particular group
that was covered in this research, namely, study program managers of these two educational institu
tions, and thus can be further used for professional development of them; the results, however, do
not allow considering, whether issues of study program manager’s professional development and its
content in the provided interpretation are relevant and topical for all higher educational institutions
of Latvia.
References
Bruman, A. (2007). Effective Leadership in Higher Education. Research and Development Series. Lea
dership Foundation for Higher Education.
Bolden, R., Gosling J. (2006). Leadership Competencies: Time to Change the Tune. Sage Publications.
Dāvidsone, G. (2008). Organizāciju efektivitātes modelis. [Model of Organizations’ Effectiveness] Rīga:
Organization Development Academy.
Le Deist, F.D., Winterton, J. (2005).What is Competence? Human Resource Development International.
8 (1), pp. 27–46.
Fulans, M. (1999). Pārmaiņu spēki. [Change forces] Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC.
Gaither, G. H. (2007). Developing Leadership Skills in Academia: http://www.academicleadership.org.
Green, P. C. (2009). Building Robust Competencies: http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/doc/.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
McCaffery, P. (2004). The Higher Education Manager’s Handbook. Effective leadership and manage 79
ment in Universities and colleges. London: Routledge Falmer.
Spencer, L. M. & Spencer, S. M. (1993). Competence at Work. Models for Superior Performance. John
Wiley&Sons Inc.
Spendlove, M. (2007). Competencies for effective leadership in higher education. International Journal
of Educational Management, 21 (5) pp. 407–417.
Sveiby, K.E. (2008). Organizing for effective Knowledge Work: http://sveiby.com/articles/Kworkerdvl
pment.htm .
Tamkin, P., Barber, L. (1998). Learning to Manage. Success University. The Institute Employment Stu
dies.
Wisniewski, M. A. (2007). Leadership in Higher Education: Implications for Leadership Development
Programs: http://www.academicleadership.org/leader_action_tips?LEADERSHIP_IN_HIGHER.
Adviced by Oskar Zids, University of Liepaja, Latvia
Celma Daina Dr.oec., University of Liepaja, Director of Institute of Managment Sciences, Liela iela
14, Liepaja, Latvia.
Phone: +37129113568.
Golubeva Ausma Mag.paed., Lecturer, study program director, University of Latvia, Brivibas iela 45-3a,
Riga, Latvia.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
80
Differences between learning

facts and complex phenomena:
A learning study in history
based on Variation Theory
Mona Holmqvist, Karmen Björkman, Malin Ohlin

Kristianstad University, Sweden
E-mail: mona.holmqvist@hkr.se; malin_ohlin@edu.solvesborg.se;
Karmen.Bjorkman@iuc-olofstrom.se
Abstract
This study has been carried out as part of a project entitled “The Pedagogy of Learning” (Holmqvist,
2002) whose objective is to use theory and practice to extend our knowledge of learning and teaching.
The study was implemented at the upper secondary school level and involved students in the first year
of the social science programme. Two classes were evenly divided into three groups. The “learning stu
dy” model (Holmqvist, 2006) was employed and three research lessons in history were the focus of the
study. The aim was to describe what students could potentially learn, and then compare this with what
they actually learned with regard to critical aspects of historical knowledge of the learning object. The
learning object was exemplified by the period when Skåne, the southern part of the present country of
Sweden, became Swedish after a period of Danish rule. By examining different aspects of the learning
object, the aspects necessary to bring about learning were clarified. The lessons themselves were analy
sed in accordance with Variation Theory (Holmqvist, Gustavsson & Wernberg, 2008; Holmqvist & Mat
tisson, 2008), according to the constituent concepts of discernment, simultaneity, and variation. What
varies and what is invariant in a learning situation are important in determining what can be learned
(Marton & Booth, 1997). Changes were implemented in how certain critical aspects of the subject were
presented to students with the goal of improving the student learning outcomes. The results confirmed
that the nature of what was taught resulted in different learning possibilities. One such element was the
ability to identify with those who lived during the period studied. Creating a kind of compassion for one
or more fictitious persons enabled students to discern more easily the critical aspects. One conclusion of
this study was that an effective learning strategy for students is hard to develop because they try to focus
both on understanding the learning object itself, and on gathering hints from the teacher about what will
be on the upcoming examination (which constitutes a second implicit learning object). This is amounts
to a ‘Guess what he is thinking’ game with the teacher, rather than developing a real understanding of
the learning object itself. Another conclusion underscored the important role played by the developed un
derstanding of the learning object in producing long-term or so-called ‘generative learning’. Our study
demonstrated that there is a difference in the long term between decreased learning of isolated facts and
increased comprehension of overall historical phenomena.
Key words: learning study, variation theory, historical awareness.
Mona HOLMQVIST, Karmen BJÖRKMAN, Malin OHLIN. Differences between Learning Facts and Complex
Phenomena: a Learning Study in History Based on Variation Theory PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Introduction 81
Discussions constantly take place about student learning in relation to a teacher’s ability to te
ach. Carlgren & Marton (2001) have extended this discussion further to a consideration of society’s
expectations of what constitutes a teacher’s most important task. Nowadays teachers seem to be vie
wed less as purveyors of knowledge than as managers of student learning. In addition, it has been
claimed that computers will one day take over tasks formerly provided by teachers, namely, the pre
sentation of the subject matter and the evaluation of learning. Together with the above-mentioned
authors, we take as our point of departure the belief that a teacher’s most important role – now and
in the future – is the facilitation of student learning.
The question considered here is how a teacher’s words and actions affect a student’s possibility
to learn. The present study describes what three groups of students learned from a history lesson,
whereby the critical aspects (i.e., those needed to understand a phenomenon) are defined. The theo
retical framework of our study is variation theory, which assumes that learning is a variation of the
critical aspects of the learning object. Discernment of a phenomenon demands the ability to discern
it as in some way from other phenomena. In other words, if you discern someone as tanned, you
most likely have seen others who you discerned as not tanned. Variation theory has been developed
by Marton & Both 1997), along with a number other researchers (Runesson 1999; Marton & Tsui
2004; Holmqvist 2004; Holmqvist, Gustavsson & Wernberg, 2007; Holmqvist, Gustavsson & Wern
berg, 2008; Holmqvist, Lindgren, Mattisson & Svarvell, 2008; Holmqvist & Mattisson, 2008).
The study is part of a project called “The Pedagogy of Learning”, and has been carried out by
researchers from Kristianstad University College and Gothenburg University. The project was led
by Mona Holmqvist of Kristianstad University College, and was funded by the Swedish Research
Council. The aim was to examine theoretical and practical aspects of learning and teaching in order
to develop knowledge about learning and teaching which could be used in both teacher education
programs as well as in-service training.
The present learning study is the first in Sweden to focus on history as a school subject within
the project “The Pedagogy of Learning”, which has already conducted studies concentrating on En
glish as Second Language (ESL), Swedish, and Mathematics from pre-school to upper secondary
school. Our aim was to study differences in how students develop an understanding of a learning
object on the basis of the variation theory. The study specifically investigated historical phenomena
of the seventeenth century, the period when Skåne became Swedish (1650 to 1660). The questions
we addressed were:
1. What were students given the opportunity to learn and what did they actually learn?
2. What critical aspects of the learning object impacted student learning?
3. In what ways is a teacher’s ability to offer students dimensions of variation in the learning
situation important to bring about learning?
Theoretical Assumptions
Historical awareness is a well-known concept, but in the secondary school syllabus it is an ad
vanced notion. The definition of historical awareness is unclear, both among researchers and on the
basis of the syllabus. Researchers in the field of historical didactics and historians have varying con
ceptions of historical awareness. This is further complicated by the difference between “historical
awareness” and “awareness of history”. Historians have focussed on what has happened in the past
(awareness of history), while educational researchers have looked to the past in order to understand
the present and prepare for the future (historical awareness).
The different definitions of the concept of historical awareness historians and educational rese
archers rely on are presented by Jeismann in the article “Geschichtsbewusstsein” in the “Handbuch
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
82
der Geschichtsdidaktik” [“historical awareness” in the Handbook of Historical Didactics”]. Jensen
(1997) summarizes Jeismann’s main points as follows:
1. Historical awareness is the permanent present knowledge about that all people and all direc
tion and shapes of life they created in time i.e., they have an origin and a future and constitu
te something unstable, inconstant, and unconditioned.
2. Historical awareness includes the context of interpretations of the past, understanding of the
present, and perspectives on the future.
3. Historical awareness is how what has transpired in the past has shaped current views and
attitudes.
4. Historical awareness rests on a common understanding of emotional experiences. This com
mon understanding is a necessary component in the formation and growth of human socie
ties. (Jensen 1997)
The emphasis on the dimension of time is an aspect that divides the four different points. Hart
smar (2001) describes the concept of historical awareness as having many interpretations which,
in turn, affect the content and methodology used in teaching history. In this paper, the definition of
historical awareness is based on awareness of time. Such an awareness of time includes interpreta
tions of past events, present situations, and future expectations. Such interpretations may become
part of one’s identity. In order to develop historical awareness, the components or ‘small parts of
history’ have to be seen as part of the ‘entire history’. Hartsmar is critical of teaching students about
the past without making connections to the student’s present reality. Learning about isolated histori
cal facts seems to promote role memorization instead of deeper understanding. Tosh (2000) defines
historical awareness as:
. . . a general category that covers all shapes of historical thinking. It is a kind

of awareness of the surrounding world where the change over time is central.
The relationship between the last, present and the future is included as crucial
element in this kind of awareness (p. 128).
The educational research tradition has in many ways tried to teach everything to everyone.
But is that possible? Säljö (2000) claims acting in different practices means different ways to expe
rience the world. Since people have had different experiences, individuals react to new phenomena
differently. “If we could discern all aspects and take them into consideration at the same time, each
situation would be considered in the same way by all persons” (p. 131). Instead, we know that indivi
duals experience the same phenomenon in various ways. It seems as though “to discern something
from the context and to relate it to this context – or to other contexts” (Carlgren & Marton 2001,
p. 132) [author’s translation] results in different ways of seeing which, in turn, create variations in
the possible ways to discern a phenomenon.
Variation theory is still under development (Marton & Both 1997; Runesson 1999; Marton &
Tsui 2004; Holmqvist 2004; Holmqvist ed, 2006, Holmqvist, Gustavsson & Wernberg, 2007, Holm
qvist, Gustavsson & Wernberg, 2008; Holmqvist, Lindgren, Mattisson & Svarvell, 2008; Holmqvist
& Mattisson, 2008). It is used to study people’s different ways to understand or to experience pheno
menon. Differences in experiences depend on how the phenomenon is discerned; in terms of parts
discerned from the whole and in what way the parts on the other hand are seen as a whole. How to
discern a part from the whole and the parts against each other is depending on how one considers
a learning object. Or as Runesson (1999) claims ‘in order to know what something is you have to
what it is not’ [authors’ translation] (a.a.s.31).
Variation theory is based on the assumption that learning requires variation (Runesson 1999).
Three different concepts are important in order to learn: discernment, simultaneity, and variation.
Discernment means that students in a learning situation change perspectives and see something they
have previous not seen. Consider, for example, the different methods by which children learn to
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
read (Holmqvist 2004). In the beginning, the individual letters are the only things in focus, but as 83
the child learns to read the letters become the background: the child’s way of seeing has changed,
with the letters now viewed as parts of a whole. Simultaneity is crucial in order to understand the
surrounding world. A whole can in itself be a part of another whole, as well as the entirety itself. The
meaning of a part or a whole varies, depending on which aspect is the intended focus. For example,
50% can be represented as half a circle; but 50% of a half circle is at the same time 25% of a whole
circle. In order to understand this requires simultaneity. Finally, variation means that a phenomenon
is discerned because it in some way differs from the ‘natural state’. Thus, in order to know what
cold is one must have experienced the contrasting phenomenon, i.e., not-cold or warmth (Holm
qvist 2004). The critical moment for learning is when ‘we notice a change in understanding the
environment’ (Holmqvist 2004, p. 75). In order to find the critical moment in a learning situation,
variation of some kind is required. Teaching is not about finding the best general method. Instead,
“variation of the critical aspects of a learning object is used in instruction” (Holmqvist 2004, p. 74).
In order to facilitate this, a methodology need to be chosen, once the question of what it takes to
grasp the learning object has been answered.
An assumption based on variation theory is that in each learning situation students are offered
at least one learning object. By offering several dimensions or different aspects of the learning
object, it also becomes possible for the individual to discern something against the background of
variation. However, if a student experiences too many varying aspects, the result will be the same
as if s/he has not experienced variation at all. An abundance of impressions seem to neutralize each
other. The teacher’s challenge is to find the critical aspects of the learning object in order to present
students with various ways of considering it. What kind of prior knowledge do students possess
about the learning object? This must be understood, in addition to identifying the object’s critical
aspects. If a student learns to tell time without knowing how the hands are related to each other, it
will probably be difficult to understand the concept of the clock. If one of the hands were to remain
constant while the other varied to show the hours, it would probably be easier to discern how the
hands relate to each other. When students grasp this knowledge, their need to discern new aspects
similarity makes the need of variation to increase. It is more important for the teacher to discern
which factors may be held constant and which should vary than it is to find the “right” method.
Variation theory can be used at school as a tool for the teachers to create better possibilities for the
students to learn (Wernberg 2005).
The method we used was the learning study model that Marton (2003) describes as follows:
A learning study is a systematic attempt to achieve an educational aim and to learn from
this experiment. It is a design experiment that can, but does not have to be, a lesson study.
(p. 44)
The aim is to make learning possible for all involved—students, teachers, and researchers
(Holmqvist & Nilsson, 2005). Thus, learning study means:
...different ways to present the aspects that are critical for the students in order to unders
tand a learning object. (Holmqvist & Nilsson, 2005, p. x).
Learning study, used as a research model, depends upon close cooperation between teachers
and researchers in the planning and implementation of a lesson. By comprising more than two les
sons in a cycle, whereby the results of the first lesson will always influence the design of the follo
wing one, lessons will gradual be improved and thereby facilitate student learning. Using learning
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
84
study as in-service training for teachers aims to develop lifelong educational habits which, when
modelled by the teacher, will hopefully instil curiosity in students to increase their own learning.
Holmqvist & Nilsson (2005) see learning as a teacher’s main task. If the teacher does not learn from
her/his students, there is a risk that the teacher ceases to develop.
Study design
As part of “The Pedagogy of Learning” research project based on variation theory and using
learning study methodology, our study more or less includes the following stages:
1. Choose a learning object. What will students learn?
2. What kind of previous knowledge do students have?
3. Design a lesson on the basis of the knowledge students are supposed to acquire.
4. Implement the lesson according to the plan.
5. Evaluation of Lesson One: what have the students learned?
6. Implement Lesson Two according to a new learning design, based on the findings in
Lesson One.
7. Evaluation of Lesson Two.
8. Implement Lesson Three according to a new learning design, based on the findings in
Lessons One and Two.
9. Evaluation of Lesson Three.
10. Implement post-test.
11. Complete documentation of all results and evaluations.
(Holmqvist & Nilsson 2005, p. 48–51)
Participants
As part of “The Pedagogy of Learning” project, one of the authors of this investigation (MH)
contacted a comprehensive upper secondary school in a municipality in southern Sweden where
two teachers were interested in participating in this learning study on history education. (A third
teacher whom we hoped to include was not available.) Teacher A normally teaches history in both
classes included in the survey. Teacher B also teaches history at the same school, but has had no
prior contact with students who are participating in the project. Teacher A, therefore, was requested
to teach Lessons One and Three, while Teacher B taught Lesson Two. The two classes involved are
parallel sections within the social sciences programme (their first year). Students in each class read
the same material during the period of this survey, and the course was implemented in the same
way in both classes. In total, the two classes consisted of 63 students (47 girls and 16 boys). On the
basis of screening, the students were divided as evenly as possible into three groups, which ended
up having 16, 17, and 18 students.
Learning object
Initially, the authors and teachers met in order to decide which history subject area would be
the prime focus. The broad field of history and the lack of prior studies of this type made the choice
difficult. In a learning study, teachers typically define the problem in cooperation with researchers.
On the basis of their previous classroom experience, the teachers suggested concrete problems that
students had found difficult to understand. It was initially decided to examine the area of source
criticism and emphasize ways in which students could judge a source’s reliability. This topic had to
be rejected because we determined it was impossible to delimit the problem within the time frame
available. Instead, the group chose to study the historical awareness of students regarding the period
from 1650 to 1660, when Skåne, the southern part of what is now Sweden, broke away from Danish
rule. This topic appeared more compatible with the school’s curriculum, which included a study of
historical events during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The teachers considered the im
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
portance of focusing on the difference between students’ historical awareness, as opposed to their 85
awareness of history as laid out in the course plan for the study of history. These were considered
difficult concepts to measure, particular in the short term.
Data collection
The data collected for this study came from screenings, pre-tests, post-tests, delayed post tests,
video observations, tape recorded group discussions in class, and tape recorded planning session
with teachers. The first item was a screening given to all students before their classes before they
were divided up into three groups. The students were told of the aim of the study and of why they
were not allowed to see the results of the tests. Every time they the results would could be yet anot
her opportunity to learn, or a dependent variable which would have complicated the analysis of the
students’ learning.
During a period of three weeks, pre-tests, classroom instruction on historical research, and
post-tests were carried out in all three groups. In each case, five days were permitted to elapse bet
ween the pre-test and the lesson. The post-test was administered to students immediately after the
lesson, and five weeks later each group was given a delayed post test.
Table 1. Schedule of the learning study.
Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday

Week 39 Planning lesson 1 Pre-tests group 1
Week 40 Research lesson group 1 Analysis, planning lesson 2 Pre-tests group 2
Week 41 Research lesson group 2 Analysis, planning lesson 3 Pre-tests group 3
Week 42 Research lesson group 3 Analysis
Week 45 Delayed post-test group 1
Only those who took all three tests (pre-test, post-test, and delayed post test) have been inc
luded in reporting the results. Since screening was not used to analyze the learning outcome, but
in order to describe a student’s understanding of the learning object, students who did not take the
screening are included in the analysis of the other three test results. The survey produced both qu
antitative and qualitative data. Answers to questions 1–8 on the test were analyzed quantitatively,
while the screening, tape, and video recordings were analyzed qualitatively.
Screening
Screening was employed to determine what prior knowledge students had of the learning ob
ject. This enable us to design the tests and to divide students into three groups with similar levels
of knowledge of the subject matter. The screening consisted of two open questions regarding when
Skåne became Swedish. It was administered on two different occasions: at the start of the project
and at its conclusion. The questions were: 1) When did Skåne become Swedish, and what happened
at the time? 2) What do you think life in Skåne was like then?
These open questions were based on [the] participating teachers’ assumptions that very few
students had any deep understanding of this time period. The aim of the screening was to give stu
dents a chance to express what they thought or knew of the era, with as few external influences as
possible. An analysis was made based on the phenomenographic research tradition. The resulting
categories constituted the answer alternatives to questions on the test. These results, as mentioned
earlier, were used to divide the students into three approximately equal groups (Figure 1).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Class A Class B 1. Before the lesson
86
A B A B A B 2. Lesson on research
3. After the lesson

Class A Class B
Figure 1. Subdivision of two classes into three groups

(Wernberg in Holmqvist ed, 2007).
The three categories of knowledge that emerged from the phenomenographic analysis of the
screening, as represented in Table 2, were:
A. Developed concept of time, developed historical awareness, developed logical thinking,

good analytic ability.
B. Fairly accurate concept of time, average historical view, limited logical thinking, poor ana
lytic ability.
C. Undeveloped concept of time, weak historical view, lack of logical thinking ability, defi
cient analytical ability.
Table 2. Two classes divided into three groups.
Numbers of students per category after screening

Group/category A B C No answer
1 3 8 5 0
2 3 7 7 1
3 2 7 8 0
In designing the pre-test on the basis of the screening results, we used both what student’s
knew, as well as their misconceptions about the period, to formulate seven multiple choice ques
tions. From the screening it was clear that some students professed general historical knowledge
without discerning the period from which the knowledge derived. These students had a non-linear
view of history, i.e., they heaped together all of their historical knowledge but were generally unab
le to situate what they knew within a specific time period. The screening also attempted to discern
critical elements in the knowledge of the learning object: historical awareness of the decade from
1650 to 1660, when Skåne became Swedish. An analysis of the screening found the following criti
cal aspects of the learning aspect:
• The conditions people lived in during those days compared with today.
• The relation between this period, its historical context and time, and the time before and af
ter.
• The differences of how wars were conducted at those years compared to nowadays.
• What could be the causes of wars at those days.
Test design and implementation
The first pre-test that we developed was rejected by the teachers. It contained a series of true/
false questions contrasting the past and the present. The teachers felt such a test could not yield
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
meaningful results, since there was a 50/50 chance that students would be guessing as there was 87
that they were demonstrating knowledge. The instructional goal was to convey a general historical
understanding to students, along with knowledge of the specific time period. Teachers also sought
to develop the abilities of students to a) place their knowledge into context, b) analyze a picture
or text, and c) develop some understanding of history’s influence on modern times. Based on the
teachers’ aims and the results from the screening, a second attempt was needed to design a pre-test,
which was then taken by group 1. Analysis revealed that an additional question was required in or
der to gain a deeper understanding of the pupils’ analytical ability. Therefore, at the suggestion of
the teachers, the following open-ended question was added to the test: “Why did the Swedish king
view the acquisition of Skåne as so successful?” Group 1 began the first lesson by answering this
question. For the second and third groups, this question was included on the pre-test.
The pre-tests, post-test, and delayed post tests were identical, apart from the order in which the
multiple choice answers were presented. This was done to prevent the students from remembering
the order of the answers from test to test and also to make it more difficult for students of different
groups to share answers. The test was made up of multiple choice questions (questions 4–7) and
open ended questions (questions 1–3, 8 and 9). The first seven were divided into two groups: facts
(1–3) and comprehension-based knowledge (4–7). Questions 4–7 required an ability to relate sin
gle facts to their context. The pre-test was used to measure the level of initial variability, while the
post-test measured the level of variability after the lesson (Hartman, 1998). In some of the learning
studies carried out in Kristianstad, a delayed post-test was used to examine patterns of the students’
understanding—how and if it develops, remains stable, or decreases over the long term (Holmqvist,
Gustavsson & Wernberg 2007).
Recordings
Video recording was used in the learning study model as one way of gathering data. The three
lessons in this study were videotaped by two cameras, one being a digital and one an analogue
video camera. The latter camera was used as a backup. During the lesson the audio of the teacher
was recorded with a microphone connected to the digital video camera. During all three research
lessons, five tape recorders were placed around the classroom to tape record students during both te
acher-led and group discussions. In this study, tape and video recording of the research lessons was
as an observational tool and to collect qualitative data. Both teachers and students appear to have
been influenced by the presence of the camera. The camera made some of them feel uncomfortable
and, consequently, the lesson may not have been as natural a situation it was hoped to be. At the
beginning of the lessons, the teachers felt that the camera influenced their behaviour. They found
that being recorded made the lessons more demanding than they would ordinarily have been. In this
study each group was equally affected by the process of recording because the method of recording
was consistent across groups.
Transcription
In order to analyze the research lessons, the video recordings were transcribed verbatim. The
Transana software package (www.transana.org) was used for the transcription. This programme
allows one to link the text with its corresponding image. It also facilitates analysis by making it
possible to search for keywords which can be linked to a video recorded sequence. The video ob
servations, along with the transcripts, were analyzed and checked once again in order to increase
their reliability. When something was inaudible it was indicated in the text by ellipses marks (...).
On some occasions, audio tapes were used to identify who said what. When the teacher pointed to
a student or made some other movement relevant to the teaching situation, it was indicated within
parenthesis, such as: (points at student) or (writes on the board). The teacher’s notes on the board
were indicated as follows: [xxx.].
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
88
Analysis
The analysis consisted of the data from all the tests, the video recorded lessons, and the mee
tings with the teachers. This material was analysed several times in order to capture the different
dimensions of the teaching situations and to connect these to changes in the students’ knowledge,
as shown by the test results. The analysis was based on the variation theory, namely, it described
what the students were presented with for discernment, the ways in which simultaneity was used,
and the variations offered by the teacher to the students in order to facilitate student discernment
of the learning object. Pre-tests, post-tests, and delayed post-tests were analyzed on the basis of a
template which gave a maximum of 30 points for questions 1–8. The results were compared, both
concerning the performance of each group (i.e., between pre-, post-, and delayed post post-test in
the same group) as well as between the different groups, in order to measure differences in the stu
dents’ knowledge. By using repeated tests, it was possible to make comparisons of what students
knew before and after the research lesson, and five weeks later. Since the aim of the study was to
develop historical awareness and describe what it takes to develop this in a teaching situation, both
video recordings and audio recordings were analyzed qualitatively to reflect the results of the tests.
The analysis of the test results summarized how many correct answers each student gave. Every
correct answer gave the student one point. A correct alternative answer which the student has not
marked as correct, did not result in any reduction. If a student’s answer was incorrect, this has also
not influenced the total sum of correct answers. The incorrect answers were been summarized sepa
rately, so that both the correct and incorrect answers could be measured as independent clusters, and
also to facilitate assessment of the differences between the two groups.
Results of Research
The result of correct student answers from the three research lessons are presented as integers
in the table below.
Table 3. Results for all tests in all groups.
% Correct answers Questions

Group 1 1–3 4–7 8 Sum n = 16
Pre-test 8 59 39 51
Post-test 46 70 70 68
Delayed post-test 31 72 54 65
Group 2 n = 18
Pre-test 13 59 31 50
Post-test 94 73 86 77
Group 3 n = 17
Pre-test 29 63 34 55
Post-test 98 79 56 77
A general finding was the decrease in the percentage of correct answers between post-test and
delayed post post-test in questions about facts (1–3), especially in groups 2 and 3. Another finding
was the similar amount of correct answers on comprehension-based questions (4–7) between post-
test and delayed post-test in all groups. We concluded that the knowledge of facts seems harder to
retain than comprehension-based knowledge. Student results from the testing were also analyzed
on the basis of the number of incorrect answers. (An incorrect reply was defined as when a student
indicated an incorrect alternative as correct.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Table 4. Percentages of incorrect answers. 89
Group 1 %
Pre-test 20
Post-test 18
Delayed post-test 19
Group 2
Pre-test 11
Post-test 9
Delayed post-test 13
Group 3
Pre-test 8
Post-test 4
Delayed post-test 9
The results show how the percentage of incorrect answers was more or less the same in all
research lessons/groups. In each research lesson the number of incorrect answers showed a minor
decrease from pre-test to post-test. On the other hand, a minor increase in incorrect answers was
found between post-test and delayed post post-test in each research lesson and group. The total sco
res seem to be more or less similar in all three groups, but a deeper analysis shows some differences.
In order to see the differences more clearly, each lesson’s results have been presented separately by
pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test. The account of the result is reflected by an analysis of how
the lessons were carried out.
Result of Research Lesson One
The results of the delayed post-test show a minor change in the mean when the sum of correct
answers are compared between the two tests; in group 1, this change is from 68% to 65%. There is a
minor increase in questions 4–7, from 70% to 72%. These questions all require a deeper understan
ding of a phenomenon, a knowledge which seems to have been retained over time. The results of qu
estions 1–3 decreased from post-test to delayed post post-test: 46% correct answers on the post-test,
compared to 8% on the pre-test. On the delayed post post-test, we found 31% of the answers were
correct. When comparing those results, the percentage of incorrect answers on questions 4–7 also
has to be considered. Only minor changes in the percentage of incorrect answers on these questions
are seen, from pre-test (20%) to post-test (18%) and delayed post-test (19%).
The result of the first lesson did not show any clear pattern of development. However, it is ob
vious that design of the lesson was effective, as shown by the increased in correct answers on the
first post-test (+38 and +21 percentage points). A further improvement of the lesson was suggested
by focusing on the contrast between present and past time, rather than only teaching past time per
spective. The students were not given any opportunity of taking the perspective of the people who
lived at the time being studied, as the lesson was not designed to give students some kind of real
empathy for a person or situation. Student focus had to move between past and present, making it
hard to develop a profound understanding for the living conditions during the targeted time period.
Simultaneity was not employed. In this first lesson, the students did not get any overall picture; inste
ad, they focussed on one part at a time, without relating the parts to a context. Another pattern found
in the analysis of the video recorded lesson was the movement in the students’ incorrect answers.
They changed depending on what aspects the teacher chose to present or not. The result showed a
direction towards marking answers as correct only if the aspect referred to in the question was men
tioned by the teacher during the lesson. Even if the student had a correct initial understanding, s/he
changed to an incorrect answer if the teacher did not mention this aspect in the teaching situation.
Thus, the students’ focus on the implicit learning object – capturing what the teacher thinks when
s/he does not explicitly say it – impacts possibility of retaining the targeted learning object. In order
to develop increased knowledge during Research Lesson Two, the students should have been given
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
90
more opportunities to participate in class. It was assumed that this might be a way to open students
up to new dimensions in learning.
Result of Research Lesson Two
This lesson was also effective, with the results increasing between pre- and post-test (+81 and
+14 percentage points). In the delayed post-test the overall result for questions 1–8 shows a minor
decrease when comparing the number of correct answers between the post-test and delayed post
post-test in group two (from 77% to 69%). The major change is found in the delayed post post-test
on questions 1–3, which pertained to historical facts. Here student knowledge decreased 50 percen
tage points between post-test and delayed post-test (from 94% to 44%). It should be noted that the
result for this group on questions 1–3 also shows the largest improvement of all groups from pre-test
to post-test (from 13% to 94% , that is, +81 percentage points). On questions 4–7 the answers seem
to be rather similar between post-test and delayed post post-test (73% and 72%). The interpretation
here is that knowledge having the character of facts which students memorized seems to disappear.
On the other hand, the students appear to retain knowledge which requires a deeper understanding.
In comparing results, the incorrect answers also have to been taken into consideration (questions
4–7). The number of incorrect answers showed a minor decrease (pre-tests 11% and post-test 9%),
but increased again in the delayed post-test (13%).
Since further improvements might be expected by requiring a greater degree of student parti
cipation and a stronger focus on the perspective of those people who lived during the period being
studied, we discussed this at a meeting in which Lesson Three was designed. A dialog to capture the
students’ experiences was not assumed to be sufficient; contrasting perspectives with small differen
ces were made. The students’ followed a couple via four texts in two versions per text (one correct
and one incorrect) that were almost similar. This was intended to facilitate discussions among stu
dents which could expose them to different dimensions of the same phenomenon and offer more
learning possibilities for the group.
Result of Research Lesson Three
As in the earlier lessons, an increase in scores between the pre- and post-test was noted in Les
son Three (+69 and +16 percentage units). The delayed post-test (questions 1–8) showed a decrease
in the percentage of correct answers between post-test and delayed post post-test (from 77% to
68%). The largest change was again on questions 1–3, the factual questions, where there was a drop
of 59 percentage points on correct answers between post-test and delayed post-test (from 98% to
39%). On the other hand, on questions 4–7, the questions of comprehension-based knowledge, the
results were relatively constant (79% and 76%). The students were able to retain this kind of know
ledge. Finally, a comparison was also made between correct and incorrect answers on questions
4–7. Compared with the other two groups, group three had lowest number of incorrect answers on
all tests. This number decreases slightly from pre-tests (8%) to post-test (4%), but increases to more
or less the same level in the delayed post-test (9%).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to respond to the following questions:

1. What were students given the opportunity to learn and what did they actually learn?
2. What critical aspects of the learning object impacted student learning?
3. In what ways is a teacher’s ability to offer students dimensions of variation in the learning
situation important to bring about learning?
Our findings indicate a relationship between what students are offered during a lesson and
what they actually learn. By presenting aspects of the learning object in different ways, students
learn differently. How the teacher unfolds the learning object has a crucial importance for what the
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
students learn. Through offering variation, different perspectives, and empathy (in terms of seeing 91
the world from the perspective of the people who lived at the historical period being studied), stu
dents seem to open up for learning. The analysis shows, mostly in the first research lesson, how the
student interpretations of what they are supposed to learn are strongly based on those aspects of the
learning object concentrated upon during the lesson. On the other hand, if a teacher does not focus
on a particular aspect, students tend to interpret their initially correct knowledge as incorrect. The
teacher’s ability to create conditions for students to assume the perspective of persons who lived
during the targeted period of time, together with the simultaneity offered in a dimension of variation
crucial for discernment to occur, shows that the teacher plays a vital role in developing a student’s
knowledge. The results also establish a difference in the long-term effect of learning of facts versus
and comprehensive-based knowledge. The ability to retain facts appears to decrease quickly, while
comprehension-based knowledge seems to persist. While a teacher’s ability of offering students dif
ferent dimensions of variation is important for their learning, evidence for generative learning was
not found in this study. Generative learning means learning more and more about the learning object
in new situations after the learning situation. Because the learning object might be hard to find spon
taneously in other situations (such as outside of school), students might not have had encounters
where new learning about the learning object were possible. The generative learning-effect that the
contrasting texts used in Lesson Three might have had is thus impossible to assess.
It is difficult to analyze how the historical awareness of students increase. The design of tests
is extremely important in order to capture the differences. Teacher cooperation with each other and
with the researchers is, therefore, crucial to achieve reliability. It is also difficult to know in which
way the contrast between the stories in the learning material in Lesson Three may have influenced
the learning outcome, as the teacher introduced another dimension, namely, seeking to understand
life from the perspective of the people who lived during that period. A further extension of the pro
ject would be to carry out Lesson Three in a few groups, while employing control groups in order
to see if the contrasted stories have or do not have an effect on the learning outcome.
To capture the art of teaching everyone everything is a dream. In order to create a situation that
parallels the one being considered, we need to not only discern a great many aspects, but also take
them into account at the same time–which may be impossible if we must consider things in such a
variety of ways (Carlgren & Marton 2001). Nevertheless, by presenting the object of learning with
variation and contrast, while emphasizing the perspective of those who lived in earlier historical
periods, we may succeed in the art of teaching a greater number of students more content that they
will retain. As Carlgren & Marton (2001) write, “Crucial for the most important kind of learning is
the pattern of dimensions of variation that characterizes the conditions for learning’ (p. 141). The
results of this learning study lend support to such an assumption. Our findings indicate that separa
te, isolated facts seem to be quickly forgotten, while comprehension-based knowledge appears to
be retained over the long term. Such knowledge is more complex and requires an ability to separate
facts from their context (that is, a part from the whole), as well as relate the parts to each other and
to the whole via variation. This promises to be the way to develop comprehension-based knowledge
of the kind that students tend to retain long after they leave the classroom. As the historian of the re
naissance, Jakob Burchkardt, has written, “History is not supposed to make us smart for tomorrow,
but wise forever.”
References
Carlgren, I., & Marton, F. (2001). Lärare av i morgon. [Teachers of tomorrow] Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Hartman, J., (1998). Vetenskapligt tänkande – från kunskapsteori till metodteori. [Scientific thinking –
from epistemology to methodology]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Hartsmar, N. (2001). Historiemedvetande. Elevers tidsförståelse i en skolkontext. [Historical awareness.
Pupils’ understanding of historical time in a school context]. Malmö: Lärarutbildningen.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Holmqvist, M. (2002). Lärandets pedagogik. [The Pedagogy of learning]. Forskningsansökan till vetens
92
kapsrådets utbildningsvetenskapliga kommitté. [Research application to the Swedish Research Council.
Kristianstad: Högskolan Kristianstad.
Holmqvist, M. (2004). En främmande värld - om lärande och autism. [A strange world. About learning
and Autism]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Holmqvist, M., & Nilsson, J. (2005). Hur kan lärare utveckla ett livslångt lärande? [How can teachers
develop lifelong learning?] In Lindelöf & Gisby (eds): Lärande hela livet. [Lifelong learning]. Lund:
Studentlitteratur.
Holmqvist, M., (red) (2006): Lärande i skolan. Learning study som skolutvecklingsmodell. [Learning at
school. Learning study as a school develop model]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Holmqvist, M., Gustavsson , L., & Wernberg, A. (2007). Generative learning. Learning beyond the lear
ning situation. Educational Action Research, Vol 15, No 2, pp 181-208.
Holmqvist, M., Gustavsson, L. & Wernberg, A. (2008) Variation Theory – An Organizing Principle to
Guide Design Research in Education. In Kelly, A.E., Lesh, R., &. Baek J. (eds) Handbook of design re
search methods in education, pp 111-130. New York: Routledge.
Holmqvist, M., Lindgren, G., Mattisson, J., & Svarvell, T. (2008). Instruction built on learners’ previous
knowledge by using the Variation theory. Problems of Education in the 21st Century (Recent Issues in
Education), Vol 6, p 86-95.
Holmqvist, M., & Mattisson, J. (2008). Variation theory – A tool to analyse and develop learning at scho
ol. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 7, p 31-38.
Jensen, B. E. (1997). Historiemedvetande – begreppsanalys, samhällsteori, didaktik. [History aware
ness - conceptual analysis, social theory, didactics]. In: Karlegård, C & Karlsson, K-G (ed). Historiedi
daktik. [History didactics]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Marton, F., & Booth, S. (1997). Learning & Awarness. Mahwah, NJ: Earlbaum Assosiates.
Marton,F. (2003). Learning study – pedagogisk utveckling direkt i klassrummet. Forskning av denna
världen. Praxisnära forskning inom utbildningsvetenskap. [Learning Study - educational development
in the classroom. Research in this world. Practice-based research in educational science]. Rapport 2, Ve
tenskapsrådet (s 41-46). Stockholm.
Marton, F., & Tsui, A. (2004) Classroom discourse and the space of learning. Mahwah: Lawrence Erl
baum.
Runesson, U. (1999). Variationens pedagogik. [The pedagogy of variation]. Göteborg: Acta Universita
tis Gothoburgensis.
Tosh, J. (2000). Historisk teori och metod. [Historical theory and method]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Säljö, R. (2000). Lärande i praktiken: ett sociokulturellt perspektiv. [Learning in practice: a socio-cultu
ral perspective]. Stockholm: Prisma.
Wernberg, A. (2005). Variationsteorin i praktiken. [Variation theory in practice]. In Erixon, P. O. (ed).
Forskningsarbete pågår, [Research work in progress] (pp. 316-332). Umeå: Umeå universitet.
Mona Holmqvist Associate Professor, Kristianstad University College, SE-291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden.
Phone: +44203241.
E-mail: Mona.Holmqvist@hkr.se
Website: http://www.hkr.se/mona-holmqvist
Karmen Björkman PhD student, Kristianstad University College.

E-mail: Karmen.Bjorkman@iuc-olofstrom.se
Malin Ohlin PhD student, Kristianstad University College.

E-mail: malin_ohlin@edu.solvesborg.se
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
93
TWO COMPLEMENTARY ASPECTS OF

CONTEMPORARY vocal pedagogy
Vaike Kiik-Salupere
Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia
E-mail: vaike@cens.ioc.ee
Jaan Ross
Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre, Tallinn, and University of Tartu, Estonia
E-mail: jaan.ross@ut.ee
Abstract
Increasing competition among musicians on the contemporary scene means additional requirements in
terms of preparing of versatile and competitive singers, i.e. students who have acquired stable and high-
level technical skills and who cope with the competitive environment. Therefore the additional ability of
the voice teacher emerges: that is to support the student emotionally in the lesson, and equip the student
with knowledge to deal with performance anxiety.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven eminent voice teachers and interviews with an
ad-hoc-designed questionnaire were conducted with the students of classical singing at the Estonian
Academy of Music and Theatre (14), at the Tallinn Georg Ots High School of Music (13), and with the
singers of the Estonian National Opera choir (30). The five-point balanced Likert scale was used in the
questionnaire. The collected data were subject to statistical analysis. Cluster analysis was applied to
those correlations in the obtained data, which were statistically significant (p<0.05).
Analysis of interviews and answers to the questionnaire demonstrated that besides to the training of tech
nical skills, attention must be paid to the psychological training of classical singers. Results demonstrate
that younger students tend to expect more care from their teachers than their older counterparts. Almost
all of the respondents are willing to obtain more knowledge about how to learn to cope with stress. The
voice teachers admitted that the majority of their students have problems with performance anxiety. Edu
cational institutions which prepare music performers, including classical singers, have to ensure that
their students achieve a high level of technical skills and that they have the necessary mental skills to
deal with the performance situation.
Key words: performance anxiety, vocal pedagogy, voice production.
Introduction
Due to changes in society in recent years competition has become more intensive in many are
as, including among professional musicians. In the developed conditions professional excellence
has an important role, but in addition skill and ability to perform at a very good professional level
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
94
in stressful and unfavourable conditions is required. Beside professional proficiency also ability to
cope with the competitive environment is needed to ensure entrance into the labour market.
Performance anxiety is to a lesser or greater degree familiar to every performer. For classical
singers coping with performance anxiety becomes especially important, because the singers’ instru
ment is located in themselves. Everything that influences a performer either externally or internally
directly influences the quality of the singer’s instrument. If psychological balance needed for per
forming is not achieved before the performance, the singer’s instrument becomes either partially
or entirely unusable and “playing” on it does not yield the desired result. In addition to the basic
vocal techniques vocal pedagogues today have to provide their students with confidence to put
their technical skills into practice. What use is a beautiful voice and years of work if performance
anxiety reduces skills by half or even more? A singer’s training takes years, because the necessary
sensibility for the instrument evolves gradually and muscles only yield to the will of the singer in
the course of time.
Problems of the research
This study is aimed at studying attitudes of vocalists and their teachers towards the psycholo
gical conditions during the musical performance or preceding it. One of the most important factors
contributing to the quality and success of a musical performance, besides the voice characteristics,
musicality, and technical skills, is the so-called performance anxiety. The problems of the perfor
mance anxiety and other such, which are related to the singer’s psychological comfort or well being
during a performance, are usually systematically not dealt with during the course of the singer’s
educational program. This study tries to shed light, on the one hand, to expectations a student may
possess towards her/his psychological preparation for a successful performance and, on the other
hand, to the willingness and ability of vocal teachers to provide their students with such help.
The aim of the current work is to ascertain the following:
• Do students of classical singing receive sufficient psychological support from their teachers
in the lessons and when preparing for performances?
• Do vocal pedagogues think that students need skills for coping with performance anxiety?
Vocal Pedagogy
For students the relationship with their teacher plays an important role in their development as
a singer. In the learning process not only students have to understand the teacher but the teacher also
needs to recognise students’ natural potential for becoming a good singer, the strengths and weak
nesses of the students’ singer’s instrument, each concrete student’s personality traits advantageous
for learning singing and what kind of singer will each student turn out be in the future. Empathy has
been considered especially important in singing teachers as, well as ability to bring out in students
the best and most optimal sensibility for the instrument. Jones (2002) views the specific vocabulary
used in teaching singing and finds that the topic is extremely important in vocal pedagogy since it
has a direct impact on the desired result. Green (1987) also focuses on the positive and negative
effect of teacher’s words on student’s performance. For example suggestion “don’t be tense” does
not teach students to relax but may increase the tension.
On the other hand it may become a problem that a student does not understand the metaphori
cal recommendations of the teacher or understands them but is not willing to apply what has been
recommended. In their work Vurma and Ross (2002) have studied what vocal pedagogues mean
when they ask their students to “place their voice forward” and “place their voice backward”. All
pedagogues claimed that forward and backward placement of the singing voice is important, but
many of them had faced difficulties trying to explain students the exact meaning of these terms.
Whatever expressions are used by the pedagogues, there is always a danger that students will not
Vaike KIIK-SALUPERE, Jaan ROSS. Two Complementary Aspects of Contemporary Vocal Pedagogy
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
understand them. The most suitable solution would be that the vocal pedagogue possesses knowled 95
ge about the acoustic principles of work of resonators and only after the objective basic truths have
been acquired, it is agreed about the mutually unambiguous terminology that will be used in the
future. Miller (1996) posits that metaphorical language should not be used with novice singers but
with more advanced students who have acquired breathing and larynx control as well as resonator
coordination, i.e. the technical side of singing. Vurma and Ross (2000) have studied vocal pedago
gues and students of Estonian Academy of Music to find out what Estonian singing pedagogues pay
most attention to in their work with students. The research results demonstrate that more attention is
paid to work on carrying power of the tone and less to the quality of the tone. Miller (1997) claims
that expectations for tone quality derive from national and aesthetic understanding of the beauty of
a tone. For example, there is great difference between an Asian opera singer and a singer with classi
cal Italian training. Since operas hire singers from different countries, the standards of tone quality
will gradually converge.
Performance Anxiety
In the conditions of today’s fierce competition it is becoming increasingly more important how
singers are able to realise themselves in unfavourable situations that may be caused, for example,
by health reasons, fatigue or competitive environment. The outcome depends very much on the ha
bitual behaviour of the singers in different situations and their adaptability and skills of coping with
additional performance anxiety caused by stressful conditions. Performance anxiety is considerab
ly widely spread among musicians (Steptoe & Filder, 1987; Kenny et al. 2004). Sternbach (1995)
describes professional musicians’ work as a profession which generates a “total stress quotient”
that far exceeds the stress of other professions. It has been discovered that women are two to three
times more susceptible to stress than men (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Lewinsohn,
Gotlib, Lewinson, Seely, & Allen, 1998). The same trend in performance anxiety can be observed
in musicians: the level of performance anxiety is noticeably higher in female musicians than in
male musicians (Huston, 2001; Osborne & Franclin, 2002; Sinden, 1999). The research relied on
Barlow’s anxiety model (Barlow, 2000; Kenny et al. 2004), which suggests three interrelated causes
for vulnerability: 1. A generalised biological (genetically inherited) vulnerability. 2. A generalised
psychological vulnerability based on some earlier experience of coping with stressful situations.
3. A specific vulnerability related to the process of learning, a response to indirect environmental
influence. Barlow asserts that genetic disposition and earlier life experience may constitute a suffi
cient cause for general anxiety and mood swings. The third source of anxiety is primarily related to
self-esteem and unfavourable and competitive environment.
Young musicians who are used to the supportive attitude of their listeners, may experience
deep performance anxiety when they have to perform in a new environment that does not offer psy
chological support. In these cases attention and concentration fall, which has a negative effect on
the quality of the performance. Salmon, & Meyer (1992) have addressed stress and performance
anxiety and revealed that even experienced performers are anxious before performance independent
of whether they have experienced failure or not. However, experienced performers have a different
attitude towards performance anxiety than novice performers. Namely, experienced performers ac
cept anxiety before a performance and feelings and physical changes related to it and therefore keep
their composure, do not panic and always maintain certain professional standard.
Performance anxiety has been described as the occurrence of physiological, psychological,
cognitive and behavioural symptoms and also their combinations. The most frequent physiologi
cal symptoms include: increased heart rate, dry mouth, sweating, shortness of breath, indigestion,
nausea, diarrhoea, trembling, dizziness and flushing (Ely, 1991; Salmon, 1991; Wesner, Noyes, &
Davis, 1990; Hallam, 2008). In relation with performance anxiety situational anxiety has been most
frequently mentioned (Humara, 1999; King, Mietz, Tinney, & Ollendick, 1995; Little, 1999). Achie
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
96
ving outstanding skills requires years of perfection-focused training, solitary practice and continuo
us self-improvement from a performer. High level of anxiety may also be caused by low self-esteem
(Borozdina and Zaluchenova, 1993).
Several theories have been worked out and used to describe performance anxiety. The best
known of those is the Yerkes-Dodson law, which is represented by an inverted U-shaped curve and
defines the optimal proportion between emotional arousal and good performance. Emotional arou
sal that is too low or exceeds a certain optimal limit has a negative effect on the quality of performan
ce. It is also noted that performance anxiety is considerably increased by insufficient preparation or
too complicated task. As the solution, it is suggested to get to know one’s own behaviour in certain
situations, get familiar with the best personal emotional state for performing and how to ensure the
optimal state when needed.
The data for the present study have been collected in two different forms. For a large group of
high-school and academy students as well as for the opera choir performers, we had to use a standar
dised questionnaire. For a smaller group of vocal teachers, we used semi-structured interviews in
order to get a more panoramic picture about their long experience of educating their apprentices.
The interviews were conducted with seven recognised Estonian vocal pedagogues. The dura
tion of each interview was approximately two hours. All interviewees were professional classical
singers and vocal pedagogues in state music education institutions. The majority of them had 30
years or more teaching experience.
The written structured questionnaire for the students consisted of closed questions with rating
scales and contained 88 statements. The statements fell into five categories: 1. Recognition, 14
statements, 2. Consideration, 17 statements, 3. Expectations for the teacher, 15 statements, 4. The
lesson, 23 statements, 5. The performance, 19 statements.
Questionnaire respondents’ sample consisted of professional singers of the opera choir of Esto
nia National Opera (30), students of classical singing of Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre
(14), students of classical singing of Georg Ots Tallinn Music School (13).
The questionnaire was rated on a 5-point balanced Likert scale, which has an equal number
of positive and negative categories. The data received was processed with the data-processing pro
gramme “Statistica 5.1”. All decisions about the differences between the means were made at the
significance level of p < 0.05. In order to divide indices that correlate into clusters, Ward’s method
was used for cluster analysis of all parts of the questionnaire.
Results of Research
Semi-structured interviews with vocal pedagogues
The analysis of the interviews revealed that all interviewees considered psychological balance
before performing an important factor of coping with performance anxiety.
All interviewees had a firmly established daily routine, which they followed especially strictly
on the days of performance. All vocalists emphasised that before a performance they need 1. very
good rest, 2. time at home before noon, 3. meals on time, 4. breathing exercises and an established
set of vocal exercises, 5. to avoid the use of voice for speaking, 6. to avoid rehearsing the program
me of the concert or the role with voice before the performance.
For example, it was said: “I definitely avoid conversations or speaking on the day of perfor
mance”, “I speak as little as possible”, “I revise my role only by following the music with eyes, I
don’t use my voice”.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
All interviewees wished to spend the time before the performance in silence and with their own 97
thoughts. For the majority of them the preparation for the performance in the evening already began
in the morning. All interviewees emphasised the importance of the prior preparatory work for avoi
ding stress and achieving better feeling on the stage. If the time of preparation had been insufficient,
it definitely increased the level of performance anxiety.
All vocal pedagogues stressed the usefulness of breathing exercises in reducing tension before
the performance. The majority of them did breathing exercises every day and longer on the day of
performance. All seven interviewees noted that when the voice is not in order because of tiredness
or a cold, breathing exercises help to alleviate the situation. They all also mentioned the immediate
calming effect of breathing exercises on the nervous system.
The most frequent breathing exercise was rhythmic inhaling, holding breath and exhaling. For
fast relaxation two to three deep inhalations and exhalations or two or three deep sighs were used.
Interviewees emphasised the importance of rest after a responsible performance and said that
they never commence the learning of a new role or song immediately after the performance. As go
od stress relief, activities in the open air (gardening, fishing, walking) were pointed out.
For example: “I definitely have a rest after the performance. Stress relief is useful and then you
can carry on again,” or “After a responsible performance, if possible, I do some gardening”.
All interviewees underlined that classical singing is very tightly connected with emotions. A
good feeling before the performance is ensured by good professional preparation, good physical
shape, established daily routine and satisfaction with personal life.
All interviewees were involved with a sport that helped them to maintain a better physical
form. They pointed out the great importance of a healthy lifestyle and its direct effect on voice qu
ality.
Interviewees considered most difficult the need of a classical singer to be in good shape every
day throughout the season.
All vocal pedagogues confirmed that all their students have experienced performance anxiety
to a greater or lesser degree. All pedagogues introduced breathing exercises to their students imme
diately at the beginning of their singing studies, but did not maintain continuous and regular use of
them further on.
All vocalists-teachers claimed that the profession of a classical singer requires high stress to
lerance.
The written structured questionnaire for the students
The mean of the rating of the statement “The profession of a classical singer requires high
stress tolerance” was very high ( x = 4.79), which is related to the need for an optimal psychologi
cal state both during the studies and in a wider context of the profession.
The majority of the students replied that they are always nervous before performances. The
highest percentage of anxiety was displayed by the students of the Music School 92%, followed
by the singers of the opera choir 83% and a little less anxious were students of the Academy 79%
(Figure 1).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
98 73
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
O. Ch. U. St. H. St. TOTAL
NO 3 0 0 3
0 2 3 1 6
YES 25 11 12 48
Figure 1. Responses to the statement “I am always nervous before a

performance” (O. Ch. – singers of the opera choir, U. St. –
students of the Academy, H. St. – students of the Music School).
Reflects students’ anxiety before performances.
The lowest mean rating was received by the statement “My teacher speaks too much about
her/himself in the lessons and valuable lesson time gets wasted” ( x = 1.72), which on the whole is
a positive result, since it shows that Estonian vocal pedagogues do not use lesson time to distract
students with self-presentation.
A low mean rating was given to the statement “I like it when the teacher does completely new
vocal exercises before a performance” ( x = 1.81), which indicates that for the peaceful and positi
ve progress of singing studies it is necessary to establish and maintain a routine, especially before
performances, in which the opportunity of receiving a negative assurance should be prevented.
In the category of Recognition students considered important that the teacher would sufficient
ly recognise the student ( x = 4.32) and instil more self-confidence ( x = 4.04). All students ( 3.27)
were significantly more disturbed than professional choir singers ( x = 2.37) by the teacher demonst
rating with her/his voice how poorly they had been singing. The part of the questionnaire dealing
with recognition revealed that teachers should give more positive feedback to students and in spite
of the occurring errors they should always clearly outline the successes.
In the category of Consideration a cluster analysis of characteristics describing teachers’ con
sideration was carried out, as the result of which four clusters formed. By using the values of indi
vidual entities converged into clusters sum characteristics were calculated. The characteristics of
individual values were added up and divided by the number of cluster characteristics.
The first group of characteristics ( x = 3.83) includes pedagogical attitude towards students
as future professionals (Cronbach’s α = 0.76) and reflects teacher’s interest in the development of
the student as a young musician. The second subcategory views teacher as a mentor ( x = 4.08)
(Cronbach’s α=0.82) and observes teacher in the role of a supervisor. The third subcategory views
teacher as an authority ( x = 4.18) (Cronbach’s α=0.81) and clusters statements that describe trust in
teacher’s decisions. The fourth subcategory deals with the relationship of the teacher-student in the
“Own child” style ( x = 2.75) (Cronbach’s α=0.59). In this subcategory all groups gave relatively
low ratings. Students most expected from the teacher support and faith in students ( x = 4.33) and
least wished teacher to take interest in the details of their personal life ( x = 2.18). Consideration
was viewed as positive when it was related to studies and professional preparation.
In the category of Expectations for the teacher students most expected the teacher to be open to
new ideas and opportunities ( x = 4.40) and tell them more about the options and skills of psycholo
gically preparing themselves before singing ( x = 4.33). The influence of the feeling of well-being
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
is extremely important for classical singers. Since singers’ “instrument” is located in themselves, 99
it becomes defining for the tone quality or end result whether the psychological balance before the
performance supports and amplifies technical skills or not. Cluster analysis revealed three subcate
gories.
The first is characterised by the pressure exerted by the teacher ( x = 3.27) (Cronbach’s 0.64),
teacher’s dissatisfaction and excessive emotionality. The second subcategory characterises the com
petence of the coach (accompanist) ( x = 4.55) (Cronbach’s α=0.63). The common denominator
of the third subcategory is the support provided by the teacher in the learning process ( x = 4.10)
(Cronbach’s α = 0.75), which includes psychological preparation. There were no significant diffe
rences in the responses of the groups by subcategories. However, differences in individual state
ments occurred.
Maintaining a distance between the teacher and the student received higher ratings from the
working singers ( x = 4.07) than students ( x = 3.33) and women ( x = 3.95) wished to maintain a
distance with the teacher more than men ( x = 3.18). Professionals ( x = 4.37) appreciated more
than students ( x = 3.85) a teacher who encourages students to take risks and focus on challenges.
As the result of the cluster analysis of the characteristics describing The lesson, three subcate
gories formed. The first group of characteristics describes the effect of cooperation on the lesson
( x = 4.66) (Cronbach’s α = 0.66). In the second group of characteristics ( x = 2.95) (Cronbach’s
α=0.51) the influence of the teacher’s mood on students is dealt with. The third cluster describing
teaching process includes 10 characteristics ( x = 3.86) (Cronbach’s α = 0.83) and views the teacher
as the shaper of the lesson and creator of the mood.
Students of the Academy ( x = 3.86) more than Music School students ( x = 2.77) thought
that their pedagogues can create a suitable mood in them. The received results reveal that teachers
should be more active in creating a suitable motivating and positive mood, especially in the work
with younger students. Most satisfied with their teacher’s skills to create suitable mood in them we
re singers of the opera choir 73% and students of the Academy 64%. The youngest or students of the
Music School were least satisfied with their teachers in this respect, only 31% (Figure 2).
70
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
O. Ch. U. St. H. St. TOTAL
NO 4 0 5 9
0 4 5 4 13
YES 22 9 4 35
Figure 2. Responses to the statement “The teacher is able to psychologically

prepare me so that I can give my maximum when performing”
(O. Ch. – singers of the opera choir, U. St. – students of the
Academy, H. St. – students of the Music School). Reflects
psychological support provided by the teacher.
As the result of the cluster analysis of the characteristics describing preparation for The
performance, four clusters formed and three statements remained separate. The first group of
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
100
characteristics deals with psychological support provided by the teacher ( x = 3.25) (Cronbach’s
α = 0.76) and describes teacher as the one who psychologically tunes the student before the
performance. The second group of characteristics describes students’ stressors ( x = 2.42)
(Cronbach’s α = 0.56) and covers situations causing tension in students before the performance.
The third group of characteristics describes the feeling of security before the performance
( x = 3.92) (Cronbach’s α=0.49) and views the circumstances that have a positive or negative effect
on pre-performance anxiety. The fourth group of characteristics deals with students’ worrying
before a performance ( x = 3.90) (Cronbach’s α=0.67) and includes problems causing hesitation
in students before the performance. Differences in rating the statements were distinct from the
differences between groups, where the working singers ( x = 3.51) rated the psychological support
provided by the teacher higher than students ( x = 2.95). The need for and importance of the support
provided by the teacher was rated higher by men ( x = 3.82) than by women ( x = 3.00).
It became evident in this category that students of all groups wished the teacher to do the same
vocal exercises before the performance as usual ( x = 4.47), which would ensure a routine and give
security for performing.
The highest rating among individual statements was given to the statement that the profession
of a classical singer requires high stress tolerance ( x = 4.79). This reveals the view of students that
in vocalists necessary psychological preparation is the primary precondition for positive realisation
of technical competence.
Discussion
The research results showed that in addition to developing vocal technical skills in the process
of vocal training both vocal pedagogues and students considered very important the giving of know
ledge and skills of coping with performance anxiety. All vocal pedagogues stated that their students
had to a greater or lesser degree experienced the destructive effect of performance anxiety. That sta
tement was also consistent with the study involving students, where the majority of students of the
three groups claimed that they were always nervous before performing, but this assertion was most
confirmed by the students of the Music School. Bunch (1997) has observed the same tendency that
novice singers especially often lose coordinated activity in musculature, body posture, breathing,
articulation, application of resonators – principally in the perception of the dynamic activity of the
whole body as a unity. According to Lehmann (2007), performance anxiety usually manifests in ne
gative changes in mental and physical sense of self before the performance.
All vocal pedagogues participating in the study were professional singers and also asserted the
occurrence of performance anxiety before performances. They all confirmed that certain routine
helps to better concentrate before the performance. Nevertheless, little if any attention was paid in
vocal lessons to developing students’ pre-performance routine. Thus it can be noted that teachers
have noticed problems related to performance anxiety in their students but have not dealt with them
systematically and simultaneously with the development of vocal technical skills.
All vocal pedagogues stressed the benefits of breathing exercises in singers’ daily professional
life, but the practicality of these exercises before performances was especially emphasised. Many
vocalists-teachers admitted doing breathing exercises regularly every day but introducing breathing
exercises to students at random, so there was no systematic work in this area. Williamon (2008)
stresses in his works that mental skills of reducing performance anxiety should be taught and deve
loped similarly to musical skills, i.e. they also have to be practised regularly. The study of students
revealed that 87% of opera choir singers, 78% of the students of Estonian Academy of Music and
Theatre and 87% of the students of Georg Ots Music School were interested in the teacher telling
them more about the skills allowing them to psychologically tune themselves before performances.
That indicates that students are aware of psychological readiness and the need to learn respective
skills.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
101
Students of the Music School rated lower than singers of the opera choir and students of the
Academy their teachers’ skills to create a suitable mood in the lessons. All groups admitted that
their teachers did not praise them sufficiently and students of the Music School expected recogni
tion from their teachers even if a positive change had been minimal, while professional singers did
not consider a small positive change as important. Consequently, novice singers should be recogni
sed more often and given positive feedback even on smaller successes in order to reinforce students’
belief in their skills.
Students considered important that teachers noticed their progress in comparison with their
earlier achievements not with those of their fellow students or professional singers. Students of the
Academy realised most and students of the Music school least when they had done well vocally.
That once again refers to the need to give positive feedback to novice singers, who are less confident
about their singing.
Respondents of all groups wanted that before performance their teacher would do the same
vocal exercises with them they were used to in their lessons. Especially negative about using new
exercises were students of the Academy, which confirms the need for a certain routine in vocal peda
gogy. To ensure successful performance, Hallam (2008) recommends musicians to learn to accept
symptoms unavoidably connected with performance anxiety and focus their attention and energy
only on things related to the performance. The greatest willingness and readiness to perform was
displayed by students of the Academy and the smallest by students of the Music School. Hereby it
should be considered how to make the performance situation more pleasant for Music School stu
dents. One possibility would be to pay more attention to the interpretation of the piece in spite of
technical skills that require more training and development. It should be noted that the requirement
of perfectionism should not be overdone with novices, because it tends to overshadow the pleasure
of performing. In his article on performance anxiety Barlow (2000) claims that one of the compo
nents contributing to anxiety is related to self-esteem and unfavourable and competitive environ
ment and points out that this especially affects young musicians, for whom supportive attitude and
promoting their performance confidence is extremely important.
Conclusion
The research results revealed that students of classical singing wanted their teachers to give
them more knowledge and skills of pre-performance psychological preparation. All vocal pedago
gues emphasised that professional singers have to be able to manage, control and direct themselves
despite internal or external unfavourable factors. They all had established a daily routine they follo
wed. They did physical exercises improving their stamina. They all claimed that classical singing is
tightly connected with emotions. All pedagogues contended that the majority of their students had
performance anxiety problems. In spite of that they did not cover in their lessons the topics ensuring
pre-performance well-being. As a by-product it became evident that younger students and students
with less singing experience needed greater psychological support form the teacher.
In vocal pedagogy, beside developing vocal technical side, more emphasis should be put on
knowledge and skills that help students to adjust to the pre-performance situation. Exercises and
techniques facilitating and ensuring good performance should be given to students simultaneously
with the development of technical skills. Knowledge about developing pre-performance prepared
ness may be vital in the training of singers, given that the profession of a classical singer today
requires readiness for performing in a very tight, worldwide competition.
Undoubtedly, exercises and techniques facilitating pre-performance well-being are also useful
for other fields involving interpretation as well as for students whose future profession requires
public performing.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
102 Acknowledgment
The article was prepared with the financial aid of the Tallinn University Graduate School of
Educational Sciences for the first author.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th
ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Barlow, D. (2000). Unravelling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emo
tion theory. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1247–1263.
Borozdina, L. V., & Zaluchenova, E. A. (1993). Increase in anxiety index as a result of discripancy bet
ween self-evaluation and level of aspirations. Voprosy Psikhologii, 1, 104–113.
Bunch, M. (1997). Dynamics of the singing voice. New York: Springer.
Ely, M.C. (1991). Stop Performance Anxiety! Music Educators Journal, 79(2), 35–39.
Green, B., & Gallwey, W. T. (1987). The inner game of music. London: Pan Books.
Hallam, S. (2008). Music Psychology in Education. Newcastle: Bedford Way Papers.
Humara, M. (1999). The relationship between anxiety and performance. Athletic Insight: Online Journal
of Sport Psychology, 1(2), NP.
Huston, J. L. (2001). Familial antecedents of musical performance anxiety: a comparison with social an
xiety. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, 62(1-B), 551.
Jones, D. L. (2002). Master teaching: the lost art.
http://www.voiceteacher.com/master_teaching.html (accessed 28. February 2010).
Kenny, D. T., Davis, P., Oates, J. (2004). Music performance anxiety and occupational stress amongst
opera chorus artists and their relationship with state and trait anxiety and perfectionism. Anxiety Disor
ders, 18, 757–777.
King, N. J., Mietz, A., Tinney, L., & Ollendick, T. H. (1995). Psychopathology and cognition in adoles
cents experiencing severe test anxiety. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 24(1), 49–54.
Lehmann, A. C., Sloboda, J. A., Woody R. H. (2007). Psychology for Musicians. Understanding and
Acquiring the Skills. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Gotlib, I. H., Lewinsohn, M., Seeley, J. R., & Allen, N. B. (1998). Gender differen
ces in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(1),
109–117.
Little, L. M. (1999). An experimental analysis of an acceptance-based performance enhancement inter
vention in a sports context. Dissertaion Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Enginee
ring, 59(11-B), 6111.
Miller, R. (1996). The structure of singing. New York: Schirmer Books.
Miller, R. (1997). National schools of singing: English, French, German and Italian techniques of sin
ging revisted. London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Osborne, M. S., & Franklin, J. (2002). Cognitive processes in music performance anxiety. Australian
Journal of Psychology, 54(2), 86–93.
Salmon, P. (1991). A primer on performance anxiety for organists: Part I. The American Organist, May,
55–59.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Salmon, P. G., & Meyer, R. G. (1992). Notes from the green room: coping with stress and anxiety in 103
musical performance. New York: Lexington Books.
Sinden, L. M. (1999). Music performance anxiety: contributions of perfectionism, coping style, selfeffi
cacy, and self-esteem. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(3-A), 0590.
Steptoe, A., & Fidler, H. (1987). Stage fright in orchestral musicians: a study of cognitive and behaviou
ral strategies in performance anxiety. British Journal of Psychology, 78, 241–249.
Sternbach, D. J. (1995). Musicians: a neglected working population in crisis. In S. L. Sauter & L. R.
Murphy (Eds.), Organizational risk factors for job stress (pp. 283–302, xii, 400). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Vurma, A., & Ross, J. (2000). Priorities in voice training: carrying power or tone quality. Musicae Scien
tiae, 4(1), 75–92.
Vurma, A., & Ross, J. (2002). Where is a singer’s voice if it is placed “forward”. Journal of Voice, 16(3),
383–391.
Wesner, R.B., Noyes, R., Davis, T.L. (1990). The occurrence of performance anxiety among musicians.
Journal of Affective Disorders, 18(3), 177–185.
Williamon, A. (2008). Musical excellence. Strategies and techniques to enhance performance. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Adviced by Leida Talts, Tallinn University, Estonia
Vaike Kiik-Salupere MA., PhD student, Tallinn University, Estonia Narva mnt 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia.
Phone: +372-5274997.
E-mail: vaike@cens.ioc.ee
Website: http://www.tlu.ee/?LangID=2
Jaan Ross Assoc. Professor, Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre, Rävala pst 16, Tallinn
10143, and University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: jaan.ross@ut.ee
Website: http://www.ema.edu.ee/?lang=eng
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
104
THE PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES OF

THE 21ST CENTURY SCHOOL TEACHER
Ketevan Kobalia, Elza Garakanidze

Ilia State University, Georgia
E-mail: ketevan_kobalia@iliauni.edu.ge, elzagarakanidze@yahoo.com
Abstract
According to the demands of many educational reforms, a teacher should not only be a provider of
knowledge and skills, but also have a positive attitude towards innovations, feel the necessity for self-
education, and adopt a student centered teaching approach. Teachers are expected to develop profes
sional skills and always try to be “an effective model of competence” (Bruner, 1976). For example, an
examination of education students found that the main emphasis in their preparedness was subject area
knowledge. Students did not report a focus on the personality traits. This study reports data gathered
from education graduates about their perceptions of the level and extent of professional competence
experienced during their preparation. This study has been carried out to reveal the interaction quality
between the professionally valuable competences and the consequences of teaching process.
Key words: pedagogy, teacher preparation, teacher professional competences, teacher training.
Introduction
The political and social changes that took place in Georgia, caused by the disintegration of the
Soviet Union, altered the educational strategies aimed at producing a modern, creative, and tolerant
teacher. This shift in educational strategy can be understood as a move from the old paradigm of
teacher-textbook-student to a new paradigm of student-textbook-teacher.
According to the old paradigm and the authoritarian model, a teacher functioned mainly as
an educator. Today, the teacher’s goal is to monitor teaching process, view a student not only as a
teaching object but what is more important, make the student the object of teaching process. In this
respect, the focus is on the student and the development of each child. This requirement necessitates
making some correction in the teacher training process on the basis of pedagogical innovations.
The teaching innovations are often established in the educational systems. They are characte
ristic of all educational fields representing the natural phenomena. One of the main reasons for the
teaching innovations is considered to be “the crisis of education” which has been recognized all
over the world (Levitan, 1994). Despite the various manifestations of innovations, they still have
much in common, namely the following contradictions between:
• the actual training quality of high education and social practice graduates;
• the existing administrational and organizational structures and arrangement of high educatio
nal institutions;
Ketevan KOBALIA, Elza GARAKANIDZE. The Professional Competencies of the 21st Century School Teacher
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
• the interests and abilities of the teaching object. 105
The teaching innovation is diminished due to the inefficiency of teacher training process. For
example, Lang & Evans (2006) argued that practice should start in the early part of the teacher pre
paration and be developing in a cyclical way through out the program.
A new-type of teacher should be not only an educator and practitioner of a definite teaching
activity but also ought to be familiar with the pedagogical deontology, the current teaching code of
conduct and rules. This new teacher must be able to analyze the new expectations and to acquire
the teaching conscience that is aware of both an ideal and a real “self”. The teacher should be able
to combine the two images and always strive for the ideal. On this basis, the teacher will be able to
develop his or her own professional style and “self-concept”. This is the starting point of so-called
reflexive education.
It is a widely-known fact that only a person educates a person and the personal example is one
of the major methods of upbringing. So, a teacher has to always intend to develop professionally va
luable competencies and realize that their accumulation determines the teacher’s competence. This
aspect of teacher training requires special attention. Jerome Bruner once said: “A teacher should be
an effective model of competence”.
Research about the ways to improve the quality of teacher training programs may be conceptu
alized using the Theory of Set developed by the Georgian scholar, D. Uznadze. The set, according
to Uznadze (2005), entails the full modification of an individual that encourages him/her to acquire
certain attitudes and knowledge. The set covers the integrity of the subjective (need) and objective
(situation) circumstances. The following factors form the “pedagogical set”: 1) the motivation and
desire of the teacher to perform the teaching act; 2) the ability of the teacher to analyze the require
ments of the learning situation; and 3) the operational abilities of an individual (appropriate skills).
The “pedagogical set” is developed during the whole career of a professional teacher.
Theoretical Base or Literature Review
Professionally valuable competencies have been the subject of much research and a definition
has been adopted. Relating to competencies, many scientists have produced studies on the problem
of designing a teacher’s personality. Brunner (1976), for instance, referred to different studies that
distinguished and summarized the professionally valuable features of an effective teacher and sha
ped an ideal model teacher. Brunner included the following 10 components:
Emotional stability;
Positive self-esteem;
Systematic and individualistic teaching plan;
Partner approach to a student;
Advantage of indirect management influence;
Avoidance of rigid methods;
Applying the methods of group work;
Using the contrasting stimuli;
Flexibility (individualistic attitude to students, determination of teaching goals, teaching met
hods and means).
Later, Dietrich et al (1983) proposed other ten teachers’ competencies:
High self-control;
Emotional steadiness;
Compassion;
Objectiveness;
Friendliness;
Responsibility;
Eagerness to co-operate;
Confidence;
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
106
Amplitude of positive personality features;
Low index of depression, falsehood, psychopathy and hypochondria.
There are the differences between the above teacher training models. The second model repre
sents personal features whereas the first one includes professionally valuable competencies along
side desirable personality traits. However, both authors clearly show the close connection with the
meaning of the model. The authors pay attention to those professionally valuable competencies
such as emotional stability, collaboration with students (partnership), positive self-esteem, and am
plitude of positive personality features and so on.
Over the last decades, many various teacher training models have been created. It’s important to
notice the changing tendency of personality features and competencies. For example, Cruickshank
et al. (2002) believe the effective teacher must have characteristics that include: a motivating perso
nality enthusiasm, warmth, humor, credibility, and orientation to success.
The above-mentioned set of qualities clarifies that the effective teacher training can be unders
tood as creating a democratic, reflexive, co-operative and caring teacher.
Population and Selection of Research Subjects
To identify the perceptions of teacher education students about professionally valuable features
and competencies of an effective teacher, this study was carried out at Tbilisi Ilia State University. A
student population of 156 students in the general education department and in the music education
department was asked to complete an open ended questionnaire asking them to list their perceptions
of teacher competencies. One hundred and nineteen (119) students (IV, V year) of the education
department and 37 students (IV-V year) of music department of the university participated in the
project. The data were gathered in 2007–2008.
Data Collection and Analysis
All students in the population (n = 156) completed the questionnaire. To complete their assign
ment, students were asked to identify the 10 most important professionally valuable competencies.
The students then identified 120 qualities in all. The researcher then coded the 120 items and redu
ced them to 59 competency themes according to the similar meaning. The data were analyzed in a
second iteration yielding the rank ordered competencies presented in Table 1.
Results of Research
The following 10 features were top-rated (see Table 1). The column reporting occurrences refer
to how many times this particular competence was observed in the data.
Table 1. Ranking of Ten Top Competencies.

n = 156
Competency Ranking Number of Occurrences

Educated, erudite, intelligent 1 91
Orderly, well-disciplined, organized 2 88
Sociable 3 85
Objective, fair 4 83
Professional, competent, qualified 5 76
Understanding, sensitive, perceptive 6 72
Ketevan KOBALIA, Elza GARAKANIDZE. The Professional Competencies of the 21st Century School Teacher
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
Continued to Table 1 IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Speech skills 7 60 107

Capable to teach, having didactic ability 8 55
Child-loving, benevolent 9 53
Reserved, self-possessed, calm 10 46
The analysis of the result in the Table 1 shows that the list does not include the professionally
valuable features such as: tolerance (15), openness to innovations (14), humanness (8), and creativi
ty (4). Moreover, the personality features like targeting at student’s success, enthusiasm, classroom
management, sense of humor were not mentioned at all.
Consequently, the results, reviewed after listing and ranging of features, indicated that a te
acher’s major function traditionally remains the knowledge of subject, the ability to explain and
render. So, the knowledge approach to the education of the new generation still persists as perceived
by these subjects.
To establish the professionally valuable competencies of a prospective teacher and students’
self-esteem, an average test was provided for the same group of respondents.
The respondents were to evaluate the professionally valuable skills rating from 1 to 5 accor
ding to quality (Japaridze, 2005). After examining each form, the data were combined into the aca
demic groups and the average number was calculated. Thus, a table containing ten academic groups
was produced (see Table 2).
Table 2. Self Estimations of Competencies.

n = 156
(Anchors: difficult to evaluate = 1; low level = 2; mid level = 3;
high level = 4; highest level = 5).
Competency Ranking M
Communication 1 4.2
Speaking 2 4.0
Reflexive 3 3.9
Didactic 4 3.7
Able to predict 5 3.6
Diagnostic 6 3.6
Open- minded 7 3.4
Emotional 8 3.4
Coordinative 9 3.3
Academic 10 3.2
M 3.7
The results shown in Table 2 indicate that the students actively chose professionally valuable
competencies. Yet, diagnostic, prognostic, emotional, open to innovation and other skills were not
selected by these respondents.
The outcomes of the average test as well as the answers to the questionnaire demonstrate that
these students do not fully understand the range of competencies which current reform literature
maintains as essential to for success in their future profession.
Conclusions
• Contemporary educational strategy requires a new approach towards the teacher training which
will produce an active, creative and open-minded teacher.
• This study into the quality of preparation of secondary and music department graduates using
the psychological methods (open ended questionnaire, test) carried out at our university sho
wed that teacher education continues to reflect the old paradigm: teacher-textbook-student.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
108
• However, certain movements to change the traditional paradigms should be observed (student-
textbook-teacher). In single cases, the students identified the professionally valuable competen
cies of an effective and modern teacher, though this identification is still spontaneous.
• To be equipped for the current social order - that of knowledgeable and professionally com
petent individual – teacher education must produce the teacher equipped with teaching inno
vations and professionally valuable competencies which development represent the essential
component of training.
Notes
Dimitri Uznadze (1886–1950) – was a well-known Georgian psychologist. He created the ori
ginal Theory of Set. Uznadze produced a collection of studies into general, child and educational
psychology. Uznadze established a psychological center at Tbilisi State University and The Institute
of Psychology at Georgia Academy of Sciences. A large group of psychologists has been working
at the institute.
The major principles of Uznadze theory have been translated into English.
References
Berk, L. (2006). Child development. Boston: Pearson.
Brunner, R. (1976). Lehrer training – Grundlagen, Verfahren, Ergebnisse [Teacher training: Basics –
process – result]. München: E. Reinhardt Verlag.
Cruickshank, D.R., Jenkins, D.B. & Metcalf, K.M. (2002). The Act of Teaching. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Dieterich, R., Eberhard E., Ingrid, P. & Ritsher, H. (1983). Psychologie der Lehrerpersönlichkeit [Psy
chology of teacher personality]. München: Reinhardt.
Japaridze, M. (2005). Ganatlebis Psikologia [Psychology of education]. Tbilisi: Ilia Chavchavadze State
University.
Lang, H.R., & David, N.E. (2006). Models, strategies and methods for effective teaching. Boston: Allyn
& Bacon.
Levitan, K. (1994). Osnovi Pedagogicheskoi Deontologii [The basis of pedagogical deontology]. Mos
cow: Nauka.
Uznadze, D. (2005). Pedagogiuri Tkhzulebani [Pedagogical essays]. Tbilisi: Kolori.
Woolfolk, A. (2001). Educational psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Adviced by Natela Imedadze, Ilia State University, Georgia
Ketevan Kobalia PhD student, Ilia State University, Educational Department, Br. Zubalashvili str., No.43,
Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: ketevan_kobalia@iliauni.edu.ge
Website: http://iliauni.edu.ge/index.php?sec_id=1&lang_id=ENG
Elza Garakanidze Phd Student, Ilia State University, Educational Department, Saakadze Street, No.17,
Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: elzagarakanidze@yahoo.com
Website: http://iliauni.edu.ge/index.php?sec_id=1&lang_id=ENG
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
109
ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF PRE-SCHOOL

EDUCATION AS A CRITERION IMPROVING
THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN POLAND
Marzena Okrasa
Maria Curie-Skłodowska University of Lublin, Poland
E-mail: marzena.okrasa@poczta.umcs.lublin.pl
Abstract
Investing in human capital, in knowledge and skills, impacts the economy’s development - similarly as
investing in new technology. A good and effective employee, who as an adult will be capable of adjusting
his or her qualifications to changes in technology, should as a child have access to pre-school educa
tion.
It should be emphasized that the period of early education is very rarely linked to human capital deve
lopment. Research has shown that the childhood period is crucial to the subsequent development of
intellectual potential and social skills. Preschools and schools, where children are taught social skills,
determine – in a broad perspective – how a person’s life chances will be utilized. Early care and educa
tion should, thus, be the main target of investments in the field of education and innovations. Poland has
the lowest indicator of access to pre-school education (38.2% for children between 3-5 years of age).
As it is necessary for more children to access pre-school education, alternative forms of pre-school edu
cation should be taken under consideration. The article outlines chosen forms of alternative pre-school
education developing in Poland.
Key words: quality of education, human capital, equalization of educational opportunities, preschool
education, alternative forms of preschool education.
Introduction
In addition to well-developed infrastructure human capital becomes an important contributor

to economic development. It is therefore necessary to look at knowledge and skills of people in
terms of investments. Not since today it is known that well-educated society creates more opportu
nities for sustainable and balanced economic growth. To meet the demands of the market economy
one should strive to create a new model worker, combining general education with continuing edu
cation and acquiring new skills throughout life. This implies important conclusions for education,
which should not only correspond to actual social needs, but anticipate the present times, in order
to prepare a person to knowingly and responsibly shape his own future and future generations.
Accomplishment of this observation is largely dependent on the proper conduction of the state
educational policy, raising the quality of education by providing conditions for the development of
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
110
human capital and equalizing educational inequalities. It should be noted that in Poland linking the
quality of human capital with the earliest educational experiences of man – his upbringing in the
family or stay in the nursery is extremely rare. As evidenced by the economic Nobel laureate James
Heckmann (2006) “investment in human capital of the youngest gives the best return – they are the
most cost-effective not only for children but also for society”.
The purpose of this text is to identify the links between early education and the quality of futu
re human capital. In these considerations it is assumed that preschool education, including children
from 3 years of age should not be merely the first stage of compulsory basic education, giving the
foundation for further learning, but also parity in the country’s economic development.
Preschool Education as a Factor Conditioning the Quality of Education
Poland’s accession to the European Union and, previously, the pre-access period affected the
fulfilment of certain obligations resulting from the principles of the Lisbon Strategy. They were ela
borated in 2002 in Barcelona in the form of three strategic objectives and thirteen operational ones.
The “Barcelonian” programme obliged the member countries to raise the standard of education
with the emphasis on the need of constant increase of the level of education of the society (Educa
tion in Europe... 2003).
One of the factors conditioning the increase of the level of education is care of human capital.
It can be noticed that, as far as there is a common agreement that education in secondary and higher
schools decides the development of human capital and the level of society’s education, it is really
rarely associated with the preschool education (Blumsztajn, Szlendak, 2006). Early education is be
coming the key to achieve success in adult life. This is according to the conclusion drawn by Robert
Fulghum (1996) which says: “Everything I should really know about it how to live, what to do and
how to act I learned in nursery school. Wisdom was not on top of the knowledge acquired in secon
dary school but in the sandpit”.
The time of the stay in nursery school is a very important stage in the education of a child.
This is not only because of the fact that the mind of a child aged between 3 and 6 works very inten
sively, improves itself and acquires information, but also because the child learns much easier and
more preferably among peers. A child develops and enriches his vocabulary, learns how to express
his opinion in various situations, acquires new knowledge about the world, finds out what “how”,
“where”, “when” and “why” mean, recognises similarities and differences, gets to know the causes
of various behaviours and emotions, learns how to concentrate, works focused among others and fol
lows somebody’s orders. Entertainment, which is not only the dominant form of activity but, above
all, the most important line of child’s development, contributes to achieving these aims (Wygotski,
2004). Entertainment is an area in which a child may freely express his emotions, which sometimes
are deeply hidden, establish social contacts and improve them in various circumstances. Adults as
“entertained children” will be up to new tasks in individual and social situations. On the other hand,
not entertained child will experience a constant lack of satisfactory and effective work. If in play
they do not experience the feeling of being important, clever or organised they may have problems
with self-esteem. Childhood is “a matter of life, which can be used to build up subsequent, strong
and functional constructions” and this is what determines the strength and power of adolescence
(Waloszek, 2009).
It should be noticed that contemporary education has no internal territory. It extends and takes
place everywhere human being notices, understands, improves, organises and experiences somet
hing new. Many factors are the source of knowledge, e.g. media, school, new needs or phenomena.
At present, it is difficult to decide what actually is the result of educating within an institution and
what is the result of self-education, autosocialisation. It can only be supposed that certain abilities
and knowledge are gained selectively and chaotically (Waloszek, 2009). In this case, a child needs
education that would give them the chance to choose the activity which allows to test themselves
Marzena OKRASA. Alernative Forms of Pre-School Education as a Criterion Improving the Quality of Education in
Poland PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
in various possible roles and positions. This context supports the need to reach with an educational 111
offer every human being from his earliest years of lives.
Preschool education is not only the key factor affecting the quality of human capital, but also
the most effective way of giving equal educational opportunities. The equality in education can be
examined in terms of the access to education, course of education and school achievements. All
these areas imply each other, however, the reason for the all appearing inequalities is the dispropor
tion in access to education, which begins at the preschool stage. The report on social development
Poland 1998 – access to education elaborated by UNDP demonstrates indicators and diversifies
chances in access to education, i.e. place of living, parents’ education, sex, disability, belonging to a
national minority(www.unic.un.org.pl) and economic factors (Czapiński, Panek, 2009).
Any external barriers, particularly the background ones, which make it hard to use education
and have the possibility to develop one’s personality, are especially perceptible by people. One of
the barriers which diversifies the access to preschool education most is the place of living. Chil
dren who live in the country or in a small town have statistically smaller chances to stay in nursery
school than their peers who live in a big city. It is caused by such factors as e.g. smaller number of
nursery schools in rural areas. Statistical data shows that in the school year 2008/2009 only every
third nursery school was located in the countryside. At the same time, according to the data from
Educational Information System, in 2007 there was not a single nursery school in more than 500
communes. The index related to children aged 3–5 with preschool education amounted to 15% and
in some provinces below 5%.
Another barrier in achieving life success according to M. Karwowska-Sturczyk is the bac
kground of dysfunctional and poor families with low cultural capital and low educational aspira
tions. Educational aspirations that, to a large extent, can be acquired (children follow their parents’
steps) carry helplessness, poverty and unemployment (Ogrodzieńska, 2004). Therefore, it is so
important for children that they have the feeling of school success. Earlier preparations for school
give bigger chances to experience it. In the preschool age it is easier to shape new abilities, make up
for appearing educational and social shortages and eliminate unfavourable influence of the family
background.
Evening out of the educational chances has not only moral, but also practical dimension. Scien
tific research’s results indicate the need for common preschool education. In the 60s in the USA,
there was conducted the educational project High/Scope for children aged 3-4 from poor families. It
concerned teaching of children e.g. solving problems on their own, planning and doing tasks under
professional staff. Moreover, within the project teachers met with children parents once in a week at
home in order to help them in the process of upbringing. When the participants of the project were
19, 30 and 40 years old, their educational and life careers were thoroughly analysed and then com
pared with careers of those who did not participate in the project. The results showed that people
who were provided early education were better educated, earned more, achieved higher standard of
living, more rarely used the aid system and more rarely came into conflict with the law (Zahorska,
2003; Ogrodzińska, 2004).
The studies by Barbara Murawska are the example of another research. In 2003 she compared
the skills of reading with the skills of understanding and doing mathematical operations by pupils
of lower classes in primary schools who come from big cities and the countries and from families
with high and low social and economic status. The empirical analysis proved that children from fa
milies with low economic status manage with problems at school in a better way provided that they
participated in the preschool education at the age of 3. The research emphasises the meaning of be
neficial effects resulting from the preschool education, mainly for children from socially excluded
backgrounds. The children, due to their worse initial position are exposed to educational difficulties
to a great extent (Murawska, 2004; Ogrodzińska, 2004).
In England, the longitudinal research conducted among 8400 children born in 1970 showed
that there is an essential relationship between school achievements and engagement in preschool
education. Children attending nursery schools managed with problems better as far as reading with
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
112
understanding and doing mathematical operations are concerned. They also demonstrated better
social abilities (Zahorska, 2003).
In many countries investing in the development of the preschool education is one of the acti
vities improving the quality of the education of the society. Preschool care is treated as an integral
part of the education system. For instance, In Denmark and Sweden, programmes aimed at working
parents of children aged 1-3 are proposed by the social welfare sector; in France and Italy prescho
ol educational programmes for children aged 2-3 are offered by the education system; in England
and Ireland these programmes come from the integration of parallel systems of care and education.
Many of the offered programmes are directed to young children from educationally neglected bac
kgrounds threatened with social exclusion due to unfavourable situation of their families or to chil
dren with special educational needs. The programmes used in England can be the example of such
solutions (The Sure Start Programme and The Early Excellence Centres Programme and in Ireland
Early Start Programme (Kamerman 2001).
Two streams in the approach to early education may be distinguished out of the programmes
in preschool institutions. The first one treats nursery schools as a stage which provides preparation
to school education and the effects are measured with school maturity (France, England, Ireland)
whereas the second one assumes that child’s stay at nursery school is supposed to prepare him to life
and this is the first stage of learning (Scandinavian countries) (Blumsztajn, 2007).
Children Early Education – Intentions and Reality
Preschool education is currently a neglected area of the social and educational policy in Po
land. Also the state of social awareness of the situation of young children is insignificant. It is worth
reminding that nursery school is a care and education institution for children of 3 until the beginning
of the schooling duty. In exceptionally justified cases also children aged 2.5 to 10 may be provided
preschool care – when there is a decision on the need of special education. In Poland, according to
regulations included in the Act on Education System (Journal of Laws, 2004, No. 256) attending
nursery school is not obligatory. Only a reception class, which is the last year of the nursery school
preparing to school education, is mandatory. In 2008/2009 17280 nursery institutions functioned
in Poland. They consisted of 8038 nursery schools, 9033 preschool institutions at primary schools
and 209 preschool education facilities and nursery centres. 919,100 children aged 3–6 attended the
se institutions, which was 63.1% of the whole of the children at the preschool age. Analysing the
issues of locating preschool institutions, it should be noticed that in the countryside there are 33.3%
nursery schools, 78.4% preschool institutions and 88,4% alternative nursery schools (Oświata i wy
chowanie [Education system and upbringing]…, 2009).
78.4% children in cities and 42.7% children in the countryside were provided preschool care.
This percentage constituted also 6 year-old children for whom preschool education is mandatory. It
may be therefore noticed that there is an unfavourable phenomenon, i.e. low level of participation of
children aged 3-5 in preschool education (around 52.7%, but there was seen an increase by 5.4 per
centage points in relation to the previous year). The nursery schools were attended by children at the
age of 3 – 58.5% in cities and 17.1% in the countryside; at the age of 4 – 72.7% in cities and 26.8%
in the countryside; at the age of 5 – 81% in cities and 41.8% in the countryside. The presented data
show significant disproportions in promoting preschool education in the city and the countryside
(Oświata i wychowanie [Education system and upbringing]…, 2009).
Poland takes one of the last places in the countries of the UE ranking in terms of universality
of preschool education. In more than 2/3 of the EU countries over 60% children at the age of 4
attended nursery classes whereas in Poland the proportion of nursery school pupils among 4-year-
old children was only 41% (Oświata i wychowanie [Education system and upbringing], 2009). In
Sweden, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy and France almost every 4-year-old child attends nursery
school.
Poland PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Table 1. A percentage of 4-year-old children attending nursery schools in 113
selected countries of the Europe in 2007.
Year Year
Country Country
2000 2007 p 2000 2007 p
82.8 89 EU-27 60.3 76.8 Romania
100 100 France 99.5 98.2 Netherlands
100 99 Italy 60.6 76.5 Latvia
99.2 100 Belgium - 75.1 Slovakia
99 97.1 Spain 55.7 70.4* Cyprus
100 97.5 Malta 67 71.4 Bulgaria
94.9 93 Luxemburg 51 61.7 Lithuania
90.6 95.4 Denmark 53.9 56.1 Greece
89.5 94.1 Germany 41.9 50 Finland
89.4 92.8 Hungary - 48.2* Croatia
100 91.3 United Kingdom 51.1 45.9 Ireland
81 87.5 Czech Republic 33 44 Poland
72.8 100 Sweden 12.4 15.9* Macedonia
78.2 88.1 Estonia - 7* Turkey
79.5 84.2 Austria 90.9 95.8 Iceland
72.3 81.6 Portugal - 52.7 Liechtenstein
67.7 81.3 Slovenia 78.1 94.8 Norway
(-) Lack of data or data unavailable, (p) Estimated data, (*) Data of 2006
Source: Oświata i wychowanie w roku szkolnym 2007/2008. (2008). Warszawa: GUS.

[Education system and upbringing in the 2007/2008 school year. (2008). Warsaw: Central Statistical Office]
The Development of Alternative Forms of Early Education
Until 2008 state nursery schools were the only educational form for the youngest children in Po
land. Meanwhile, other countries do not restrict themselves to the only one form of early education
but they offer various forms which meet the needs and opportunities of parents and demographic
conditions. A good example can be England, which in its act on the care for children, “The Children
Act” includes the following: day childcare centres, state and public nursery schools, playgroups,
integration playgroups, centres for children, family centres and day rooms, nursery schools and re
ception classes at primary schools, recreational centres, babysitters’ activity for children, playbuses,
toys rental shops.
In Portugal the preschool system consists of three organisational models: full-time nursery
schools, itinerant nursery schools (in rural areas where there are few children, e.g. only one child
and a teacher regularly come so as to conduct classes) and nursery common rooms (institutions that
are established in cities in which there is a shortage of places in nursery schools; the classes are
conducted around 4–5 hours a day). These examples show how great stress is put on preschool edu
cation in the EU countries and how it is possible to match it up organisationally to local needs.
The system of preschool education in Poland, which in recent years has been a matter of con
cern of many teachers is gradually improving. Alternative forms of education became a way out of
stagnation. The need for their creation, especially in rural areas was noticed by the European Union.
In 2005 there was implemented a pilot programme under the name “Alternative forms of prescho
ol education” within the Sectoral Operational Programme – Human Resources Development. In
2005–2008 19 projects was implemented. Thanks to them there were established 802 centres of
alternative preschool education for 10,500 children in rural areas across Poland. This programme
brought effects, therefore the next stage was to promote and extend them. The 2008/2009 school
year was named Year of Nursery School Pupil by the Ministry of National Education. Self-govern
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
114
ments were given a guide in which alternative forms of preschool education were promoted. The
amount of over €243 million of support from the EU was allocated for the development of prescho
ol education in 2007–2013. The regulation of the MNE of 10 January 2008 was also issued and
concerned types of other forms of preschool education, conditions of creating and organising these
forms and the way they work (Journal of Laws No. 7, item 38 with amendments). It stressed that
although traditional nursery schools realize the rule of common accessibility best and provide the
fulfilment of the preschool education curriculum, their chain may be supplemented with alternative
forms of preschool education.
This regulation sanctioned the appointment of other preschool institutions in rural areas. Wit
hin the alternative forms preschool education facilities or preschool centres for children are created.
There are performed educational and pedagogical tasks in accordance with the preschool education
curriculum. In both forms qualified teachers has to be employed. Preschool centres conduct classes
on all working days of a week through the whole school year, except for breaks established by the
governing body. By contrast, preschool complexes organise classes only on certain days of a week
for minimum 3 hours in a day and 12 hours in a week (The regulation of MNE, 2008, §3). The cur
riculum can be conducted in the whole or in a selected part. The time of the work of the facility or
centre should be flexible and adjusted to the group numbers and parents’ needs and expectations.
At the same time, the number of hours of classes should depend on the size of the group. If there
are 3 to 5 children (this is the minimum number of a group specified in the regulation) 3 hours a
day should be enough to fulfil the curriculum. In the event of more numerous group the time of
conducing classes is around 5 hours a day. According to the regulation, a group can count from 3
to 25 children. In fact, the number of children in a group depends on local environment’s needs and
standards of the premises (minimum 2–2, 5 square metres per every child is required).
Communes, legal entities (e.g. non-governmental organisations, associations, foundations, reli
gious communities) and individuals can organize preschool complexes and centres. Classes can be
conducted in the building of the educational institutions, public institutions, religious institutions
and private houses or flats. However, these places must meet sanitation and premises requirements.
For instance, it is allowed to conduct classes in premises located on the ground-floor with at least
two exits while one of them is to enable direct exit into the open space. The minimum space for the
group consisting of 3-5 children should amount to at least 16 square metres. For every next child
the required surface increases by 2 square metres if child’s stay does not exceed 5 hours a day and
2,5 square metres if it exceeds 5 hours (Regulation of MNE, 2008, §4).
It should be mentioned that the chain of state nursery schools is established by the commune
council, which decides whether to create alternative forms of preschool education or not.
The data from the Ministry of Education shows that until 2009 over 636 state and public al
ternative forms of preschool education were established (497 preschool centres and 139 preschool
education complexes). The greatest number of alternative nursery schools was established in the
following provinces: the Podkarpacie province – 114, the West Pomerania province – 93, and the
Świętokrzyskie province – 65. There were also 335 state nursery schools opened.
The awareness of the need for education in early childhood is constantly growing. Many non-
governmental organisations try to introduce many solutions on the local scale and create innovative
development and education programmes for children and parents, as well as promote preschool
education. For that purpose 21 September 2007 the Alliance on Early Childhood Development
and Education (PREMD in Polish) was established. Until October 2009 it joined together 45 non-
governmental organisations. The task of this Alliance is to accelerate the process of creating best
conditions to promote and develop various forms of educational support for young children by the
combination of forces.
On the initiative of various foundations gathered in the Alliance on Early Childhood Deve
lopment and Education there were created many projects and programmes developing alternative
forms of education. The activity of foundations such as: Jan Komeński Foundation of Children’s De
velopment, John Paul II Youth’s Aid Foundation “Wzrastanie”, Alternative Education Workshop,
Association “Dorośli-Dzieciom”, Association “Soma”.
Poland PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Jan Komeński Foundation of Children’s Development established in 2003 is the first one that 115
introduced alternative forms of preschool education into Poland and in collaboration with other
non-governmental organisations led to their legislation. Over several years of activity it has organi
sed and created over 300 preschool centres. Within the implemented programmes it also organises
preschool clubs and playgroups.
The Foundation organises Preschooler’s Clubs in collaboration with Rural Development Foun
dation. These clubs are for children aged 3–5. Classes are conducted 3 days in a week and minimum
15 hours a week. On coming into force of the regulation, some of them were transformed into pres
chool centres.
Playgroups are a proposal for children at the age of 6 months to 3 years or for two age groups:
0–2 and 2–5 and their parents. The meetings take place e.g. at home, in a common room, at a libra
ry or in community centres at least once in a week for minimum 2 hours. They are conducted by
an appropriately prepared animator. Playgroups Pilot Programme was carried out in 2006–2007. It
proved that this form meets parents’ needs both in the cities and in the countryside. Participation
in the Playgroup gives children the possibility of learning new words. What is more, it develops
self-reliance, teaches how to establish contacts with others and lets children find out the rules of
functioning in a group (Grupy Zabawowe..., 2007; Ogrodzieńska, 2009).
Another form of education for young children as a way of equalizing life chances is offered
by the Alternative Education Workshop, which has been active since 1991 in Łódź. It offers care
for children at the preschool age 3–5. This is aimed at those children who come from poor, dysfunc
tional and pathological families and their parents use the services of Local Social Welfare Centre.
The classes are conducted from Monday to Friday at 8:00 to 14:00 (Polish time). Their aim is to
equalize educational opportunities and support social, emotional and moral development, as well
as prepare to school. Children attends language, mathematics, natural science, theatre, music, pro-
heath and sports classes, moral science, as well as art and construction classes. Particular attention
is paid to social and emotional development. Children attend socio-therapeutic classes, as well. It
is due to the fact that people at this age are very susceptible to the influence of the background. As
a result, on the one hand they are more exposed to situations causing emotional traumas, but on the
other hand, it is easier to eliminate these traumas. The dominant form of activity is entertainment.
For every participant there is an individual plan of development created and there is an emphasis on
the spheres having biggest deficits. Every year 10-day camps for young participant of the classes
are organized. All these activities are organised within the project Nasze przedszkole [Our nursery
school] (Ogrodzieńska, 2009).
Also John Paul II Youth’s Aid Foundation “Wzrastanie” pays particular attention to education
of young children. This foundation has run a charitable activity in favour of children and young pe
ople from poor disadvantageous and orphaned families, as well as for the homeless on the area of
the Podkarpacie province since 1991. It provides care for over 400 people under somebody’s char
ge in 14 special education centres and social service centres, as well as in 81 preschool centres for
children aged 3–5. These preschool centres run by the Foundation are co-financed from the means
of the European Social Fund and the project “New quality of education”. In the teaching and educa
tional work great significance is attached to stimulating comprehensive development of children, as
well as stirring and developing children’s hobbies and talents.
Also the Association “Soma”, which has functioned since 2003, proposed classes for young
children. It directs its activity to families from the Somianka commune. It acts with the use of the
method of projects and public tasks. It works with children aged 3–5 in accordance with the pro
ject Academy for the youngest that envisages to hold cyclical classes conducted twice a week in
three modules: art, theatre, play. During the three-hour meeting there are organised various creative
plays, art activities and sports and music classes. Their task is not only to shape significant abilities
but also to broaden knowledge about the world and express one’s attitude towards the surrounding
reality (Ogrodzieńska, 2009).
The presented forms of alternative education are not only an effective and economical proposal
of promoting preschool education, but also flexible enough to be adjusted to specific needs of the
local environment.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
116 Conclusions
Education is one of the most important factors which favour shaping of the socio-professional
advance. It often determines the socio-economic status of both individuals and social groups. The
school system can, at the same time, stimulate and support raising of social advance as well as
consolidate social inequalities and contribute to be present in the social structure with low status
without causing any important life change. Therefore, for those children the most important are ac
tivities that aim to equalize education opportunities. The alternative forms of preschool education
which support development of young children are very helpful. When creating institutions of this
type, particular emphasis should be put on their universality, quality and the time of child’s stay.
Only the combination of these three factors may begin the real process of equalizing education and
life opportunities of children from backgrounds being culturally and economically neglected. The
currently functioning preschool centres have showed that participants of the classes do better at
school, have higher social and emotional qualifications and develop better verbal and intellectual
abilities (Ogrodzieńska, 2004).
Propagating early education of young children gives also the opportunity of the development
of social capital in the countryside, improves the attractiveness of the commune and becomes one
of the ways of stopping migration of active and young people. Moreover, by introducing various
classes for children there are created workplaces for unemployed women (Rościszewska-Woźniak,
2008). Providing healthy development for children is therefore an investment in human capital and
improvement in society’s education. “Young people will soon become the big ones and they will
take decisions concerning our lives, our children and grandchildren. Remember that good education
of our children today – increases the chances of all of us for better life in the future” (Suchodolski,
1979).
References
Blumsztajn, A., Szlendak, T. (2006). Jakość kapitału ludzkiego i wyrównywanie szans edukacyjnych.
Wprowadzenie do raportu. [The quality of human capital and equalization of educational opportunities.
Introduction to the report]. [w:] T. Szlendak, Małe dziecko w Polsce Raport o sytuacji edukacji elemen
tarnej. [Young child in Poland. Report on the situation of elementary education]. Warszawa: Fundacja
Komeńskiego, 27–33.
Balcerzak-Paradowska, B. (2007). Ocena systemu opieki instytucjonalnej nad dzieckiem w Polsce (w
aspekcie umożliwienia godzenia obowiązków zawodowych z rodzinnymi). [Evaluation of the system of
institutional care for a child in Poland (in the aspect of reconciling career with family life]. [w:] Sadow
ska-Snarska C. (red.). Systemy instytucjonalne opieki nad dzieckiem w aspekcie godzenia życia zawodo
wego z rodzinnym. [Institutional systems of the care for a child in the aspect of reconciling career with
family life]. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej w Białymstoku, 15–32.
Blumsztajn, A. (2007). Przykłady rozwiązań edukacji przedszkolnej w krajach członkowskich Unii Eu
ropejskiej. [Examples of the solutions of preschool education in the member countries of the European
Union]. [w:] C. Sadowskia-Snarska, System instytucjonalnej opieki nad dzieckiem w aspekcie godzenia
z życiem zawodowym. [A system of institutional care for a child in the aspect of reconciling with care
er.] Białystok: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej, 131–156.
Czapiński, J., T. Panek, (red.). (2009). Diagnoza społeczna 2009. Warunki i jakość życia Polaków. Ra
port. [Social diagnosis 2009. Conditions and quality of life of Poles. Report]. Warszawa: Rada Monito
ringu Społecznego.
Edukacja w Europie: różne systemy kształcenia i szkolenia - wspólne cele do roku 2010. (2003). [Edu
cation and training in Europe: diverse systems, shared goals for 2010]. Warszawa: Fundacja Rozwoju
Systemu Edukacji.
Fulghum, R. (1996). Wszystkiego, co naprawdę trzeba wiedzieć, nauczyłem się w przedszkolu. [All I Re
ally Need to Know I Learned in Kindergarten]. Warszawa: Świat Książki.
Poland PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Grupy Zabawowe dla małych dzieci i rodziców. Poradnik dla gmin i organizacji pozarządowych. (2007). 117
[Entertainment Groups for young children and their parents. A guidebook for communes and non-go
vernmental organizations]. Warszawa: Fundacja Rozwoju Dzieci im. J. A. Komeńskiego.
Heckmann, J. (2006) Invest in the very young, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Retrieved March
7, 2010 from http://www.innowacyjnosc.gpw.pl/kip/index.php?r=47&pr=59.
Kamerman, S. B. (2001). Early childhood education and care: International perspectives. New York:
ICFP.
Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu. (2005) Strategia rozwoju edukacji na lata 2001–2013. [A
strategy of the development of education for the years 2001-2013]. Warszawa: MENiS.
Murawska, B. (2004). Segregacja na progu szkoły podstawowej. [Segregation on the threshold of a pri
mary school]. Warszawa: ISP.
Ogrodzieńska, T. (2004). Małe dziecko na wsi. Edukacja jako sposób na wyrównywanie szans życiowych
lub porozmawiajmy o dobrym dzieciństwie. [Young child in the countryside. Education as a way of the
equalization of life opportunities or let’s talk about good childhood]. Warszawa: Fundacja Wspomaga
nia Wsi.
Ogrodzieńska, T. (red.). (2009). Inwestujemy w małe dzieci. Dobre praktyki organizacji pozarządowych.
[Investing in young children. Good practices of non-governmental organizations]. Warszawa: Fundacja
Rozwoju Dzieci im. J. A. Komeńskiego.
Oświata i wychowanie w roku szkolnym 2007/2008. (2008). [Education system and upbringing in the
2007/2008 school year]. Warszawa: GUS. [Warsaw: Central Statistical Office].
Raport o Rozwoju Społecznym Polska 1998. Dostęp do edukacji. [The report on social development
Poland 1998 – access to education]. Retrieved January 19, 2010, from http://www.unic.un.org.pl/
nhdr/1998/raport.php
Rościszewska-Woźniak M. (2008). Gdy nie ma przedszkola. [Where there is no nursery school]. „Dzieci
w Europie”, nr 13 (1), 27–28.
Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 10 stycznia 2008 r. W sprawie rodzajów innych
form wychowania przedszkolnego, warunków tworzenia i organizowania tych form oraz sposobach ich
działania, „Dziennik Ustaw” z 2008 r. Nr 7, poz. 40, z późn. zm.
Suchodolski, B., (1979). Komeński. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna.
Ustawy z dnia 7 września 1991 r. o systemie oświaty „Dziennik Ustaw” z 2004 r. Nr 256, poz. 2572, z
późn. zm.
Waloszek, D. (2009). Sytuacyjne wspieranie dzieci w doświadczaniu świata. [Situation children support
in the process of experiencing the world]. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Pedagogic
znego.
Wygotski, L. S. (2004). Wybrane prace psychologiczne II: dzieciństwo i dorastanie. [Selected psycholo
gical works II: childhood and adolescence]. Poznań: Zysk i S-ka.
Zahorska, M. (2003). Edukacja przedszkolna w Polsce – szanse i zagrożenia. [Preschool education in
Poland – opportunities and threats]. Warszawa: Fundacja Instytut Spraw Publicznych.
Marzena Okrasa PhD, Senior Lecturer, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University of Lublin, Narutowicza Street
12, Lublin 20-004, Poland.
E-mail: marzena.okrasa@poczta.umcs.lublin.pl
Website: http://www.umcs.lublin.pl/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
118
CULTURAL CAPITAL AND THE RICHES OF

MANNA: INTEGRATION OF IMMIGRANT
SCIENTISTS IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA
Nitza Davidovitch
Ari’el University Centre, Israel
Dan Soen
Ari’el University Centre and the Kibbutzim School of Education, Tel-Aviv, Israel
E-mail: soen@macam.ac.il
Zila Sinuany-Stern
Ari’el University Centre and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
E-Mail: szila@ariel.ac.il
Abstract
The article deals with transnationalism – the flow of cultural capital across borders. Around 16,000
scientists entered Israel during the 1990s. Some of them joined the academic staff. This case study is the
first to compare between achievement measures of new immigrant and native Israeli senior academic
faculty. It is based on the analysis of performance records of 206 senior faculty members from the Ariel
University Centre, out of whom 77 were born overseas. The study analyzes staff who received financial
rewards for excellence for the three years 2006–2008, based on their activities, as measured by several
criteria: excellence in research, teaching, academic administration, and contributions to the community.
On the whole, the study revealed that a larger percentage of immigrant faculty members vs. native Isra
elis scored on excellence criteria. A discriminant analysis was performed in order to examine to what
degree scoring on various excellence criteria distinguishes between immigrants and native Israelis facul
ty. All in all, the research reveals that immigrant scientists have become well integrated in the analyzed
institution; their academic contribution was a major one.
Key words: transnationalism, cultural capital, absorption of immigrant scientists, academic achieve
ments, academic distinction.
Introduction
The concept of transnationalism, which is described as an integral part of the globalization

process, is lately becoming rather popular in social as well as political sciences (Remennick, 2007;
Faist, 2000; Portes et al., 1999). Originally coined to describe flows of capital and labor across na
Nitza DAVIDOVITCH, Dan SOEN, Zila SINUANY-STERN. Cultural Capital and the Riches of Manna: Integration of
Immigrant Scientists in Israeli Academia PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
tional borders in the second half of the 20th century, it was later applied to the study of migrations as 119
well as ethnic Diasporas. Thus, the lens of transnationalism became very useful for the exploration
of issues like immigrant economic and social integration, identity and cultural retention. Scholars
now recognize the split of economic, social and political loyalties among migrants, as well as the
gradual attenuation of loyalty to the nation-state as such (Remennick, 2007; Glick Schiller et al.,
1995; Guarnizo & Smith, 1998).
Current writings on transnationalism are concerned equally with long-distance economic acti
vities, financial flows across the borders and exploration of socio-cultural dimensions and immig
rants’ assimilation and identity (Remennick, 2007a; Alba & Nee, 1997).
Most recent studies dealing with transnationalism focused on emigrants moving from third
world countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America to the West (Faist, 2000; Portes et al., 1999;
Smith & Guarnizo, 1998). This paper deals with another stream of migrations: those from ex-socia
list East European countries to the West.
Immigrant absorption has been one of Israel’s major aims since the establishment of the State
of Israel. The goals of the Ministry of Immigration Absorption (MOIA) in regards to scientists’
absorption as stated are among other things to ensure, to the greatest degree possible, that the scien
tific potential embodied in immigration is channeled appropriately, facilitating proper personal ab
sorption of scientists, in order to increase Israeli scientific research and technological capabilities
(MOIA).
Immigration to Israel
The State of Israel was established on May 15, 1948, a historical event which occurred follo
wing two thousand years of Jewish exile and persecution in the Diaspora. The establishment of the
state was accompanied by the signing of the Scroll of Independence, which declared that “the State
of Israel will be open to Jewish immigration and the ingathering of exiles” (in Horev, 2006). This
statement received its legal authority two years later in the Law of Return, which explicitly stated
that “all Jews are entitled to immigrate to Israel” (Law of Return, 1950). This legal act transformed
the Land of Israel into a world center of Jewish immigration.
The State of Israel was established on a unique ethno-national foundation, seeking to base its
existence on waves of external immigration which form an important demographic basis of the Je
wish existence in Israel (Sever, 2001). At the time the state was established the Jewish population
numbered approximately 600 thousand; today, six decades later, the Jewish population numbers 6
million, of whom 30% were born overseas (CBS, 2008, 59). 75% of the Jewish population in Israel
is either immigrants or 1st generation Israelis (ibid.). Israel is a country of immigrants, and from the
moment it was established it had to cope with large rates of immigration and the challenges invol
ved in absorbing immigrants. Despite its extensive experience with the absorption of immigrants, it
faced a significant new economic, social, and cultural challenge in the late ‘80s and early ‘90s.
The Large Wave of Immigration from the Former Soviet Union (FSU) – Unique
Characteristics
In 1989 the Soviet Union opened its gates to citizens who wished to leave the country. When
the Iron Curtain fell, it was finally possible to leave the country legally after many decades of restric
ted movement. This point symbolized the beginning of the second wave of immigration from the
FSU (the first wave was in the ‘70s), which became one of the largest mass immigration movements
in human history (Gandal, Hanson & Slaughter, 2004). An estimated 1.6 million of former Soviet ci
tizens of Jewish ancestry left the disintegrating former USSR after 1987, drastically depleting their
aging Jewish communities left behind. They constituted a huge fountain of human capital. Jews
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
120
were the most educated minority group among all FSU nations. Over 60% had tertiary education.
Most held professional or white collar occupations (Remmenick, 2007a; Tolts, 2004). Over 60% of
these emigrants moved to Israel; 40% scattered in other Western countries.
Over 720 thousand people entered the country over a period of three years, arousing many
concerns of their effect on the structure of society (Kimmerling, 1998). The wave of immigration
from the Soviet Union in 1989-1996 expanded the population of Israel by 20% (Geva-May, 2002).
By 2008 the number of immigrants from the FSU reached one million, who all arrived in the second
wave which began in 1989 and has continued in a more moderate form until the present day (Mey-
Ami, 2008). The rate of immigrants from the FSU among the Jewish population in Israel rose from
3.8% in 1990 to 21% in 2005. They are now the largest ethnic group to migrate to Israel (Raijman,
2009). By virtue of its size and timing the huge Russian migration wave of the 1990s had all the
necessary conditions for the development of transnational tendencies (Remmenick, 2007).
The massive wave of immigration from the FSU is unique in its size, composition, and extent.
The new immigrants provided material for many studies examining various aspects of their absorp
tion and acclimatization, including: linguistic (Menachem & Geist, 1999; Ben Raphael, Olstein &
Gates, 1994; Chiswick & Repetto, 2000; Chiswick, 1998), cultural (Geva-May, 1998; Remennick,
2002), economic (Stier & Levanon, 2003), personal (Epstein & Kheimets, 2001), occupational
(Ofer, Plug & Kasir, 1991; Nirel, 1999; Mesch & Czamanski, 1997; Chiswick, Lee & Miller, 2006),
mental (Lerner, Kertes & Zilber, 2005), and social aspects (Darr & Rothschild, 2005; Soen, 2001;
Cohen & Kirchmeyer, 1994) and other parameters aimed at evaluating the relationship between the
immigrants and their target country.
Aside from the numerical aspects of this wave of mass immigration, it had unique demograp
hic and social characteristics of which some were new to Israel. This population was noticeable for
its large proportion of elderly, which was much higher than that in the local population (19% aged
65+ as against 9.9%)! Moreover, its median age was 42.9, comparing with a median age of 28.5
for migrants coming to Israel from Western countries, and median age of 25.4 for migrants coming
from Ethiopia (Raijman, 2009). However, of all immigrants at an age considered employable, 58%
were academics, compared to 25% among Israel’s existing population (Kimmerling, 1998). Accor
ding to data from the MOIA, 10.9% of immigrants in 1989-1999 were engineers and architects,
2.3% were doctors, 2.2% were artists, 2.5% were nurses, and 4.8% were teachers. The total number
of immigrants who arrived during this decade was 835,240 (MOIA, 2008a). During 2000-2008 the
number of immigrants with scientific and academic occupations, in addition to those with liberal
and technical professions, reached 31.8%. The total number of immigrants with scientific and aca
demic occupations during these years was 268,287 (MOIA, 2008b). Despite these impressive data
one Israeli scholar (Cohen, 2007) suggested that the emigrants who were younger, more educated
and had better adjustment potential in the Western economies left the FSU for North America. Tho
se who opted for Israel were their older counterparts. As a result of this self-selection Russian Jews
in Israel did not fare nearly as well as their compatriots in North America. Moreover, in Israel they
had to cope with a small and saturated skilled labor market (ibid.).
In the present study the research team sought to examine another less studied aspect focusing
on a certain segment of this population – the scientists. Surprisingly, despite the many programs
designed in the past and the various proposals for integrating immigrant scientists in academic
fields in the future, no extensive study was held on the subject. The lack of updated research on the
integration and contribution of immigrant scientists to academia is detrimental to the development
of future programs aimed at academic integration. In the absence of data it is difficult to estimate
the degree to which the integration of immigrant scientists indeed contributes to Israeli higher edu
cation and to the scientists per se.
In this study we have chosen to focus on the quality and degree of the absorption of immig
rant versus native Israeli scientists at the Ari’el University Center in Samaria (AUC). The main
purpose of the research is to assess the contribution of immigrant scientists in the fields of research,
teaching, and contribution to the community.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Immigrant Scientists 121
The group of immigrants with scientific and academic occupations encompasses many scien
tists. The MOIA defined scientists as corresponding to one of three different categories: holders of
Ph.D. or equivalent degrees who worked in the field of research and development for at least 3 of
the 5 years before immigrating and published at least 3 scientific articles or acknowledged scientific
studies or registered 3 patents; holders of M.Sc. or equivalent degrees who worked in the field of
research and development for at least 4 of the 6 years before immigrating and published at least 3
scientific articles or registered 3 patents; holders of M.Sc. or equivalent degrees who worked in the
field of research and development for at least 4 of the 6 years prior to immigrating but produced no
articles or patents (see website of the MOIA).
Between 1989-1991 more than 5,300 immigrant scientists fitting these criteria immigrated to
Israel (MOIA, 2000). During these years the number of veteran Israeli scientists reached 8,000,
including both researchers and academic faculty (Geva-May, 2000). During the period of immig
ration, scientists constituted 1.2% of all immigrants. The number of scientists who immigrated
from the FSU in the last wave of immigration totaled 15,700 by 2008 (Mey-Ami, 2008). During
1989-1999 about 14,000 immigrants appealed to the Center for Absorption in Science (CAS) of the
MOIA– 1.4% of all immigrants who arrived in Israel during those years. A large percentage of CAS
files – 38% – were opened during 1991-1992 (MOIA, 2008b).
Thus, the population of immigrants from the Soviet Union was, in general, well-educated. In
contrast to the typical pattern of immigration, these immigrants did not come to Israel in search of
new socioeconomic opportunities (Bhagat & London, 1999); however they perceived their employ
ment as a central aspect of their process of assimilation in Israel (Menachem & Gates, 1999).
These traits raised the economic and social potential of immigration from the Soviet Union
(Triponov & Weiner, 1995). The immigrants were acknowledged as “human capital” with a great
potential of contributing to the Israeli economy (Darr & Rothschild, 2004; Ofer et al., 1991). Con
current with the high expectations of these immigrants, local veteran segments of the population
developed real concerns. They feared the inherent competition for employment opportunities, rising
unemployment, and the utilization of national resources for immigration absorption at the expense
of budgets intended for underprivileged and veteran populations (Kimmerling, 1998), as well as
overburdening the Israeli welfare system (see also Smooha, 1998).
The potential on the one hand and emerging concerns on the other led to a certain conflict wit
hin Israeli society. Some claimed that market forces should be allowed to take their course and that
a natural balance and integration of the immigrants would occur spontaneously (Meirson, 1991).
Others thought that Israel would not be able absorb the gargantuan workforce arriving at its doors
tep without the help of artificial means (Ne’eman, 1991; Darr & Rothschild, 2005). This endeavor
helped create various programs for the integration of scientists and academics within the Israeli la
bor market. Many efforts have been made by the Israeli government to realize the significant human
capital of the population of immigrants from the FSU. The question should now be raised– Have the
se efforts been fruitful? Has the effort to facilitate the employment of immigrants been successful?
Research on the Employment of Highly Educated Immigrants
The recent wave of immigration to Israel, characterized by a high proportion of educated peop
le, is unlike that of the ‘70s (Ne’eman, 1994). Israeli society underwent many processes which redu
ced immigrants’ chances of becoming integrated, due to contemporary socioeconomic conditions
which are less conducive to immigration (Epstein & Kheimets, 2001). The ‘90s were characterized
by high rates of unemployment: 10% in the ‘90s versus 3.3% in the ‘70s. During these years no
new university-level institutions were opened in Israel, versus the ‘60s and ‘70s in which 3 new
universities were established, creating jobs for academics (Davidovich & Iram, 2006). The absorp
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
122
tion policy changed from an institutional policy of “absorption centers” to a policy of termed direct
absorption (Leshem, 1993), where immigrants were given the option of independently choosing
their place of work and residence (Epstein & Kheimets, 2001; Epstein, Kheimets & Oritzky, 2003).
This policy tasked immigrants with the responsibility for locating adequate solutions for their ne
eds (Leshem, 1993). At the same time, public consciousness no longer perceived the significance of
absorbing immigration, and this was now considered a burden rather than an asset (ibid.). All these
conditions made immigration much more difficult. It was almost necessary to initiate interventions
in order to enable suitable absorption of immigrants.
When studying the assimilation of immigrants in society, economic-employment integration
is considered very significant (Menachem & Gates, 1999). The premise is that such integration is
a major indicator of successful assimilation in the target society, as these aspects are central for de
termining individuals’ feelings of well-being (Stier & Levanon, 2003), belonging and self-esteem.
For example, Menachem and Gates (ibid.) found that immigrants’ feelings of attachment and con
nection to Israel are determined to a great degree by their employment and personal achievements
in the country.
Some of the studies examining the integration of immigrants from the FSU in the workforce
focused on their integration as a group, while others examined the integration of unique populations
among the immigrants.
Ofer et al. (1991) attempted to estimate the integration of immigrants from the FSU in the
workforce theoretically via economic models, focusing on aspects related to retaining and changing
occupations. Their findings indicated that in order for educated immigrants to become integrated
in the Israeli economy it is necessary to radically open the economy to global markets. The resear
chers also estimated that the best-educated sector would be the most capable of retaining original
occupations.
Nirel (1998) examined the integration of immigrant physicians from the FSU in the workforce.
Research findings indicate that most physicians who found jobs in their profession succeeded in
becoming integrated in their field. The findings indicate improvements in physicians’ job stability,
“institutionalization” of positions, professional status, wages, and perceived absorption, as a func
tion of time. According to all these measures, physicians who arrived by June 1992 and were emplo
yed in their fields succeeded in becoming integrated in Israeli medical services.
Naveh and King (1999) examined the integration of engineers in the Israeli workforce. Their
findings show that although immigrant engineers have significant professional skills and professio
nal experience, only one quarter of all immigrant scientists were employed in their profession, 9%
were employed in related professions such as teaching (Geva-May, 1998), as technicians, or in pro
gramming, and 66% worked in other professions unsuited to their level of education – almost half
were employed as professional laborers and one quarter as unprofessional laborers (ibid.).
Stier and Levanon (2003) examined the employment of immigrants in jobs that are compatible
with their skills. The researchers found that most of the immigrants had difficulty finding jobs. Four
years after arriving in Israel most were employed in jobs that did not suit their skills. The lack of
compatibility between skills and occupation was indeed detrimental to their prestige and social sta
tus, but not to their income, which rose despite the element of over-qualification.
Darr and Rothschild (2005) examined the integration of well-educated immigrants in the Isra
eli scientific community. The researchers found that although the human capital of the immigrants
was higher than that of veteran Israelis, this fact alone did not facilitate engineer and scientist as
similation in the Israeli scientific community. The researchers associated this finding with the fact
that Israel is a small country and its professional communities are very congested and close-knit,
a further obstacle encountered by immigrant engineers and scientists. In any case, while the new
immigrants encountered many difficulties, research reveals that a few years after their arrival many
of them experienced upward mobility commensurate with their human capital (Eckstein & Weiss,
2004; Semyonov et al., 2002).
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Geva-May (2000) examined five projects for the retraining of immigrant scientists as teachers. 123
The research findings indicate that the scientists were successfully employed in the field of teaching
and well-integrated as high school teachers. However most were employed in partial positions and
had to work at several schools. The researcher stated that despite the occupational success of redirec
ting scientists to high school teaching, from a social aspect the venture was less successful – most of
the scientists did not form friendships with their colleagues, consistent with principals’ statements
that many parents object to having their children taught by immigrant teachers, despite the fact that
95% of the principals submitted favorable evaluations of immigrant scientists’ contribution to the
school.
Integration of Scientists in Institutions of Higher Education
As already mentioned, over 15,000 scientists immigrated to Israel over the past two decades.
54% have doctorate degrees and 46% have master’s degrees. 64% have degrees in scientific and
technological professions, 23% in the life and medical sciences, 13% in the social sciences and the
humanities (Epstein et al., 2003). Although many studies have examined the assimilation of the
Russian population in Israel, the integration of scientists in academia has been almost completely
neglected and little research exists on this subject. Two studies were published by Toren, who explo
red the topic of scientists who immigrated in the ‘70s, and Shye et al., who examined the integration
of scientists who arrived after 1989.
Toren (1988) interviewed immigrant scientists who came to Israel during 1973–1975. The
study included interviews with 207 immigrants from the Soviet Union and 91 scientists from the
United States. Research findings include a report on reasons for immigration, factors affecting scien
tists’ satisfaction, and factors blocking their integration in the Israeli labor market (ibid.).
Shye et al. (1996) examined the integration of immigrants in academia during 1992–1995. The
study analyzed scientists who had been living in Israel for 3 years. Research findings show that
70% of scientists who had been working at universities in 1992 were still working there three years
later. 13% of immigrant scientists who had been working at universities had moved to industry by
1995, 7% of scientists who had been in academia were unemployed by 1995, a finding interpreted
by researchers as stemming from adjustment difficulties and advanced age.
They further found (ibid.) that the proportion of scientists who published scientific articles
doubled over this period as did the number of scientists who registered patents, findings credited by
the researchers to government assistance afforded to immigrant scientists. Academic colleagues of
immigrant scientists reported that the professional skills, integration, and contribution of the latter
improved immeasurably over this period. However veteran colleagues estimated that immigrant
scientists still had a relatively low chance of remaining at the universities.
Despite the improvements and progress indicated by scientists and their colleagues, the resear
chers reported that experts and various functionaries feel that long-term integration in the industrial
sector is preferable, while only a small part of outstanding immigrant scientists, capable of contribu
ting to basic research at the universities, should remain there.
The abovementioned studies illuminate the subject but do not reflect the current state of affairs
as of 2009. Over a decade has passed since the study performed by Shye et al. Immigrant scientists
are no longer defined as new immigrants and do not enjoy the benefits and aid programs provided
to newly arrived immigrant scientists. Thus we must ask: What is the contribution of immigrant
scientists to academic research and development? This question is necessitated by the enormous
economic and social effort invested in their integration and follows a government decision received
on August 2, 2007 to cancel financial support for the integration of immigrant scientists at research
institutions in the field of research and development.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
124 Methodology of Research
The purpose of this research is to examine the achievements of immigrant faculty members
at the AUC, versus those of Israeli-born faculty members. Assessments of faculty activities and
achievement-based rewards have become important topics over the past four decades (Hearn, 1999;
Wadsworth, 1994; Altbach, 2000; Gillespie, Hilsen & Wadsworth, 2002; Kaiser & Neilson, 2002).
Faculty members at academic institutions perform a wide range of activities, including: teaching,
research, research publications, presentations at conferences, submitting research grants, academic
administration, community service, etc. However academic freedom makes it difficult to supervise
and report the achievements of faculty in the different areas (Manning & Romney, 1973).
Several methods (e.g. peer assessments, multiple-criteria evaluation, students’ evaluation) ser
ve to assess the achievements of faculty members at academic institutions. The main tool for evalu
ating teaching is the student feedback questionnaire completed at the conclusion of each semester
(Kreber, 2001; Davidovich & Sinuany-Stern, 2006; Davidovitch & Soen, 2006). In addition, faculty
promotion is based on evaluating the achievements of faculty members as well. Since 1993 many
Israeli institutions of higher education have been utilizing annual self-evaluations and evaluations
by senior colleagues, based on excellence criteria in the fields of research and teaching. The results
of these evaluations are manifested in faculty salaries, in the form of rewards for excellence.
This study shall focus on the academic achievements of immigrant faculty members assimila
ted over the years at the AUC, versus those of native Israeli research faculty members. The main
questions in this study relate to links between the contribution of faculty members, in their fields of
activity, as evaluated by “excellence criteria”, and their country of origin.
Faculty member eligibility for excellence rewards is based on teaching positions of at least 2/3
and contingent on reaching excellence scores in the top 60% (in actual fact, roughly 40% of the
faculty received merit remuneration based on their excellence scores). This group is eligible to recei
ve an annual supplement to their salaries based on achievements during the previous year. The sup
plement ranges from 7.5% (the lower 20% of the excellence scores) to 15% (the middle 20% of the
excellence scores) to 20% (the top 20% of the excellence scores), according to the number of points
accumulated. These are the rules of the Council for Higher Education for colleges. At universities
there is no limitation of the percentage of those who may receive excellence rewards; however the
reward itself comprises a maximum of 13%. This study calculates average scores based on five mea
sures of evaluation, of which the most dominant are: evaluation of all academic activities by senior
colleagues, including deans (excellence scores), and student evaluations of teaching (feedback).
The research questions focused on the achievement measures of immigrant faculty members,
based on the analysis of personal detailed questionnaires filled in by all faculty members of the
institution. On the whole, several points were analyzed: What is their relative weight in the fields
of research (e.g. number of articles published in scientific journals, number of books published,
research grants, prizes and awards, etc.) teaching (feedback from students, contribution to innova
tive instruction, etc.) and contribution to the community? What is their relative weight in the field
of academic administration (membership in institutional committees, in departmental committees,
in national committees, etc.)? What is their relative weight in contribution to the institution’s aca
demic reputation (invited lectures and presentations in international scientific conferences, serving
on organizing committees of scientific conferences, etc.)? To what degree, if at all, do achievement
measures of faculty members in research and teaching depend on other personal variables such as
gender, seniority, age, or on variables related to their academic occupation, such as type of faculty,
rank, and tenure? This paper deals with the overall combined achievements of the FSU scientists
Research Population
This study is based on 206 academic faculty members from the AUC. 62.6% of the faculty
members are native Israelis, 19.4% are immigrants from the FSU, 12.1% are US-born, and 5.8%
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
came from other countries. In order to examine the correlation between faculty member origins and 125
both background data and excellence criteria, the faculty members were divided into four groups of
origin: Israel, FSU, USA, and others.
Results of Research
A notable fact emerging from the data is that not only do new immigrant scientists from the
FSU account for 20% of the academic faculty, they account for an even larger share in the senior
faculty members and typically have higher than average academic ranks, as evident from Table 1.
Chi-square test results indicate no statistically significant correlation between academic rank and
country of origin (χ2 (9) = 7.37, p > .05) at the AUC. And yet, one should note that while a mere
28.6% of the entire faculty have a rank or professor, 35.0% of all faculty members who are FSU,
immigrant scientists have earned such ranking.
Table 1. Distribution of academic ranks among faculty members,

by country of origin (2007-8).
Country of origin Israel FSU USA Other Total

Rank N % N % N % N % N %
Professor 32 24.8 14 35 7 28 6 50 59 28.6
Senior Lecturer 55 42.6 12 30 10 40 3 25 80 38.8
Lecturer 39 30.2 12 30 7 28 2 16.7 60 29.1
Instructor 3 2.3 2 5 1 4 1 8.3 7 3.4
Total 129 100 40 100 25 100 12 100 206 100
The interesting question that arises from the data regards the effective contribution of these
faculty members, above and beyond their high numerical proportion.
To this end, the authors examined the academic “harvest” of these faculty members in terms
of scientific publications, lectures at academic conferences, and participation in projects funded
directly by the Ministry of Immigration Absorption (MOIA). Participation in projects that are not
directly funded by the MOIA was not taken into account because such data lack information on par
ticipants’ country of origin. In other words, the contribution of FSU immigrants in funded projects
is in fact greater than the (partial) data presented herein.
An overview of the data indicates that FSU immigrants are responsible for a significant cumu
lative contribution. Thirty of the 109 (27.5%) volumes and periodicals authored by faculty mem
bers between 2004 and 2008 were the work of FSU immigrant faculty members. Seven of the 36
(19.5%) patents registered by faculty members in this period were also the work of FSU immigrant
faculty members.
Table 2. Books and periodicals authored by faculty members (2004–2008).
Year By FSU immigrants (N) % By other authors (N) %

2004 4 30.8 9 69.2
2005 9 40.9 13 59.1
2006 6 20.7 23 79.3
2007 9 36.0 16 64.0
2008 2 10.0 18 90.0
Total 30 27.5 79 72.5
Source: Research Authority, Ariel University Center of Samaria.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
126 Table 3. Patents registered by faculty members (2004–2008).
Year By FSU immigrants (N) % By other authors (N) %

2004 2 22.2 7 77.8
2005 1 16.7 5 83.3
2006 - - 8 100.0
2007 2 13.3 13 86.7
2008 2 33.3 4 66.7
Total 7 19.4 29 80.6
A review of project budgets also indicates the relative significance of FSU immigrant scien
tists among faculty members. Direct MOIA project funding was reduced from 34.67% of the total
project budget in 2004 to 24.16% of the total project in 2007, yet more than this fact indicates the
reduced scope of the contribution of new immigrant scientists to the institution’s research projects,
it indicates the reduced scope of MOIA funding. In total, the project budget increased annually, and
the funding detracted from the MOIA budget was supplemented from other sources. In total, the
Ministry contributed to 28.17% of the total project budget between 2004 and 2007.
Table 4. Investments of the MOIA in Projects for New Immigrant

Scientists in the Institution (2004–2007).
Year Ministry of Absorption Funding (NIS) Total project budget (NIS)

2004 1,669,007 4,813,790
2005 1,684,363 5,353,276
2006 1,857,101 7,193,571
2007 1,935,857 8,012,119
Total 7,146,328 25,372,756
No less interesting is FSU immigrant faculty’s share in academic publications. Two points
should be noted. First, FSU immigrants account for 27.8% of all the scientific publications authored
by faculty members between 2004 and 2008, which is much greater than their relative proportion of
the faculty. Nonetheless, their share in scientific publications is not stable. In 2005, this share was
especially high (33.5% of all publications), while in 2004 and 2006 this share was relatively low
(25.1% and 24.7%, respectively). Second, FSU immigrant faculty’s share in publications naturally
differs by department, consistent with their departmental distribution in the institution.
Table 5. Share of FSU Immigrant Authors of Scientific Publications

(2004–2008).
Year FSU scientists (N) % Others (N) %

2004 54 25.1 161 74.9
2005 68 33.5 135 66.5
2006 59 24.7 180 75.3
2007 75 28.4 189 71.6
2008 83 27.7 217 72.3
Total 339 27.8 882 72.2

OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Finally, the following data, relating to FSU immigrant faculty members’ share in participation 127
in scientific conferences in Israel and overseas, speak for themselves. FSU immigrant faculty ac
count for a larger-than-proportionate share of conference active attendance. In 2007, a year in which
attendance was lower than in other years, FSU immigrants accounted for 20.7% of all conference
lectures by institution faculty members. In 2008, this figure increased to 26.9%. In total, 22.6%
of all conference lectures by institution faculty members are attributed to FSU immigrant faculty
members.
Table 6. FSU Immigrant Scientists’ Share in Conference Lectures

(2004–2008).
Year FSU scientists (N) % Others (N) %

2004 38 22.4 132 77.6
2005 51 22.3 178 77.7
2006 52 20.8 198 79.2
2007 44 20.7 169 79.3
2008 59 26.9 160 73.1
Total 244 22.6 837 77.4
The descriptive statistics presented above allow us to assess the difference in the academic
products of FSU immigrant scientists and other scholars at the Ariel University Center. Recall that
the institution established a bonus system for outstanding faculty members. The bonus system is
based on scores awarded to faculty members for their contribution in research, teaching, academic
administration and community service. Faculty members’ performance is evaluated on 10 distinct
criteria. The most outstanding faculty members also earn an exemption in teaching obligations (10
instead of 12 weekly hours), in addition to the bonus.
The question is, what weight do FSU immigrants have in the bonuses awarded by the institu
tion? Based on the above figures, we can expect the FSU immigrant scientists to stand out. An ana
lysis of the findings shows that this is indeed the case. Table 7 and the results of a chi-squared test
on the data from the 2007-8 academic year show a significant correlation between faculty members’
cumulative scores on the 10 bonus criteria (based on outstanding performance) and country of ori
gin (χ2(2) = 7.74, p < .05). While 38.8% of all faculty members earned a score which awarded them
a bonus, over 50% of all FSU immigrant faculty members earned a bonus. In contrast, only 33.3%
of all Israeli-born faculty members earned a bonus based on outstanding performance.
Table 7. Distribution of Faculty Members’ Scores on Bonus Criteria,

by Country of Origin.
Israel FSU USA Other Total

Score N % N % N % N % N %
Fails bonus criteria 86 66.7 20 50 16 64 4 33.3 126 61.2
Satisfies bonus criteria 43 33.3 20 50 9 36 8 66.7 80 38.8
Total 129 100 40 100 25 100 12 100 206 100
Table 7 and chi-square test results indicate a significant correlation between scoring on excel
lence criteria and country of origin (χ² (2) = 7.74, p < .05). 50% of faculty members from the FSU
scored on excellence criteria, as did 66.7% of faculty members from other overseas countries (ex
cept the US); however only 36% of faculty members who immigrated from the USA and 33.3% of
native Israelis scored on excellence in the criteria of research, teaching, academic administration,
and contribution to the community.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
128
As noted, research is one of the main areas that contributed to the higher scores of FSU im
migrant faculty. Therefore, the research team attempted to examine the differences between scores
and country of origin of faculty members. Based on an analysis of variance of the data in Table 8,
no significant differences were found between the groups of faculty members by country of origin
(F(3,76) = 0.13, p > .05). Still, it is notable that the achievements of FSU immigrant faculty mem
bers were the highest scoring of all groups (44.45 on average, compared to an average store of all
groups of 39.04).
Table 8. Research Scores – Averages and SD.
Country of origin Average SD N

Israel 36.69 33.53 43
FSU 44.45 36.54 20
USA 42.33 34.21 9
Other 39.12 28.98 8
Total 39.04 33.45 80
If this is not enough, an in-depth analysis indicates that 68.8% of all FSU immigrant faculty
members also received an extra reduction in their teaching load, compared to 41.2% of the other
new immigrants and compared to 34.2% of Israeli-born faculty members.
The figures in entirety speak for themselves.
Summary
The above article examined the extent of immigration of scientists from FSU to Israel, and
dwelt on the problem of their absorption and integration into Israeli academe. As a case in point,
the paper focuses on the absorption of FSU immigrant scientists at the Ariel University Center of
Samaria, in an attempt to assess these scientists’ contribution to the institution.
An analysis of the data available to the researchers indicates that FSU immigrant faculty mem
bers constitute 20% of the senior faculty, and 35% of the top-ranking faculty members (of a rank of
professor), which is much higher than their proportion in the total number of faculty members.
An analysis of the data also indicates that these scientists do not only stand out in the institution
in terms of their relative weight, but their effective scientific contribution is also disproportionately
high. They account for a disproportionately high percentage of outstanding faculty members and for
a disproportionately high percentage of faculty members who have earned recognition for their per
formance in research. Moreover, the findings of this study indicate that not only does this group’s
contribution exceed the contribution of other faculty groups at the institution; the FSU immigrant
faculty members are at the top of the pyramid, by virtue of their entitlement to a reduction in their te
aching load. This bonus is awarded to the faculty members who earn the highest evaluation scores.
They also earned the highest scores in scientific publications. Almost 69% of the outstanding FSU
immigrant scientists earned a reduction in their teaching load, compared to 41% of the outstanding
new immigrant faculty members from other countries, and compared to only 34% of the outstan
ding Israeli-born faculty members.
All in all, there is no doubt that their contribution has significantly enriched the institution.
Moreover, the research findings indicate that immigrant scientists have become well integra
ted at the AUC, which is an integral part of the Israeli academic world. These findings are of great
importance inasmuch as the problem of the émigrés social integration is concerned. Employment
in par with one’s skills and qualifications is known to be the major gateway for newcomers to both
economic well-being and social integration. Far from being occupationally downgraded, the im
migrant faculty excelled. Across post-Soviet Jewish diaspora, the share of professionals who could
regain their original occupations is thought to lie between 15% in Germany and 30% in the US and
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Israel (Remmenick, 2003). These scholars belong to the 30% who might be deemed a success story. 129
Moreover, one has to bear in mind that the workplace is also a meeting place between the immigrant
and their local Israeli peers. The moments of physical co-presence and face-to-face conversation
induced by working together enhance “networked sociality” as well as friendship (Urry, 2003) thus
contributing to transcendence over time of the boundaries of ethnic community, and gradual inclu
sion of the members of the immigrant scholars into the hegemonic majority’s personal networks
(Remmenick, 2007).
To sum it all, this case study serves to show that the FSU scientists’ transmigration may be
judged a success story for both sides: On one side, their absorption in the Israeli academic world
facilitated their integration into the Israeli society. On the other side, their academic distinction gre
atly contributed to the development of Israeli higher education institutions. It seems that the foreign
born have contributed disproportionately to Israeli academia. Thus, Israel is benefitting from invest
ments made by other countries.
References
Alba, R. D. & Nee, V. (1997). Rethinking assimilation theory for a new era of immigration. Internatio
nal Migration Review, 12, 502–551.
Altbach, P. G. (Ed.) (2000). The changing academic workplace: Comparative perspectives. Chestnut
Hill, Mass: Boston College.
Ashkenazi, D. (1995). Immigrants on ice. Ve’adim: Professional Magazine of Labor Relations in Israel,
85, 56–57. (in Hebrew).
Ashkenazi, D. (1997). Why were they not assimilated. Status: Monthly Magazine for Management Thin
king, 67, 52–54. (in Hebrew).
Barada, M. (2006). The Kamea Program. Jerusalem: The Knesset (Israeli Parliament), Information &
Research Dept. (in Hebrew).
Baruch, A. (1997). The Kamea Program – Lasting assimilation of scientists. Jews of the Soviet Union in
Transition, 3, 184–186. (in Hebrew).
Baruch, A. (2000). Ten-year anniversary of the scientists’ immigration: Intermediary summary. Jews of
the Soviet Union in Transition, 4, 158–180. (in Hebrew).
Becker, H.S. (1962). The nature of a profession. In N.B. Henry (ed.), Education for the professions – The
61 yearbook of the NSSE (pp. 27–46). Illinois: The University of Chicago Press.
Ben David, Y. (1985). Universities in Israel: Dilemmas of growth, variety, and management. In W.
Ackerman, A. Carmon, and D. Zucker (eds.), Education in a Developing Society: The Israeli System
(I, pp. 527–562). Tel Aviv – Jerusalem: Hakibbutz Hameuhad Publication and Van Leer Institute. (in
Hebrew).
Ben Refael, A., Olstein, A. & Geist, A. (1994). Aspects of identity and language in the absorption of im
migrants from the CIS: Research report. Tel-Aviv: Tel Aviv University. (in Hebrew).
Berry, John W. (1997). Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology: An Internatio
nal Review, 46, 5–68.
Central Bureau of Statistics (2006). Israel Statistical Annual, 57. Jerusalem.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2007). URL:
http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/?MIval=cw_usr_view_SHTML&ID=389 (in Hebrew). Accessed March
24, 2010.
Central Bureau of Statistics (2008). Israel Statistical Abstract 59. Jerusalem.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
130
Chen, D. (ed.) (1998). The School of Education towards the 21st century. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.
(in Hebrew).
Chiswick, B. (1998). Hebrew language usage: Determinants and effects on earnings among immigrants
in Israel. Journal of Population Economics, 11, 253–271.
Chiswick, B.R. & Repetto, G. (2000). Immigrant adjustment in Israel literacy and fluency in Hebrew,
IZA Discussion Paper, 177.
Chiswick, B.R., Lee, Y.L. & Miller, P.W. (2006). A longitudinal analysis of immigrant occupational mo
bility: A test of the immigrant assimilation, International Migration Review, 39, 332–353.
Cohen, A. & Kirchmeyer, C. (1994). Unions and ethnic diversity: The Israeli case of East European im
migrants, The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 30, 141–158.
Cohen, Y. (2007). Self-selection and earnings assimilation: Immigrants from the former Soviet Union in
Israel and the United States. Demography, 44(3), 649–668.
Davidovich, N. (2004). Development trends of the regional colleges and their consequences for the Isra
eli system of higher education. Thesis submitted for degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Bar Ilan University.
(in Hebrew).
Davidovich, N. & Iram, Y. (2006). Higher education in Israel at a crossroads: The effect of regional col
leges on the map of higher education in Israel, Research in Comparative and International Education,
1, 271–285.
Davidovich, N. & Sinuani-Stern, Z. (2007). Level of achievements of men and women in academia: A
case study: The Academic College of Judea and Samaria. Sugyot Hevratiot Beyisrael. Volume 3, Tel
Aviv. 21–44. (in Hebrew).
Davidovitch, N. & Soen, D. (2006). Using students’ assessments to improve instructors’ quality of te
aching. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 30(4): 351–376.
Doron, A. (1993/1994). Conclusions and recommendations of the national committee for long-term
planning of the absorption of immigrant scientists. Jews of the Soviet Union in Transition, 1, 201–207.
(in Hebrew).
Doron, R. (1995). The attitude of faculty to Russian immigrant absorption in Israeli colleges for the trai
ning of technicians and practical engineers. European Journal of Engineering Education, 20, 107.
Eckstein, Z. & Weiss, Y. (2004). On the wage growth of immigrants: Israel, 1990-2000. Journal of the
Economic Association, 2(4), 665–695.
Epstein, A., Kheimets, N. & Oritzky, M. (2003). The contribution of intercultural bridging mechanisms
to the integration of scientists. Gadish: Journal for Adult Education, 8, 137–155. (in Hebrew).
Epstein, A. & Kheimets, N. (2001). Israel between ‘ethnographic multiculturalism and distinctive plura
lism’. The integration of former residents of the CIS. Mifneh: Platform for Social Matters, 35, 23–29.
(in Hebrew).
Eyal, B., Giladi, A., Hupert, D. & Fine, B. (1997). The Kamea Program – Lasting assimilation of scien
tists. Jews of the Soviet Union in Transition, 3, 184–186. (in Hebrew).
Faist, T. (2000). The volume and dynamics of international migration and transnational social spaces.
Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Friedberg, R. M. (2000). You can’t take it with you? Immigrant assimilation and the portability of hu
man capital. Journal of Labor Economics, 18, 221–51.
Gandal, N., Hanson, G. H., Matthew, M. J. & Slaughter, J. (2004). Technology, trade, and adjustment to
immigration in Israel. European Economic Review, 48, 403–428.
Geva-May, I. (2000). On impacts of comparative policy analysis. Immigration to Israel: What other coun
tries can learn. International Migration, 38, 3–46.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Geva-May, I. (1998). Policy feasibility and immigrant absorption in a mass immigration context: The 131
case of scientist retraining in Israel, Review of Policy Research 1541-132X, 15, 226.
Gibson, M. A. (1997). Complicating the immigrant/involuntary minority typology. Anthropology & Edu
cation Quarterly, 28, 431–454.
Gillepsie, K. H. (ed.), Hilsen, L. R. & Wadsworth, E. C. (ass. eds.) (2002). A guide to faculty develop
ment. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing.
Glick Schiller, N., Basch, L. & Szanton Blanc, C. (1995). From immigrant to transmigrant: Theorizing
transnational migration. Anthropological Quarterly, 68, 1, 48–63.
Greenwald, A. (2000). Second session: Opening the gates of higher education – public policy conside
rations. Position paper presented at the third annual “Besha’ar” conference: Window to the Academic
Dream. Tel Aviv. (in Hebrew).
Guarnizo, L. E. & Smith, M. P. (1998). The locations of transnationalism. In M. P. Smith & L. E. Gu
arnizo (Eds.): Transnationalism from below (pp. 3–34). Comparative Urban and Community Research
Series, V.VI. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Hawkins, H. (1993). American universities & the inclusion of professional schools. History of Higher
Education Annual, 13, 53–68.
Hearn, J. C. (1999). Pay and performance in the university: An examination of faculty salaries. The Re
view of Higher Education, 22(4), 391–410.
Helman, A. (1998). Studies as a socioeconomic investment. Afikei Haskala, 58 (February), 5–8. (in
Hebrew).
Horev, S. (2006). The Independence Scroll of the State of Israel and its signatories. Haifa: Duchifat. (in
Hebrew).
Iram, Y. (1978). The effect of traditions in higher education on the academic course of the Hebrew Uni
versity. Iyunim Behinuch, 28, 123–140. (in Hebrew).
Iram, Y. (1983). Vision and fulfillment: The evolution of the Hebrew University, 1901–1950. History
of Higher Education Annual, 3, 123–43.
Iram, Y. (1999). Unity versus diversity in pluralistic societies. In R. Laor and D. Man (eds.), Diversity
and Multiculturalism in Israeli Society (pp. 11–14). Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University. (in Hebrew).
Israeli, A. (1997). Master plan: Israeli regional colleges. Feedback – applied research, planning and
consultation for educational, welfare, and labor systems. Jerusalem. (in Hebrew).
Kaiser, A., & Neilson, E. (2003). Effects of performance-based compensation and faculty track on the
clinical activity, research portfolio, and teaching mission of a large department of Medicine. Journal of
Medical Education, 78(7), 690–701.
Kheimets, N. & Epstein, A (2001). English as a central component of success in the professional and so
cial integration of scientists from the former Soviet Union in Israel. Language in Society, 30, 187–215.
Kimmerling, B. (1998). The new Israelis: Multiple cultures without multiculturalism. Alpayim: Multidis
ciplinary Journal for Study, Thought, and Literature, 16, 264–308. (in Hebrew).
Kreber, C. (ed.) (2001). Scholarship revisited: Perspectives on scholarship of teaching. New Directions
for Teaching and Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Law of Return (1950). URL: www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/heb/chock_hashvut.htm (in Hebrew).
Accessed March 24, 2010.
Lerner, J., Kertes, J. & Zilber, N. (2005). Immigrants from the former Soviet Union, 5 years post-im
migration to Israel: adaptation and risk factors for psychological distress. Psychological Medicine, 35,
1805–1814.
Leshem, A. (1993). Israeli society and its attitude to the immigrants of the ‘90s. Bitahon Sotziali, 40,
54–73. (in Hebrew).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
132
Luria, S.E., & Luria, Z. (1970). The role of the University: Ivory tower, service station, or frontier post?
Daedalus, 99, 75–83.
Manning, C.W. & Romney, L.C. (1973). Faculty activity analysis: Procedures Manual. Tech Report No.
44. National Center for Higher Education Management Systems at Western Interstate Commission for
Higher Education. Boulder, CO.
Meirson, B. (1991). Immigrant-scientists should preferably be integrated in existing frameworks. Inter
view with Dr. Baruch Meirson. Jews of the Soviet Union, 14, 231–239. (in Hebrew).
Menachem, G. & Geist, A. (1999). Language, employment, and affiliation with Israel among immigrants
from the CIS in the ‘90s. Megamot: Journal for the Behavioral Sciences, 40(1), 132–148. (in Hebrew).
Mey-Ami, N. (2008). Integration of immigrants in industry, business, and science. Submitted to the
Committee for Immigration, Absorption and the Diaspora. (in Hebrew).
Miller, R.I. (1990). Major American higher education issues and challenges in the 1990s. London: Jes
sica Kingsley.
Ministry of Culture, Science, and Sports: URL: http://www.most.gov.il/ (in Hebrew). Accessed March
24, 2010.
Ministry of Industry, Trade, and Employment: URL:
http://www.tamas.gov.il/NR/exeres/C6DF0E1A-6480-4AFC-8B0C-FE05929061C9.htm (in Hebrew).
Accessed March 24, 2010.
Mizrachi, Y. (1994). History of the tension between liberal general higher education and disciplinary
specialized higher education and examining possibilities of a balanced curricular program at the regio
nal colleges. School of Educational Leadership, Jerusalem. (in Hebrew).
MOIA web site: URL: www.moia.gov.il/Moia_he/Scientists/AbsorptionCenter.htm. Accessed March
24, 2010.
MOIA (2008). Immigration to Israel summary data for previous years. Ministry website: www.moia.
gov.il/Moia_he/Statistics/ImmigrationToIsraelPrevYears/ Accessed on January 10, 2009. (in Hebrew).
MOIA (2008). Data on immigrant scientists for the years 1989-1999. Ministry website URL: www.
moia.gov.il/Moia_he/Statistics/Stat+89-99. (in Hebrew). Accessed February 29, 2009.
MOIA (2000). Treating scientists: The crux of the problem – long-term absorption of scientists. URL:
www.moia.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/F7889A5-046B-4FAB-B788-83CE0E520FD2/0/4.doc. (in Hebrew)
Accessed February 29, 2009.
Ne’eman, Y. (1991). Integration of scientists and academics. Hamifal: Platform for the promotion of is
sues related to labor productivity, efficacy, and management. July, 16-17, 19, 37. (in Hebrew).
Ne’eman, Y. (1993/1994). Integration of immigrant scientists in the seventies and nineties, Jews of the
Soviet Union in Transition, 1, 194–200. (in Hebrew).
Ne’eman, Y. (2000). From a struggle of individuals to a national struggle, Jews of the Soviet Union in
Transition, 4, 37–39. (in Hebrew).
Nirel, N. (1999). Employment of immigrant physicians from the former Soviet Union in 1998: Summary
of research findings. Jerusalem: Brookdale Institute. (in Hebrew).
Ofer, G., Plug, K. & Kasir, N. (1991). Employment of immigrants from the Soviet Union in 1990 and
consequently: Retaining and changing occupations. Economic Quarterly, 148, 135–180. (in Hebrew).
Pazi, A. (January 2002). Universities under siege, space for thought. Bashaar, 18 (in Hebrew).
PBC (Planning & Budgeting Committee) (2008). Annual report No. 33, 2005/6. Jerusalem: CHE. (Heb
rew).
Portes, A., Guarnizo, L. E. & Landolt, P. (1999). The study of transnationalism: Pitfalls and promise of
an emergent research field. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 217–237.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Rabi, S. Bhagat, R. & London M. (1999). Getting Started and Getting Ahead: Career Dynamics of Im 133
migrants, Human Resource Management Review, 9, 349–365.
Raijman, R. (2009). Immigration in Israel: A map of trends and empirical research: 1990–2007. Israeli
Sociology, 10(2): 339-380.
Remmenick, L. I. (2007). Former Soviet Jews in Israel and in the West: Integration, exclusion and tran
snationalism. In L. Remennick & A. Prashizky (Eds.): Immigrant Scholars write about identity and integ
ration (pp. 3–23). Ramat-Gan: Sociological Institute for Community Studies, Bar-Ilan University.
Remmenick, L. I. (2007). Russian Jews on three continents: Identity, integration and conflict. New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Remmenick, L. I. (2003). Career continuity among immigrant professionals: Russian engineers in Israel.
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 29(4), 701–721.
Remennick, L. I. (2002). Transnational community in the making: Russian-Jewish immigrants of the
1990s in Israel. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 28, 515–530.
Rothschild, L. & and Darr, A. (2005). Technological incubators and the social construction of innovation
networks: an Israeli case study. Technovation 25, 59–67.
Rubinstein, A. (1994). The Regional Colleges. Israeli Policy on College Development. Jerusalem: Cen
ter for Research of Israeli Social Policy. (in Hebrew).
Semyonov, M., Raijman, R., & Kotsubinski, E. (2002). Soviet immigrants in the Israeli labor market: A
study of the first decade. Final report to the Freiderich Ebert Foundation (unpublished).
Sever, R. (2001). Mixed in or intermingled: Conceptual basis for the examination of multiculturalism
issues. Gadish: Journal for Adult Education, 7, 45–54. (in Hebrew).
Shye, S. & Weil, M. (1993). The absorption of immigrant scientists. Evaluation report submitted to the
Israeli Ministry of Science and Technology.
Shye, S. (1996). Integration of immigrant scientists 1992-95: Evaluation of aid systems. Gutman Center
for Applied Social Research, Megama – Consultants for Management and Planning. (in Hebrew).
Shye, S., Duchin, R., Sableson, A., Veil, M. & Haklay-Kaufman, Y. (1996). Integration of immigrant
scientists, 1992–1995: Evaluation of government aid systems. Submitted to the Ministry of Immigration
and the Ministry of Science and Arts. (in Hebrew).
Slavin, M. (1989). Employment of immigrant scientists (Israeli events), Mada: Scientific Newspaper for
General Interest, 33, 264. (in Hebrew).
Smith, M. P. & Guarnizo, L. E. (Eds.) (1998). Transnationalism from below. Comparative Urban and
Community Research Series, V, VI. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Smooha, S. (1998). The implications of the Transition to Peace for Israeli Society. The Annals of the
American Academy of Political & Social Sciences, 555, 26–45.
Soen, D. (2001). The Russians are coming, the Russians are coming – Integration of Russian immigrant
children in Israeli schools. Education & Context, 23: 91–106. (in Hebrew).
Solutions for the employment of immigrant scientists (1997). Jews of the Soviet Union in Transition, 3,
187–191. (in Hebrew).
Stier, H., & Levanon V. (2003). Finding an adequate job: Employment and income of recent immigrants
to Israel. International Migration, 14, 81–107.
Sinuany-Stern, Z. & Davidovich, N. (2007). The relationship between teaching and research activities
of faculty: Case study of College of Judea and Samaria. Moscow State University Journal of Education,
Pedagogical Series (2). (in Russian).
Smilor, R. W. (1993). The Entrepreneurial University: The role of higher education in the United States
in technology commercialization and economy development. UNESCO.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
134
The Helsinki Group on Women and Science (2002). National Policies on Women and Science in Euro
pe.
Tolts, M. (2004). The post-Soviet Jewish population in Russia and the world. Jews in Russia and Eastern
Europe, 1(52), 37–63.
Toren, N. (1988). Science and cultural context: Soviet scientists in comparative perspective. New York:
Peter Lang.
Toren, N. (1991). Utilization of the facet theory for analyzing the attitude of immigrant scientists to their
jobs. Megamot: Quarterly of the Behavioral Sciences, 33, 431–442. (in Hebrew).
Triest, Y. (1997). To pluck up and to break down, to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant (Je
remiah 1:10). Mikbatz, 3, 55–78. (in Hebrew).
Triponov, A. & Weiner (1995). Scientist discourse. Jews of the Soviet Union in Transition, 2, 215–222.
(in Hebrew).
Trow, M. (1970). Reflections on the transition from mass to universal higher education. Daedalus, Jour
nal of the American Academy, Winter, 1–42.
Tzaban, Y. (1994). Eight thousand scientists are a solution and not a problem. Jews of the Soviet Union
in Transition, 1, 217–219. (in Hebrew).
Urry, J. (2003). Social networks travel and talk. British Journal of Sociology, 54(2), 155–175.
Wadsworth, E. C. (ed.) (1994). To improve the academy resources for faculty. Instructional and Organi
zational Development, Vol. 13, New Forms Press.
Yaoz, H. & Iram, Y. (1987). Changes in the curriculum in comparative nonfiction literature. Iyunim Be
hinuch, 46/47, 152–170. (in Hebrew).
Yehuda Halevy (1943). Songs of Zion. Tel Aviv: Mahbarot Lesifrut. (in Hebrew).
Adviced by Mircea Bertea, Babes-Bolyai University, Romania
Nitza Davidovitch Head, Academic Development & Assessment Unit, Ari‘el University Centre, Ari‘el Israel.
Dan Soen Ph.D., Head of Sociology & Anthropology Dept., Ari‘el University Centre and the Kibbut
zim School of Education, Tel-Aviv, Israel
E-mail: soen@macam.ac.il
Zila Sinuany-Stern Vice-Rector, Ari’el University Centre and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
E-mail: szila@ariel.ac.il
Website: http://www.cs.bgu.ac.il/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
135
Reading activeness and reading

preferences of THE 6th grade
students of basic school
in estonia
Anne Uusen
E-mail: anne.uusen@tlu.ee
Abstract
Reading skills, reading interest, understanding of text and other aspects connected with reading have
been researched quite a lot during the last decades in Estonia. A number of studies have reached the
conclusion that basic school students in Estonia are rather good readers. However, teachers often claim
that teenagers tend to read less and less and also in newspapers there are complaints about bad reading
skills of youngsters. One of the reasons of the above mentioned attitude is that we tend to define the con
cept of reading differently and if somebody complains because of students’ low reading interest, he/she
mostly refers to reading belles-lettres or fiction.
Living in the 21st century demands much more from teenagers as readers than it did in the past century
and many well-known reading researchers stress the need to be able to properly do our jobs, and simply,
to live and manage an everyday life. In these two areas we need to be able to understand what all kinds
of written messages are about.
The content of the broader meaning of reading and the concept of reading literacy is discussed in the
current article. Also an overview of the results of the study about reading activeness and reading prefe
rences, the goal of which was to find out what kind of texts are authentic for the students and to start a
larger study for analyzing the amount of time teenagers spend with reading, what they read etc., is given
in this article.
Based on the results of the study it became evident that students read quite a lot, but they rather read
newspapers and magazines than belles-lettres or fiction. The most frequent texts that students read in the
newspapers are news. Also comic strips, TV-programs and book reviews are read rather often. A positive
finding was that a large proportion of students read belles-lettres quite often.
The results of the conducted questionnaire provided the basis for improving and completing the question
naire for a larger study as well as food for thought about broadening the assortment of reading materials
for students and for making Estonian language lessons more pragmatic as well.
Key words: reading, reading skills, reading activeness, functional reading, reading literacy.
Introduction
Reading and understanding texts of all kinds form a basic competence for participating in
social and cultural life and for being successful on a job. The PISA-surveys have shown that, alt
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
136
hough most European adolescents have adequate reading competences at their disposal by the end
of school, about a quarter of them cannot meet the minimal standards. Not only has the European
Commission failed in decreasing the numbers in this risk-group of low achievers in reading, (a goal
aimed at in the Education Benchmarks), but the rate of low achievers has even increased since 2000.
For this reason, the improvement of reading literacy counts among the 5 Education Benchmarks for
Europe defined by the European Commission in the framework of the Lisbon-Strategy (European
Commission 2008: 92).
Reading skill, reading interest, understanding of text and other aspects connected with reading
have been researched quite a lot during the last decades in Estonia. During the last decade the Ins
titute of Educational Sciences in the Tallinn University has conducted about twenty studies aimed
directly at reading activeness, reading interest, understanding of text, etc. and a number of these
have allowed to draw the conclusion that basic school students are rather good readers, although
some of them prefer watching TV or using the computer over reading (Jukk, 2009; Lutsepp, 2004;
Niit, 2002; Perovskaja, 2003; Piir, 2003; Põldsalu, 2002). A larger proportion of these studies have
focused on one or two aspects of reading (Harmipaik, 2000; Ratasep, 2006; Sikk, 2005) or on the
issues of understanding the text (Metsla, 2001; Kulderknup, 1999; Lillepea, 2001).
In the PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) survey in 2006, which primarily
measured the skill of functional reading, Estonian students were very highly ranked. When we con
sider the number of students, whose results were on Level 3, 4, or 5, then among the OECD (Orga
nization for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries Estonia held the 13th position. But
when we look at the number of students, whose knowledge corresponded to or exceeded Level 2,
then Estonia held the 8th position (Henno et al, 2007, 124–125). Thus, Estonia belongs among the
countries, whose results are statistically significantly higher than the average of all the countries.
Since 1998 nation-wide placement tests in Estonia have been carried out among the students in
Grades 3 and 6 to determine their level of reading skill; the main stress of the tests is on applying the
skills of understanding a text. Additionally, the placement tests also measure the constituent skills
of the Estonian language (reading, writing, listening). Some exercises concerning the language are
also included. The focus is on reading and understanding different types of texts. The results of the
placement tests have showed that students have average skills in reading (Pandis, 2006).
Thus, complaining about students’ poor skills in reading seems to be unfitting. Nevertheless,
in Estonian press and among teachers the concern about students’ insufficient interest in reading,
which compared to the past has considerably decreased, is very frequent, because the overall opi
nion is that students tend to read less and less (Hein et al, 2007; Hint, 2008; Vaher, 2008).
Interpreting the Notions of Reading and Reading Skill
The problem, at least partly, lies in the fact that reading and reading skill are often interpreted
in different ways. Participating in the international project ADORE – Teaching Struggling Adoles
cent Readers proved our opinion that approaches to the notions of reading and reading skill (or at
least the conception of the most important aspects or indicators of reading skill) are somewhat dif
ferent also in other European countries. One third of the project was spent on the discussion, which
aimed at reaching a common understanding on who is an adolescent with reading disabilities. The
researchers from Norway and Finland (the countries had very good results in PISA-surveys) stress
the critical importance of understanding the text in explaining the notion of reading, and that the
meaning and importance of reading have changed during the last decade. Victor van Daal (2007)
first points out the importance of reading in acquiring education and in coping well in everyday life.
In Daal’s opinion reading books for one’s own interest is a sphere, where understanding the text is
a „bonus“for the reader.
There is a quite unanimous opinion about the fact that understanding the text that is being read
is to great extent dependent on certain automatic processes (Kintsch & Rawson, 2005). As automa
Anne UUSEN. Reading Activeness and Reading Preferences of the 6th Grade Students of Basic School in Estonia
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
tic processes the authors see such processes, the performing of which do not require intentional 137
effort, such as the listening skill (in case of material presented in the native language). Another
automatic process needed for understanding the text that is being read is undoubtedly recognizing
words (i.e. mechanical reading skill), which provides the first means to understand what a text is
about (Van der Leij & Van Daal, 1999). Thus, listening skill and the skill of reading words are unqu
estionably highly important at the initial stages of learning to read.
Perfetti, Landi and Oakhill (2005) reached the conclusion that essential constituent skills that
children should acquire are 1) apprehending and understanding the meaning and the form of sen
tences in a text; 2) composing situation models; and most importantly 3) drawing conclusions,
i.e. making a text coherent/understandable, because there is not a single text that is completely
explicit. The skills that support the before-mentioned understanding processes include 1) general
knowledge – knowledge about the world and how things function in the world, etc.; 2) linguistic
knowledge – being aware of phonology, syntax, morphology, and pragmatics; 3) vocabulary – the
vocabulary, which consists in words the meaning, but also the phonological, orthographic and syn
tactic features of which are known (Mikk, 1980; Perfetti, 1985).
The Estonian specialists of reading Mare Müürsepp (1995) and Meeli Pandis (2001) have ex
plained in brief the skill of reading as comprehending the written language and responding to it,
interpreting symbols, and the communication between the writer and the reader. Stereotypically, re
ading is regarded as the mechanical reading skill (Jürimäe, 2001). Another stereotypical conception
about reading expresses the opinion that reading (also the skill of reading) means reading fiction.
Despite of the demand of the new curriculum (2002) to look at the concept of reading and writing
from a much broader viewpoint, there are still many teachers who define reading mostly as reading
of classical literature. Hence the claim that teenagers read less generally means that in the speaker’s
opinion they no longer read (enough) fiction. This was one argument that the native language te
achers used to justify their wish to see literature as a separate subject in the curriculum from Grade
5 onwards. Wanting to talk about reading in a broader sense people tend to use the expression func
tional literacy, which in everyday language is rather uncomfortable to use.
Functional Reading or Reading Literacy
Living in the 21st century demands much more from teenagers as readers than it did in the past
century (Dillon, O´Brien & Heilman, 2000; Hoffmann & Pearson, 2000). Lauren Resnick (1987)
has noted that the skills and abilities that employers demand today are at least those demanded for
college entrance just a few years ago, and she has argued also that in the near future the entry level
jobs will require reading skills equivalent to those of today’s college sophomores.
Educators have increasingly come to recognize that being literate requires the readers to have
the ability to deal with all kinds of texts, including for example media and on-line texts. With more
students having access to home computers and more and more schools providing Internet access in
the classroom, media and online resources are likely to become an authentic literacy material used
far more extensively in contemporary reading instructions even at school (Labbo, 1996).
In Finland and other countries the former notion of functional literacy has been replaced with
the notion of reading literacy.
Reading literacy is a person’s skill of using various kinds of written texts (also tables, diag
rams, posters, etc.) to achieve one’s aims: a person masters reading and writing on the level, which
enables him/her to live a full life in a social environment (Must et al 2001). A noted Finnish resear
cher of reading Pirjo Linnakylä (2000) adds the cultural environment to the social environment and
recognizes that recently the constructivist approach has been expanded so that the process of unders
tanding reading is approached from the socioconstructivist or the sociocultural point of view.
The socioconstructivist point of view stresses that the reader’s interpretation is not influenced
simply by his/her personal expectations, knowledge and intentions, but also by these that originate
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
138
and arise in socializing with other readers. However, the sociocultural point of view rather stresses
the culturally authentic (true, original) real-life texts and the processes of understanding, where the
surrounding community and the cultural context have an important role in developing a meaning.
It is completely different, whether the same text is read for one’s own pleasure or for a class
discussion, and the process of reading probably greatly varies in either one of them. Even when the
idea of a text is created individually, it is nevertheless socially grounded and influenced by cultural
interpretation (Linnakylä, 2000; Langer, 1995).
The aforementioned proves that talking about reading, reading activeness or interest of stu
dents in the 21st century should largely be based on the socioconstructivist or sociocultural stand
point. In other words, taking into account the types of texts students regard authentic at a certain
age or what they daily read in case of need or wish, reading should not be limited simply to reading
fiction (Ehala, 2009).
The above discussed theoretical standpoints and participation in the ADORE project in 2006–
2008 provided the opportunity and the need to thoroughly research the reading problems of ado
lescent readers and delve more deeply into the notion of reading, which excited interest in and
prompted to launch a broader survey on reading activeness and interest in reading of the 6th grade
students in basic school.
The quantitative research method in the form of questionnaires was used, which included
open-ended and multiple-choice questions. The survey was conducted by post (questionnaires were
sent by post), when personal contact with the teacher of the class that participated in the survey was
not reasonable in this time period, and with the help from distance learning student teachers, who
conducted the survey in the school where they were teaching. The schools in the survey were selec
ted randomly by the principle that most of the regions of Estonia and both types of schools (basic
schools and gymnasiums) would be represented. All the schools that participated in the survey are
ordinary public schools.
227 respondents from 14 randomly selected schools participated in the survey. 116 of them
were boys and 111 were girls.
The questionnaire included 24 questions that covered the following topics: a) general informa
tion about the student; b) student’s attitude towards reading and his/her reading skill; c) frequency
of and preferences in reading fiction, media texts, study materials, television, and computer texts; d)
the bases of choosing the reading material; e) general reading activeness. Drawing up the questions
was based on the key elements of good working practices promoting the skill of reading, which tur
ned out during the ADORE project, and the interviews of sociological surveys conducted in Estonia
and Finland (ADORE-Project: Executive Summary, 2009; Hansson, 2009; Linnakylä et al, 2000).
In this paper the focus is only on general aspects of literature and media reading and on reading on
the computer. Data processing and analysis (percentages, frequencies of answers) were conducted
by using MS Excel.
The questions about the frequency of reading fiction treated in the article include:
• When and why did you last read a book of fiction?
• Try to remember the number of books you have read in the last 12 months (textbooks and
obligatory literature do not count).
In case of reading media texts the following aspects are analyzed:
• How often do you read media texts?
• What do you read in newspapers/magazines?
In case of reading texts on the computer the following questions are discussed:
• How much time do you spend using the computer?
• What do you mostly do on the computer?
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
• What kind of texts do you read on the computer? 139
As one of the aims of the survey described in this article was to map general tendencies and to
give general overview about reading habits of adolescent readers for preparing a larger future rese
arch, it is practical to confine in the article only to percentages and frequencies of answers.
Results of Research
Reading fiction
As already mentioned before Estonian teenage students are seen as modest readers of fiction.
However, the results of the survey showed that 66% of the participants were reading a book of
fiction at the time of the survey or had finished reading such a book only recently. 19% of the res
pondents had last read a book of fiction the month before and 7% in the previous semester (see Figu
re 1). Thus, most of the students had read a book of fiction during the previous six months.
160
149
140
120
100
80
60
43
40
20 16
10
6 3
0
Currently Last month Last Last summer Last Earlier
semester schoolyear
Figure 1. When was the last time students read a book of fiction
(absolute frequency of answers).
A more in-depth analysis showed the decrease in reading interest in Grades 5 and 6 and this
mostly applied to boys. The same tendency could be seen in all the countries participating in the
ADORE project. Students mostly (75%) read for school purposes, either prompted by the teacher or
on one’s own initiative. This means that teachers play an important role in encouraging and guiding
students’ reading interest. 25% of the respondents read on their own initiative.
The results of the survey showed that the students in the 2nd stage of studies mostly read 3–9
books a year (53% of the respondents) (see Figure 2). 21% of the respondents were able to read
only a couple of books a year. 14% of the students read 10–19 books and 8% read even more than
20 book a year. Naturally there were students, who had read no books in the last twelve months. At
least this was the answer provided by 7 students (3%). However, it seems slightly unbelievable that
one could cope at school without reading any books. The most probable explanation would be that
these students were not able to remember any books they had read.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
140 140
120
120
100
80
60
48
40 32
20
10 10
7
0
None 1-2 books 3-9 books 10-19 books 20-29 books More than 30
Figure 2. The number of books read during the last 12 months

(absolute freguency of answers).
In the questionnaire the answers provided by students with very good reading skill were clearly
recognizable, because their argumentation and explanations were more precise. Good readers, who
read a lot, marked that they had read 10–19 books or more in the previous year. The students who
do not like reading, read 1–2 books a year. This is understandable. Those who do not like reading
hardly wish to spend time with books.
Reading media texts
During the ADORE-project it was discovered that adolescent struggling readers benefit from
texts that are authentic, or interesting and relevant for them. One type of such texts for them is me
dia texts.
A very large proportion of the students who participated in the study (41%) claimed that they
read media every day or at least once a week (31%) (see Figure 3). This shows that the students in
the 2nd stage of studies are eager readers of media. Thus it is clear why in a number of European
countries (e.g. Finland and Germany) media text were used as reading materials in the lessons ob
served within the ADORE project.
100 94
90
80
71
70
60
50
40
30 26
21
20 15
10
0
Every day At least once a At least once a More seldom Not at all
week month
Figure 3. How often do students read newspapers and magazines

(absolute frequency of answers).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
What do students read in newspapers and magazines? News was most frequently mentioned 141
(61 times) along with the topics that interest the students (45 times). These were followed by comic
strips (32 times), ads and advertisements (20 times). Additionally, girls in Grades 5 and 6 also read
news of beauty and fashion (18 times), while boys read sports news (15 times). Also hot gossip on
celebrities is popular (12 times in all). Students are also interested in horoscopes, weather forecast,
anecdotes and TV program; they do tests and solve crossword puzzles, look for recipes, read book
reviews, etc. Students also noted that they look for and read news and information regarding the
local life and school. They also read magazines and articles touching their sphere of interest quite a
lot. Three students marked that they look at the pictures and read the titles. This shows that students
are rather versatile readers of the media, because they have mentioned almost all the sections.
Both the male and female readers equally read news and TV programs. It is only delightful that
teenage young people are highly interested in what is happening around them.
Reading on the computer
Talking about students’ reading habits and activeness one tends to forget (or one does not think
about it) that in the 21st century students read a lot of texts on the computer.
120
100 97
80
60 54
45
40
18
20
5 5
1 2
0
About 1 h 1-2 h a 2-4 h a More than Some h a Some h a Seldom Never
a day day day 4 h a day week month
Figure 4. Time spent on the computer (aboslute frequency of answers).
43% of the students who participated in the survey believe they spend (about) 2-4 hours on
the computer and 24% believe they spend more than 4 hours. Thus, 2/3 of the students are engages
with different activities on the computer two or more hours a day, which is a rather long period
considering that more than half of the day students normally spend at school. 20% of the students
claimed they spend about an hour a day on the computer and the remaining 10% use the computer
rather seldom.
On the computer students mostly communicate with their friends in MSN and other social
utilities and in chat-rooms (noted 176 times). Also playing computer games is very popular (noted
148 times), as well as looking materials of interest (59 times) and reading the news (51 times). Ho
wever, compared to adults students write and read e-mails (noted 51 times) and look materials for
school on the Internet (41 times) less frequently. Thus we have to start thinking on how teachers
could guide students’ habits in using the computer and use it for influencing their reading activeness
and reading interest.
Furthermore, even many of the students were not aware that also while using the computer
they actually get most of the information through reading. Only 21% of the students noted that they
spend most of the time on the computer reading.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
142 Discussion
The Estonian society and therefore also Estonian teachers expect high-level performance from
every student in almost every field of studying, including reading and writing. At the same time they
do not realize quite well, what kind of skills or knowledge certain “high level performance” actually
has to include. In this respect reading is not an exception. It is a rather general opinion among the te
achers in Estonia that teenagers are bad readers, because they do not read enough, whereas recently
they mostly refer to reading fiction. But nowadays reading literacy does not refer only to the ability
of reading texts of certain type or with a certain function, but rather to the ability to cope also with
media and on-line texts in everyday life as well as in the future work life.
The results of the reading activeness and reading interest in the students of the 2nd stage of stu
dies in basic school confirmed the need to base the notion of reading on the socio-cultural point of
view and also gave food for though in respect to making teaching reading more viable.
The students who participated in the study saw themselves rather as average readers, who do
not read very much, whereas self-assessment decreases by age and the self-assessment of boys is
lower than that of girls. However, Estonian students read quite a lot, but they do not read so much
fiction than newspapers and magazines. Most of the students, who participated in the study, read the
latter almost every day. In respect to reading media texts teenage readers do not differ significantly
from adult readers: of the latter more than 80% of the respondents read newspapers every day or at
least a couple of times a week (Müürsepp, 2009). As a positive result we can note the fact that teena
ge students are very interested in what is going on in the country at the moment: news were noted
as the most frequently read media texts. Naturally, students also read comic strips, TV programs
and commercial texts.
Also the Finnish researchers had the same result (Linnakylä, 2002). The questionnaire carried
out in Finland within an international survey showed that reading media texts male and female
readers tend to have somewhat different preferences (Linnakylä et al, 2000). In that respect the Es
tonian and Finnish results were similar. Female readers in Finland prefer copies and articles about
home, health and fashion, and horoscopes, while male readers rather like to read comic strips (in
the given survey comic strips were the type of text that was very frequently read), news on sports
and economics, and editorials.
The situation with reading fiction is not as bad as it is believed to be. The survey introduced
in the article showed that more than half of the respondents read a book of fiction several times a
month. A larger part of the students reads at least 3 books each year (and many of the students read
even more). Knowing that students spend an average of 2–4 hours communicating with friends, pla
ying games, and looking for materials on the Internet, the number is not so small. Even most of the
adults read less fiction compared to students (Müürsepp, 2009). Young people need to have time to
spend also on other things.
Comparing the issue of reading fiction with the results of the corresponding survey conducted
in Finland we can state that based on the given results Estonian students read more fiction than their
peers in the neighboring country. Linnakylä (2000) study showed that 53% (41% of girls and 12%
of boys) of 15-years-old students claimed that they read fiction several times a month (Estonian
results 66%). However, on their own initiative Finnish students read considerably less fiction com
pared to other texts (e.g. newspapers and magazines).
Conclusion
An important goal of the questionnaire treated in the article was getting a general overview
of the reading activeness and reading preferences of teenage readers and based on the results chan
ging the teachers’ attitude towards students as readers and preparing a broader research for getting
a scientific base for introducing changes in developing literacy. It was equally important to support
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
the opinion that the didactic specialists of the Estonian language hold: it is time to start broadening 143
and modernizing the selection of reading materials and to make teaching Estonian more pragmatic
(Ehala, 2009).
The results of the preliminary research on the reading habits of adolescent readers in Estonia
convinced researchers of the urgent need to strive for achieving the above-mentioned goals.
Also the results of the Adore-project confirmed that one of the key elements of increasing
teenage readers` motivation to read is teachers’ knowledge on literacy instruction and choosing
engaging reading materials. In terms of instructional practices and reading materials supporting
reading engagement and motivation, it is important to promote real-world interaction by providing
students with hands-on activities and personally relevant and interesting text. It can be said that the
2nd stage students of basic school benefit from texts that are authentic, or interesting and relevant
for them. Since individual students’ interests may vary considerably, it is wise to let students choo
se their own reading materials whenever possible and provide them with a wide selection of texts
(Adore-project, 2010).
References
ADORE-project. Executive Summary. http://www.alinet.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=ar

ticle&id=4&Itemid=4, visited on February 15, 2010.
Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. (Edit.). (2000). Multiliteracies. Literacy Learning and the Design of Social
Futures. London: Routledge.
Dillon, D. R, O`Brien, D. G. & Heilmann, E. E. (2000). Literacy research in the next millenium: From
paradigms to pragmatism and practicality. In J. E. Readence & D. M. Barone (Edit.). Envisioning the
Future of Literacy. Newark, Delaware: IRA, 3–18.
Ehala, M. (2009, February 13). Pragmaatilisema emakeeleõpetuse poole [Towards more pragmatic mot
her tongue teaching]. Õpetajate Leht, p. 14.
Harmipaik, R. (2000). Seiklusjutt 10–15 aastaste laste lugemiseelistustes [Adventure stories in reading
preferences of 10–15 years old students]. [Bachelor’s thesis in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in
the TU.]
Hein, I., Klandorf, A., Kütimets, K., Leiger, P., Mägi, K., Nootre, S., Puik, T. & Soosaar, H. (2007). Kas
pole ülepea lugenud või on aines üle pea kasvanud [Have not read at all or too smart for the subject]?
Õpetajate Leht, February 16.
Henno, I., Tire, G., Lepmann, T., Reiska, P. ja Ehala, M. (2007). Ülevaade rahvusvahelise õpilaste õpi
tulemuslikkuse hindamise programmi PISA 2006 tulemustest. National Examination and Qualification
Centre. http://www.ekk.edu.ee/vvfiles/0/PISA_l6pparuanne_041207.pdf, Visited on May 14, 2009.
Hint, M. (2009). Faktiteadmised ja faktid võidetud, analüüsioskus ka. Kuidas edasi [Factual knowledge
and facts are won, analyzing skills also. What next?]? Õpetajate Leht, 6, January 23.
Hoffman, J & Pearson, P. D. (2000). Reading teacher education in the next millennium: What your
grandmother’s teacher didn’t know that your granddaughter’s teacher should. In. J. E. Readence & D.
M. Barone (Edit.). Envisioning the Future of Literacy. Newark, Delaware: IRA, 18–32.
Jukk, P. (2009). Lugemiseelistused II kooliastmes [Reading preferences in the 2nd stage of basic school].
[Master’s thesis in the Institute of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Jürimäe, M. (2001). Foneemiteadlikkuse roll eesti laste lugema õppimisel [The role of phoneme aware
ness in the process of learning to read]. [Master’s thesis in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the
TU.]
Kintsch, W. ja Rawson, K. A. (2005). Comprehension. In M.J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Edit.), The Scien
ce of Reading: A Handbook. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 209–226.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
144
Kulderknup, E. (1999). Teksti mõistmine ning tekstist õppimise strateegiad 3. ja 4. klassis [Understan
ding the text and strategies of learning from the text in grades 3 and 4]. [Master’s thesis in the Faculty
of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Labbo, L. (1996). A semiotic analysis of young children’s symbol making in a classroom computer cen
ter. Reading Research Quarterly, 51, 356–385.
Langer. J. (1995). Envisioning Literature. Newark: IRA.
Lillepea, K. (2001). Teksti mõistmise ja tekstist õppimise oskus 3. klassis [Understanding the text and
skill of learning from the text in grade 3]. [Diploma paper in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the
TU.]
Linnakylä, P. (2000). Lukutaito tiedon ja oppimisen yhteiskunnassa [Reading skill in the society of infor
mation and learning]. – K. Sajavaara & A. Piirainen-Marsh (Toim.) Kieli, diskurssi & yhteis. Jüväskylä:
Soveltavan kielentutkimuksen keskus, 107–132.
Linnakylä, P. (2002). Nuorten lukemisaktiivisuus ja lukuharrastus [Reading activeness and reading inte
rest]. – J. Välijärvi & P. Linnakylä (Toim.) Tulevaisuuden osaajat. PISA 2000 Suomessa. Koulutuksen
tutkimuslaitos & Opetushallitus.
Linnakylä, P., Malin, A., Blomqvist, I. & Sulkunen, S. (2000). Lukutaito työssä ja arjessa [Reading skill
in the work and everyday life]. Second International Adult Literacy Survey in Finland. National Board
of Education & Institute for Educational Research. Jyväskylä.
Lutsepp, L. (2004). 9. klassi õpilaste lugemus [Reading activeness of students of 9th grade]. [Educational
final thesis in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Metsla, K. (2001). Lugemisest arusaamine ja mõningaid võtteid selle arendamiseks 1.klassis [Reading
comprehension and some methods to develop this in grade 1]. [Diploma paper in the Faculty of Educa
tional Sciences in the TU.]
Must, O., jt (2001). Lugemiskirjaoskus [Reading literacy]. Akadeemia, 7.
Müürsepp, M. (1995). Hakkame lugema ja kirjutama [Let us start to read and write]. Tallinn: Hari
dustöötajate koolituskeskus.
Müürsepp, M. (2009). Vaba aeg ja kultuuritarbimine [Free time and usage of culture]. – Hansson, L
(Edit.) Töö, kodu ja vaba aeg. Tallinn: TLÜ, 175–195.
Niit, K. (2002). Vabalugemine kui lugemisõpetuse ülim eesmärk algklassides [Free reading as the most
wished goal in primary grades]. [Diploma paper in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Pandis, M. (2001). 3. klassi õpilaste funktsionaalne lugemisoskus [Functional reading skill of third grade
students]: tasemetööd 1998–2000. – Algõpetuse aktuaalseid probleeme, X, 69–80. Tallinn: TPÜ.
Pandis, M. (2002). Lugemisoskus ja sellega seotud tegurid 1.–3. klassis [Reading skill and the factors
connected with this in grades 1–3]. [Master’s thesis in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Perfetti, C. A., Landi, N. ja Oakhill, J. (2005). The acquisition of reading comprehension skill. In M.
J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Edit.). The Science of Reading: A Handbook. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing,
227–247.
Perfetti, C.A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
Perovskaja, T. (2003). Laste lugemishuvi teises kooliastmes [Reading interest of children in second stage
of basic school]. [Diploma paper in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Piir, K. (2003). Eesti ja vene õppekeelega koolide 11. klasside õpilaste lugemiseelistused ja – harjumu
sed [Reading preferences and habits of 11th grade students` in Russian speaking and Estonian speaking
schools]. [Bachelor’s thesis in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Põldsalu, C. (2002). Eesti uuema lastekirjanduse vastavus algklassilaste lugemishuvidele [Suitability of
Estonian new children’s literature to reading interest of primary school students]. [Diploma paper in the
Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Ratasep, A. (2006). Projekti “Lugeda on mõnus” võimalused aktiivse lugeja kujunemisel info-kommuni 145
katsioonitehnoloogia vahendite toel [Project “Reading is fun” as possibility to form active reader with
the help of ICT]. [Master’s thesis in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Resnick, L. B. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Sikk, Ü. (2005). Lapse enesereflektsioon lugejana ja “hea lugeja” mõiste [Child`s self-reflection as rea
der and concept of “good reader”]. [Master’s thesis in the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the TU.]
Vaher, B. (2008). Kirjanduse mõjust ja lugemisoskusest [About the influence of literature and about rea
ding skills]. Õpetajate Leht, April 4.
Van Daal, V. (2007). Socrates ADORE Teaching Adolescent Struggling Readers. [Norwegian descrip
tion of the current state of the ADORE project]
Van der Leij, A. & Van Daal, V. H. P. (1999). Automatization aspects of dyslexia: speed limitations in
word identification, sensitivity to increasing task demands, and orthographic compensation. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 32, 417–428.
Anne Uusen Associate professor at Tallinn University (Department of Primary School Education),
Narva Street, 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia.
Phone: +372 6199710.
E-mail: anne.uusen@tlu.ee
Website: http://www.tlu.ee/index.php?LangID=2&CatlD=1400
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
146
Russian-Estonian Bilingualism
Research and its Practical Meaning
for Estonian Schools
Natalia Zamkovaja, Irina Moissejenko, Natalia Tshuikina

e-mail: talyz@inbox.ru, irinamo@hot.ee, natalia.tshuikina@tlu.ee
Abstract
The article deals with the researches done in the field of Russian-Estonian bilingualism for the modern
period of Estonian life, comparing to the results drawn from the times when Estonia formed a part of
the Soviet Union. The authors present the situation of bilingual students distribution in the Estonian-me
dium schools. The problem proved to be topical - the number of bilingual students in Estonian-medium
schools has been growing. It means that methods of teaching Russian language for this people have to be
modified. Within the research the data on amount of bilingual students in Estonian schools gotten from
the Ministry of Education and Science has been specified. The questionnaire was sent to all Estonian
schools, and the received data were processed and systematized according to the regions and levels of
study, which enabled to present the distribution of Russian-Estonian bilingualism in Estonian-medium
(with Estonian as a language of instruction) schools. The data on using Russian in the families of the
students were also received.
Key words: bilingualism, Russian-Estonian bilingualism, mother tongue.
Introduction
Being a member of European Union, Estonia had to enact some measures in order to protect lin
guistic and ethnic minorities in Estonia. Therefore, two bilingual regimes are provided. The first one
is the bilingual territorial regime; the second bilingual regime assures cultural autonomy for ethnic
minorities (Constitution of Estonian Republic, §§ 50, 51). However, a lot of people from so-called
Russian-speaking families (forming more than 30% of Estonia’s population) send their children to
schools with Estonian as a language of instructions. A fundamental research has not been conducted
yet; however it is becoming obvious that the level of both Estonian and Russian languages achieved
by the Russian-speaking children is far from perfect (e.g., see Ahmet 2003, Rannut 2005, Loopman
2004). Nevertheless, it is the mother tongue that mostly defines a person’s self-identification.
The problem of bilingualism in general and of Russian-Estonian bilingualism particularly is
really topical; it has been proved by numerous research devoted to bilingualism and bilingual edu
cation (see Baker 2000; Baker, 1996; Bake, Prys. Jones 1998; Coelho 1998; Sears 1998; Montanari
2002; Skutnabb-Kangas 1981; Рюнканен 2006, 2007; Hannikainen 2002; Протасова, Родина,
Natalia ZAMKOVAJA, Irina MOISSEJENKO, Natalia TSHUIKINA. Russian-Estonian Bilingualism Research and its
Practical Meaning for Estonian Schools PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
2005 etc.), as well as by interest shown in mass media (e.g., GOOGLE and YANDEX.RU offer 147
about 103 thousand and 2 million publications respectively on key words Russian child (children)
in Estonian school in the beginning of 2009).
In Estonia preferebly national-Russian bilingualism was examined in 1970-s, determined
by social-polical conditions: there used to be a unique multinational state with one interlanguage
(Селицкая 1976, Рейцак 1976; Моисеенко 1978).
Recently bilingualism have been studied actively in the Estonian Republic from the other sight
angle: both theoretical aspect of bilingualism and Russian-Estonian bilingualism are in the limelight
(Замковая, Моисеенко 2008; Hint, 2002; Раннут 2004; Rannut, 2003; Синдецкая, Чуйкина 2006;
Ауг 2007; Мальцева-Замковая, Моисеенко, Чуйкина 2008; Русскоязычная семья и эстонская
школа 2008, Постникова 2008).
Problem for the Research
As for the Russian language, based on the observation the largest part of such pupils after lea
ving an Estonian medium school are not fluent in writing and reading Russian, including orthograp
hy, punctuation and grammar. Their speech does not differentiate in the spheres of communicating
(e.g., informal and formal style). Sometimes they speak Russian with an Estonian accent, though
with the parents they use only Russian. The results of the first observations can be found in artic
les by N.Tshuikina and N.Sindetskaja (Чуйкина, Синдецкая 2005, 2006). Similar and thorougher
study on the question was conducted in the Soviet times (see, e.g., Моисеенко 1979, Хинт 1989,
Селицкая 1976, Рейцак 1976), however, the situation has changed and needs some new approa
ches (Моисеенко, Замковая 2002; Мальцева-Замковая, Моисеенко, Чуйкина 2009). However,
such matters are not enough, the problem need to be thoroughly studied, especially in Estonia, as
the list of researches is limited to the above mentioned publications.
Methodology of the Research
In order to define the target group questionnaires were worked out. The questionnaires were
designed for the schools’ administration and sent to all regions of the Estonian Republic (Harjumaa,
Hiiumaa, Ida-Virumaa, Jarvamaa, Jõgevamaa, Läänemaa, Lääne-Virumaa, Põlvamaa, Pärnumaa,
Raplamaa, Saaremaa, Tartumaa, Valgamaa, Viljandimaa, Võrumaa). The aim of the questioning
was to receive the following data:
1) total amount of bilingual students in every single school;
2) bilingual students’ distribution on different teaching stages (1–3, 4–6, 7–9, 10–12);
3) home language/s of the bilingual students.
On the next step, the received data was compared to the numbers provided by the Estonian Mi
nistry of Education and Science.
The change (dynamics) in the amount of students for the last 7 years was to be highlighted.
The data of academic years 2001/2002 and 2008/2009 were compared.
The received records were systemized in order to elicit regions with highest distribution of bi
lingual students, so that to be thoroughly studied.
Results of the Research
The aim for the first stage of the research was to define the target group and to describe the
group (regions, statistics, dynamics).
In order to elicit the target group we have collected information about the number of bilingual
students in secondary and high schools of Estonia with Estonian as a language of instruction. The
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
148
data have been organized taking into account the regions and teaching stages – they are drawn to
the following table (Table 1):
Table 1. Quantitative data on bilingual students in Estonian-medium

schools.
STAGE / REGION 1–3 4–6 7–9 10–12 TOTAL

Harjumaa 372 380 381 307 1 440
Hiiumaa 1 1
Ida-Virumaa 149 165 179 82 575
Jarvamaa 7 9 21 6 43
Jõgevamaa 44 32 29 17 122
Läänemaa 11 12 27 35 85
Lääne-Virumaa 48 48 40 30 166
Põlvamaa 6 6 5 7 24
Pärnumaa 63 73 56 23 215
Raplamaa 33 35 21 9 98
Saaremaa 5 4 8 2 19
Tartumaa 85 94 82 60 321
Valgamaa 47 40 38 21 146
Viljandimaa 26 26 32 16 100
Võrumaa 9 11 11 6 37
Total: 905 936 930 621 3 392
As the table (Table 1) shows, 3 392 students of Estonian-medium schools are bilingual, which
makes 3.1% of total amount of students in Estonian-medium schools. The highest number of bilin
gual pupils are in Harjumaa (42.4% out of selection in all regions), Ida-Virumaa (16.95%), Tartu
maa (9.5%), Pärnumaa (6.3%), Lääne-Virumaa (4.9%). The least number of such students island
regions present: Hiiumaa (0.02%), Saarema (0.6%). Therefore, the target group for further research
is presented by bilingual students from 5 regions of greater representation.
Research data on different schools mostly confirm the evidence that greater number of bilin
gual students study in Estonian schools of larger towns with a liberal share of Russian-speaking
population. E.g., there are a little less than 10% (64 students out of 740) in Tallinn French Lyceum,
more than 10% (86 out of 710) in Tallinn Gymnasia ARTE, more than 8% (60 out of 839) in Tallinn
German Gymnasia, more than 30% in Tallinn Laagna Gymnasia (239 out of 710), more than a half
(176 out of 235) in Narva Estonian Gymnasia.
However, there are schools with great amount of bilingual students in smaller towns and rural
settlements. E.g., there are about 30% bilingual students in Kunda General Gymnasia (152 out of
419), more than 20% in Kiviõli Secondary School (67 out of 317), almost 10% in Kohila Gymnasia
(72 out of 751), more than 10% in Aegviidu Gymnasia (7 out of 56), about 20% in Mustvee Gym
nasia (30 out of 158). This obviously can be explained by the fact that there is a lack of Russian-
medium schools in most of the mentioned communities, while the number of Russian-speaking
population is considerably large.
One can find the following distribution of bilingual students within the teaching stages: there
are 3.4% of bilingual students in the first teaching stage in 2008/2009 (905 out of 26779), 3.4% in
the second stage (936 out of 27583), 2.9% in the third stage (930 out of 32098), 2.6% in high scho
ol (621 out of 23882). The figures prove that the distribution according to the teaching stages does
not fluctuate considerably.
The dynamics of „diffusion“ process among bilingual students one can observe in the follo
wing table (Table 2):
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Table 2. Number of bilingual students of Estonian-medium schools in 149
2001/2002 and 2008/2009.
Academic year / Increase in the number of Decrease in the number of

2001/2002 2008/2009
region bilingual students bilingual students
Harjumaa 690 1440 +750
Hiiumaa 2 1 -1
Ida-Virumaa 436 575 +139
Jarvamaa 64 43 -21
Jõgevamaa 106 122 +16
Läänemaa 64 85 +21
Lääne-Virumaa 236 166 -70
Põlvamaa 49 24 -25
Pärnumaa 57 215 +158
Raplamaa 95 98 +3
Saaremaa 0 19 +19
Tartumaa 136 321 +185
Valgamaa 61 146 +85
Viljandimaa 40 100 +60
Võrumaa 15 37 +22
Total: 2051 3392 +1315 -117
Comparing the quantitative data of bilingual students studying in Estonian-medium schools

in 2001-2001 (Русскоязычная семья и эстонская школа 2008) and 2008/2009 (see Table 3) it
becomes obvious that the number of such students have grown by 1315 people, which is especially
exhibitory at the time when the total amount of students in schools of Estonia has fallen.
Table 3. Total amount of students in schools of Estonia.
Teaching stage/
1–3 4–6 7–9 10–12
Academic year
1992/1993 61 619 60 477 60 955 27 140
2001/2002 46 565 62 058 64 437 34 552
2008/2009 36 866 36 689 42 699 31 266
We can trace the tendency on increasing number of bilingual students in the regions with larger
towns, such as Tallinn, Pärnu, Tartu. Such an external factor that some Russian-medium schools in
the regions (e.g., Pärnu and Tartu) get closed also influences the growth of bilingual students. As
the table shows, the number of bilingual students in rural areas and on the islands have been stable
or decreased in some cases (see Põlvamaa, Raplamaa, Hiiumaa, Jarvamaa). That may be caused by
the fact that some people have moved to larger towns for work.
Quantitative changes in the researched group according to teaching stages for the last 7 years
are presented in the following table (Table 4):

Table 4. Quantitative changes of bilingual students according to teaching
stages from 2001/2002 to 2008/2009.
Number of bilingual students (and %) / 2001/2002 2008/2009

Teaching stage
1–3 483 (1) 905 (2,45)
4–6 597 (0,9) 936 (2,56)
7–9 578 (1, 35) 930 (2,18)
10–12 393 (1,25) 621 (2, 29)
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
150
Data comparison from the table brings to conclusion that there has been proportional increase
in the number of bilingual students of all teaching stages. Analysis of the last two tables gives an
opportunity to trace the dynamics of size of the target group in details. E.g., in the first teaching sta
ge in 2001/2002 bilingual students formed only 1% of the total amount of pupils in Estonia, in the
second stage – less that 1%, in the third – 1.35%, in high school – 1.25%.
Comparing the data of 2001/2002 (Русскоязычная семья и эстонская школа 2008) and
2008/2009 we can notice remarkable growth in number of bilingual students, especially in the two
first stages. This again proves a dictinct tendency of „enlargement“ in the group of bilingual stu
dents of Estonian-medium schools.
Getting education in the Estonian language by a large amount of bilingual students exercise a
significant affect on the “condition” of the mother tongue, in many cases it causes the decrease in
the level of competence in the native language (Вaker, 2005: 27). In this context another research
has become extremely topical, the research of how the mother tongue is supported in the students’
homes. In order to light out some of the facts there is a table demonstrating the “home” languages
in use by the bilingual students (Table 5).
Table 5. Home language / languages of students.
HOME LANGUAGE/REGIONS One language Two and more languages

Harjumaa 328 (Russian) 294
Hiiumaa
Ida-Virumaa 275 (Russian) 31
3 (Estonian)
Jarvamaa 9
Jõgevamaa 53 15
Läänemaa 48 31
Lääne-Virumaa 41 60
Põlvamaa 3 (Russian) 13
1 (Estonian)
Pärnumaa 132 41
Raplamaa 48 28
Saaremaa 19
Tartumaa 61 89
Valgamaa 43 30
Viljandimaa 6 36
Võrumaa 22 9
Total: 1071 705
The figures in the Table 5 (although the data are not final) indicate that the larger part of bilin
gual students speak Russian at home, however those who speak both (Russian and Estonian) langu
ages form a considerable share (almost 40%). Data from some school authorities show that some
families purposefully refuse to speak native Russian language and even escape from communica
ting in the two languages with the children in preference to the Estonian language. At the same time
there are families (and it is symptomatic) where parents speaking to each other the two languages or
only Russian in communication with children choose only Estonian. There are also occasions when
parents with poor skills of Estonian do prefer to converse to the children in this language.
The table shows that in so-called Russian regions families do speak preferably Russian, whi
le in the regions with limited spread of the Russian language parents generally converse with the
children in both languages. Impossibility or limitations in using the language outside family can
naturally lead to a significant decrease in the level of the language competence.
Language choice in a family is often random. Few parents use purposefully in their communi
cation one or two languages. However, there are three language strategies in upbringing a bilingual
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
child to consider: 1. one person – one language; 2. both parents speak both languages to the child; 151
3. parents speak to the child a native language, the other language is spoken outside the family. The
last strategy often takes place in the context of national minority. That is the situation that is develo
ped in most families raising a bilingual child (Baker, 2000). It is also true for Estonia.
A mother tongue support is definitely necessary, as its “miss” often causes loss of ethnical
identity and breaks connections with the family (from presentation by Fred Genesse „Insight from
immersion Research” on conference «Lõimitud aine- ja keeleõppe levik. Mitmekeelsus kui toime
tuleku võti paljukultuurilises maailmas». Tallinn, 24–25 October 2008), which negatively affects
full-bodied personality formation able to self-realization in the context of multicultural society.
Discussion
The early and the late immersion (Estonian) programmes for children from Russian-speaking
families were also introduced in 2000 and 2004 respectively. However, it is early to discuss the le
vel of the native language command, as even the first groups of these children have not finished the
school. Nevertheless, isolated observations are presented in some works (Новиков 2005; Игнатова
2005). The project is oriented to the Russian-speaking 6th–12th year students, not participating in
immersion programmes. The data will be displayed within periods of studies (in the end of 6th, 9th,
12th year).
The problem can be viewed as important from two standpoints. The first one relates to the idea
that any language should be taught additively, not subtractively. It means that another language
should be added to your mother tongue, not to replace it. The statement may refer to the Consti
tution of Estonia, guarantying bilingual regimes. However, some researchers (e.g., works by T.
Skutnabb-Kangas, one of the prominent specialists in the field of multilingualism) emphasize the
importance of such an idea only in relation to endangered languages, explaining the role of so called
languages-killers. At the same time she draws examples of linguistic genocide in Sweden against
Finnish minority language or American English against Hispanic minorities’ languages. She also
states that it has nothing in common with the language policy against Russian-speaking minority
in Estonia. We can understand that assimilating 500 000 Russians in Estonia will not harm the Rus
sian language itself (as well as Finnish in Sweden and Hispanic languages in America respectively).
That is why the second standpoint might be more rational for the issue (actually, also supported by
T. Skutnabb-Kangas (2004)).
Alan N. Crawford, working for the project of bilingual education in Latvia, declares the role
of studying in a native language for the general mental development, development of logic. In his
article he draws examples from researches conducted in America (Crawford 2002). As it is said be
fore, bilingual education in Estonia has also taken its place. However, a Russian child in Estonian
school is a fact, which cannot be violated. That is why one of the approaches to solving the problem
is to find a way to support the knowledge of the mother tongue and culture in this group of children.
We suppose that one of the appropriate measures for that could be a special programme of language
studies which finds its place in special text-books, accompanying by teacher’s manual as well as a
special in-training course for the teachers of Russian as a foreign language.
The future research implies several steps considering general and specific studies. First, it is
important to define the types of bilingualism in general, as well as the type of bilingualism to be
studied (assuming that it could be more subtractive than additive).
Second, the research implies studying the level of language skills in different aspects: a) phone
tics, b) vocabulary, c) grammar and syntax, d) authentic texts perception by the studied group.
Third, it is essential to estimate the extent of influence from media, TV, other relatives, after-
school activities on the target group’s language skills.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
152
Cross-cultural communication can be applied here as some study of literature used in teaching
Russian as a foreign language in the aspect of cultural information supporting the general know
ledge of Russian culture, history and so on (which has been partly done by T.Jegoshina (Егошина
2007)) and way of implementing the other relevant cultural information both about Russian and
Estonian culture (which can be considered especially important in the light of recent events in Tal
linn, two national groups of people living in Estonia do not understant each other due to different
cultural background) on the basis of Russian authentic texts, specially processed to fit the need. The
requiment: relevant cultural information, language difficulties appropriate for the level of students,
possibility to use as model for vocabulary and grammar exersises. The data for developing such
exersises is going to be drawn from the research project: it will describe the level of Russian langua
ge skills, general linguistic, cultural and psychological problems of the studied group, methods used
to teach Russian as well as proposals for improving the above mentioned.
The research deals with traditionally used methods of Russian as a foreign language teaching
and their acceptability in the mentioned process; methods of teaching Russian as mother tongue in
relation to the issue. It is obvious that neither methods of teaching Russian as a foreign language,
nor methods of teaching Russian as a mother tongue could be applied separately.
In result, the objective of the project is to work out an optimal model for teaching Russian-spe
aking children in the context of Estonian-medium school.
Conclusion
The data presents the situation of bilingual (Russian-Estonian) students distribution in the Esto
nian-medium schools. The problem is extremely topical – it has been discussed not only in scientific
research, but also in different mass media sources. This research has been done within two projects
and its aim is to define the target group as well as to describe it (area distribution, statistics, dyna
mics).
First, the data about the number of such students (3 392) was collected and systematized accor
ding to the regions and levels of study. There also was noticed that the largest number of bilingual
students is presented in Harjumaa (42.4%), Ida-Virumaa (16.95%), Tartumaa (9.5%), Pärnumaa
(6.3%) and Lääne-Virumaa (4.9%) – in the larger towns with a big number of Russian-speaking po
pulation. Therefore, these five regions are meant to be the target group of the further research. The
students are almost evenly distributed on different levels of study, except gymnasia.
The received data was compared with the numbers of 2001/2002 and 2004/2005 school years,
which showed that the amount of bilingual students has risen while the total number of secondary
schools has dropped.
Education in Estonian for the mentioned group has deeply influenced their mother tongue
knowledge. Most of them speak Russian at home, while quite a high percent (40%) of them use
both Russian and Estonian at home. In whole, most Russian-speaking parents tend to pursue their
children to gain the Estonian language knowledge in order to achieve in social life – which in most
occasions does not support the mother tongue skills. It leads to subtractive bilingualism. It beco
mes obvious that teaching Russian in Estonian-medium schools for student from Russian-speaking
families should get systematic and solid support from families, schools and the state. Only in this
situation efficient bilingualism is possible, which maintains ethnical identity of a person supporting
his or her self-fulfillment in a multicultural society.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Acknowledgement 153
This research has been done and financed under targeted project “Estonian Text in Russian
Culture. Russian Text in Estonian Culture” (SF 0130126s08, grand holder prof. Irina Belobrovtse
va) and the Tallinn University Research Foundation project “Russian Child in an Estonian-Medium
School” (TA 37309, grand holder Natalia Tshuikina).
References
Ahmet, I. (2003). Haridus vähemusrahvuste keeltes mitmekeelses ühiskonnas ja keelepoliitika Eesti
näitel. Haridus ja majandus 2003 : rahvusvahelise teaduskonverentsi materjalid. Tallinn, 11–14.
Baker, C. (1996). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Mat
ters.
Baker, C. (2000). A Parents and Teachers Guide to Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Baker, C. (2005). Kakskeelne laps. Haridus-ja Teadusministeerium. – El Paradiso.
Baker, C., Prys. Jones, S. (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Coelho, E. (1998). Teaching and Learning in Multicultural Schools: Cleveland: Multilingual Matters.
Crawford, A.N. (2002). Bilingual Education in Latvia. Bilingual education in Latvia: International ex
pertise. Riga: Soros Foundation, 40-62. (Bilingvala izglitiba Latvija: starptautiska ekspertize. Bilingva
la izglitiba Latvija.).
Hannikainen, L. (2002). The Russian-Speaking and Etnic Russian Minority in Finland in the Light of
Finlands International Obligations. Finnish Yearbook of International Law. Kluwer Law International,
471–486.
Hint, M. (2002). Keel on tõde on õige ja vale. Tartu: Ilmamaa.
Loopman, K. (2004). Muukeelse lapse õpetamine eestikeelses koolis - probleeme ja lahendusi. MA the
sis. Tallinn Pedagogical University.
Montanari, E. (2002). Wie Kinder mehrspraching aufwachsen: Ein Ratgeber. 3.Auflage. Frankfurt a. M.:
Brandes&Apsel Verlag.
Rannut, Ü. (2003). Muukeelsete õpilaste integreerimine eesti koolis. Tallinn: TPÜ kirjastus.
Rannut, Ü. (2005). Keelekeskonna mõju vene õpilaste eesti keele omandamisele ja integratsioonile
Eestis. Tallinn: Tallinna Ülikooli Kirjastus.
Sears, C. (1998). Second Language Students in Mainstream Classrooms: A Handbook for Teachers in
International Schools. Cleveland: Multilingual Matters.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1981). Bilingualism or Not. The education of Minorities. Clevedon: Multilingual

Matters.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2004). “Finno-Ugric Peoples in the World Context” – plenary speech at IV World
Congress of the Finno-Ugric Peoples, Tallinn, August 15–19, 2004.
Ауг Н. (2007). Языковое развитие русскоговорящего ребенка в иноязычной среде. MA (academic)

thesis. Tallinn: Tallinn University.
Егошина Т. (2007). Учебный текст как носитель лингвогеографической и лингвокультурологической

информации. MA thesis. Tallinn University.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
154
Игнатова Е. (2005). Динамика учебного процесса в классах с углубленным изучением эстонского
языка. MA thesis. Tallinn University.
Мальцева-Замковая Н., Моисеенко И. (2008a). Проблемы обучения русскому языку в ситуации

естественного русско-эстонского билингвизма. I Mеждународная научно-методическая конфе
ренция «Состояние и перспективы методики преподавания русского языка и литературы».
Сборник статей. Москва: Издательство Российского университета дружбы народов, 782-785.
Мальцева-Замковая Н., Моисеенко И. (2008b). Этническая самоидентификация двуязычных

учащихся (русско-эстонское двуязычие) в условиях обучения в эстонской школе. Язык и культура.
Киев: Изд-во Киевского университета, 75–85.
Мальцева-Замковая Н., Моисеенко И., Чуйкина Н. (2008). Двуязычный ребенок (русско-эстонское

двуязычие) в школе с эстонским языком обучения. Коллеги – коллегам. Tallinn: Argo, 7–14.
Моисеенко И. (1978). Условия формирования и сохранения двуязычия. Проблемы формирования

языковых контактов в процессе обучения русскому языку в эстонской школе. Русский язык в
эстонской школе VIII. Ученые записки ТГУ вып.510 (под ред. А.Метса). Тарту, 35–42.
Моисеенко И., Замковая Н. (2002). Статус русского языка в Эстонии и проблемы, связанные с
его преподаванием. Труды по русской и славянской филологии. Лингвистика. Новая серия VI.
Проблемы языка диаспоры. Tartu Ülikoli kirjastus. Tartu, 173–186.
Моисеенко И., Мальцева-Замковая Н., Чуйкина Н. (2009). Ситуация распространения русско-

эстонского двуязычия в школах с эстонским языком обучения. Kultuuride dialoog – Võimalus või
paratamatus? (Dialogue of Cultures – Possibility or Inevitability?) II. Teadusartiklite kogumik. Tallinn:
Tallinna Ülikooli kirjastus, 267–286.
Новиков В. (2005). Опыт укоренения языкового погружения в Таллиннской гимназии Ляэнемере.

MA (academic) thesis. Tallinn University.
Постникова В. (2008). Русский художественный текст и трудности его восприятия учащимися-

билингвами, обучающимися в эстонской школе. MA thesis. Tallinn University.
Протасова Ю., Родина Н. (2005).Многоязычие в детском возрасте. Санкт-Петербург.: Златоуст.

Раннут М. (2004). Пособие по языковой политике. Tallinn: AS Atlex.
Рейцак А. (1976). Четвертая ступень эстонско-русского двуязычия. Развитие национально-

русского двуязычия. М.: Наука, 351–365.
Русскоязычная семья и эстонская школа) (2008). Sociologic Research. Tallinn: Integratio.
Рюнканен Т. (2006). Процесс интеграции русскоязычных учащихся-иммигрантов. Studia Slavica

Finlandensia. Tomus XXIII. Вопросы идентичности в русскоязычной диаспоре. Helsinki, 149-184.
Рюнканен Т. (2007). Русский язык как родной в Финляндии: возможности сохранения, изучения
и развития. Русистика и современность. Том 2. Диалог культур в преподавании русского языка и
русской словесности. Санкт-Петербург: Издательский дом «МИРС», 213–217.
Селицкая И. (1976). Условия развития эстонско-русского двуязычия; Первая ступень эстонско-

русского двуязычия; Вторая ступень эстонско-русского двуязычия; Третья ступень эстонско-
русского двуязычия. Развитие национально-русского двуязычия. М.: Наука, 72–85, 213–222,
257–265 (respectively).
Хинт М. (1989). Проблемы двуязычия: взгляд без розовых очков. Эстония: О том, что волнует.
Таллинн.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Чуйкина Н., Синдецкая Н. (2005). К проблемам формирования коммуникативной компетенции 155
в условиях эстонско-русского билингвизма. Изучение русского языка и русской культуры в
странах АТР: 15 лет РКИ на Дальнем Востоке. Тезисы II международной научно-практической
конференции. Владивосток, 29–30.
Чуйкина Н., Синдецкая Н. (2006). К вопросу о русско-эстонском билингвизме. Международная

научно-практическая конференция по проблемам преподавания русского языка и литературы
в странах Балтии (Сборник научно-методических материалов). Санкт-Петербург: Санкт-
Петербургский государственный университет, 48–52.
Natalia Zamkovaja Associate Professor, Tallinn University, Narva Street 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia.
Phone: +372 6 409332.
E-mail: talyz@inbox.ru
Website: http://www.tlu.ee/slaavifil
Irina Moissejenko Associate Professor, Tallinn University, Narva Street 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia.
Phone: +372 6409332.
E-mail: irinamo@hot.ee
Natalia Tshuikina Lecturer Tallinn University, Narva Street 25, 10120 Tallinn, Estonia.
Phone: +372 6409332.
E-mail: natalia.tshuikina@tlu.ee
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
156
Standards for Field Evaluations

of Modifications to Educational
Settings
Albert Ziegler
Ulm University, Germany
E-mail: albert.ziegler@uni-ulm.de
Diana Schimke, Heidrun Stoeger

University of Regensburg, Germany
E-mail: diana.schimke@paedagogik.uniregensburg.de,
heidrun.stoeger@paedagogik.uni-regensburg.de
Peter Merrotsy
University of New England, Australia
E-mail: pmerrots@une.edu.au
Abstract
It is often not possible to realize ideal evaluation standards when it comes to evaluating modifications to
educational settings. In this article theoretical and practical problems in the evaluation of modifications
in educational settings are discussed. Based on these considerations the ENDIT model of evaluation is
presented. It comprises five minimal standards necessary for a convincing evaluation: 1) effect estab
lishment, 2) control of the novelty effect, 3) discriminant validation, 4) superiority over compared to
implicit control groups, and 5) time-delayed control group. The five standards are explained and their
utility for research is demonstrated, by way of an example, through the evaluation of a visualization tool
that was introduced in order to increase participation in an e-mentoring community. Participants in the
investigation comprised 231 female high-school students participating in the e-mentoring community
CyberMentor that aims at increasing interest and participation in STEM (Science, Technology, Engine
ering, and Mathematics).
Key words: e-mentoring, online community, evaluation standards, ENDIT method.
Introduction
For many and diverse reasons, modifications are indispensable in all educational settings.
Examples include the introduction of new school textbooks, a change in teacher, adjustments to
the method of instruction, adaptations in response to increased levels of student competency, and
so on. That is why educational settings are not at all static, but rather dynamic and ever-developing
entities.
Albert ZIEGLER, Diana SCHIMKE, Heidrun STOEGER, Peter MERROTSY. Standards for Field Evaluations of Modi-
fications to Educational Settings PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
It is widely accepted that evaluations should be carried out at many points during the course 157
of an education program (Cook & Campbell, 1979; House, 1978; Rossi, Lipsey & Freeman, 2004).
The rationale for this may be, among many others:
• a cost–benefit analysis,
• the comparison of outcomes with objectives,
• the determination of causal relationships between variables.
The topic of this paper is the determination of causal relations between variables. However,
difficulties do arise in many evaluations, and we will illustrate this with our own research project,
the CyberMentor program.
Theoretical and Practical Problems in the Evaluation of Modifications in Educa

tional Settings
CyberMentor is an e-mentoring community (Schimke, Stoeger, & Ziegler, 2009a, 2009b). The
participants are girls between the ages of 12 and 19 who are interested in STEM (Science, Techno
logy, Engineering, and Mathematics). Each high-school student is paired with one personal female
mentor who is working in a field of STEM. Mentor and mentee communicate via email at least once
a week. Additionally, an on-line platform is provided which offers a wide range of online communi
ty features. For example: each participant (mentee and mentor alike) may introduce herself on and
maintain a personal page; members may participate in a discussion forum or chat with each other;
and an online journal is published regularly.
For some, it will be apparent that the evaluation of online communities like CyberMentor con
fronts the researcher with various problems typical of many areas in the social sciences (Cook &
Campbell, 1979; Law, 2004; Trochim, 1986). Many problems stem from the fact that online com
munities, like many educational settings, have their individual prehistory that needs to be taken into
account during research. Only when this is known can present interactions and actors’ intentions
be understood. In this respect, each online community is characterized by uniqueness, and here it
is even possible to speak of each community having its own identity. In contrast to this, the partici
pants of the classic experiment are almost ahistorical and their idiosyncrasies are understood to be
sources of potential bias. The randomized allocation to conditions aims to average out this distor
ting factor.
The characteristic identity of each educational setting leads to a multitude of serious metho
dological problems which arise when conducting research. Thus, for example, the uniqueness of
an online community prevents the creation of an appropriate control group. This applies equally
to the randomized allocation of people to an experimental and a control group, and to the creation
of a parallel control group. It might be possible to find a group of people who resemble the online
community members with respect to the personal attributes considered relevant. However, finding
analogous personal relationships between the members (friendship, animosity, mistrust, etc.) is unli
kely. It would be an enormous coincidence if comparable group dynamics and structures happened
to develop in different groups. In other words: in the evaluation of online communities, controlled
experiments are not possible due to the lack of appropriate control groups. But how might the effect
of an online community’s development be evaluated? How can changes following a modification
be ascribed precisely to that modification?
Besides the theoretical problems of forming adequate control groups, there are also practical
considerations (for details see Schimke et al., 2009b). The formation of an efficient online commu
nity is very expensive (e.g., design and implementation of the platform, payment of staff, mainte
nance). If research is possible at all, then usually one of three cases applies (Schimke, 2010, fort
hcoming). First, research funds may facilitate the creation of an online community for experimental
purposes (this was the case, for example, with CyberMentor); but only in rare cases is the creation
of a control group possible. In fact, only one out of the dozens of studies examining the introduction
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
158
of visualization tools was able to create a control group (Farzan et al., 2008). Second, researchers
may be allowed to conduct investigations in an existing online community. Generally, however, in
these cases permission will not be given to conduct experimental manipulations, and, when this is
possible, the creation of control groups is usually not feasible. Third, sponsors may be found for
setting up online communities for certain purposes – but not for the purpose of research. This is true
for the e-mentoring community in which our research project, described below, is set. Financial sup
port was provided for the sole purpose of promoting girls’ interests in STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics) and upon the condition that all girls shall receive optimal treatment.
From the perspective of the external sponsors, establishing a control group would mean knowingly
subjecting some participants to conditions that the researchers considered less than ideal. Hence,
the creation of a control group was not possible.
In summary, from a theoretical perspective the main difficulty in the evaluation of modifica
tions to educational settings results from the fact that such settings have an intrinsic character of
uniqueness. This would exclude classic experimental design, which requires the random allocation
of subjects to certain conditions. Even quasi-experimental designs, where there is no random allo
cation of research participants to conditions, are difficult to realize. The unique character of the
treatment condition inhibits the creation of a completely parallel control group. These essentially
theoretical problems are compounded by various practical difficulties. Thus, the typical case, which
is clearly dominant, is that there are no control groups at all.
ENDIT: a Proposed Practical Solution
Both the theoretical and the practical problems of evaluating modifications in educational set
tings require the development of realistic evaluation standards. Such standards must allow a reaso
nable combination of what is possible in practice with what is necessary in theory. We suggest a
procedure comprising five components and forming the acronym ENDIT from the initial letter of
each component:
• Effect establishment
• Novelty effect
• Discriminant validation
• Implicit control group
• Time-delayed control group.
We would like to illustrate these five components using the example of an investigation within
the context of CyberMentor. Several months after the beginning of the mentoring program, a visua
lization tool was introduced into the community platform. It illustrates both the individual and the
average participation behavior of the program participants. It was hoped that its use would make
the community more attractive for its members, resulting in higher rates of participation and enga
gement (see below).
Effect establishment: The most basic requirement for the proof of the effectiveness of a modifi
cation – in our case the introduction of the visualization tool – is that the expected outcome should
appear, to a certain extent, after its introduction. Concretely, for example, one should observe a gre
ater incidence of participation and/or longer times of engagement.
Novelty effect: A novelty effect typically occurs, not surprisingly, when something new is in
troduced. In online communities such modifications could, for instance, be the presentation of new
content or the announcement of an innovation. Online community users accordingly show an incre
ased degree of interest, and their participation level rises. For example, Sun and Vassileva (2006, p.
10) write: ‘The novelty effect is well known in the area of Human-Computer Interaction and may
account for the initial interest in the students to use the system with the new interface.’ The possi
bility of assessing such a novelty effect lies in a comparison of changes after the modification with
changes after other modifications. Should the effect after the examined innovation turn out to be
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
much bigger than it typically is after other innovations, then a genuine influence of the modification 159
is indicated.
Discriminant validation: In order to exclude the possibility that the effect of a modification
after an innovation could simply be ascribed to the novelty effect itself, the preceding two steps are
not sufficient. For this reason, a discriminant validation has to be also carried out. Such a validation
is based on the idea that innovations are linked to specific expectations. In our initial example the
introduction of the visualization tool is expected to result in an increase in participation behavior.
At the same time it is expected that there would be no effect on other variables, such as the interest
in STEM or self-efficacy towards STEM. The modification to be evaluated should have a specific
effect, otherwise changes measured in the evaluation could be the result of some innovation having
an undifferentiated effect. A discriminant validation thus requires the occurrence of negative predic
tions. In our example, the introduction of the visualization tool does not result in any effects other
than a change in participation.
Implicit control group: As already mentioned, control groups in the sense of the classic experi
ment are often not possible. Nevertheless, it is possible to specify groups for appropriate compari
sons indirectly. These are then able to fulfill a similar function as control groups. For this purpose,
one takes advantage of the fact that the participants use the new feature in different ways and to
different extents. For instance, in our project some online community members used the visualiza
tion tool more often than others. Therefore, this is an indication of stronger participation behavior
by some online community members compared with others.
Time delayed control group: Although it is often not possible to create a control group at the
same time, in many cases one can repeat the investigation with a new cohort. This is a well-known
strategy for teachers who, over many years, test, improve and refine a pedagogical approach for im
parting content to their students. This applies to online communities as well. For example, each year
a new mentoring season starts and a new group of female students enters the program.
Of course, the five components of the ENDIT method do not replace classical experimental de
sign with randomized allocation of treatment and control groups along with the control of variables.
However, taken as a holistic model, the informative value of the five ENDIT components is substan
tial. If results are triangulated across the components, then there is either strong evidence that the
new feature is effective or that the outcomes should rather be ascribed to novelty effects or other
variables. In the following section, we will demonstrate the usefulness of the ENDIT model on the
example used so far, the introduction of a visualization tool to the online community CyberMentor
program.
An Application of ENDIT
In this section, the usefulness of ENDIT when evaluating the introduction of a visualization
tool will be demonstrated. The visualization served to illustrate the activities of the members of the
online community. First we will describe the tool and the underlying theory then we will outline the
method used in the evaluation study and report on its results.
The Visualization Tool CyberCircle
The visualization tool provides feedback about one’s own and others’ participation rates within
the platform. According to her participation rate (platform visits, discussion-board posts, personal
messages, and chat posts), each member is placed in one of the following user groups: Beginner,
Amateur, VIP, Pro, and Top CyberMentee. The visualization tool is designed as a circle and compo
sed of five concentric rings (see Figure 1). The outer ring represents the Beginner CyberMentees.
The inner ring represents the Top CyberMentees. Each member can identify her own status from the
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
160
position of her personal icon or profile picture on the visualization tool. A group icon on the visuali
zation tool indicates the group’s status.
The visualization tool needs to provide a classification of all community-members (N = 231)
by assigning each one to one status group. For instance, at the beginning of a program, all members
start as Beginner. As there is no limit to the maximum number of persons per status group, it was de
cided to represent users as spots placed in the ring that corresponds to their user-group. If you click
on the corresponding ring (e.g., Beginner), there appear as many user points in the ring as users
are ascribed to that status (see Figure 1). In order to establish a connection between the user points
and the actual members, the users’ corresponding icons or miniature profile pictures are arranged
around the circle. It was felt to be important that each miniature picture be ‘clickable’ in order to
enlarge the picture of the person.
Figure 1. Social Visualization Tool CyberCircle.
Description of the Theoretical Background for the Introduction of the Visuali

zation Tool
Visualization tools can be used in order to visualize activities in an online community. This is
considered to be one possible way of increasing participation.
In the times of the Web 2.0, there are rarely anonymous communities without social indicators
such as profile pages with pictures or personal messages. The focus of such profile pages is on of
fering information about individuals and establishing contact among members. However, interper
sonal differences become apparent through interaction and communication with other community
members; thus, the initially high social identity, as it typically occurs in anonymous communities,
decreases (Postmes, Haslam, & Swaab, 2005). In contrast, personal identity or rather inter-personal
contact gains importance.
Ren, Kraut, and Kiesler (2007) also assume such an identity process. They argue that online
community members get to know each other better through social interaction, e.g., by means of
personal messages, and hence relationships between the members develop. The opportunities for
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
self-disclosure and self-presentation, e.g., by means of profile pages or chat posts, also facilitate 161
getting to know each other. Thus the way of looking at the group shifts from the group itself, as
identity-based attachment, to personal relationships between individual members, i.e., bond-based
attachment. Again, according to Postmes, Baray, Haslam, Morton, and Swaab (2006), social iden
tity can especially be increased in such a situation if each member can be individually identified.
One possible way of increasing the individual identification of individual members within an online
community and thus influencing their behavior is to employ visualization, that is, ‘awareness tools
that show who is currently online and what they are doing may help people gain and maintain a sen
se of others and their habits’ (Ren et al., 2007, p. 388).
The extent to which the user behavior of online community members can actually be influ
enced by visualization tools, if at all, as Ren et al. (2007) presume, is examined in the following
evaluation study.
Research performance
Data from 231 female students have been analyzed for this study (in order to illustrate the use
of the diachronic control group, another group of participants is described below). All girls who par
ticipated in the CyberMentor program volunteered to participate in the study. The research period of
ten months (during the period from January to September) was divided into three phases: a starting
phase (months 1 and 2), a consolidation phase (month 3) and an effect phase (months 4 and 5).
The visualization tool was integrated into the community platform after the consolidation pha
se (see Figure 2). The decision to integrate the tool at this point in time is based on results which
state that system usage decreases significantly after approximately three months (Hartwick & Bar
ki, 1994). The community members were informed about the introduction of the visualization tool
via email.
Figure 2. Phase division during the research period.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
162
Research participants
The participants in the investigation comprised 231 female students participating in the e-men
toring community CyberMentor. They were between 12 and 19 years of age, and the average age
was M = 14.92 years (SD = 1.79).
In order to create implicit control groups (see below), participants were classified in one of the
three groups:
• Non-User (79 mentees never visited the visualization tool),
• Sparse-User (78 mentees visited the visualization tool one to three times),
• User (74 mentees visited the visualization tool four or more times).
Data recorded and measurement instruments
Participation: Participation in the online community was recorded on the basis of four indica
tors:
• number of platform visits,
• number of discussion board posts
• number of personal messages sent to other community members, and
• number of chat posts.
This information was stored anonymously in a MySQL database and could be examined indi
vidually. As the phases to be examined are not equal in duration (two-month starting phase; one-
month consolidation phase; two-month effect phase), the average values for each variable have
been calculated.
Elective behavior for the STEM field: The participants’ elective behavior for the STEM field
was recorded by means of a five-item scale (Ziegler & Stoeger, 2008). Research participants stated
on a six-point Likert scale how much they could imagine:
• choosing STEM as field of study,
• taking up an occupation in a STEM field, and
• participating in an extracurricular STEM event.
Cronbach’s Alpha was satisfactory with 0.86 at the first and 0.88 at the second point of measu
rement.
STEM-Interest: The study used a six-point Likert scale adapted to the STEM field with six
items from Ziegler, Dresel, and Schober (1998). Cronbach’s Alpha was satisfactory with .85 at the
first and .90 at the second point of measurement.
Belief in one’s own abilities in the STEM field: A scale adapted to the STEM field was used to
record the belief in one’s own abilities (Dweck, 1999; Dweck & Henderson, 1988). All items had
to be assessed on a six-point scale. Cronbach’s Alpha was satisfactory with .87 at the first and .85
at the second test interval.
Results of Research
Effect Establishment
In this analysis, of course, only the participants who actually used the visualization tool are
considered. It was shown that:
• the number of platform visits increased significantly from the consolidation phase (M = 17.15,
SD = 16.62) to the effect phase (M = 27.82, SD = 23.07, t(73) = 4.59, p < .001);
• the number of discussion board posts increased significantly from the consolidation phase
(M = 2.27, SD = 3.35) to the effect phase (M = 12.03, SD = 18.79, t(73) = 4.58, p < .001);
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
• the number of personal messages increased significantly from the consolidation phase 163
(M = 6.93, SD = 8.34) to the effect phase (M = 16.49, SD = 29.62, t(73) = 2.25, p < .01;
• the number of chat posts increased significantly from the consolidation phase (M = 21.91,
SD = 71.37) to the effect phase (M = 107.81, SD = 218.08, t(73) = 3.96, p < .001).
In summary, it can be stated that participation increased after the introduction of the visuali
zation tool to the online platform. It has already been mentioned above that this alone cannot be
regarded as a proof of effectiveness of the modification to the program.
Novelty Effect
The objective of this descriptive analysis is to examine whether the increase in participation
after the introduction of the visualization tool can only be ascribed to the novelty effect. If this is
the case, increases in participation should also appear after other modifications. Furthermore, the
increase in participation after the introduction of the visualization tool should not be higher than the
increase in participation after other modifications.
In order to check the novelty effect, the changes in the community members’ participation
behavior is examined after publication of the internal online journal CyberNews. Over the course
of the research period of five months, four issues of the online journal were published. The weeks
of publication were weeks 5, 10, 14, and 18, and these weeks are each indicated by a red circle in
Figure 3.
An examination of the weekly development of platform visits indicates that, after new issues
of the online journal have been published within the platform, at the most short-term effects and
perhaps no effects can be observed. That is, if there were any effects at all, they were of short dura
tion.
Analogous results are found when observing the other participation rates for discussion board
posts, personal messages, and chat posts. None of these modifications led to an increase in participa
tion as much or as permanently as did the introduction of the visualization tool after week 12. This
suggests that the increase in participation after the introduction of the visualization tool cannot be
ascribed to the novelty effect.
Discriminant validation
The visualization tool was introduced in order to increase participation behavior. Nevertheless,
there is no reason to assume that other factors such as the elective behavior in STEM, STEM inte
rest, or belief in one’s own abilities in the STEM field could also be influenced by the introduction
of the visualization tool. In order to test these assumptions, several t-tests were conducted. Neither
the elective behavior in STEM (t(143) = 0.12, p > .10), nor the interest in STEM (t(143) = -0.87,
p > .10), nor the belief in one’s own abilities in the STEM field (t(143) = 0.45, p > .10) changed
significantly from before to after the introduction of the visualization tool. Evidently, the specific
changes expected from the introduction of the visualization tool can be shown with respect to parti
cipation, but not with respect to any other measure.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
164
Figure 3. Weekly participation rates (platform visits, discussion board posts,

personal messages, chat posts) over the course of 20 weeks.
Implicit control group
It is assumed that the participation rate is dependent on the usage frequency of the visualiza
tion tool. In the case of Non-Users, by definition, one should not ascertain any increase in partici
pation.
Below, three different groups of users are examined: Non-Users, Sparse-Users, and Users. The
first two groups may be considered to be control groups. In order to check whether the introduction
of the visualization tool has different effects on each group of users, ANOVAs were conducted,
with the group as factor and the different participation variables in the effect phase as dependent
variables. Since participation in the earlier phases (starting phase, consolidation phase) might also
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
have an influence on later participation rates (effect phase), the participation variables of the first 165
two phases were added as covariates.
The results are displayed in Figure 4. When evaluating platform visits, a clear group effect
(F(2,226) = 30.77, p < .001) was found. Post-hoc analyses verify that only the Users group showed
a significant increase after the tool’s integration into the platform. The Non-Users group in fact sho
wed a significant decrease.
The number of discussion board posts also showed a significant group effect (F(2,226) = 13.20,
p < .001). Post-hoc analyses verify that discussion board posts increased in the groups of Users and
Sparse-Users. In the Non-Users group, the number of discussion board posts decreased slightly, but
not significantly, after the introduction of the visualization tool.
Additionally, the number of personal messages showed the expected group effect
(F(2,226) = 12.87, p < .001). Post-hoc analyses verify that personal messages increased signifi
cantly in the Users group after the introduction of the visualization tool. There were no significant
changes in the other two groups.
A clear group effect was also recorded concerning the number of chat posts (F(2,226) = 18.03,
p < .001). Post-hoc analyses verify a significant increase among the Users and Sparse-Users. There
were no significant changes in the Non-Users group.
Figure 4. Development of the four participation domains (platform visits,

discussion board posts, personal messages, and chat posts) of the
groups Non-Users, Sparse-Users, and Users. Relevant phases:
starting phase, consolidation phase, and effect phase.
Time-delayed control group
Three years after the mentoring phase in which the visualization tool was introduced within the
community platform, another mentoring phase was started. 744 girls participated. They were also
between 12 and 19 years old, and had an average age (M = 14.93; SD = 2.11) comparable to that of
the group previously examined. The components of the program, in particular the online platform
(discussion board, chat, profile pages, personal messages, online magazine), were almost identical
to those of the earlier mentoring phase. The decisive difference lies in the fact that there was no
visualization tool introduced into the community platform in this later mentoring phase. This com
munity’s participants are thus suitable as a delayed control group.
A comparison of the two groups (see Figure 5) showed very clearly the differences in the
participation behavior after the consolidation phase. First, 2x3 repeated measure analyses showed
significant main effects for the platform visits (F(2,972) = 114.16, p < .001), the discussion board
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
166
posts (F(2,972) = 13.29, p < .001), and the personal messages (F(2,972) = 20.99, p < .001). That is,
participation changed significantly over the course of the three phases. In the case of the chat posts,
there was no significant main effect (F(2,972) = 1.97, p > .10). Second, the 2x3 repeated measures
also showed significant interaction effects for the platform visits (F(2,972) = 37.17, p < .001), the
discussion board posts (F(2,972) = 27.73, p < .001), and the personal messages (F(2,972) = 17.69,
p < .001). For the chat posts we found a marginally significant interaction effect (F(2,972) = 2.97,
p < .10). Not only did the participation change over the course of the study, it also developed diffe
rently in the experimental group compared with the time-delayed control group.
T-tests did not show significant differences between the two groups (experimental and time-
delayed control group), neither in the starting phase (platform visits: t(973) = 0.05, p > .10; dis
cussion board posts: t(973)= 0.26, p > .10; personal messages: t(973)= 0.12, p > .10; chat posts:
t(973)= -0.41, p > .10) nor in the consolidation phase (platform visits: t(973)= 0.38, p > .10; dis
cussion board posts: t(973)= -0.08, p > .10; personal messages: t(973)= 0.45, p > .10; chat posts:
t(973)= -0.68, p > .10). This is what one would have expected, since the experimental and the
control group did not differ until the visualization tool was included on the platform. In the effect
phase (after the tool was introduced in the experimental group, but not in the time-delayed control
group), t-tests showed significant differences between the two groups (platform visits: t(973)= 4.91,
p < .001; discussion board posts: t(973)= 4.39, p < .001; personal messages: t(973)= 3.36, p < .01;
chat posts: t(973)= 3.33, p < .01). This indicates that the increase in participation might be based on
the introduction of the visualization tool.
While there was no increase in participation (in most cases there was actually a significant dec
rease) from the consolidation to the effect phase in the time-delayed control group (platform visits:
t(743) = -8.83, p < .001; the discussion board posts: t(743) = -1.83, p < .10; personal messages:
t(743) = -4.77, p < .001; chat posts: t(743) = -1.55, p > .10), participation increased significantly
in the other group after the visualization tool had been introduced (platform visits: t(230) = 3.57,
p < .001; discussion board posts: t(230) = 4.42, p < .001; personal messages: t(230) = 2.25, p < .05;
chat posts: t(230) = 3.82, p < .001).
Figure 5. Development of the four participation domains (platform visits,

discussion board posts, personal messages, and chat posts) of the
group using the platform with the visualization tool and the group
using the platform without the visualization tool.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Discussion 167
In this paper we have addressed a problem that commonly arises in educational research: The
evaluation of modifications in unique educational settings when there is no control group available.
In such cases, the main difficulty lies in determining whether changes that appear after a specific
modification can really be ascribed to that modification.
Essentially, this is a problem that has traditionally involved the examination of causal relations.
In order to fulfill the experimental standards required for this approach, one would in fact need a con
trol group (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). We have proposed the ENDIT method for the metho
dically sensitive and vulnerable situation of not being able to create a control group. This model do
es not replace an experiment; however, in our opinion, it allows evaluations of the effectiveness of a
modification in pedagogical settings which approach or approximate validity. We demonstrated this
process by evaluating the introduction of a visualization tool into an online community platform.
This occurred with the objective of increasing the participation rate of the community members. A
higher participation rate is desirable, as it influences the success of the community itself. McKenna
and Bargh (1998) found, for example, that participation in an online community for people with
stigmatized sexual identities or political ideologies had positive effects on self-esteem, and that the
benefits were greater for more active users than for less active participants. Active participation in
online communities also leads to longer-term membership (Butler, Sproull, Kiesler, & Kraut, 2002).
This is especially important for mentoring, because empirical results show that the success of a men
toring program is positively correlated with its duration (Grossman & Rhodes, 2002).
In the first step of ENDIT, an examination of four different indicators of participation behavior
showed that the participation rate does in fact increase significantly after the introduction of the
visualization tool. However, this result does not represent more than a sufficient condition for the
expected effectiveness of the visualization tool, as the increased participation rate could also be asc
ribed, for example, to the novelty effect (see also Sun & Vassileva, 2006).
In the second (novelty effect) and third (discriminant validation) steps of ENDIT, it was first
shown that new features within the platform usually do not lead to a novelty effect. Hence it seems
rather unlikely that the introduction of the visualization tool could develop such a strong effect
simply due to this bias. This is then supported by the results of the discriminant validation. The
modifications after the introduction of the visualization tool were specific and did not affect other va
riables. In particular, there were no effects on the general components of the e-mentoring program,
that is, on the elective behavior in STEM, the interest in STEM, and the belief in one’s own abilities
in the STEM field, from the introduction of the visualization tool.
In the two last steps of ENDIT we attempted to address the evident lack of control groups,
as discussed above. For this purpose, implicit control groups were created. These were classified
according to whether the online community members were Users, Sparse-Users or Non-Users (of
the visualization tool). Distinct increases in participation (for all four participation indicators) were
found for the Users. In the case of the Sparse-Users, there were significant increases in participa
tion in two out of four participation fields. Among the Non-Users, no increase in participation was
found; in fact, there were significant decreases in some of the participation fields.
As convincing as these results might seem at first, they clearly do not reach the level of proof
or the informative value of an experiment in the classical or scientific sense of the term. In such an
experiment, participants would be allocated randomly to the three conditions (Shadish et al., 2002).
Hartwick and Barki (1994) report that system usage typically decreases significantly after three
months, and, indeed, this was the case for the Non-Users in our study. On the other hand, as shown
in the first ENDIT step, participation increased among the users of the visualization tool, as we had
anticipated. Nevertheless, it is possible that this absence, among some members of the CyberMentor
community, of the decrease predicted by Hartwick and Barki (1994), could be ascribed to special
characteristics of this community. In order to examine this further, it was helpful to look at a time-
delayed group. That is, in another mentoring phase three years later, no visualization tool was intro
duced, and after three months the participation of this time-delayed control group decreased further.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
168
Here it is acknowledged that the time-delayed group does not meet the requirements of the classic
experiment (Shadish et al., 2002), and, strictly speaking, it is not even a parallel control group. The
re are two reasons for this. First, after three years, cohort effects could have developed: that is, typi
cal 15-year-old girls from the years 2006 and 2009 could differ in some important aspect. Second,
the communities were indeed comparable in various aspects, but not in all: for example, more girls
participated in the later mentoring program that did not use the visualization tool.
In summary, we would like to state that no single ENDIT component could prove the effective
ness of a modification to an educational setting. This also applies in the case of our example used
to illustrate the ENDIT method, which was the evaluation of the incorporation of a visualization
tool into the CyberMentor community platform. The results for each evaluation step were in line
with the assumption that the introduction of a visualization tool can improve participation. Howe
ver, one has to be aware of the fact that this is not a proof of effectiveness in the sense of a formal,
scientific experimental proof of effectiveness. Nevertheless, one must take into account the practi
cal conditions under which, by necessity, most studies in educational settings are conducted. Under
these conditions the fulfillment of the ENDIT components is often what comes closest to controlled
experimental standards.
References
Butler, B., Sproull, L., Kiesler, S., & Kraut, R. (2002). Community effort in online groups: Who does the
work and why? In S. Weisband & L. Atwater (Eds.), Leadership at a distance. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field set
tings. Chicago: Rand-McNally.
Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development. Philadelp
hia: Taylor & Francis.
Dweck, C. S., & Henderson, V. L. (1988). Theories of intelligence: Background and measures. Unpub
lished manuscript, made available by the authors.
Farzan, R., DiMicco, J., Brownholtz, B., Dugan, C., Geyer, W., & Millen, D. R. (2008). Results from
deploying a participation incentive mechanism within the enterprise. Paper presented at the Conference
on Human Factors in Computing Science. Florence, Italy.
Grossman, J. B., & Rhodes, J., E. (2002). The Test of Time: Predictors and Effects of Duration in Youth
Mentoring Relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 199–219.
Hartwick, J., & Barki, H. (1994). Explaining the role of user participation in information system use.
Management Science, 40(4), 440–465.
House, E. R. (1978). Assumptions underlying evaluation models. Educational Researcher, 7(3), 4–12.
Law, J. (2004). After method. Mess in social science. London: Routledge.
McKenna, K. Y. A., & Bargh, J. A. (1998). Coming Out in the Age of the Internet: Identity ”Demargi
nalization” Through Virtual Group Participation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(3),
681–694.
Postmes, T., Baray, G., Haslam, S. A., Morton, T., & Swaab, R. (2006). The dynamics of personal and
social identity formation. In T. Postmes & J. Jetten (Eds.), Individuality and the group: Advances in so
cial identity (pp. 215–236). London: Sage.
Postmes, T., Haslam, S. A., & Swaab, R. I. (2005). Social influence in small groups: An interacitve mo
del of social identity formation. European Review of Social Psychology, 16(1), 1–42.
Ren, Y., Kraut, R., & Kiesler, S. (2007). Applying Common Identity and Bond Theory to Design of On
line Communities. Organization Studies, 28(3), 377–408.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Rossi, P. H., Lipsey, M. W., & Freeman, H. E. (2004). Evaluation: A systematic approach (Vol. 7). 169
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Schimke, D. (2010, forthcoming). Konzeption, Implementierung und Evaluation eines Visualisierungsto
ols für den Einsatz in Online-Communities [Design, Implementation, and Evaluation of a Social Visuali
zation Tool for Online Communities]. Unpublished Dissertation, Ulm University, Ulm.
Schimke, D., Stoeger, H., & Ziegler, A. (2009a). Fostering Girls‘ Identification with STEM by Offering
an Online Community. Paper presented at the 5th European Symposium on Gender & ICT. Bremen,
Germany.
Schimke, D., Stoeger, H., & Ziegler, A. (2009b). Prädiktoren einer langfristigen Teilnahme an einem
E-Mentoring-Programm. In H. Stoeger, A. Ziegler & D. Schimke (Eds.), Mentoring: Theoretische Hin
tergründe, empirische Befunde und praktische Anwendungen. Lengerich, Germany: Pabst.
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs
for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Sun, L., & Vassileva, J. (2006). Social Visualization Encouraging Participation in Online Communities.
Paper presented at the CRIWG 2006, Medina del Campo, Spain.
Trochim, W. (1986). Advances in quasi-experimental design and analysis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ziegler, A., Dresel, M., & Schober, B. (1998). Messung motivationsbezogener Schüler(innen)merkma
le [Measurement of students motivation.]. Unpublished manuscript, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität,
Munich.
Ziegler, A., & Stoeger, H. (2008). Effect of role models from films on short-term ratings of intent, inte
rest, and self-assessment of ability by high school youth: A study of gender-stereotyped academic sub
jects. Psychological Reports, 102(2), 509–531.
Adviced by Vincentas Lamanauskas, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania
Albert Ziegler Full Professor, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, 89069 Germany.
E-mail: albert.ziegler@uni-ulm.de
Website: http://www.uni-ulm.de/
Diana Schimke Chair for School Education, University of Regensburg, Universitaetsstr. 31, 93053 Re
gensburg, Germany.
E-mail: diana.schimke@paedagogik.uniregensburg.de
Website: http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Universitaet/welcome2.html
Heidrun Stoeger Chair for School Education, University of Regensburg, Universitaetsstr. 31, 93053 Re
gensburg, Germany.
E-mail: heidrun.stoeger@paedagogik.uni-regensburg.de
Website: http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Universitaet/welcome2.html
Peter Merrotsy Senior Lecturer in Gifted and Talented Education, Faculty of The Professions, School
of Education, University of New England, Australia
E-mail: pmerrots@une.edu.au
Website: http://www.une.edu.au/staff/pmerrots.php
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
170
Общее понятие и законы

формирования социального
заказа в области образования
Тамара А. Арташкина
Дальневосточный государственный университет, Владивосток, Россия
E-mail: tam.artand@gmail.com
Абстракт
Автор исходит из предположения, что существует определенный социальный механизм,

позволяющий транслировать требования общества в содержание образования. В основе такого
механизма лежит специальная инфраструктура, к элементам которой относятся социальный
заказ на специалиста; социальный заказ на институт образования; государственный заказ
в области высшего образования. В настоящее время термин «социальный заказ» обозначает
общественную потребность, актуальную для общества в целом или его части. При этом нельзя
смешивать социальный и государственный заказы в области образования.
Основными методами исследования являются диалектический метод, а также такие методы
теоретического познания, как историко-генетический, сравнительно-исторический и гипотетико-
дедуктивный, что позволило автору установить, сформулировать и проанализировать три
закона формирования социального заказа в сфере высшего образования. Легко обнаруживается
корреляционная зависимость между государственным и социальным заказами в области высшего
образования, проявляющаяся в наибольшей степени между государственным заказом и законами
смены содержания и смены границ социального заказа.
Ключевые слова: проблема целеполагания, социальный заказ, государственный заказ, способ
задания социального заказа, законы формирования социального заказа.
Введение
Проблема целеполагания в системе деятельности высшей школы не ставилась в явном

виде ни в философии, ни в педагогике вплоть до конца XVIII в. И даже если эта проблема все же
каким-то образом возникала, ее постановка носила латентный характер и служила средством
решения других задач, среди которых были и политические. С выделением социологии в
самостоятельную отрасль знания в середине XIX столетия проблема целеполагания в области
образования оформляется в виде функциональной модели образования.
Первая половина XIX в. может быть охарактеризована как время формирования в России
системы университетского образования. В середине XIX века, наряду с ростом потребности
в высшем образовании, в российском обществе формируется критическое к нему отношение,
Тамара А. АРТАШКИНА. Общее понятие и законы формирования социального заказа в области образования
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
и поэтому проблема целеполагания выдвигается на первый план. В XX в. данная проблема 171
выделилась в качестве самостоятельной проблемы в конце 1960–1970-х гг. Уже в наше время
отдельные аспекты целепостановки становятся предметом философского осмысления и
изучения.
При решении проблемы целеполагания в системе деятельности высшей школы мы исходим
из предположения, что существует определенный социальный механизм, обеспечивающий
целепостановку, «смягчающий» давление соответствующих вызовов времени на образование
и позволяющий транслировать их требования в содержание образования. В основе такого
механизма лежит специальная инфраструктура высшего образования, предшествующая
образовательному процессу и отвечающая за решение проблемы. К элементам такой
инфраструктуры относятся социальный заказ на специалиста; социальный заказ на институт
образования; государственный заказ в области высшего образования.
Сущность социального заказа современной высшей школе сводится к следующему:
формирование инициативной, предприимчивой, самостоятельной личности, обладающей
общекультурной компетентностью, ответственной за общезначимые ценности, открытой
для постоянного самообразования, готовой к новациям и изменениям, способной свободно
самоопределяться в культурном пространстве ценностей. Исходя из этого, и необходимо
осуществлять поиск новых форм организации научного знания, создавать новые концепции
образования и программы их практической реализации. Все это детерминирует актуальность
проведенного нами исследования.
Таким образом, объектом исследования является специальная инфраструктура высшего
образования, предшествующая образовательному процессу и отвечающая за решение
проблемы целеполагания. Предметом исследования стал один из элементов данной
инфраструктуры, каковым является социальный заказ в области образования.
Основными методами исследования служат:
• диалектический метод, обеспечивающий восхождение от конкретного к абстрактному
и позволяющий реализовать принцип историзма и диалектический принцип проти
воречия. Именно данный метод позволил нам обнаружить инвариантные элементы
структуры социального заказа и проследить их генезис в историческом контексте;
• методы теоретического познания, такие, как историко-генетический, сравнительно-
исторический и гипотетико-дедуктивный. С помощью указанных методов нам удалось
установить и сформулировать законы формирования социального заказа в области
высшего образования.
Генезис понятия «социальный заказ» в отечественном

социогуманитарном познании
Термин «социальный заказ» появился в советской научной и педагогической литературе

в 70-е гг. XX в. Одной из первых его ввела в научный оборот и широко использовала Н.Ф.
Талызина. Четкого определения данное понятие тогда не имело и первоначально обозначало
некоторый класс общественных явлений, оказывающих непосредственное влияние на
организацию учебного процесса и определяющих проблематику научных исследований в
области образования. Предполагалось, что социальный заказ задает цели обучения. Именно
поэтому в 1980-е гг., особенно со второй половины этого периода, понятие «социальный
заказ» стало отождествляться с понятием «цели обучения» («цели образования»). На самом
деле цели обучения (образования) являются производными от социального заказа.
Отождествление понятий «социальный заказ» и «цели обучения» во второй половине
1980-х гг. произошло в силу принятой тогда трактовки понятия «социальный заказ».
Так, в области высшего образования социальный заказ – это определенные требования
(система требований), выдвигаемые обществом, к личности выпускников высшей школы, к
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
172
содержанию и качеству их подготовки, к самой высшей школе как социальному институту,
обеспечивающему качественную подготовку своих выпускников. Однако в этом случае
приходится разводить два понятия: социальный заказ как систему требований общества
к выпускнику учебного заведения и социальный заказ на школу (высшую или среднюю),
являющуюся социальным институтом. В соответствии с этим и в зависимости от способа
формулирования (задания) социального заказа и целей обучения либо содержание социального
заказа и целей обучения может совпадать, либо цели обучения будут являться следствием
социального заказа. В настоящее время в теоретических исследованиях и практической
деятельности в сфере образования достаточно часто наблюдаются оба варианта.
На переломе эпох, на рубеже 1980-х и 1990-х гг., в обществе родилось резко негативное
отношение непосредственно к самому термину «социальный заказ», т.к. в его имени
усматривался непосредственный носитель советской идеологии. Однако в дальнейшем
это понятие стало снова широко использоваться, и теперь уже не только в педагогических
исследованиях. А понимание того, что понятия «социальный заказ» и «цели обучения
(образования)», хоть и являются взаимосвязанными, но не являются тождественными,
и поэтому при теоретическом анализе и практической реализации требуют логического
разведения, пришло только во второй половине 1990-х гг.
Фиксация понятия в виде научного термина требует повышения степени его обобщения.
Этот процесс осуществляется за счет перехода к новой системе признаков. И таким
обобщающим признаком для понятия «социальный заказ» становится «потребность», т.е.
нужда в чем-либо необходимом для поддержания жизнедеятельности и развития человеческой
личности, социальной группы, общества в целом, являющаяся внутренним побудителем
активности. Потребности, преломляясь через социальные интересы как всего общества в
целом, так и отдельных его групп, приобретают форму социальных заказов.
Итак, социальный заказ – это общественная потребность, актуальная для общества в
целом или его части. Именно такой подход лежит в основе всех случаев и форм современного
словоупотребления указанного понятия.
Основные отличия социального заказа от государственного заказа в

области образования
Анализ всех случаев и форм современного употребления понятия «социальный заказ»

позволяет выявить две основные тенденции его репрезентации в социально-культурной
сфере.
В первом случае в некоторых нормативных документах даются дефиниции понятий
«муниципальный государственный заказ» и «государственный социальный заказ». Однако во
всех документах подобного типа эксплицируется не понятие «социальный заказ», а способы
его реализации. При этом молчаливо предполагается, что непосредственно сам социальный
заказ как общественная потребность уже сформулирован за рамками нормативного доку
мента. Государственный социальный заказ выступает в двух основных формах: либо это
экономико-правовая форма реализации приоритетных целевых социальных программ, либо
форма государственного регулирования благотворительной деятельности. Другими словами,
государственный социальный заказ – это намерение государства финансировать из своего
бюджета социально-ориентированную деятельность организаций гражданского общества. С
этой точки зрения программы целевого бюджетного финансирования системы образования,
программы реформирования и модернизации образования, осуществляемые государством,
следует отнести к государственному социальному заказу.
Во втором случае наблюдаются ситуации, когда смешиваются два термина: «социальный
заказ» и «государственный заказ». В основе разделения этих понятий очень часто лежат
интересы общественных объединений (организаций, отдельных групп, всего общества)
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
и государственные интересы. Такие интересы не всегда совпадают. Поэтому в некоторых 173
случаях социальный заказ в сфере общественных отношений рассматривается как
альтернатива государственному заказу.
Что касается непосредственно самого определения понятия «государственный заказ»,
то такие дефиниции давно носят устоявшуюся форму и даже вошли в энциклопедические
издания. Анализ этих определений показывает, что все они распадаются на две
самостоятельные группы:
• определение государственного заказа как потребности государства, нужды органов
государственного управления на поставку товаров, работ или услуг;
• определение способа реализации государственного заказа, выраженное в виде
некоторых нормативных документов.
Аналогичная ситуация наблюдается и в сфере образования: существует государственный
заказ как потребность государства в некоторых образовательных услугах, производимых с
вполне определенными качественными показателями, и существуют нормативные документы,
в которых зафиксирован этот государственный заказ и определены способы его реализации.
Социальный и государственный заказы нельзя смешивать. Особенно это касается сферы
образования.
Вместе с тем все изложенное означает, во-первых, что возможна ситуация, когда
социальный и государственный заказы могут совпадать (частично или полностью); во-
вторых, формировать и формулировать требования общества в области образования
(социальный заказ) могут как отдельные личности, так и группы людей, социальные
прослойки, классы, все сообщество. История учит, что практически всегда, во все времена
прогрессивные идеи в области образования формулировались раньше государственного
заказа, опережали его, вступали с ним на определенном этапе своего развития в противоречие.
Если в формулировании социального заказа участвует все сообщество, то степень решения
проблемы и ее оптимальность непосредственно зависят от степени развития демократических
основ этого общества.
Основное отличие государственного заказа в сфере образования от социального
заключается в следующем:
• (а) государственный заказ всегда реализуется в виде нормативных документов, а
потому обязателен для исполнения;
• (б) на определенном историческом этапе своего развития государственный заказ
начинает противоречить социальному заказу;
• (в) в конечном итоге государственный заказ становится конфликтогенным.
В качестве примера, иллюстрирующего указанные особенности государственного
заказа в области образования, можно вспомнить регламентацию деятельности высших
учебных заведений в годы советской власти. Тогда требования государственного заказа были
реализованы в таких нормативных документах, как планы приема абитуриентов и выпуска
специалистов. И те, и другие планы были обязательны для исполнения.
Следует отметить еще одну особенность взаимодействия государственного и социального
заказов в сфере образования того исторического периода. Так, в конце 1980-х гг. возникла
ситуация, когда недовольство качеством высшего образования исходило из самой системы
высшего образования. В данном случае мы имеем дело отнюдь не с государственным, а с
социальным заказом в этой области. Парадокс заключается в том, что социальный заказ
выдвигался и формулировался внутри системы, качество результатов функционирования
которой следовало контролировать. При таком механизме «зарождения» и развития
социального заказа отсутствует механизм внешнего контроля не только за результатами
деятельности системы, реализующей социальный заказ, но и за содержанием такого заказа.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
174 Основные способы задания социального заказа в области высшего

образования
Для дальнейшего обсуждения следует развести социальный заказ на специалистов

и социальный заказ на школу (среднюю или высшую) как социокультурный институт,
осуществляющий их подготовку. При этом следует отделить процесс обучения специалистов
от сферы их профессиональной деятельности. Тогда структура социального заказа, независимо
от области его действия, будет определяться адекватностью средств его описания.
Если отвлечься от терминологических разночтений при анализе публикаций, выполненных
в 1960-1970-е гг. и посвященных поиску ответа на вопрос «Для чего (зачем) учить в вузе?»,
то можно усмотреть, что, в основном, обсуждались два блока проблем: профессионально-
производственные аспекты деятельности специалистов и способы описания их личности. Эти
блоки чаще всего не разграничивались, что приводило к дополнительным сложностям, когда
профессиональные и личностные качества специалистов рассматривались рядоположенно, а
потому переставали поддаваться систематизации.
Поэтому первым способом задания (структурирования) социального заказа или
вытекающих из него целей обучения следует считать предложенную Н.Ф. Талызиной в рамках
деятельностного подхода систему видов деятельности, которые должен выполнять молодой
специалист после окончания обучения в высшем учебном заведении (Талызина, 1973). Следует
специально подчеркнуть, что в данной концепции речь идет именно о социальном заказе на
специалиста. В данном контексте Н.Ф. Талызина не разводила понятия «социальный заказ» и
«модель специалиста». Как известно, «модель специалиста» является следствием социального
заказа на подготавливаемого в вузе специалиста, получается в результате теоретических
исследований, и поэтому служит одним из способов целепостановки. Принятая в концепции
Н.Ф. Талызиной структура социального заказа переносилась и на систему целей обучения
(образования).
В соответствии со своей концепцией, Н. Ф. Талызина утверждала, что при разра
ботке модели специалиста необходимо учитывать три иерархически связанных вида
деятельности:
• виды деятельности, обусловленные научно-техническим прогрессом;
• виды деятельности, обусловленные особенностями общественно-политического строя
нашей страны;
• виды деятельности, определяемые требованиями соответствующей профессии,
специальности.
Позднее она же предложила, как она считала, более адекватный язык описания этих
видов деятельности – язык профессиональных задач (см.: Талызина и др., 1987, с. 9). Тогда,
в соответствии с описанной концепцией, такие задачи распределяются следующим образом
по трем иерархическим уровням:
• I – задачи, обусловленные особенностями научно-технического прогресса;
• II – задачи, обусловленные особенностями общественного строя страны;
• III – чисто профессиональные задачи.
В конце 1980-х гг. появился второй, способ задания (структурирования) социального
заказа. 18 февраля 1988 г. завершил свою работу Пленум Центрального Комитета КПСС, на
котором были сформулированы две концепции: непрерывного образования и социальный
заказ на подготавливаемого специалиста (Материалы Пленума, 1988). В формулировке
социального заказа, предложенного Пленумом, наличествовали три равнозначных
составляющих: сочетание высокого профессионализма с классовым и общечеловеческим
началами. В свою очередь, классовое требование к школе, в том числе и высшей, опиралось
на два параметра: идейно-нравственное и политическое воспитание. Третья составляющая
означала повышение требований к общей культуре выпускников учебных заведений. В такой
редакции социальный заказ формулировался впервые. Его отличительной особенностью
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
является то, что в материалах Пленума нет разграничения на высшую и среднюю школы, 175
место и задачи которых в структуре общественных отношений различны. В данном случае
речь действительно идет о социальном заказе, а не государственном (и тем более – не
«партийном»!). До февральского 1988 г. Пленума ЦК КПСС в партийных документах
формулировался не социальный, а государственный заказ в области образования, поскольку
постановления Пленумов служили нормативными документами и были обязательны для
исполнения.
Данный способ структурирования социального заказа оказался в дальнейшем
теоретически не проработанным и из-за развала Советского Союза и стремительного
перехода страны к новым социально-политическим условиям, и из-за резкого понижения в
обществе авторитета Коммунистической партии.
Повышение требований к уровню общекультурной подготовки выпускников учебных
заведений, широкое обсуждение экологических проблем привели, в конечном итоге, к
необходимости введения оценочного компонента в структуру социального заказа на личность
выпускника учебного заведения. Так появляется третий способ задания (структурирования)
социального заказа.
В первой половине 1990-х гг. становится ясно, что социальный заказ в области
образования должен включать три компонента:
• познавательно-интеллектуальный,
• действенно-практический,
• оценочный.
Структура оценочного компонента достаточно сложна:
• профессионально-оценочная часть осуществляет выбор средств деятельности и их
оценку, экстраполирует в будущее последствия этой деятельности;
• нравственно-оценочная часть оценивает последствия практической деятельности
людей и меру их ответственности за себя перед другими.
Нравственная оценка осуществляется во всех сферах жизнедеятельности человека.
Легко видеть, что все три способа структурирования социального заказа на специалиста
выполнены по разным основаниям. Однако в их формулировке легко отделяется
профессионально-обучаемая часть социального заказа на специалиста от «образовательной»,
личностно-значимой. Другими словами, в социальный заказ входят требования общества
и к профессиональным качествам специалиста, и требования к его личности. Причем в
разных способах задания социального заказа такие требования, во-первых, соотносимы
с определенным временным интервалом, во-вторых, являются различными не только
содержание требований общества, но и степень их важности для самого общества в
конкретный исторический момент.
В начале 1990-х гг. в качестве средств, считавшихся адекватными социальному заказу
на школу или, шире, на образование в целом, рассматривалась концепция образования.
Необходимость ее разработки научная и педагогическая общественность страны в те
годы в первую очередь связывала с кардинальным пересмотром точки зрения на роль
и место образования в общей системе социальных и культурных институтов. Однако так
ожидаемая в начале 1990-х гг. концепция образования появилась лишь спустя десять лет
в виде «Национальной доктрины образования в Российской Федерации» (доступно из
URL: http://www.uroki.ru/met_rus/k_upravobraz/k_normdok/doktrina.htm). Проект Доктрины
был в основном одобрен Правительством России 17 февраля 2000 г., но затем подвергся
качественной переработке по ряду основных параметров на основе правительственной
программы реформирования образования. Все это говорит о том, что так долго ожидаемая
Доктрина образования в Российской Федерации из социального заказа превратилась в форму
реализации государственного заказа.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
176 Особенности оценочного компонента в структуре социального заказа в

области образования в современную эпоху
Достижения современной цивилизации создают огромные возможности для развития

человечества. Но они же могут вызвать и кризисные последствия, как в глобальном,
так и в локальном масштабах. Изменение социальной роли науки, соединение науки с
производством, превращение науки в производительную силу общества, его технизация,
соединение науки с властью с необходимостью детерминируют усиление юридической,
социальной, профессиональной и моральной ответственности, связанной с различными
областями общественной деятельности. Различные аспекты произошедших изменений
нашли свое отражение в таких областях, как правовая ответственность, социальное сознание
ученых, профессиональная этика инженеров.
В 1980-е гг. в отечественной публицистике и научных публикациях по социальным
проблемам получил распространение термин «человеческий фактор», имеющий значение,
аналогичное или очень близкое к значению понятия «ответственность». Однако проблема
ответственности должна выйти за пределы только естественнонаучной отрасли знания или
инженерной деятельности и должна охватывать всю сферу человеческой деятельности,
включая гуманитарную область, сферу культуры в традиционном ее понимании и обыденное
сознание. В современном обществе любые действия людей должны сопровождаться оценкой
последствий принимаемых решений с последующей корректировкой этих действий.
Требования современного общества к профессиональной деятельности необходимых
ему специалистов не сводятся к простому набору операций, обеспечивающих ее выполнение.
Такие требования – это, прежде всего, требования к профессиональному мировоззрению,
формируемому не только в процессе обучения. В свою очередь, процесс формирования
мировоззрения крайне сложен. Он проходит под воздействием множества факторов. Это и
семья, и обычаи, и общение с разными людьми, и соприкосновение с природой и с искусст
вом. Именно данный процесс формирует систему отношений человека, учит человека жить
в мире людей.
Демифологизация понятия свободы, неизбежно выводящая на передний план понятие
ответственности, соединяется с требованием открытого изложения всех видимых ограничений
и сфер неопределенности при принятии существенных решений. Это требование отражается
и на структуре социального заказа в области образования.
Факторы, детерминирующие действие законов формирования

социального заказа в области высшего образования
Будучи общественной потребностью, социальный заказ в области образования

выдвигается с целью объяснения определенных социальных процессов, непосредственно
связанных с развитием образования, или для прогнозирования направлений развития системы
образования. Поэтому предсказательная и объяснительная сила социального заказа должна
быть выражена в законах его формирования. До тех пор, пока они останутся неизвестными, в
какой бы форме ни формулировался социальный заказ, он всегда будет содержать значительные
условия неопределенности, приводящие, в конечном счете, к быстрой его сменяемости.
Проследим всю историческую цепочку, позволившую сформировать основные
представления о способах структурирования социального заказа в области образования.
Тогда обнаруживается следующее:
• первоначально в советской педагогике высшей школы шло обсуждение профе
ссионально-производственных аспектов деятельности специалистов и способов
описания их личности (конец 1960-х – начало 1970-х гг.);
• затем формируется понимание необходимости создания «модели деятельности
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
специалиста», включающей систему профессиональных задач и систему требований 177
к психологическим и психофизиологическим качествам специалистов (1970-е – 1980-
е гг.);
• в конце 1980-х гг. стремительно набирают силу тенденции, выдвигающие на первое
место нравственно-оценочные показатели социального заказа на подготавливаемых в
вузе специалистов;
• начиная со второй половины 1990-х гг. вновь обсуждаются профессиональные качества
специалистов, делаются попытки выделения таких их качеств, которые бы наиболее
адекватно удовлетворяли современным социально-политическим и социально-
экономическим условиям развития страны.
Другими словами, проделанный анализ показывает:
1. В различные отрезки времени, которые могут и сокращаться, и увеличиваться,
общество, социум предъявляют определенные требования и к личности, и к
профессиональным качествам специалистов. Однако, как можно заметить, усиление
таких требований (центр тяжести) периодически смещается от повышения требований
к личности специалистов к повышению требований к их профессиональным качествам,
и наоборот.
2. Процесс выдвижения этих требований динамичен, сложен, зависит от многих
факторов, среди которых не последнее место занимают социально-политические. Это
означает, что такой процесс требует самостоятельного изучения.
3. Обнаруженная тенденция четко укладывается в рамки диалектического закона
отрицания отрицания.
4. Если расширить временные рамки до границ первой половины XX века, то эта
тенденция начинает приобретать признаки закономерной зависимости.
В простейших случаях закон представляет обобщение эмпирически наблюдаемых
фактов, и поэтому может быть получен индуктивным путем. В более сложных случаях
теоретические законы возникают, как правило, из гипотез. При сопоставлении законов
с фактами первой особенностью законов, чаще всего бросающейся в глаза, является их
общность, или универсальность, в каком-либо отношении. В то время как факты являются
единичными утверждениями об отдельных вещах и их свойствах, законы характеризуют
устойчивые, повторяющиеся, общие отношения между вещами и их свойствами.
Законы формирования социального заказа в области высшего

образования
Описанная тенденция обладает всеми признаками закона. Она является существенной

и необходимой, в ее проявлении наблюдаются повторяемость и устойчивость. Таким
образом, мы имеем дело с законом, который назовем законом перемены центра тяжести
в структуре социального заказа. Этот закон гласит: в определенные интервалы времени
общество предъявляет повышенные требования либо к профессиональной подготовке
специалистов, либо к их личности.
Данный закон позволяет обнаружить некий социальный механизм, обладающий
следующими характеристиками:
• данный закон дает лишь некоторое представление о механизме формирования
социального заказа в сфере образования;
• закон реализует функцию понимания в научном познании;
• закон не позволяет ответить на вопрос, почему происходит описанная в нем смена
требований общества к выпускаемому вузами специалисту и от чего она зависит;
• закон не содержит сведений о причинно-следственной зависимости явлений.
Выбор временного промежутка для анализа данного закона обусловлен не только тем,
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
178
что именно тогда был непосредственно введен в научный оборот термин «социальный заказ»,
но также и тем, что в обществе начали действовать те социокультурных явления, которые
затем приняли глобальный характер и изменили социальную роль науки. Эти же тенденции
стали оказывать непосредственное влияние на систему образования в целом. Таким образом,
действие данного закона является объективно обусловленным.
Но вместе с тем наличие закона перемены центра тяжести в структуре социального
заказа порождает новые вопросы, связанные с действием самого социального заказа:
• с какого момента в обществе начинает действовать новый социальный заказ?
• как социальный заказ действует дальше?
• когда и чем заканчивается его действие?
Как гласит сформулированный закон, в социуме постоянно присутствует потребность
в специалистах, обладающих не только профессиональной квалификацией определенного
уровня, но и определенными личностными характеристиками.
Проблема формирования личности – одна из самых сложных в современном социально-
гуманитарном познании. Постоянно возникающие дискуссии по данной проблеме лишний раз
подтверждают это. При формулировке законов формирования социального заказа в области
образования приходится учитывать категориальную принадлежность понятия «личность»,
и в этой связи ставить определенные ограничения на систему значений, принимаемых этим
понятием. Поэтому в дальнейшем будем различать термин «личность», употребляемый в
широком или узком значении. В широком значении «личность» – это сам человек, включенный
в социальные связи. При этом любой человек как социальное существо обладает личностными
характеристиками («личность» в узком значении) и профессиональными качествами. В
формулируемых нами законах формирования социального заказа речь идет именно о таких
личностных характеристиках (которые в литературе часто называются словом «личность») и
профессиональных качествах выпускников вузов.
Проблема формирования личности служит своего рода «программой», позволяющей
социуму перейти к новому его состоянию.
Проследим, каким образом этапы исторического пути советского государства во второй
половине XX столетия связаны с формированием социального заказа в области высшего
образования. Так, в 1960-е – начале 1970-х гг. XX столетия в стране наблюдается либерализация
духовной жизни, и примерно в эти же годы в педагогической литературе впервые появляется
термин «социальный заказ» и начинают активно обсуждаться требования общества,
предъявляемые к выпускаемым вузами специалистам. Именно в эти годы основной акцент
делается на структуре личности специалистов. В 1970-1980-е гг. происходит свертывание
экономических реформ. И в это же время у педагогической общественности формируется
понимание необходимости создания «модели деятельности специалиста», включающей
систему профессиональных задач и позволяющей усилить профессиональную подготовку
специалистов. Вторая половина 1980-х – начало 1990-х гг. – годы «перестройки». Начался
процесс социальных изменений. И в это же время стремительно набирают силу тенденции,
выдвигающие на первое место нравственно-оценочные показатели социального заказа на
подготавливаемых в вузах специалистов. 1990-е гг. – становление нового общественно-
политического и социально-экономического строя. И примерно с начала третьей четверти 1990-
х гг. (1997-1998 гг.) усиливаются тенденции, приводящие к необходимости выделения таких
профессиональных качеств специалистов, которые бы наиболее адекватно удовлетворяли
современным социально-политическим и социально-экономическим условиям развития
страны Если рецензент настаивает, то здесь необходима не ссылка на литературу, а подробный
анализ социально-экономического положения в стране и подробный анализ педагогической
литературы. Это мною также выполнялось и в указанной монографии, и в многочисленных
статьях. Поэтому сформулировала вывод, обоснованный мною в других моих работах.
Кроме совпадения во времени, при таком сравнении социального заказа в сфере
образования и исторических этапов развития государства обнаруживается еще одна
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
особенность. Эта особенность заключается в том, что повышение требований общества к 179
личности специалистов совпадает с теми историческими промежутками, когда в обществе
наблюдается либо либерализация духовной жизни, либо усиливаются социальные конфликты,
наступают определенные социальные изменения (не обязательно заканчивающиеся
революционными потрясениями).
Например, новые социально-политические и социально-экономические условия 1990-
х гг. порождают потребность в новом «массовом человеке», что находит свое выражение в
социальном заказе в сфере образования. Обществу понадобился «хозяйствующий человек»,
а не «человек экономический». Принципиальная разница между ними определяется
ценностными приоритетами, на которые они ориентируются. «Экономический человек»
по своей сути прагматичен и эгоистичен, его целью является рентабельное дело, поэтому
все, что выходит за рамки рыночных отношений, он выводит за пределы своих базовых
поведенческих ориентаций (см.: Зарубина, 2004, с. 173), а потому его должен сменить
«человек хозяйствующий»
Таким образом, имеет место еще один закон формирования социального заказа,
который назовем законом смены содержания социального заказа: в периоды социальных
конфликтов или социальных изменений (бифуркаций) в обществе повышаются
требования к личности, в периоды поступательного развития общества повышаются
требования к профессиональной подготовке специалистов.
Термин «бифуркация» в данном случае употребляется для обозначения ситуаций,
связанных с появлением кризиса в социальной системе, после которого возможно ее
развитие в различных направлениях. Становится понятным, почему повышение требований
общества к личности специалистов совпадает с теми историческими промежутками, когда
в самом обществе наступают определенные социальные изменения. Появление процессов
либерализации или социальной напряженности любой степени интенсивности приводят к
появлению возможности вариативности в социальном развитии, что является признаком
бифуркации. Такие изменения социума не могут не отразиться на содержании социального
заказа. Все это позволяет обнаружить новый закон, который назовем законом смены
границ социального заказа: границы смены центра тяжести в структуре социального
заказа, как правило, совпадают с границами социальных конфликтов (не обязательно
заканчивающихся революцией) или социальных изменений в обществе (границами
бифуркаций).
Заключение
И.Р. Пригожин, лауреат Нобелевской премии (1977), следующим образом комментирует

феномен бифуркации: «Литературное произведение, как правило, начинается с описания
исходной ситуации с помощью конечного числа слов, причем в этой своей части повествование
еще открыто для многочисленных различных линий развития сюжета. Эта особенность
литературного произведения как раз и придает чтению занимательность – всегда интересно,
какой из возможных вариантов развития исходной ситуации будет реализован. Так же
и в музыке – в фугах Баха, например, заданная тема всегда допускает великое множество
продолжений, из которых гениальный композитор выбирал на его взгляд необходимое. Такой
универсум художественного творчества весьма отличен от классического образа мира, но он
легко соотносим с современной физикой и космологией» (доступно из URL: http://vivovoco.
nns.ru/VV/PAPERS/NATURE/NONSTAB.HTM).
Все это позволяют понять, почему невозможно заранее спрогнозировать, в каком

направлении будут изменяться требования общества к личности.
С другой стороны, аналогичные тенденции позволяют обнаружить закономерные
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
180
особенности в государственной политике России в области образования на протяжении
всего исторического периода ее становления и развития, от петровских реформ до наших
дней. Государственная политика России в области образования подчиняется цикличному
закону перемены центра тяжести, который, однако, имеет иной, чем в законах социального
заказа, механизм проявления (Арташкина, 2006, 2008). Цикличность государственной
политики в области образования наблюдается в последовательном переходе от одного этапа
к другому в следующей последовательности: либерализация в духовной сфере – поворот к
реакции на спаде либерального или демократического движения в стране – реализация
в периоды поступательного развития общества его потребности в качественной
профессиональной подготовке необходимых ему специалистов.
Кроме того, эти же тенденции позволяют обнаружить корреляционную зависимость
между государственным и социальным заказами, проявляющуюся в наибольшей степени
между государственным заказом и законами «смены содержания социального заказа» и
«смены границ социального заказа»:
• государственный и социальный заказы в области образования, как правило, макси
мально совпадают в периоды поступательного развития общества, когда реализуется
потребность и самого общества, и государства в качественной профессиональной
подготовке необходимых им кадров, и в период начальной фазы либерализации
духовной сферы и либерально-демократического движения (в период начала
бифуркации);
• государственный и социальный заказы в области образования, как правило,
максимально не совпадают, начинают противоречить друг другу на спаде либерально-
демократического движения в стране (в период завершения бифуркации).
Литература
Арташкина, Т. А. (2006). Генезис и структура целеполагания в системе деятельности высшей
школы. Владивосток: Изд-во Дальневост. ун-та.
Арташкина, Т. А. (2008). Социокультурные аспекты Болонского процесса. Problems of Education

in the 21st Century: Policy of Education in the Modern World, 8, 162–172.
Зарубина, Н. Н. (2004). «Экономический человек» в глобальном мире: энергия экспансии и

толерантность Москва. 11, 172–185.
Материалы Пленума Центрального Комитета КПСС, 17–18 февраля 1988 г. (1988). Москва:
Политиздат.
Национальная доктрина образования в Российской Федерации. Доступно из URL: http://www.

uroki.ru/met_rus/k_upravobraz/k_normdok/doktrina.htm [Дата обращения: 24 октября 2004 г.] –
Образовательный портал ucheba.ru.
Пригожин, И. (1991). Философия нестабильности. Вопросы философии. 6. URL: http://vivovoco.

nns.ru/VV/PAPERS/NATURE/NONSTAB.HTM [Дата обращения: 5 мая 2005 г.]
Талызина, Н. Ф. (1973). Совершенствование обучения в высшей школе. Советская педагогика.

7, 71–82.
Талызина, Н. Ф., Печенюк, Н. Г., Хихловский, Л. Б. (1987). Пути разработки профиля специалиста.
Саратов: Издательство Саратовского университета.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Summary 181
General Concept and Basic Laws of Social Procurement in the Field

of Education
Tamara A. Artashkina
Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia
Handling the problem of the definition of objectives in the system of tertiary school practice, we
proceed from the assumption of the existence of an explicit social mechanism allowing transmittance of
social demands into the content of education. The framework of this mechanism is based on the specific
infrastructure that includes social procurement for a specialist, social procurement for educational ins
titution, and state order in the field of higher education.
The term “social procurement” emerged in the soviet scientific and pedagogic literature in the 70’s
of the XX th century. At present time this term signifies a topical social need for the society on the whole
or in part. Social procurement and state order in the field of education are not to be confounded. At all
times the advanced ideas in the field of education were formulated prior to state order, outpaced it, and
at a certain stage of development came into antagonism with it.
The main methods of our research are considered to be the dialectic method alongside with such
methods as historic-genetic, comparative and hypothetical deductive ones. Thereof, three laws of for
ming social procurement in the field of education were observed and formulated.
The first law is identified as “center of balance shifting in the structure of the social procurement”.
It states that in certain time intervals society raises demands either to professional training of specialists
or to their personality (shifts the center of balance). The second law manifests “the law of replacement
of content of social procurement”. In the periods of social conflicts or social changes (bifurcation) the
society raises demands to personality; in the periods of steady progressive development the society
raises demands to professional training. The third law is “the law of displacement of limits in social
procurement”, i.e. limits of displacement of shifting the balance point, as a rule, coincide with the mar
gins of social conflicts (nonbinding revolution outcome) or social changes in the society (nonbinding
bifurcations).
Correlative dependence is with little effort disclosed between state orders and social procurement
in the field of higher education, it ultimate manifestation is observed mostly in state order and laws of
content replacement and displacement of social procurement limits.
Key words: problem of definition of objectives, social procurement in the field of education, state
order in the field of education, the method of placement of social procurement order, laws forming social
procurement.
Adviced by Eleonora V.Ermakova (Ермакова Э.В.), Far Eastern National University,

Vladivostok, Russia
Tamara A. Artashkina Assotiated professor at Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia.
Avenue of Stoletya of Vladivostok, 51-25, Vladivostok, Russia.
Phone: + 89146971703.
E-mail: tam.artand@gmail.com
Website: http://www.dvgu.ru/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
182
Особенности инклюзивного
дополнительного образования
детей с ограниченными
возможностями развития
Надя Бизова
Трнавский университет, Словакия
Э-почта: nada.lohynova@truni.sk
Абстракт
В статье рассматривается актуальная проблема инклюзивного подхода к обучению детей с

ограниченными возможностями развития в системе дополнительного образования. Инклюзия
представляет собой новую образовательную парадигму, которая обусловливает изменения в
традиционной системе образования. Как указывает Kонвенция ЮНЕСКО (2006) необходимо
создание инклюзивной образовательной среды, в которой все дети имеют возможность
активно участвовать в образовательном процессе, получать качественное образование
и успешно интегрироваться в общество. В статье анализируются функции и принципы
инклюзивного дополнительного образования детей с ограниченными возможностями развития,
раскрываются некоторые особенности инклюзивного обучения детей в отдельных учреждениях
дополнительного образования. На основе анализа инклюзивного образования в Европе в статье
указаны актуальные проблемы и перспективы.
Ключевые слова: инклюзия, дополнительное образование, дети с ограниченными возможностями
развития.
Введение
Инклюзия в образовании представляет собой актуальную проблему к решению которой

по разному приступают в разных странах. В некоторых, как например США опыт большой,
в иных значительный, но неширокомасштабный, а в других только экспериментальный.
Инклюзия – это противоположная парадигма сегрегации, которая реализировалась в
специальных коррекционных учреждениях на протяжении 200 лет (Кудлачова 2008, Лехта
2009). Инклюзию нельзя заменять с интеграцией, хотя в многих учебных заведениях
осуществляется инклюзия под названием интеграция. Согласно Ланг и Бербериховой (1998)
основное задание инклюзии это создание общества, среды, в которой все дети, включая
детей с ограничениями, равноценны. Инклюзия в сравнении с интеграцией представляет
высший уровень, кде не ребенок, а учебное учреждение приспособляется потребностям
каждого учащегося. Как указывает Пожар (1996) достичь инклюзию нельза лишь в рамках
посещения школы, нужно также изменить мышление общества. 14 лет спустя мы можем
Надя БИЗОВА. Особенности инклюзивного дополнительного образования детей с ограниченными возмож–
ностями развития PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
только констатировать, что мышление общества в этом направлении к примеру в странах 183
средней Европы все еще значительно не изменилось.
В дискуссиях академиков а также и учителей решаются вопросы будущего коррекционных
учреждений. Как указывает практика в странах Европы, где инклюзия только развивается,
специальные школы существуют далее, но ежегодно увеличивается процент учеников с
ограниченными возможностями развития, которые обучаются в общих школах. К примеру
в Словакии в 2009 году в специальных школах обучалось около 23 тысяч учеников с
ограниченными возможностями развития и приблизительно такое же количество в общих
школах. Кроме того более 10 тыс. учеников обучалось в специальных классах общих
школ, причем статистики Министерства образования СР подтверждают ежегодный рост
индивидуально интегрированных учеников.
В связи с инклюзией в странах средней Европы нерешенным остается вопрос раннего
обучения детей с ограниченными возможностями развития. Некоторые специалисты
(Шимко 2010) рекомендуют обучать ребенка сначала в коррекционном учреждении и только
после в общеобразовательной школе. С другой стороны существуют примеры успешного
инклюзивного/интегрированного обучения детей напр. с тяжелым нарушением зрения
(практически полная слепота) при наличии асистента ученика, специальной подготовки
учительницы и кооперации с центром специального педагогического консультирования
(Новакова 2004). Практика указывает также иную сторону интеграции, к примеру в
Баварии существуют случаи, когда дети с ограниченными возможностями слуха уходят с
общеобразовательных школ в стимуляционные центра (Линднер 2009), причем причины для
этого со стороны учителей и детей разные.
Осуществление идей инклюзии в образовании зависит от политических, экономических
и этических факторов. Лехта (2009) рассматривает пять основных компонентов инклю
зивной педагогики: этический, социологический, профессиональный, политический и
аппликационный. В даной статье рассмотрим аппликационный компонент в дополнительном
образовании.
Ценностный потенциал дополнительного образования
Дополнительное образование имеет несколько основных заданий, но прежде всего

способствует рациональному и полноценному использованию свободного времени
детей и молодежи. В настоящее время согласно социологическим исследованиям дети
рассматривают свободное время как ценность: это возможность самореализации, отдыха,
развлечения. Подобно относятся к свободному времени к примеру дети с ограниченными
физическими возможностями развития (Белкова 2007). Ценностный потенциал дополни
тельного образования указан в документе Совета Европы по вопросам молодежи (CDEJ) О
признании дополнительного образования. Согласно документу дополнительное образование
(nonformal education) намерено на формирование ценностей связанных с развитием
личности (креативность, заинтересованность, критическое мышление), социальным
развитием (коммуникационные способности, ответсвенность, солидарность и социальная
справедливость, решение конфликтов) и всеобщими этическими ценностями (толерантность
и уважение, человеческие права). Развитие указанных ценностей является основой
инклюзивного дополнительного образования.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
184 Функции инклюзивного дополнительного образования
В процессе инклюзивного дополнительного образования можно выделить несколько

основных функций. С точки зрения педагогики важна формативная функция. Дети в
учреждении дополнительного образования не только обучаются и воспитываются, но и
формируются как личности. Отсутствие государственных нормативов для большинства
программ создает возможность более тонкого индивидуального подхода, который особо
важный при образовании детей с ограниченными возможностями развития. Развитие таланта,
способностей, характера является основой формативной функции. При инклюзивном
образовании формативная фунция, кроме выше указанного включает эмоциональную
поддержку, которая как указывает Пожар (2007) очень важна при социализации детей с
ограниченными возможностями развития.
С точки зрения психологии важна психо-гигиеническая функция. Согласно Павковой
(2008) процесс дополнительного образования ведет к чередованию занятий разного характера:
школьного обучения и отдыха, психической и физической активности, организованного и
самопроизвольного действия. Дополнительное образование ведет к разряжению психической
нагрузки.
Социализационная функция связана с процессом социализации. Дети в учреждениях
дополнительного образования имеют возможность социализироваться в новых ситуациях.
Выступая на сцене, играя в группе, разными способами представляя свой талант дети
развивают социальные компетенции. Для детей с ограниченными возможностями развития
в инклюзивной среде функция весьма значительна, поскольку способствует естественной
социализации. Дети могут не только учиться новым социальным навыком, но и вступать в
дружеские отношения. Павкова указывает на социальную функцию (2008) дополнительного
образования, которая предоставляет возможность урегулирования различий между детьми
из разной социальной среды.
Для детей с ограниченными возможностями развития важна функция самореализации.
Согласно Маслова самореализация является одной из высших психических потребностей.
Как указывают психологи (Матейчек 2007, 2008) самореализация особенно важна для детей,
у которых отсутсвуют желаемые результаты в школе. Успешная самореализация в некоторой
области дополнительного образования помогает компенсировать эмоции исходящие с
негативного оценивания в школе. Как писал Матейчек для детей необходимо испитывать
чувство успеха и если его нельза из-за разных причин достичь в школе, нужно искать
его в возможностях дополнительного образования. Успешная самореализация помогает
укреплять самодоверие и самоуважение. У детей с ограниченными возможностями развития
самореализация помогает уменьшать чувство неполноценности на которое указывает Пожар
(2007). Согласно американским исследователям (Шернгоф & Вандел 2008) самореализация
через дополнительное образование положительно влияет на все аспекты личности и
обусловливает изменения в поведении и мотивации. Функция самореализации имеет также
терапевтический эффект.
В последнее время акцентируется превентивная функция дополнительного образования.
Авторы начали осознавать ее важность с ростом социально патологических явлений. Все
учреждения дополнительного образования осуществляют неспецифическую превенцию, то
есть занимаясь в учреждении а также самостоятельно дома дети не выставлены риску влияния
социально патологических явлений. Специфическая превенция намерена на уязвимую
группу детей, которые находятся в риске. К примеру в Словакии, Чехии и других странах
средней и западной Европы для детей из низкой социальной среды существуют особые
учреждения, называемые безбарьерные клубы (англ. low-threshold clubs), которые дети
посещают анонимно и нерегулярно. Философия клубов возникла в США и осуществляется
в Европе более 15 лет.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Принципы инклюзивного дополнительного образования 185
Принципы инклюзивного дополнительного образования не отличаются от принципов

общего дополнительного образования. Усиленный акцент педагога на отдельный принцип с
целью упростить процес образования не соответсвует требованиям ребенка с ограничениями.
Дети воспринимают чрезмерную помощь например в связи с принципом индивидуального
подхода как дискриминацию, поскольку действия педагога указывают, что они чем-то
отличаются, нуждаются в сверх помощи, внимании. Гаек (2007) подчеркивает, что к детям
с ограниченными возможностями развития нужно с самого начала приступать также как к
другим, чтобы они не чувствовали себя иными либо неполноценными. С другой стороны
Ланг и Берберихова (1998) указывают, что чрезмерный толеранс может быть проявлением
предрассудка, который ребенку не поможет, но зато будет создавать конфликты между
детьми.
Основным принципом дополнительного образования является свобода выбора или же
добровольность. В инклюзивных условиях дети с ограниченными возможностями выбирают
область дополнительного образования добровольно исходя из своих способностей и
возможностей. Решающим остается выбор кружков и секций. Не рекомендуются кружки
в которых из самого начала ожидаются групповые результаты, напр. выступления. Новая
ситуация может вызывать чрезмерный стресс. С другой стороны между детьми существуют
различия и одаренные дети с ограничениями могут быть успешнее здоровых детей.
Основой в организации дополнительного образования является творческое развитие
интересов детей. Как указывает Кратохвилова (2004) развивать интересы у детей нужно с
самого раннего возраста, особенно в первые школьные годы. Интересы детей с ограничениями
ничем не отличаются от интересов других детей. Отличием может быть способ и мера их
осуществления.
Особым в дополнительном образовании является принцип активности, который
имеет иное значение как в образовании. Принцип значит активное участие детей во всех
фазах образовательного процесса, то есть при планировке, подготовке, осуществлении и
оценке. Принцип ведет детей к самостоятельности и творчеству. Правильное употребление
принципа помогает детям с ограниченными возможностями чувствовать себя полноценными
участниками группы, формировать социальные навыки, выражать мнения, принимать
критику и оценку. Для этого необходимо, чтобы педагог создавал возможность произносить
предложения и призывал детей к участию.
Принцип самореализации требует от педагога организацию занятий, в которых
может сполна реализоваться каждый участник. Самореализация возможна при занятиях
активного характера и ограничена при рецептивных, пассивных, хотя нельзя говорить
о полной пассивности. По мнению Л. Кениг (2002) автора американской воспитательной
концепции Smart discipline, у каждого есть талант, который можно развить за рамки нормы.
Хотя это суждение в научной литературе опровергнуто, мы считаем, что в дополнительном
образовании дети могут свой талант (особое увлечение) раскрыть. Самореализация в этом
значении должна помочь детям раскрыть свою одаренность.
Принцип разнообразия относится к выбору форм, методов и направления дополнительного
образования. Педагог должен содержание занятий регулярно модулировать, не допускать
стереотипов. Элементы новости будут гарантией привлекательности занятий.
Павкова (2008) считает, что в дополнительном образовании должен применяться
принцип чувствительности и эмоциональности. Чувствительность относится к организации
и мотивации детей а эмоциональность означает эмоциональный размер воспитания. Педагог
должен создавать ситуации для выражения эмоций и переживания приятных чувств у детей.
В инклюзивной среде принцип имеет особую важность, поскольку позволяет ребенку выра
жать свои эмоции, отвечать на эмоции других, то есть эмоционально развиваться. Ланг и
Берберихова (1998) указывают, что для детей с ограничениями большое значение имеет
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
186
физический контакт, который является весьма дискутабельным в настоящее время. Согласно
авторов многие дети с ограничениями считают, что остальные сторонятся физического
контакта с ними. Авторы того мнения, с чем согласны и мы, что объятие, рукопожатие или
же иной традиционный контакт является свидетельством искренней оценки, выражением
успеха или же утехи ребенка. В связи с чувствами важно, чтобы педагог не жалел ребенка на
основе его ограничений. Как указывает немецкий педагог и психолог Ян-Уве-Рожже (2007),
детей нельзя жалеть, можно с ними сочувствовать.
Особенности инклюзивного дополнительного образования
Педагог который будет работать с детьми с ограниченными возможностями развития

нужен прежде всего владеть знаниями о психических и физических особенностях развития
этих детей а также соответсвующей методикой воспитательной и образовательной работы с
ними. Перед тем как ребенок начнет посещать занятия дополнительного образования педагог
должен консультироваться со специальным педагогом. К примеру в Словакии согласно
действующего законодательства специальный (коррекционный) педагог может работать в
общей школе. В случае группы продленного дня, которая в Словакии и Чехии относится
к учреждениям дополнительного образования важна кооперация воспитателя и педагога.
Педагог может методически помочь воспитателю при планировке и реализации отдельных
занятий связанных прежде всего с подготовкой к обучению, исполнением домашних заданий.
Во всех учреждениях дополнительного образования важно сотрудничество с родителями
ребенка. Родители могут ознакомить педагога с интересами ребенка, его достижениями,
успехами, специфическими выражениями, но и конкретными ограничениями, переходными
или постоянными лимитами. Педагог кроме иного должен быть хорошо информирован о
состоянии здоровья ребенка, возможных диетических навычках, медикаментозном лечении
итп. Если ребенок с ограничениями не посещает занятия с самого начала, нужно подготовить
соответсвующую группу детей к инклюзивному образованию. С детьми к примеру можно
регулярно вести разговоры на тему отличий, чтобы дети научились принимать отличие как
нормальный образ жизни. Важно, чтобы ребенок с ограничениями чувствовал себя в группе
детей полноценным. Инспиративный пример указывает Новакова (2004), кде директор школы
вместе с педагогом при интеграции ребенка с остатками зрения от первого класса провела
в начале школьного года с детьми день в природе, кде дети через разные ситуации могли
почувствовать как воспринимает мир невидящий, как ему в случае надобности помочь и
прочее. Пожар (2007) указывает, что дети с ограничениями более чем их сверстники зависят
от эмоциональных отношений при социализации в школе или иной среде. Возможностям
детей с ограничениями должны быть приспособлены все происходящие занятия. Педагог
должен планировать занятия так, чтобы заранее не исключал ребенка с ограничениями. Это
не означает, что педагог должен сокращать содержание занятий на ущерб остальных детей.
Педагог может модифицировать условия, содержание. При аппликации образцов педагог
должен заранее подготовить для ребенка в зависимости от ограничения дидактический или же
иной коррекционный материал. К примеру при инклюзивном образовании детей с нарушеним
зрения нужно подготовить тексты или образцы в увеличеном формате или же азбуке Брайля,
надо соблюдать правила гигиены зрения, как указывает Лудикова (2003) интенсивная
нагрузка зрения у отдельной группы детей не должна длиться более 15 минут и прочее. При
планировке содержания отдельных занятий важно, чтобы педагог задавал такие задания, в
которых ребенок с ограничениями может показать хорошие результаты, что положительно
отразится на его социализации. Самореализация на занятиях будет уменьшать чувство
неполноценности, на которое указывает Пожар (2007). При дополнительном образовании
родители могут помочь ребенку с ограничениями, если к примеру заранее дома пройдут с
ребенком отдельные задания или же их части. Если ребенок будет заранее подготовлен, то
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
сумеет исполнить занятие в группе быстрее, более ловко и с уверенностью. При сравнении 187
всех учреждений дополнительного образования, группа продленного дня создает для детей с
ограничениями оптимальные условия для инклюзии с точки зрения времени, которое может
ребенок провести со своими сверстниками. На много меньше времени проводит ребенок
на занятиях во всех остальных учреждениях дополнительного образования. Тем не менее
инклюзивные занятия в этих учреждениях имеют для детей большое значение, поскольку
дети социализируются в новой среде, имеют возможности вступать в дружеские отношения
с детьми из других школ, получают опыт, который не могут получить в школе.
Актуальные проблемы и перспективы
Актуальной проблемой инклюзивного образования как общего так и дополнительного

является уровень подготовленности педагогов к осуществлению принципов инклюзии.
Эта проблема особо актуальна а странах средней Европы, кде интегрированное, еще не
инклюзивное, образование быстро развивается. Согласно законодательства Словакии в
классе можно интегрировать трех детей с ограниченными возможностями здоровья, причем
за каждого ребенка нормативное количество детей уменьшается, при дополнительном
образовании – двох детей с ограничениями. Для сравнения в Чехии в классе/группе
можно интегрировать пятеро детей, причем нормативное количество не уменьшается. Для
преподавателей в практике, которые не подготовлены к инклюзивному образованию, нужно
осуществлять разные формы дополнительного инклюзивного образования. Паралельно
нужно усилить подготовку студентов к инклюзивному образованию. Хотя некоторые вузы
имеют в образовательных программах отдельные курсы из области специальной педагогики,
мы считаем, что именно для будущих преподавателей исходя из требований практики, это
недостаточно.
Не решенным в некоторых странах, к примеру Чехия, остается наличие коррекционного
педагога в образовательном учреждении. Даже при самой лучшей подготовке к инклюзивному
образованию педагог не будет владеть практическими знаниями для решения конкретных
ситуаций. Мы считаем, что кооперация с центром коррекционного консультирования не
соответсвует требованиям инклюзивного образования.
Не менее важным является обеспечение материальных и технических условий
инклюзивного образования. Большинство образовательных учреждений в странах средней
Европы еще не имеет технических условий для инклюзивного образования детей с
ограниченными возможностями развития.
Проблемой также остается отношение общества большинства к людям/детям с
ограниченными возможностями развития. Мы считаем, что представление успехов, значимых
и обыкновенных достижений детей с ограничениями в дополнительном образовании является
одним из путей акцептации принципов инклюзии.
В инклюзивном образовании существуют значительные проблемы психологической
совместимости детей между собой. Это обусловлено прежде всего отсутствием длительного
опыта совместного образования. Согласно исследованиям Пожара (2007) ученики общих школ
приемлемо относятся к совместному образованию детей с нарушением речи и физическими
нарушениями и менее приемлемо к совместному образованию при нарушении слуха,
зрения и интеллекта. Отличие детей с ограничением представляет проблему в совместных
отношениях детей в группе. Как указывают Р.А. Вилла а Ж.С. Таусенд (2005) дети которые
отличаются часто выставлены речевой или физической агрессии со стороны остальных
детей. При некоторых нарушениях к примеру аутизм, в общей школе сложно создать для
детей с этой точки зрения приемлемую среду. При инклюзивном образовании поэтому
необходима систематическая воспитательная работа с коллективом. Проблемы в отношении
ученик-учитель могут возникать при чрезмерных дидактических требованиях учителя или
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
188
же ученика. В дополнительном образовании возможно счасти избежать этих проблем, если
ребенок перед записью в секцию примет участие в одном или несколько занятиях секции.
Некоторые проблемы могут возникнуть в отношении родителей и учителей. В инклюзивном
образовании заинтересованы прежде всего родители, у которых могут быть чрезмерные
требования на создавание оптимальных условий для образования детей. Помочь при этом
может социальный педагог или социальный работник, который работает в общей школе.
Указанные проблемы являются с нашей точки зрения самыми важными, кроме этих
проблем в настоящее время важны дидактические вопросы инклюзивного образования.
Возможности исследования
В странах средней Европы в настоящее время осуществляются первые исследования

инклюзивного образования. В 90-тые года проводились исследования интеграции детей,
но как было указано философия интеграции отличается от философии инклюзии. Область
инклюзивного дополнительного образования в странах средней Европы пока что исследована
небыла, существуют только исследования дополнительного образования в коррекционных
школах. Мы считаем, что в настоящее время области исследования нужно направить на
адаптацию детей в условиях инклюзивного дополнительного образования, на причины
успешной и неуспешной адаптации. Согласно исследованиям Линднер (2009) и других в
отношении к детям с ограниченными возможностями развития со стороны однокласников
часто фигурирует вербальная и физическая агрессивность, насмешки. Исходя из этих
фактов нужно исследовать которые причины в дополнительном образовании ведут детей к
агрессивности. Осознавая лимиты инклюзивного дополнительного образования (даже при
самых лучших намерениях не все дети будут способны к инклюзивному образованию) нужно
исследовать которые формы и области дополнительного образования являются в настоящее
время оптимальными для детей с ограниченными возможностями развития. Результаты
указанных исследований, могут помочь более успешно осуществлять идеи инклюзии в
дополнительном образовании.
Заключение
Инклюзивное дополнительное образование в странах средней Европы только развивается.

Уровень его осуществления зависит от многих факторов, которые нужно научно исследовать.
Анализ проблем инклюзивного образования указывает на недостаточную подготовку
педагогов и условий для его осуществления. Поскольку дополнительное образование
представляет cобой большой потенциал для развития личности, необходимо создавать
равные возможности его осуществления для всех детей, включая детей с ограничениями,
что и является основным заданием инклюзивного дополнительного образования.
Belková, V. (2007). Preferencie hodnôt telesne postihnutých žiakov strednej odbornej školy. [Выбор
ценностей у школьников средней школы с ограниченными возможностями здоровя.] In: Šimoník,
O., Horká, A., Střelec, S. (eds): Hodnoty a výchova. [Ценности и воспитание.] MU, Brno, s. 130–135.
Convention the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Promotion and protection of human rights: human
rights questions, including alternative approaches for improving the effective enjoyment of human rights
and fundamental freedoms.) United Nations: 2006.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Hájek, B., Hofbauer, B., Pávková, J. (2008). Pedagogické ovlivňování volného času. [Педагогическое 189
влияние в свободное время.] Portál, Praha.
Koenig, L. (2004). Chytrá výchova (Smart discipline). Portál, Praha.
Kratochvílová, E. (2004). Pedagogika voľného času. Výchova mimo vyučovania v teórii a praxi.
[Педагогика свободного времени. Дополнительное образование в теории и практике.] UK, Bra
tislava.
Kudlačová, B. (2008). From Repression to Inclusion – Historical Models and Approaches to Disabled
People in the European Context. Problems of Education in the 21st Century (Policy of Education in the
Modern World), Vol.8, pp 68–78.
Lang, G., Berberichová, Ch. (1998). Každé dítě potřebuje speciální přístup. [Каждому ребенку нужен
особый подход.] Portál, Praha.
Lechta, V. (2009). Východiská a perspektívy inkluzívnej pedagogiky. [Исходы и перспективы

инклюзивной педагогики.] Osveta, Martin.
Lindner, B. (2009). Integrácia detí so sluchovým postihnutím v Bavorsku. [Интеграция детей с

нарушением слуха в Баварии.] In Efeta č.3.
Ludíková, L. (2003). Integrace žáků se zrakovým postižením. [Интеграция школьников с нарушением

зрения.] In: Valenta, M. a kol.: Přehled speciální pedagogiky a školská integrace. [Основы корекционной
педагогики и школьная интеграция.] UP, Olomouc s.179–206.
Matějček, Z. (2007). Co, kdy a jak ve výchově dětí. [Что, когда и как в воспитании детей.] Portál,
Praha.
Matějček, Z. (2008). Co děti nejvíc potřebují. [ Что детям наиболее нужно.] Portál, Praha.
Nováková, Z. (2004). Edukace žáků se zrakovým postižením. [Образование детей с нарушением

зрения..] In Vítková, M. (ed.): Integrativní školní (speciální) pedagogika. [Интегративная школьная
(корекционная) педагогика.] MU, Brno, s. 59–73.
Požár, L. (2007). Základy psychológie ľudí s postihnutím. [Основы психологии людей с ограниченными
возможностями здоровя.] Typi Universitatis Tyrnaviensis, Trnava.
Пожар, Л. (1996). Психология аномальных детей и подпостков – патопсихология. Академия

педагогических и социальных наук, Мовковский психолого-социальный институт, Москва –
Воронеж.
Rogge Uwe J. (2007). Děti potřebují hranice. [Детям нужны ограничения.] Portál, Praha.
Shernhoff, D., Vandell, D. L. (2008). Youth Engagement and Quality of Experience in Afterschool Pro
grams. In: Afterschool Matters. Occasional Paper Series, roč. 8, , č. 9, pp. 1–11.
Šimko, J., Šimko, M. (2010). Zrakové postižení [Нарушение зрения.] In: Lechta a kol. Základy in
kluzivní pedagogiky. Dítě s postižením, narušením a ohrožením ve škole. [Основы инклюзивной
педагогики. Ребенок с ограниченными возможностями здоровья, нарушением, в риске в школе.]
Portál, Praha.
Villa, R. A., Thousand J. S. (2005). Creating an Inclusive School. ASCD, Virginia USA.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
190
Summary
PECULIARITIES of inclusive education in children’s leisure time with

special educational needs
Nada Bizova
Trnava University, Slovakia
The report shows on current problem of inclusive approach to leisure time education of children with
special educational needs. The inclusion represents educational paradigm, which caused changes in
traditional educational system. As it is signed in UNESCO 2006, it is inevitable to create inclusive envi
ronment, in order to bring opportunities for active connection into educational process for all children,
gain education with appropriate quality level and successful integration in society. In report, we analy
zed functions and principles of inclusive education in leisure time and some particularities of inclusive
education in chosen organizations. There are also pointed out current problems and perspectives, based
on inclusive education analysis in Europe.
Key words: integration in society, leisure time education, inclusion.
Adviced by Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical Academy, Russia
Nada Bizova PhD, PaedDr., Assistent, Trnava University, Faculty of Education, Department of Educa
tional Studies, Priemyselná 4, P.O.Box 9, 918 43, Trnava, Slovakia.
E-mail: nada.lohynova@truni.sk
Website: http://www.truni.sk/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
191
Герменевтический подход
к проектированию
образовательного процесса
в системе высшего
профессионального образования
Ирина М. Бродская
Санкт-Петербургский государственный политехнический университет,
Санкт-Петербург, Россия
Э-почта: irina_brodskaya@mail.ru
Наталья О. Верещагина
Российский государственный педагогический университет
им. А. И. Герцена, Санкт-Петербург, Россия
Э-почта: natalia.vereshchagina@gmail.com
Абстракт
Данная статья основывается на методологических принципах философской герменевтики

(Фр. Бласс, Г. Брандес, Г. Шпет). Применение герменевтического подхода к проектированию
содержания высшего профессионального образования позволяет включать в образовательный
процесс ситуации, которые осознаны профессиональным сообществом как значимые и
повторяющиеся, но применительно к которым не выработаны оптимальные модели поведения
и разделяемая подавляющим большинством оценка. Тем самым, создаются предпосылки для
формирования способности к выбору, социальной ответственности будущих профессионалов.
Реализация герменевтического подхода к проектированию содержания образования позволяет
достигнуть такого его качества как гуманитарность. Исходя из идей М. Бубера, М. М. Бахтина,
Г. С. Батищева, о природе гуманитарности, приходим к выводу, что гуманитарность
порождается особым типом отношения человека к миру, отношением «Я – Ты».
Тогда, носители содержания образования, прежде всего, учебные пособия, учебники, должны
обладать особой структурно-логической организацией. Анализ работ М. М. Бахтина,
Г. С. Батищева, Ю. М. Лотана, посвященных проблеме гуманитарности, позволяют выделить
три характеристики гуманитарной структурно-логической организации текста: качество
описания объекта, учитывая характеристики читателя, диалогическая коммуникативная
программа. Исходя из идей М. М. Бахтина, М. Бубера, Ю. М. Лотмана, М. С. Кагана,
М. К. Мамардашвили, о природе диалога выделяются его необходимые и достаточные условия.
Анализ работ М. М. Бахтина позволяет выявить диалогическую коммуникативную программу.
Однако, реализация диалогической коммуникативной программы в учебном тексте на практике
крайне сложна.
Кроме того, в образовательном процессе доминирует особый вид технологий – гуманитарные
технологии. Под социальной технологией в работе понимается рациональное, устойчивое,
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
192
повторяющиеся взаимодействие субъектов, учитывающих цели, ценности, ожидания друг друга,
направленное на достижение значимого для участников и социально одобряемого результата.
Достижимость результата, оптимальность средств, воспроизводимость социальной
технологии определяется тем, что деятельность участников базируется на социальных нормах
или конвенциональных основаниях. Гуманитарная социальная технология является средством
взаимодействия участников образовательного процесса, создающие условия для формирования
опыта деятельности и опыта ценностного отношения к нетипичным, новым ситуациям
профессиональной деятельности.
Одним из условий, подлежащих учёту при проектировании образовательного процесса с
позиций герменевтического подхода, является наличие гуманитарной ценностно-смысловой
направленности отношений преподавателя и студента.
Ключевые слова: герменевтический подход, высшее профессиональное образование,
проектирование образовательного процесса, образовательная программа.
Введение
Усложнение профессиональной деятельности специалиста, нарастание риска наступления

социально неблагоприятных последствий неверных решений определяет необходимость
поиска и реализации в системе высшего профессионального образования подходов,
адекватных новым условиям. В данной статье предпринята попытка определить принципы и
пути реализации герменевтического подхода к проектированию образовательного процесса
в системе высшего профессионального образования.
Обращение к идеям герменевтики определяется, прежде всего, потребностью системы
высшего образования создавать условия, обеспечивающие студентам возможность развития
определенной восприимчивости и способности к восприятию ситуации и поведения внутри
нее, для которой у нас нет знаний, исходящих из общих принципов. Представляется, что
именно идеи педагогической герменевтики адекватны тем вызовам, которые стоят перед
системой высшего профессионального образования.
В период, когда многими профессионалами образование трактуется, прежде всего,
как сфера оказания услуг, особую актуальность приобретает понимание образования как
результата процесса становления человека, не сводимого «к культивированию задатков». В
процессе образования, напротив, то, на чем и благодаря чему некто получает образование,
должно быть усвоено целиком и полностью. В этом отношении в образование входит все,
к чему оно прикасается, но все это входит не как средство, утрачивающее свои функции.
Напротив, в получаемом образовании ничто не исчезает, но все сохраняется. Образование
– подлинно историческое понятие, и именно об этом историческом характере «сохранения»
следует вести речь для того, чтобы понять суть гуманитарных наук». (Гадамер, 1988).
Вероятно, именно реализация герменевтического подхода позволит достигнуть такого
труднодостижимого качества образовательного процесса как гуманитарность. Исходя
из идей Г. С. Батищева (Батищев, 1997) М. М. Бахтина (Бахтин, 1986), М. Бубера (Бубер,
1999) о природе гуманитарности, мы приходим к выводу, что гуманитарность порождается
особым типом отношения человека к миру, отношением «Я – Ты». Тогда основная проблема
реализации герменевтического подхода к проектированию образовательного процесса
в системе высшего профессионального образования заключается, вероятно, именно в
необходимости учета ценностных основ профессиональной деятельности специалиста.
Ирина М. БРОДСКАЯ, Наталья О. ВЕРЕЩАГИНА. Герменевтический подход к проектированию
образовательного процесса в системе высшего профессионального образования PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Дискуссия 193
Можно предположить, что основным результатом реализации герменевтического подхода

в сфере высшего профессионального образования будет являться создание психолого-
педагогических и организационных условий, содействующих проявлению студентом смысла
изучаемого объекта.
Категория смысла по-разному раскрывается в работах исследователей. Согласно
В. Франклу (Франкл, 1990) смыслы есть то, что мы понимаем под ценностями. В работах
М. М. Бахтина (Бахтин, 1979, 1986) подчеркивается, что смысл всегда отвечает на какие-то
вопросы, то, что ни на что не отвечает, представляется нам бессмысленным, изъятым из диалога.
Смысл потенциально бесконечен, но актуализироваться он может лишь соприкоснувшись с
другим (чужим) смыслом, хотя бы с вопросом внутренней речи воспринимающего» (Бахтин,
1979, 1986). В понимании А. Н. Леонтьева (Леонтьев, 1975) личностный смысл раскрывается
через отношение мотива к цели в условиях данной ситуации. В трактовке А. Р. Лурия (Лурия,
1979) смысл представляет собой индивидуальное значение слова, привнесение субъективных
аспектов значения соответственно данному моменту ситуации.
Обобщение идей М. М. Бахтина (Франкл, 1990), А. Н. Леонтьева (Леонтьев, 1975),
А. Р. Лурия (Лурияб 1979), В. С. Соловьева (Соловьев, 1990), Е. Н. Трубецкого (Тубецкой,
1994), В. Франкла (Франкл, 1990) позволяет сформулировать следующие выводы:
• смысл постигается всегда из опыта, через проживание, прохождение через
определенные ситуации, «... с которыми сталкивается все общество или даже все
человечество»;
• нахождение смысла всегда «запускает» эмоциональные процессы;
• необходимым условием нахождения смысла является осознание причин, породивших
эмоциональные процессы, и сопоставление своего опыта с более широким контекстом,
чем событие его вызвавшее;
• смысл связан с неким символом, словом, способным его актуализировать.
Чрезвычайно значимым аспектом процесса смыслопорождения является то, что смысл
раскрывается лишь в диалоге, обеспечивая тем самым психологическое воздействие.
Психологическое воздействие имеет своей целью провоцирование или предотвращение
некоторых изменений на стороне субъекта, на которого оно направлено. Эти изменения
могут быть направлены на базовый уровень личности; знания, умения, навыки, опыт; на
морально-этическую и эстетическую сферу; установки; отношение к миру, другим людям
и к себе; на стиль общения, способы деятельности. Г. А. Балл и М. С. Бургин выявили в
современной педагогической реальности два типа стратегии психологического воздействия:
монологический и диалогический (Балл, Бургин, 1994).
Ключевой характеристикой монологической стратегии психологического воздействия
является отношение к другому человеку как к средству достижения цели. Цель воздействия
устанавливает его организатор (учет особенностей реципиента осуществляется только
для увеличения вероятности достижения этой цели). Организатор воздействия ведет себя,
таким образом, как если бы только он был полноправным субъектом и носителем истины.
Это не исключает возможность его стремления к благу реципиента так, как он его понимает
(Балл, Бургин, 1994). Монологический тип стратегии психологического воздействия
ведет к отчуждению обучающегося от содержания процесса обучения. Данное явление
описано исследователями, работающими в логике личностно-ориентированного подхода к
образованию (Сериков, 1994).
При определении психолого-педагогических условий раскрытия смысла изучаемого
объекта мы опирались на сущностную специфику его раскрытия. Смысл может быть раскрыт
только в диалоге. Тогда возникает задача выявления необходимых и достаточных условий
диалога. Исходя из идей М. М. Бахтина (Бахтин, 1979, 1986), В. С. Библера (Библер, 1991),
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
194
М. С. Кагана (Каган, 1988), Ю. М. Лотмана (Лотман, 1992) о природе диалога приходим к
выводу о том, что необходимыми и достаточными условиями диалога являются:
• наличие единого и значимого для обеих сторон предмета диалога;
• изначальная выраженность и различность точек зрения на предмет диалога;
• доверие к партнеру по диалогу, уверенность в том, что он готов воспринять иную
точку зрения на предмет диалога;
• обладание субъектами диалога некоторым общим объемом информации, описывающим
проблемное поле;
• единой системой критериев для оценки истинности высказываний друг друга.
Для процесса диалога характерно предчувствие, предположение с очень большой долей
вероятности ответа партнера на обращенный к нему вопрос. Возникновение вопроса, хотя
бы во внутренней речи воспринимающего, уже свидетельствует о возникновении диалога.
Однако состоялся диалог или нет, можно судить только по его результату. Результатом
диалога может являться: обретение целостности видения предмета диалога и восполнение
видения субъектами диалога своего «Я» (Бахтин, 1986). Изначально здесь закладывается
противоречие: «Когда мы глядим друг на друга, два разных мира отражаются в зрачках
наших глаз» – и имеет своим следствием то, что каждый «другой» по отношению к «Я» и
«Я» по отношению к каждому другому обладают избытком видения, что обусловлено «...
единственностью и незаменимостью моего места в мире» (Бахтин, 1979). Именно избыток
видения дает возможность предугадать ответ партнера по диалогу. Но избыток видения
другого «уравновешивается» неполнотой видения собственного «Я», восполняемого только
в диалоге (Бахтин, 1986).
Для определения педагогического диапазона диалога ключевым является тот факт, что
избыток видения определяет сферу «исключительной активности, то есть совокупность
таких внутренних и внешних действий, которые только я могу совершить по отношению к
другому, ему же самому, со своего места – вне меня, совершенно не доступных, действий,
восполняющих другого именно в тех моментах, где сам он выполнить не может» (Бахтин,
1979). Именно поэтому данный тип диалога – «не средство раскрытия, обнаружения как
бы уже готового характера человека, нет, здесь человек не только проявляет себя во вне, а
впервые становится тем, что он есть ... не только для других, но и для себя самого» (Бахтин,
1979).
В плане педагогического рассмотрения чрезвычайно важным является то, что в диалоге
человек «...как бы непосредственно ощущает себя в мире как целом, без всяких промежуточных
инстанций, помимо всякого социального коллектива, к которому он принадлежал бы» (Бахтин,
1979). Существенное отличие в понимании диалога М. М. Бахтиным и Ю. М. Лотманом
состоит в том, что, по М. М. Бахтину, в диалоге всегда транслируется избыток моего видения
«Другого»; по Ю. М. Лотману, природа объекта диалога может быть любой (Лотман, 11, 12,
13).
Но общим и для них является то, что диалог дает возможность переживания информации
как события и как следствия привнесения нового качества в нашу целостность. Таким
образом, в результате диалога происходит восполнение целостности видения субъектов
диалога собственного «Я» и предмета диалога, а значит, нахождение его смысла.
Установление организационных условий определяется необходимостью выбора
педагогической технологии, в основе которой лежат отношения «Я – Ты». Это возможно
благодаря, во-первых, доминированию в образовательном процессе особого вида
педагогических технологий – гуманитарной технологии. Гуманитарная технология
как область знания является системой знаний о личностном и профессиональном
самоопределении и саморазвитии. Как вид деятельности – представляет собой деятельность,
направленную на создание условий для формирования опыта деятельности и опыта
ценностного отношения участников образовательной деятельности к новым явлениям в
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
сфере профессиональной деятельности. Как принадлежащая области управления – является 195
средством взаимодействия участников образовательного процесса, создающим условия для
формирования опыта деятельности и опыта ценностного отношения к нетипичным, новым
ситуациям профессиональной деятельности. Как социальное отношение – это рациональные,
устойчивые, повторяющиеся взаимодействия субъектов, учитывающие особенности адресата
как субъекта научной или иной творческой деятельности.
Принципиальным отличием гуманитарной технологии является и то, что адресат
никогда не выступает как средство достижения какой-либо цели субъекта, реализующего эту
технологию. Это является одной из предпосылок возможности творчества в образовательном
процессе.
Объектом гуманитарной технологии являются условия формирования опыта
деятельности и ценностного отношения в нетипичных или новых условиях профессиональной
деятельности. Критерии достижения цели: эффективная деятельность в типично-ролевых
ситуациях профессиональной деятельности, удовлетворенность условиями образовательного
процесса, способность действовать в ситуациях, не имеющих аналога в предшествующем
профессиональном опыте; высокая мотивация к научной, исследовательской деятельности.
Гуманитарная технология направлена на профессиональное развитие субъектов
технологии, формирование опыта деятельности в новых условиях профессиональной
деятельности обеспечивает конкурентные преимущества сотрудников и студентов
образовательного учреждения, повышает адаптационный потенциал вуза. Она будет
обеспечивать достижение поставленной цели при следующих условиях:
• определенная восприимчивость и способность к восприятию ситуации и поведения
внутри нее, для которой у субъекта нет знаний, исходящих из общих принципов »
(Гадамер, 1988);
• соответствие ценностно-смысловой направленности технологии образовательной
среде;
• наличие ресурсного обеспечения, административных ресурсов, квалифицированных
кадров, обеспечивающих разработку и внедрение данного вида технологий.
Примерами такой технологии являются технология организации педагогического
общения, технология проектирования диалогической формы организации учебного занятия,
коммуникативные технологии в учебно-воспитательной деятельности.
Возможные неблагоприятные последствия применения гуманитарных технологий:
трудности в работе с субъектами образовательного процесса (преподавателями и студентами),
не ориентированными на творчество, научную деятельность.
Кроме того, реализация герменевтического подхода определяет необходимость
внедрения в образовательный процесс носителей содержания образования, учебных текстов,
обладающих диалогической коммуникативной программой.
Диалогическая коммуникативная программа может обеспечивать реализацию следующих
функций учебного текста:
• учебный текст позволяет воспринять читателю трактовку изучаемой проблемы в
другой культуре или научной парадигме;
• учебный текст создает условия для формирования информационного запроса читателя,
определения им проблем, значимых для его личностного, профессионального развития,
и подлежащих изучению;
• учебный текст создает предпосылки для формирования личностного смысла
изучаемого объекта, явления.
Вероятно, диалогическая коммуникативная программа отражает условия возникновения
диалога, а так же стадии изменения восприятия объекта, предмета диалога. Структурной
единицей коммуникативной программы является текстовая ситуация.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
196
Основываясь на идеях М. М. Бахтина (Бахтин, 1979, 1986), выделим пять основных
блоков текстовых ситуаций, составляющих диалогическую коммуникативную программу.
Необходимо подчеркнуть, что диалогическая коммуникативная программа учебного
текста является не линейным, а разветвленным алгоритмом. В данном случае можно
рассматривать именно блоки текстовых ситуаций, поскольку содержание каждого из блоков
определяется ситуацией профессионального развития читателей.
Выводы
Итак, анализ реализации герменевтического подхода к проектированию образовательного

процесса в системе высшего профессионального образования позволил нам выделить
ключевые психолого-педагогические и организационные условия.
Психолого-педагогические условия опираются на сущностную специфику раскрытия
смысла изучаемого объекта на основе диалога. В результате диалога происходит восполнение
целостности видения субъектов диалога собственного «Я» и предмета диалога, а значит
нахождение его смысла.
Установление организационных условий определяется выбором педагогической
технологии, в основе которой лежат отношения «Я – Ты». Это возможно благодаря, во-первых,
доминированию в образовательном процессе особого вида педагогических технологий –
гуманитарной технологии. Во-вторых, за счет включения в образовательный процесс ситуаций,
которые осознаны профессиональным сообществом как значимые и повторяющиеся, но
применительно к которым не выработаны оптимальные модели поведения и разделяемая
подавляющим большинством оценка. Тем самым, создаются предпосылки для формирования
способности к выбору, социальной ответственности будущих профессионалов. В-третьих, за
счет внедрения в образовательный процесс новых носителей содержания образования. Это,
прежде всего, учебные пособия, учебники и другие пособия, обладающие диалогической
коммуникативной структурой организации.
Балл Г. А., Бургин Н. С. (1994). Анализ психологического воздействия и его педагогическое
значение. Вопросы психологии, № 4.
Батищев Г. С. (1997). Введение в диалектику творчества. Санкт-Петербург.
Бахтин М. М. (1986). Эстетика словесного творчества. Москва.
Бахтин М. М. (1979). Проблемы поэтики Достоевского. Изд. 4-е. Москва.
Библер В. С. (1991). От наукоучения – к логике культуры: два философских введения в двадцать
первый век. Москва.
Бубер М. (1999). Два образа веры. Классическая философская мысль. Москва.
Гадамер Х.Г. (1988). Истина и метод: Основы филос. Герменевтики. Москва.
Каган М. С. (1988). Мир общения: проблемы межсубъектных отношений. Москва.
Леонтьев А. Н. (1975). Деятельность. Сознание. Личность. Москва.
Лотман Ю. М. (1992). К структуре диалогического текста в поэмах Пушкина (проблема авторских
примечаний к тексту). В кн.: Ю. М. Лотман, Избранные статьи в трех томах. / Т.2. Избранные
статьи по семиотике и типологии культуры. Таллинн: Александрия.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Лотман Ю. М. (1992). О двух моделях коммуникации в системе культуры. В кн.: Ю. М. Лотман, 197
Избранные статьи в трех томах, Т. 1. Избранные статьи по семиотике и типологии культуры.
Таллинн: Александрия.
Лотман Ю. М. (1992). Асимметрия и диалог. В кн.: Ю. М.Лотман, Избранные статьи в трех
томах, Т. 1. Избранные статьи по семиотике и типологии культуры. Таллинн: Александрия.
Лурия А. Р. (1979). Язык и сознание. Москва.
Пригожин И., Стенгерс И. (1986). Порядок из хаоса: Новый диалог человека с природой.
Москва.
Сагатовский В. Н. (1995). Антропологическая целостность: статус и структура. Санкт-

Петербург.
Сериков В. В. (1994). Личностный подход в образовании: концепция и технология. Волгоград.
Соловьев В. С. (1990). Оправдание добра. Нравственная философии. Москва.
Трубецкой Е. Н. (1994). Смысл жизни. Москва.
Франкл В. (1990). Человек в поисках смысла. Москва.
Summary
A Hermeneutic Approach towards an Educational Process

Projecting in the System of the High School
Irina M. Brodskaya
St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University, Russia
Natalya O. Vereschagina
Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
The present paper is based upon some methodological principles of the pedagogical hermeneutics.
It focuses on a question of realizing a hermeneutic approach to an educational process projecting in the
system of the high school.
Having analyzed philosophic, psychological, as well as pedagogical researches, we came to a conc
lusion that in order to project an educational process it is necessary to reveal specific psycho-pedagogi
cal and organizational conditions of the cognition of a studied matter.
A humanitarian value orientation in a student – professor interaction is considered to be a constitu
tive condition of the educational process projecting. Humanitarian component is a principal qualitative
characteristic of the educational process. According to ideas concerning the nature of humanitarian
component by M. Buber, M. Bakhtin, G. Batischev, it is possible to say that it is engendered by a specific
type of a human attitude towards the world, a “Me – You” relations.
Determining psycho-pedagogical conditions of the cognition of a studied matter, we are founded on
an essential specificity of the cognition. A sense is only understood with the help of a dialogue, “by adjoi
ning another (somebody else’s) sense”. As a result of a dialogue an integrity of dialogue participants’
self-view and the subject of the dialogue is reconstructed which means revealing its inner sense.
Organizational conditions are determined by the necessity of choosing a pedagogical technology
at the heart of which there are “Me – You” relations. This is possible thanks to, first of all, the fact of do
minating in the educational process such a specific type of pedagogical technologies as a humanitarian
one. The humanitarian technology is that means of interaction of which creates conditions for forming
an experience of the activity and an experience of the value attitude towards non-typical, new situations
in the professional activity. A technology of organizing the pedagogical communication, a technology
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
198
of projecting the dialogic form of studies, communicative technologies in educational activity can be
examples of this type of technologies.
In the second place, organizational conditions are established due to including to the educational
process situations that are recognized by the professional community as significant and repeatable but
not given optimal behavior models and common estimation. Thus, preconditions of forming the capacity
of choosing, social responsibility of future specialists are created.
At last, these organizational conditions are established owing to including new bearers of an edu
cational content. These are, above all, schoolbooks, textbooks and other study aids organized according
to a dialogic interaction.
Key words: hermeneutic approach, high school, educational process projecting, educational pro
gram.
Adviced by E.M. Nesterov, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
Irina M. Brodskaya PhD, Ass. Prof. of the Sociology and Jurisprudence Chair of the St. Petersburg State
Polytechnic University, Osvobozhdeniya Street 36-21, Saint-Petersburg, 198320 Rus
sian Federation.
E-mail: irina_brodskaya@mail.ru
Website: http://www.spbstu.ru/
Natalya O. Vereschagina PhD, Ass. Prof. of the Geology and Geo-ecology Chair of the Herzen State Pedagogi
cal University of Russia, Morskoy Pehoty Street 10-1-323, Saint-Petersburg, 198302
Russian Federation.
E-mail: natalia.vereshchagina@gmail.com
Website: http://www.herzen.spb.ru/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
199
Модель-конструкт
интерактивного модульного
учебника (направление
подготовки «реклама и связи с
общественностью»)
Ольга Н. Кравченко
Дальневосточный федеральный университет, Владивосток, Россия
Э-почта: kravchenko199@yandex.ru
Абстракт
Компетентностный подход к подготовке специалистов в условиях информационного общества

требует пересмотра традиционной модели средств обучения. Оптимизация средств обучения
идет в направлении совершенствования не только содержания, но и формы. В настоящее
время активно разрабатываются так называемые модульные учебники и программы. При
этом под модульностью понимают: 1) отбор содержания в соответствии с кредитно-
модульной системой обучения; 2) нелинейность в организации и подаче материала с целью
активизации мыслительной активности учащихся. Предполагается, что принцип нелинейности
(модульности) наиболее оптимально может быть реализован в учебнике мультимедийного
формата. Считаем, что использование принципа модульности позволяет оптимизировать и
традиционный учебник на бумажном носителе, который продолжает оставаться наиболее
доступным средством обучения. Использование принципа модульности в вузовском учебнике на
бумажном носителе по социогуманитарным дисциплинам: 1) повышает его интерактивный
потенциал; 2) предоставляет студентам свободу выбора (реализация индивидуального подхода к
обучению); 3) значительно продлевает актуальность содержательной части учебника в условиях
информационной динамики сверхкоммуникативного общества. В качестве примера реализации
принципа модульности в учебнике интегрированного формата предлагаем модель авторского
учебника-практикума для бакалавров по направлению «Реклама и связи с общественностью».
Ключевые слова: компетентностный подход, традиционный учебник, оптимизация средств
обучения.
Введение
В условиях реализации компетентностного подхода к профессиональному образованию

актуализированы задачи повышения эффективности вузовского учебника, уточнения
характеристик, определяющих качество учебной книги (Антонова, 2004; Канке, 2007;
Смирнова, Федотова, 2004; и др.). Объектом настоящего исследования являются учебники,
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
200
формирующие профиль бакалавра по направлению подготовки «реклама и связи с
общественностью». В качестве предмета исследования выбраны принципы и методы
организации учебного содержания, повышающие эффективность взаимодействия студентов
с учебной литературой.
Цель исследования – подготовить комплексное описание модели-схемы интерактивного
профильного учебника по социогуманитарным дисциплинам. В рамках предпринятого
исследования разграничиваем модели-схемы, отражающие релевантные характеристики
реального объекта, и модели-конструкты, базовая функция которых – «конструирование
нового объекта по заданным параметрам» (Мухаммад, 2003). Решаемые задачи: 1) определение
релевантных параметров (характеристик/критериев и принципов разработки) метамодели
интерактивного учебника; 2) разработка модели-конструкта учебника для подготовки
к проектной деятельности будущих специалистов по рекламе; 3) экспериментальная
реализация модели-конструкта в формате тренингового учебника для заданного контингента.
Цель статьи – на примере модели-конструкта раскрыть потенциал принципа модульности
в организации содержания интерактивного учебника комплексного формата (Кравченко,
2009).
С позиций системного подхода основные направления исследования учебника как
идеального объекта соответствуют ведущим подсистемам учебника и включают: 1) содержание
образования; 2) образовательные процессы; 3) дидактические инструментальные средства
(Околелов, 2003). Многоаспектность анализа обусловлена функциональной сложностью
объекта, непосредственно вовлекаемого в организацию процесса обучения, воспитания
и развития студентов, стимулирования осознанного усвоения знаний и формирования
опыта эмоционально-ценностных отношений к миру, выбранной сфере профессиональной
деятельности и к самим себе.
При определении релевантных параметров метамодели современного вузовского
учебника в качестве ориентира выбраны общие принципы компетентностного подхода
к эффективной организации образовательного процесса, специальные дидактические
методы и средства оптимизации учебной книги (Антонова, 2004; Буга, 1987; Канке, 2007;
и др.). Критерии оценки эффективности учебника постоянно уточняются в соответствии
с результатами «мониторинга» развивающейся системы учебных изданий. К актуальным
недостаткам этой системы относят рассогласованность подсистем образования; невысокий
дидактический уровень учебных книг, издаваемых вузами; перегруженность информацией
и неоправданную сложность изложения материала; погрешности в оформлении (Буга, 1987;
Зеленецкая, 2005; Мухина, 2007; Смирнова, Федотова, 2001; и др.).
Принципы разработки метамодели современного учебника, позволяющие уточнить
критерии его оценки, определены в результате комплексного анализа моделей-схем учебников
социогуманитарного и профессионального цикла подготовки специалистов по рекламе. К
основным критериям интерактивного учебника и коррелированным с ними принципам его
разработки относим следующие:
• соответствие новым реалиям общества и учебного процесса; мировоззренческая
информативность – принципы современности; преемственности и новизны;
ориентации на профессиональную компетентность как результат образования;
развития индивидуальности, адаптивности и мобильности;
• комфортная информационная образовательная среда, формирующая опыт
самостоятельной познавательной и рефлексивной деятельности («ментальный
опыт» – по М.А. Холодной) (Мухина, 2007; Назарова, Господарик, 2005) – принципы
учета многообразия идей; проблемности; интерактивности; концентрического
структурирования учебного материала; сочетания поступательности и линейности,
нелинейности и модульности в организации учебного содержания; опциональности;
• совершенный методический и справочно-ориентировочный аппарат; четкое
оформление цитирования, ссылок на источники, библиографического списка и
Ольга Н. КРАВЧЕНКО. Модель-конструкт интерактивного модульного учебника (направление подготовки
«реклама и связи с общественностью») PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
указателей (именного, предметного и тематического) (Мухина, 2007) – принципы 201
доступности; системности; наглядности; интерактивности; свободы выбора;
учета индивидуальных когнитивных стилей;
• четкая адресность издания, соответствующая форма, язык и стиль изложения
(Назарова, Господарик, 2005) – принципы доступности; коммуникативности;
• обучающий потенциал – нацеленность на развитие профессионального мышления
и нравственной личности, способной к свободному сознательному выбору и к
самостоянию («футурологический тип личности») (Мухина, 2007) – принципы
проблемности; свободы выбора; развития индивидуальных когнитивных способностей
обучаемых, способностей саморегулирования и самооценивания результатов
профессиональной деятельности и себя в деятельности.
С учетом общих тенденций к совершенствованию средств обучения для высшей школы
выделяем основную функцию современного вузовского учебника – стимулирование будущего
специалиста к интеллектуальной/познавательной, личностной и социальной активности,
развитие его общей мобильности и адаптивности.
Теоретические основания исследования
В качестве методологической базы при разработке модели-конструкта использованы

рекомендации по оптимизации учебника как носителя информации, развивающего
«мыследеятельность» студента, профессиональные и общекультурные компетенции,
мотивацию, личностную деятельность и коммуникативную рефлексию (Антонова, Тюрина,
2001; Буга, 1987; Канке, 2007; Мухина, 2007; Назарова, Господарик, 2005).
Гипотеза и способы проверки
По мнению Т.С. Назаровой и Ю.П. Господарик (2005), в информационном обществе

актуализированы такие характеристики источника информации, как насыщенность
(плотность), мобильность и визуальная привлекательность. В основу разработки модели-
конструкта учебника по рекламе положена гипотеза о возможности совершенствования
учебника как источника профессионально значимой информации на основе принципа
модульности в организации обучающего содержания. К критериям истинности гипотезы
относим: 1) возможность реализации модели-конструкта в формате тренингового учебника; 2)
апробацию модульного учебника, подтверждающую эффективность использования данного
средства обучения для стимулирования познавательной, интеллектуальной и творческой
активности студентов; формирования профессиональной идентичности; развития общей
мобильности и адаптивности.
Методы исследования
Основными методами, использованными при разработке модели-конструкта тренингового

учебника, являются моделирование, наблюдение, анализ и эксперимент.
Результаты
Модель-схема интерактивного профильного учебника разрабатывается на основе

апробации различных вариантов модели-конструкта (Кравченко, 2004; Кравченко, 2006;
Кравченко, Новикова, 2008). Предлагаем к обсуждению наиболее удачный вариант реализации
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
202
принципа модульности – модель-конструкт учебника «Рекламный продукт: проектирование –
моделирование – оценка». Основные характеристики: 1) по предназначенности: учебник
для преподавателя и студентов первого образовательного уровня (задания практикума
с пометой «дополнительно» могут быть использованы на втором уровне); 2) по виду:
тренинговый учебник, или учебник-практикум; 3) по методу обучения: комбинированный
(коммуникативный, активный, репродуктивно-креативный); 4) по принципу организации
содержания: комплексный – линейная, нелинейная (модульная) и концентрическая
подача учебного материала; 5) по принципу взаимодействия «студент – учебник – автор»:
интерактивный, опциональный.
В современных условиях функция автора учебника по профильным дисциплинам
состоит в создании динамичной системы овладения общекультурными и профессиональными
компетенциями. Функция пользователя учебника – выбрать именно те фрагменты системы,
которые оказались в данный момент существенными для решения профессиональных задач.
Следовательно, в интерактивном учебнике должны дидактически оправданно сочетаться
системность и фрагментарность, экстенсивность (широта охвата темы) и интенсивность
(глубина ее изучения).
Профессиональное мышление формируется соответствующей организацией структуры
и логики обучающего текста (Мухина, 2007). В этой связи представляет интерес изучение
преимуществ гипертекстовой технологии с целью модернизации дидактической системы
учебника традиционного формата (Кравченко, 2009; Околелов, 2003). Поскольку в условиях
информационного бума на первое место выходят задачи отбора и упрощения информации,
предлагаем в интерактивном учебнике информацию фрагментировать, дифференцировать по
базовым «смыслам» и упорядочить в виде системы относительно автономных смысловых
блоков-модулей.
Использование системы модулей позволяет компактно представить широкий спектр
разноуровневой учебной информации. Выделяем четыре уровня обучающей информации:
два структурно-ориентировочных (1, 2); собственно информирующий (3) и справочно-
ориентировочный (4). Подобная иерархичность в представлении содержания соответствует
современному опциональному восприятию реальности.
Первый уровень формируют средства навигации в структуре учебника – элементы
содержания и структурирования мега-модулей (разделов) и модулей (параграфов), т.е.
оглавление, заголовки и подзаголовки. Второй уровень представлен системой базовых
операторов, расположенных в определенной последовательности и выполняющих ориенти
рующую функцию в содержании каждого модуля: уточним понятия; стимул к размышлению,
авторитетное мнение, вопрос-ответ, исследования, интересные факты, тенденции,
дискуссия, мастер-класс, креатив, материал для наблюдения и т.д. Каждый оператор
вводит определенный мини-модуль – собственно учебную информацию (третий уровень).
При выделении базовых операторов мы ориентировались: 1) на структуру человеческого
сознания, где в качестве модуля выступает «слот» (позиция) для хранения информации; 2)
на особенности восприятия печатного текста: просмотровое, беглое вертикальное чтение
vs. изучающее – горизонтальное (от общего – к частному). Функция четвертого уровня
обучающей информации – отсылка к источникам для дальнейшей самостоятельной работы
(ссылки, указатели, библиографический список).
Свобода выбора является необходимым условием развития информационной мобильности
и адаптивности. При взаимодействии с модульным учебником пользователь получает
возможность выбирать информацию, соответствующую его знаниям, опыту и текущему
состоянию сознания; экстенсивный или интенсивный способ освоения содержания. Как
показывает практика, организация обучающего содержания на основе принципа модульности
способствует активизации деятельности (познавательной, оценочной и т. п.) студентов,
развитию их творческого мышления. Использование принципа модульности в организации
содержания профильного учебника: 1) развивает потребностно-мотивационный компонент
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
деятельности, стимулируя самостоятельную работу, поиск и освоение необходимой 203
информации; 2) формирует и развивает позитивную самооценку, уверенность в собственных
силах, стремление к успеху; 3) поддерживает актуальность содержательной части учебника
в условиях нарастающей информационной динамики.
Обсуждение результатов
В качестве оптимальной модели учебника нового поколения для общеобразовательной

школы выбран модульный учебник. При этом основное внимание уделяется принципам
наглядности и фиксированности формата. В данной статье идея модульности получила
дальнейшее развитие в аспекте оптимизации содержания вузовского интерактивного
учебника. Считаем, что комплексное использование принципа модульности позволяет снять
следующие противоречия в организации обучающего содержания учебника:
• расширение предметной области: регламентированная программой учебная
информация (закрытая статичная система) vs. «информационная среда профессии»
(открытая подвижная система) (Антонова, 2004; Канке, 2007);
• преобразование структуры: логика развития предметной области vs. логика
профессиональной деятельности;
• углубление функциональной области: информирующая функция vs. обучающая,
ориентирующая и стимулирующая поиск и эмоционально-оценочное освоение
информации (Антонова, 2004; Канке, 2007).
Важным направлением оптимизации вузовского учебника, наряду с организацией
содержания и активной самостоятельности студента, является разработка современных
форм контроля (Антонова, Тюрина, 2001; Канке, 2007; Смирнова, Федотова, 2001). Считаем
перспективным совершенствование контролирующего блока тренингового учебника на
основе модульного принципа. Возможные операторы мини-модулей: стимул к поиску/к
размышлению, альтернативное суждение, решение проблемы, и т.д.
Выводы
Основными преимуществами обсуждаемой модели-конструкта интерактивного

модульного учебника считаем системность, четкую структурированность и компактность
обучающего материала, комплексное использование внешних информационных ресурсов,
опциональность, возможность развития индивидуального когнитивного стиля учащихся.
Модульная организация учебного содержания создает условия для формирования и развития
таких востребованных качеств будущего специалиста, как: маневренность, быстродействие,
саморегулирование, ориентация в многообразии идей, стремление и способность к научному
познанию и пониманию (Мухина, 2007); способность «быстро и экономно адаптироваться
к непрерывно меняющимся условиям» и к информационному потоку; «способность
распознавать модели будущих событий»; «предугадывать направление и скорость перемен»;
«регулярно делать <…> долгосрочные прогнозы» (Тоффлер, 2002).
Антонова, С. Г. (2004). Издания для вузов по гуманитарным и социально-экономическим

дисциплинам: некоторые направления повышения качества. Университетская книга. 10. с. 24–27.
Антонова, С. Г., Тюрина, Л. Г. (2001). Современная учебная книга. Сервис, Москва. Россия.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
204
Буга, П. Г. (1987). Вузовский учебник: создание, выпуск, распространение. Книга, Москва.
Россия.
Зеленецкая, Т. (2005). О формировании компетентностей (Размышления над книгой). Высшее

образование сегодня. 6/05. С. 108–111.
Канке В. А. (2007). Философия учебника. Университетская книга. 2. с. 56–58.
Кравченко, О. Н. (2004). Разработка и технологии производства рекламного продукта. Россия,

Владивосток, Дальневосточный государственный университет.
Кравченко, О. Н. (2006). Моделирование рекламного продукта. Россия, Владивосток,

Дальневосточный государственный университет.
Кравченко, О. Н. (2009). Содержательные и формальные основания для модернизации вузовского

учебника по прикладным гуманитарным дисциплинам. Сибирский педагогический журнал. 1. с.
67–77.
Кравченко, О. Н., Новикова, О. И. (2008). Политическая реклама. Россия, Владивосток,
Дальневосточный государственный университет.
Мухаммад, Л. П. (2003). Языковая личность иностранного студента-нефилолога начального и

среднего этапов обучения (медицинский профиль). Россия, Москва, Государственный институт
русского языка им. А. С. Пушкина.
Мухина, В. (2007). Учебник нового поколения и футурологический тип личности. Развитие

личности. 3. с. 12–14.
Назарова, Т. С., Господарик, Ю. П. (2005). Стратегия развития учебной книги. Педагогика. 3,

с. 10–19.
Околелов, О. П. (2003). Дидактическая специфика современного вузовского учебника. Педагогика.

10, с. 20–25.
Смирнова, Е. В., Федотова, З. Н. (2001). Издательская деятельность в современном вузе. Логос,

Москва. Россия.
Тоффлер, Э. (2002). Шок будущего. ООО «Издательство ACT», Москва. Россия.
Summary
The Model-Construct of an Interactive Modular Textbook

(Training Profile “Advertising and Public Relations”)
Olga Kravchenko
Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia
The object of this study is educational literature, which forms the profile of a graduate (bachelors
program focusing on the “Advertising and PR”). The subject are the principles and methods of organiza
tion of educational content, that increase the efficiency of interaction of students with educational litera
ture. The aim of the research – to prepare a comprehensive description of the model-scheme profile of
a textbook on socio-humanitarian disciplines. Problems that are solved: 1) identification of the relevant
parameters of the methamodel of a modern active high school textbook, 2) development of a model-
construct of the textbook, preparing future advertising specialists for project work, and 3) an experimen
tal realization of the model-construct in the format of the training manual for a specific contingent. The
purpose of the article – for the model constructs to reveal the potential of modularity in the organization
of content in an interactive traditional format textbook. We believe that the developed model-scheme of
a modular textbook will allow using its informational and didactic components optimally.
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Methodology of the Research. As a methodological framework for the creation of the model-const 205
ruction we used the recommendations in optimization of textbook as a carrier of information, developing
“mental activity” of student, his professional and personal competence, motivation, personal activities
and communicative reflection (Antonova, 2004; Buga, 1987; Kanke 2007; and others).
Results of the Research. The model of the textbook is developed on the basis of an approved modu
lar training manual on the working-out of an advertising product (Kravchenko 2004, 2006; Kravchenko,
Novikova 2008). The use of modules allows providing a wide range of multi-level training information.
We highlight four content levels: two structurally indicative (1, 2), informative (3) and referential (4).
The first level deals with the means of navigation in the structure of the textbook – headings and subhea
dings. The second level is represented by operators – the system of “keywords”, which follow in a parti
cular order and have the orienting function: clarify the concept, authoritative opinion, research, interes
ting facts, trends, discussion, master-class etc. A certain mini-module stands behind each operator – the
actual information (the third level). The function of the fourth level is references to various sources for
further independent work (referential part of the textbook).
Discussion. A modular textbook is chosen as an optimal model of a new-generation secondary scho
ol textbook. The main attention is focused on the principles of clarity and fixed format. In this article the
idea of modularity has been developed further in the aspect of optimization of the content of the high
school interactive textbook.
Conclusions. The main advantages of the developed model-constructor of a modular textbook are:
compactness, optionality, interactiveness, regulated access to informational resources, and a possibility
of developing an individual cognitive style, student’s mobility and adaptability.
Key words: high school textbook, organization of the textbook’s content, the principle of modula
rity, optionality, interactivity, mobility, adaptability.
Adviced by M.A. Nevzorova, Far Eastern National University, Russia
Olga Kravchenko Associate Professor; Applicant for Ph.D (Dr.Sc.) in Pedagogy (Theory and Methodolo
gy of Professional Education), Far Eastern National University, Stanyukovicha Street
No. 10–19, Vladivostok, 690003 Russia.
E-mail: kravchenko199@yandex.ru
Website: http://www.fenu.ru/
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
206
Внедрение ИКТ в практику

управления образовательным
учреждением
Наталья Вронская
Латвийский Сельскохозяйственный университет, Латвия
Э-почта: ashatan_m@mail.ru
Абстракт
В качестве примера внедрения ИКТ в систему управления образовательных учреждений в Латвии

можно привести единую информативную систему латвийских вузов (LAIS), в которой происходит
обобщенный регистр студентов, учебных программ и курсов, позволяющий организовать
внутренний документооборот в сети, а также вести мониторинг по успеваемости студентов
и посещаемости занятий.
Информационная система “e-studiju sistēma” была создана для улучшения эффективности и
увеличения эластичности учебного процесса. К этой системе можно подключиться не только
из любого места Латвии, но и за ее пределами.
Также поощряется и популяризируется доступность электронных материалов лекций и
практических работ, а также осуществление прямой связи студентов с преподавателем для
получения консультаций по вопросу при помощи электронной почты.
Еще одним примером внедрения ИКТ в систему управления образовательного учреждения
является информационная система (IS), с помощью которой студент любой программы может
следить за своим учебным процессом, т.е. существует возможность видеть выбранные учебные
предметы и полученную оценку за этот предмет.
Ключевые слова: информационная система, управление вузом.
Введение
Информатизация системы образования имеет два направления – внедрение

ИКТ непосредственно в процесс обучения и информатизация системы управления
образовательными учреждениями. Внедрение ИКТ, крайне необходимо, в систему управления
образовательными учреждениями, так как это позволяет ускорить обмен информацией,
упростить работу администратора и позволяет ему принимать наиболее эффективные
управленческие решения.
Необходимость выполнения данного исследования заключается в том, что в настоящее
время: 1) без средств информатизации невозможно проанализировать огромное количество
информации, которое концентрируется у педагогов и администрации образовательного
Наталья ВРОНСКАЯ. Внедрение ИКТ в практику управления образовательным учреждением
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
учреждения при решении вопросов управления учреждением, и адекватно отреагировать на 207
неё; 2) современного студента образовательное учреждение должно подготовить к жизни
в условиях глобальной информатизации общества, т.е. снабдить навыками пользователя
современных ИКТ.
Объектом исследования является ментальная готовность студентов к внедрению ИКТ.
Целью исследования, результаты которого представлены в данной статье, являлось изучение
и анализ внедрения ИКТ в практику управления образовательным учреждением.
Одна из главных проблем внедрения ИКТ в систему управления образовательного
учреждения заключается в том, что крайне существенным фактором является ментальная
готовность студентов и педагогов к постоянному использованию информационных систем,
студенческого кода пользователя и электронного почтового ящика. К тому же, кроме наличия
ментальной готовности, все участники образовательного процесса должны иметь доступ к
Интернету. Таким образом у автора появились новые вопросы, требующие осмысления и
углубленного анализа: какие могут быть преимущества и риски внедрения ИКТ в систему
управления образовательного учреждения? Какие еще могут быть новые подходы к
информационным системам?
Методология исследования
Эмпирическую базу исследования составили данные, проведенного под руководством

автора в 2009 учебном году, опроса 600 свободно выбранных респондентов первого и третьего
курсов шести факультетов Латвийского Сельскохозяйственного университета (ЛСУ).
Для проведения эмпирического исследования, с последующим анализом информации,
были использованы следущие статистичекие методы:
1) Тест Колмогорова-Смирнова – для выяснения, являются ли наблюдаемые данные
выборок равномерно распределёнными.
2) Тест по критерию хи-квадрата – для проверки наблюдаемых данных каждой выборки,
на подчинение теоретическому закону распределения.
Анализ информатизации системы образования
В качестве примера внедрения информационных технологий в систему управления

образовательных учреждений в Латвии можно привести единую информативную систему
латвийских вузов – LAIS (Niedrīte&Niedrītis, 2000), в которую входят 13 вузов, расположенных
по всей территории Латвии, и где происходит обобщенный регистр студентов и сотрудников,
учебных программ и курсов, позволяющий организовать внутренний документооборот в
сети, а также вести мониторинг по успеваемости студентов и посещаемости занятий.
На факультете информационных технологий при помощи преподавателей (Kazainis, 2006)
и студентов в 2004 году была разработана и проверена, на базе факультета информационных
технологий, информационная система e-studiju sistēma для улучшения эффективности и
увеличения эластичности учебного процесса.
В 2008 году информационная система e-studiju sistēma была усовершенствована и
преобразована в информационную систему e-studiju vide�.
Сущность этой системы состоит в том, что: 1) любой студент, находящийся на территории
Латвии или за ее пределами, может воспользоваться электронными материалами лекций,
содержанием самостоятельных домашних работ и упражнений, которые преподаватель
постоянно обновляет и публикует в данной системе; 2) у преподавателя имеется возможность
проверить знания студентов при помощи теста с автоматическим подсчетом результатов, а у

Retrieved February 15, 2010, from http://estudijas.itf.llu.lv/default.aspx.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
208
студентов имеется возможность электронной консультации с преподавателем, либо дебатов
с другими студентами.
Аналогичное мнение высказала педагог Туранова Л. о том, что информационная среда
позволяет не только осуществлять обучение и воспитание студентов, мотивирующие их
к самостоятельному обучению с использованием ИКТ, но и является удобным средством
хранения учебно-методических материалов (Туранова, 2004).
Еще одним примером внедрения информационных технологий в систему управления
образовательного учреждения является информационная система (IS), с помощью которой
студент любой программы может следить за своим учебным процессом, т.е. существует
возможность видеть выбранные им учебные предметы и полученную оценку за этот предмет,
поэтому с этого учебного года первокурсникам не были выданы зачетные книжки. Они следят
за своим учебным процессом с помощью информационной системы, где каждому студенту
присваивается свой код пользователя и соответственно свой личный доступ к нему.
Одним из нововведений в информационных технологиях, служит идея выдвинутая
студентами – создание общего для всего курса электронного почтового ящика, адрес которого
находится также и у преподавателя.
Результаты исследования
После диагностического анализа ИКТ, используемых в системе образования ЛСУ,

повышенное внимание автора было привлечено к таким двух новшествам: как, студенческий
код пользователя и использование электронного почтового ящика.
В 2009–2010 учебном году ЛСУ первокурсникам не выдали зачетные книжки, так как
перешли на электронный код пользователя. В этой связи, были опрошены студенты первого
курса, имеющие только код пользователя, и третьего курса, имеющие зачетные книжки. На
проверку утверждения об необходимости пользования зачетной книжкой была выдвинута
статистическая гипотеза о том, что в заданном вопросе нет расхождения мнений между
студентами первого и третьего курсов. Для проверки гипотезы был использован тест
Колмогорова-Смирнова для сравнения двух независимых выборок (первый и третий курс).
Результаты теста приведены в расположенной ниже таблице 1:
Таблица 1. Результаты теста.
N
Absolute (абсолютно) 0.691
Most Extreme Differences
Positive (положительно) 0.691
(Самые экстремальные разности)
Negative (отрицательно) -0.309
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z (Z-Колмогорова-Смирнова) 8.400
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) (Статистическая значимость (2-сторонняя) 0.000
Полученные в таблице 1 результаты подтвердили выявление существенного различия

выборок, так как уровень значимости р = 0.000 < 0.05. Из этого следует, что с вероятностью
95% мнения респондентов первого и третьего курсов об необходимости пользования зачетной
книжкой статистически существенно отличаются друг от друга.
Дальнейшая статистическая обработка выборок была проведена с использованием теста
по критерию хи-квадрата, для проверки, насколько значительно отличаются друг от друга
ответы респондентов каждой из выборок. Результаты теста приведены в расположенных
ниже таблицах 2 и 3:
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Таблица 2. Результаты выборки 1 курса. 209
Asymp. Sig. (Статистическая значимость) 0.000
Residuals (остатки)
нужна 45.3
не нужна -18.7
не знаю -26.7
Таблица 3. Результаты выборки 3 курса.
нужна 94.7
не нужна -11.3
не знаю -83.3
По результатам теста у обеих курсов получилось очень значимое значение критерия хи-
квадрат (р = 0,000). Из этого следует, что с вероятностью в 95% ответы респондентов обеих
выборок по группам не разделяются равномерно.
При помощи полученных остатков (таблица 2 и 3), были определены те категории, где
наблюдалось значительное отклонение, т.е. в выборке первого курса наблюдалось очень
значимое превышение выбора ответа нужна и равномерное занижение ответа не нужна и не
знаю, из чего следует, что часть первокурсников сомневается в выборе ответа. А в выборке
третьего курса наблюдалось очень значимое превышение выбора ответа нужна и очень,
очень значимое занижение выбора ответа не знаю, из чего следует, что третий курс уверен в
необходимости зачетной книжки.
В значительной степени отличаются комментарии первого и третьего курсов, первый
курс пишет, что ликвидация зачетной книжки “ничего не значит, ведь никогда не было”
или „не с чем сравнивать”, в свою очередь большинство студентов третьего курса не
хочет ликвидации зачетной книжки. Аналогичные мнения можно обнаружить в форуме
Латвийского университета (ЛУ). В 2005 году студенты ЛУ выражают схожие мнения и
сомнения, что и ЛСУ студенты в 2009 году: „отсутствие зачетной книжки создает
ненужный хаос, особенно потому, что контрольные листы публично недоступны, а оценки
в информационной системе появляются после сессии, когда что-либо исправить уже
нельзя...”, „зачетная книжка – это стильно!”, „сколько раз было, что в зачетке оценка уже
давно выставлена, а в информационной системе все еще нет.”
Другая возможность использования ИКТ, которой сейчас студенты часто пользуются –
это создание и использование общего для всего курса электронного почтового ящика. Но так,
как в данный момент существуют и другие альтернативы получения необходимого учебного
материала, то студенты выбирали более приемлимый для себя вариант (э-ящик, веб-сайт
преподавателя или распечатанный материал). Поэтому на проверку использования общего
электронного ящика была выдвинута статистическая гипотеза о том, что в заданном вопросе
нет расхождения мнений между первым и третьим курсами (тест Колмогорова-Смирнова).
Результаты теста приведены в расположенной ниже таблице 4:

Retrieved February 20, 2010, from http://www.lu.lv/forums/...

Retrieved February 20, 2010, from http://fizmati.lv/forums/thread-2722.html
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
210 Таблица 4. Результаты теста.
N
Most Extreme Differences Absolute (абсолютно) 0.651
(Самые экстремальные разности) Positive (положительно) 0.070
Negative (отрицательно) -0.651
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z (Z-Колмогорова-Смирнова) 7.916
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) (Статистическая значимость (2-сторонняя) 0.000
Полученные в таблице 4 результаты подтвердили выявление существенного различия

выборок (р = 0.000), из этого следует, что с вероятностью 95% мнения респондентов первого
и третьего курсов об использовании общего электронного ящика статистически существенно
отличаются друг от друга.
Далее, аналогично (хи-квадрат), было проверено насколько значительно отличаются
друг от друга ответы респондентов каждой из выборок. Результаты теста приведены в
расположенных ниже таблицах 5 и 6:
э-ящик 106.3
веб-сайт -27.7
распечатанный -78.7
э-ящик 102.7
веб-сайт -30.3
распечатанный -72.3
По результатам теста у обеих курсов получилось очень значимое значение критерия хи-
квадрат (р = 0,000). Из этого следует, что с вероятностью в 95% ответы респондентов обеих
выборок по группам не разделяются равномерно. В выборках обеих курсов наблюдалось
очень значимое превышение выбора ответа ż-˙łčź и очень, очень значимое занижение выбора
ответа šąńļå÷ąņąķķūé материал, из чего следует, что студентами все же было высказано
желание иметь распечатанный материал, а не электронный.
Дискуссия
По мнению ученых Гудкова П. и Хожаевой Т., внедрение ИКТ в работу образовательных

учреждений позволит создать квалифицированный административный и управленческий
аппарат (Гудков&Хожаева, 2007).
Нельзя также не согласиться с мнением ученого Майдурова С., что основой современного
этапа информатизации образования является использование ИКТ, а они, в свою очередь,
позволяют перевести организационный потенциал на совершенно новый уровень, то
применение их в настоящий момент в образовательных учреждениях становится уже
необходимостью (Майдуров, 2004).
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Применяя ИКТ можно значительно продвинуться в устранении противоречий в работе 211
администратора, препятствующих нахождению оптимальных решений. Это противоречия
между:
• необходимостью принятия многочисленных оперативных решений и медленным
сбором и обработкой информации по решаемой проблеме,
• необходимой компетентностью управленческой деятельности и большой динамикой
информационно - правового обеспечения,
• большим объемом вычислительной работы для обработки статистической
административной информации и отсутствием ее автоматизации.
Таким образом, по мнению заместителя директора Югорского муниципального
бюджетного учреждения “Городской методический центр”, Толстовой М., информатизация
тесно вплелась в образовательный процесс и закономерным является вопрос о ее влиянии на
качество образования (Толстова, 2008).
В ходе обсуждения информатизированного подхода управления образовательным
учреждением в современных условиях часто возникает вопрос: “Каких результатов
следует ждать данному учреждению от внедрения ИКТ в управление образовательным
процессом?”. Этот вопрос отражает закономерное желание администрации образовательных
учреждений, принимающих решение о внедрении ИКТ, знать, какие конкретные выгоды даст
использование ИКТ в организации учебного процесса образовательного учреждения и каким
образом окупятся затраты на их внедрение.
Ответом на этот вопрос, по мнению Майдурова С., могут служить следующие
предполагаемые выгоды, изображенные на рисунке 3:
Рис. 1. Предполагаемые выгоды от внедрения ИКТ в

образовательный процесс.
По мнению педагога Деменко И. из департамента образования администрации

г. Южно − Сахалинска, в информационную среду необходимо внедряться через деятельность –
учить практическому использованию ИКТ педагогов и студентов. Причем использовать
ИКТ необходимо, прежде всего, там, где видны очевидные преимущества их применения
по сравнению с традиционными методами. Осознав это преимущество, педагог или студент
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
212
будет пользоваться полученными навыками независимо от наличия или отсутствия внешней
мотивации (Деменко, 2008).
Выводы
• Внедрение ИКТ в систему управления образовательным учреждением необходимо,

т.к. это позволяет ускорить обмен информацией, упростить работу администратора и
увеличить эффективность и производительность управления в образовании.
• Информационные системы обучают систематической и самостоятельной учебе, а также
позволяют студенту учиться в удобное для него время и место.
• В первую очередь, внедрение ИКТ в систему управления образовательным процессом
должно стать постоянной потребностью администрации учреждения, и тогда, педа
гоги и студенты тоже начнут мыслить аналогично администрации и проникнутся
необходимостью постоянного использования информационных систем в своем
образовательном процессе.
Arhipova, I., Bāliņa, S. (2003). Statistika ekonomikā. Rīga: Datorzinību centrs.

Latvijas Augstskolu Informatīvā Sistēma (2010). Retrieved February 02, 2010, from http://www.lais.lv/.
Latvijas Lauksaimniecības universitātes e-studiju vide (2010) Retrieved February 15, 2010, from
http://estudijas.itf.llu.lv/default.aspx.
Latvijas Lauksaimniecības universitātes kursu reģistrs (2010). Retrieved February 02, 2010, from
https://irma.cs.llu.lv/pls/llus/kursi.startup?l=1.
Latvijas Universitātes fizmātu forums (2008). Ziņojums #13-17. Retrieved February 20, 2010, from
http://fizmati.lv/forums/thread-2722.html.
Latvijas Universitātes forums (2005). Studiju grāmatiņu grib likvidēt. Retrieved February 20,
2010, from http://www.lu.lv/forums/nc/?tx_mmforum_pi1%5Baction%5D=list_post&tx_mmforum_
pi1%5Btid%5D=1334&tx_mmforum_pi1%5Bpage%5D=1.
Kazainis, Ģ. (2006). LLU Informācijas tehnoloģiju fakultātes E-studiju sistēmas izveide. Maģistra darbs.
Jelgava.
Niedrīte, L., Niedrītis, A. (2000). Latvijas Augstskolu Informatīvās sistēmas ieviešanas rezultāti. Starp
tautiska konference un stendu prezentācijas LATSTE. Auce: Auces vidusskola.
Paura, L., Arhipova, I. (2002). Neparametriskas metodes. Jelgava: LLKC.
Гудков, П. Г., Хожаева, Т. С. (2007). Технологии информатизации организационно-управленчекой
деятельности школы. ИТО-2007. Москва.
Деменко, И. Н. (2008). Информационная ситема общеобразовательного учреждения как
возможность эффективности развития информатизации образовательного процессаю ИТО-2008.
Москва.
Майдуров, С. А. (2004). ИКТ в управление образовательным учреждением. ИТО-2004. Москва.
Толстова, М. В. (2008). Использование ИКТ в образовательном процессе как условие повышения
качества образовательных услуг. Retrieved Mart 10, 2010, from http://ugorsk.ru/razdel/social_sf/edu/
mmc/
Туранова, Л. М. (2004). Информационная среда как необходимый инструмент современного
педагога. ИТО-2004. Москва.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
Summary 213
Introduction of ICT in practice management of

educational institution
Natalie Vronskaya
Latvia University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia
Purpose of the research: a study and analysis of introduction of information technology in management
of educational institution.
For example when mentioning the introduction of information technologies in the management systems
of educational institutions in Latvia, it is possible to mention the unified information system of the Lat
vian Informatisation System for Universities (LAIS). This system is composed of a student register, cur
riculum register and courses register which organize the in-house turnover of documents in the local
network, together with monitoring of visiting lessons and student progress.
Our university has popularized the accessibility of electronic lecture materials and work assignments,
also connection students with a teacher for consultation by e-mail.
Other information system (IS) is provided for student LUA, which can follow to own educational pro
cess, i.e. see the chosen subjects and got mark for this subject.
Conclusion: The information systems teach you the systematic and independent studies, and it is also
possible to study whenever time and place.
Key words: information system, institution management.
Adviced by Ludis Peks, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
214 International Scientific Conference

„Information & communication technology in
natural science education – 2010“
11-14 November 2010, Siauliai, Lithuania
Dear Colleagues,
We invite you to take part in the international scientific conference “Information &
Communication Technology in Natural Science Education - 2010”, which will take place
11–14 November 2010 in the Conference centre of Siauliai University in Siauliai.
Organizer of the Conference
Siauliai University, Faculty of Education, Natural Science Education Research Centre,

Lithuania, http://www.gutc.su.lt/
Ways of Participation
• Paper Presentation
• Oral Presentation
• Interactive Poster Presentation
• Workshop
• Listener
Important Dates
Early-Bird Registration Deadline 30 June 2010

Late Registration Deadline 20 September 2010
Final Submitting of Manuscripts 30 September 2010
Reviewing Manuscripts and Contacting Authors 10 October 2010
From 01 June 2010 to
Transfering Conference Fee
October 31 2010
Final Confirmation of Participation 02 November 2010
Announcement of the Final Conference Program 05 November 2010
Conference Dates 11 – 14 November 2010
* It is desirable to present the manuscripts as early as possible.
Conference Website: http://www.gutc.su.lt/informacija_en.htm

E-mail: ict2010lithuania@inbox.lt
Phone: +370 41 595736; Fax: +370 41 595710
© NSERC, Siauliai University, 2010
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 20, 2010
215
ISSN 1648-3898
Information about
Journal of Baltic Science Education
(publication prices and other important information for 2010)
1. Ordering information
• We will invoice everyone for material ordered;
• Orders have to be renewed annually not later than till December, 15th of current year;
• It is possible to order for the two years period. In that case the discount is not stipulated.
• Cancellations are not accepted;
• The frequency is: 3 times a year – March, August, November;
• In 2010 we plan to publish : Vol. 9, issue 1, issue 2, issue 3;
2. Price information
• Foreign regular price is 30 EUR (excluding postage) for one copy of journal;
• Domestic regular price is 30 LTL (excluding postage) for one copy of journal;
• To continual customers (not individual) the discount at a rate of 5 percent is applied.
• To individual customers the discount at a rate of 10 percent from the regular prices is ap
plied;
• Copies of JBSE 2007-2008: 10 EUR for one copy.
• Methods of payment: payment has been made direct by bank transfer (settle the account)
/but not by cheque/.
3. Contact details
• Telephone number is: +370 687 95668.
• E-mail address is: mail.jbse@gmail.com
• Home page is: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt
• The postal address is: SMC „Scientia Educologica“
Donelaicio Street 29
LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
• Editor-in-Chief of JBSE is prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Lithuania.
4. Other important information

The articles appearing in this journal are indexed and abstracted in:
• British Education Index, Copernicus Index and EBSCO: Academic Search Complete;
• Social Scisearch (Thomson Reuters) - http://science.thomsonreuters.com/index.html (from
Vol. 7, 2008);
• Journal Citation Reports / Social Sciences Edition (Thomson Reuters) – http://thomsonreu
ters.com/products_services/scientific/Journal_Citation_Reports (from Vol. 7, 2008);
• The Asian Education Index - http://www.asian-education-index.com/sciences_index.php
5. Last, but not least
Editorial Board of JBSE expresses gratitude to all who is interested in our remarkable academic
journal.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864
Volume 20, 2010
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė, Lina Banuškevičienė
Paste-up artist Indrė Linkutė
Contact person Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)
15-04-2010. Publishing in Quires 11,25. Edition 200
Publisher SMC „Scientia Educologica“,

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: gu@projektas.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm
Contact person: Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)

Printing K. J. Vasiliauskas`s enterprise Lucilijus,

5 stoties Street, apt. 6, LT-77156 Šiauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: info@lucilijus.lt, phone/fax +370 41 421 857.
http://www.lucilijus.lt
Contact person: Danguolė Vasiliauskienė (info@lucilijus.lt)

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 20, 2010

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 20, 2010

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864

VOLUME 20, 2010

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Prof.dr. Vin­cen­tas La­ma­naus­kas, Scien­ti­fic Met­ho­di­cal Cen­tre „Scien­tia Edu­co­lo­gi­ca“, Re­pub­lic of

Dr., prof. Bo­ris Aber­šek, Uni­ver­si­ty of Ma­ri­bor, Slo­ve­nia

Ad­dress: Scien­ti­fic Met­ho­di­cal Cen­ter “Scien­tia Edu­co­lo­gi­ca”

ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2010

DISAGREEMENTS AND PARADOXES OF EDUCATION...........................................................5

RANKING OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS IN NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS:

Sta­tis­tics & Pro­ba­bi­li­ty Edu­ca­tion in South Af­ri­ca:

TWO EUROPEAN RESPONSES TO ASSURE QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION..................... 36

The suc­ces­sful in­teg­ra­tion of fo­reign-born in­struc­tors

REFLECTIVE LEARNING MODELS IN THE CONTEXT OF HIGHER EDUCATION:

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF STUDY PROGRAM MANAGERS:

Dif­fe­ren­ces bet­we­en le­ar­ning facts and com­plex phe­no­me­na A

TWO COMPLEMENTARY ASPECTS OF CONTEMPORARY vo­cal pe­da­go­gy........................ 93

THE PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES OF THE 21ST CENTURY SCHOOL TEACHER.............. 104

 ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION AS A CRITERION

CULTURAL CAPITAL AND THE RICHES OF MANNA: INTEGRATION OF IMMIGRANT

Re­a­ding ac­ti­ve­ness and re­a­ding pre­fe­ren­ces of THE 6th

Rus­sian-Es­to­nian Bi­lin­gu­a­lism Re­se­arch and its Prac­ti­cal Me­a­ning

Stan­dards for Field Eva­lu­a­tions of Mo­di­fi­ca­tions to

Общее понятие и законы формирования социального заказа

Особенности инклюзивного дополнительного образования детей

Герменевтический подход к проектированию образовательного

Модель-конструкт интерактивного модульного учебника

Внедрение ИКТ в практику управления образовательным учреждением...... 206

„Information & communication technology in natural science

Jour­nal of BALTIC Scien­ce Edu­ca­tion................................................................... 215

DISAGREEMENTS AND PARADOXES OF EDUCATION

Lis­ten, watch and ke­ep si­len­ce if you want to en­joy li­fe...

Li­ving with Di­sag­re­e­ments on Edu­ca­tion!

Com­mon Edu­ca­tion Pa­ra­do­xes

RANKING OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND

Ja­ne K. Amun­ga, Mau­ri­ce M. Ama­da­lo, Ju­lius K. Mai­yo

Sta­te­ment of the Pro­blem

Ob­jec­ti­ves of the stu­dy

In­stru­ments and Met­hods

Tab­le 1. Res­pon­dents and the num­ber from each ca­te­go­ry.

School Performance No. of H/

Te­achers’ and Stu­dents’ Per­cep­tion of Ran­king

As­ses­sment of Scho­ol Rank in the 2006 KCSE Re­sults

Tab­le 2. As­ses­sment of scho­ol po­si­tion in 2006 KCSE re­sults.

Sta­te­ment H/ te­achers Te­achers Stu­dents To­tal %

Tab­le 3. The fac­tor that con­tri­bu­ted to the scho­ol po­si­tion.

Sta­te­ment H/ te­achers Te­achers Stu­dents To­tal %

Ef­fect of the Scho­ol Rank on the Res­pon­dents’ Self Es­te­em

16 Tab­le 4. Ef­fect of scho­ol rank on res­pon­dents’ self es­te­em.

Sta­te­ment H/ te­achers Te­achers Stu­dents To­tal %

The Ef­fect of the Scho­ol Rank on Res­pon­dents’ Pro­gres­sion

Tab­le 5. Ef­fect of scho­ol rank on res­pon­dents’ pro­gres­sion.

Sta­te­ment H/ te­achers Te­achers Stu­dents To­tal %

Chi-squ­a­re va­lue 60.23 df 4 p va­lue 0.0001

The Ef­fect of the Scho­ol Rank on the In­ter-scho­ol Re­la­tions­hip

Sta­te­ment H/ te­achers Te­achers Stu­dents To­tal %

Chi-squ­a­re va­lue 16.71 df 4 p va­lue 0.002

Res­pon­dents’ Views on the Ran­king of Scho­ols Using Na­tio­nal Exa­mi­na­tion

Tab­le 7. Res­pon­dents views on the ran­king-Res­pon­dents.

Sta­te­ment H/ te­achers Te­achers Stu­dents To­tal %

Chi-squ­a­re va­lue 59.75 df 2 p va­lue 0.0001

Tab­le 8. Ot­her sug­ges­ted fac­tors for con­si­de­ra­tion in ran­king.

Sta­te­ment 15H/ te­achers29 Te­achers Stu­dents To­tal %

A Ge­ne­ral As­ses­sment of the ot­her Ef­fects of Ran­king

Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of

Dr., prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Statistics & Probability Education in South Africa:

The successful integration of foreign-born instructors

Differences between learning facts and complex phenomena A

TWO COMPLEMENTARY ASPECTS OF CONTEMPORARY vocal pedagogy........................ 93

ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION AS A CRITERION

Reading activeness and reading preferences of THE 6th

Russian-Estonian Bilingualism Research and its Practical Meaning

Standards for Field Evaluations of Modifications to

Journal of BALTIC Science Education................................................................... 215

Listen, watch and keep silence if you want to enjoy life...

Living with Disagreements on Education!

Common Education Paradoxes

Jane K. Amunga, Maurice M. Amadalo, Julius K. Maiyo

Statement of the Problem

Objectives of the study

Instruments and Methods

Table 1. Respondents and the number from each category.

Teachers’ and Students’ Perception of Ranking

Assessment of School Rank in the 2006 KCSE Results

Table 2. Assessment of school position in 2006 KCSE results.

Statement H/ teachers Teachers Students Total %

Table 3. The factor that contributed to the school position.

Statement H/ teachers Teachers Students Total %

Effect of the School Rank on the Respondents’ Self Esteem

16 Table 4. Effect of school rank on respondents’ self esteem.

Statement H/ teachers Teachers Students Total %

The Effect of the School Rank on Respondents’ Progression

Table 5. Effect of school rank on respondents’ progression.

Statement H/ teachers Teachers Students Total %

Chi-square value 60.23 df 4 p value 0.0001

The Effect of the School Rank on the Inter-school Relationship

Statement H/ teachers Teachers Students Total %

Chi-square value 16.71 df 4 p value 0.002

Respondents’ Views on the Ranking of Schools Using National Examination

Table 7. Respondents views on the ranking-Respondents.

Statement H/ teachers Teachers Students Total %

Chi-square value 59.75 df 2 p value 0.0001

Table 8. Other suggested factors for consideration in ranking.

Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Students Total %

A General Assessment of the other Effects of Ranking

Table 9. The effect of ranking on morale and jealousy.

Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Students Total %

Table 10. The effect of ranking on competition and hard work.

Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Students Total %

20 Table 11. Improvement of results dependence on teachers’ promotions.

Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Total %

Table 12. Ranking leads to promotions in the service.

Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Total %

Table 13. Ranking and headship.

Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Total %

Table 14. Ranking and improvement of results.

Statement 15H/ teachers29 Teachers Total %

Adviced by Laima Railienė, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania

Statistics & Probability

1. Background of the Study

Statistics and Probability Education in South Africa: Motivation for Research

Table 1. Data Handling focus areas in each of the phases of Curriculum

GET: Foundation Phase: Grade R (reception year), Grades 1 to 3

At the end of this phase, it is expected that a scholar is able to

GET: Intermediate Phase: Grades 4 to 6

Different questions reveal different features of a situation

GET: Senior Phase: Grades 7 to 9

3.1 Socio-demographic findings: Descriptive Statistics

32 3.2 Test of Assumptions

Table 1. Means and Standard deviations of groups.

Groups Mean(M) Standard deviation (SD)

…the increasing prevalence of computers in schools has already had some

5. Conclusion and Implication

Freudenthal, H. (1973). Mathematics as an educational task. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.

Adviced by Laima Railienė, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania

The Rise of Quality Assurance in European Higher Education

System Approach: Germany

System Approach: United Kingdom (UK)

Adviced by Hans Pechar, University of Klagenfurt, Austria

The successful integration of

Ya’arit Bokek-Cohen, Nitza Davidovich

Foreign-born Faculty Members