Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864

Volume 22, 2010

Current Research
on ICT and
Science Education – 2010

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

the associated member of Lithuanian Scientific Society and ICASE
(International Council of Associations for Science Education)

The articles appearing in this scientific collection are indexed and abstracted in EBSCO:
Education Research Complete (http://search.ebscohost.com),
Copernicus Index (http://www.indexcopernicus.com), the Asian Education Index
(http://www.asian-education-index.com/education_journals_index_P.php)
and list of Science Education Journals (http://homepages.wmich.edu/~rudged/journals.html)
Publisher

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the associated member of Lithuanian
Scientific Society and International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE)

Editor

Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic

of Lithuania

Editorial Board

Dr., prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Dr., prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr., prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh. Abo-
vyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr. Yuriy Pelekh, International University of Economics and Humanities named after Academician
Stepan Demianchuk, Ukraine
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria

Copyright of this scientific collection entitled Current Research on ICT and Science Education – 2010 is the
property of Scientific Methodical Centre “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania. All rights reserved. No part of
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal, issued
by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“.

Address: Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

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ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2010

© Authors, 2010

The authors of the articles and studies are responsible for the scientific content and stylistic aspects of the texts
 problems
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Contents

Editorial

International  projects „ARiSE“ and „IQST“ for improving quality of

science teaching 5
Vincentas Lamanauskas

Articles

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: TEACHING IN THE PRESENT, PREPARING

STUDENTS FOR THE 21st CENTURY 8
Luljeta Buza

BIOLOGICAL OBJECTS REFLECTED IN THE VERBAL ASSOCIATIONS OF

BULGARIAN TEENAGERS 16
Yordanka Dimova, Margarita Panayotova, Darina Uzova

ON EFFECTIVITY OF INDUCTIVE METHODS IN MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION AT

SECONDARY SCHOOL 25
Petr Emanovský, Jiří Břehovský

application of the different development indexes in the research

of science didactics1 33
Janis Gedrovics, Jari Lavonen, Jekabs Raipulis

ALTERATION OF STUDENTS’ INTEREST IN SCIENCE TOPICS IN LATVIA:

2003 – 2008 45
Janis Gedrovics, Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere

UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ ARGUMENTATION IN SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION 54
Tuula Keinonen, Sirpa Kärkkäinen

Lithuanian students` experiences with technology:

some important issues 64
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė, Loreta Ragulienė

PRE-SERVICE teachers’ Familiarity, Interest and Conceptual

UNDERSTANDING of Science process skills 76
Simeon Mbewe, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, Frackson Mumba

PROMOTING STUDENT LEARNING ACHIEVEMENTS IN CHEMISTRY BY USING

THE TETRAHEDRAL SPATIAL MIND MODEL 87
Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere, Janis Gedrovics
psychological and pedagogical problems of distance education
for adults 99
Sławomir Postek, Maria Ledzińska, Jakub Czarkowski

PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL PRECONDITIONS FOR THE INDIVIDUALISATION

OF TEACHING/LEARNING PROCESS FOR LEFTHANDERS 109
Gunita Praulīte, Viktorija Perepjolkina, Juris Porozovs, Daina Voita

EXPECTATIONS OF THE ELDERLY FOR THE INTERNET AS AN INFLUENCING

FACTOR FOR THE INTERNET TEACHING 117
Tiina Tambaum

Information

„Information & communication technology in natural science

education – 2010“ 130

JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION 131

 problems
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International  projects „ARiSE“

and „IQST“ for improving quality
of science teaching

Vincentas Lamanauskas
Siauliai University, Lithuania
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt

Introduction

An international cooperation is undoubtedly an important issue. Science is science and it

has an international character. Moreover, such cooperation is crucially important for scientists
from former Soviet Union countries, because they had no possibility to communicate with col-
leagues from abroad or such cooperation was strongly limited. It is obvious if we want to obtain
the necessary scientific information about different things, to enlarge technological possibilities
of societies and so on, generally speaking, to make our world more safe and better, international
cooperation among scientists is essential. Only all together we will be able to meet a broad
range of global challenges today and tommorow.

Two interesting and useful projects

Recently our team finished so interesting project „ARiSE“. All who are interested in
modern ICT will be able to find interesting material in more detail on project website at http://
www.arise-project.org The main pint is how to apply augmented reality technology in real
school practice – for teaching and learning purposes.
M.Adams (2005) sees Augmented Reality technology as one of ten most important
emerging technologies for humanity having potentiality to be used in the educational field.
Augmented Reality (AR) is the ability to overlay computer graphics onto the real world. Unlike
immersive Virtual Reality (VR), AR interfaces allow users to see the real world at the same
time as virtual imagery attached to real locations and objects. AR interfaces enhance the real
world experience, unlike other computer interfaces that draw users away from the real world
and onto the screen (Billinghurst, 2002). In contrast to traditional computer-based education,
in an Augmented Reality interface students can be seated around a table and see each other at
the same time as a virtual heart floating in their midst. This results in conversational behavior
that is more similar to natural face-to-face collaboration than to screen based collaboration
(Kiyokawa, 2002).
Four years ago, when starting scheduling the international project ARiSE, we did not get
across the idea that Augmented Reality Technology could serve as an effective instrument for
teaching/learning. The partners from Germany, Romania, the Czech Republic and Great Britain
 problems
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 have implemented innovative and strong ideas. One of the main objectives of the project was
to use Augmented Reality Technology to create a new teaching/learning platform for compre-
hensive school providing possibilities of organizing and implementing the educational process
locally and remotely in a qualitatively new environment the evaluation of pedagogical effec-
tiveness and suitability of which had to be carried on. The heart of the Augmented-Reality-
Teaching Platform is the interactive AR display system and the software operating it. Starting
from an existing AR display, that was created for museums and is available on the market since
2003, the new display system will evolve with a few but important modifications needed to
overcome its ‘museum legacy’ (Müehl, 2005). However, not nearly everything can be properly
revised. Much purposeful work has been carried out within this really interesting and promising
project. Probably this is not the right time for discussing the mass production of the platform
widely applying it in schools. Nevertheless, first steps have already been taken. The created
AR teaching/learning platform is original and really encouraging. Mainly new links between
computer and consumer as well as the interaction with real objects have been established. The
students positively evaluated the created teaching/learning platform. They agree that the use of
such technology helps with a better understanding of complex subjects. Besides, technology
is attractive and largely independent. The great possibility of visualization is another positive
point which is extremely important learning sciences. Furthermore, technology performs com-
pletely different conditions for group work and extends them in terms of content and process.
Preliminary research supports the idea that the AR teaching/learning platform is particularly
suitable for learners with cognitive difficulties such as perceiving abstractions, visual-dimen-
sional thinking etc. The students have mentioned the positive aspects of technology, for exam-
ple, ‘you can learn without stress’, ‘it is faster than an ordinary lesson’, ‘you can see and hear
at the same time’, ‘helps with a better understanding’ etc. (Lamanauskas, Pribeanu, Vilkonis,
Balog, Iordache, Klangauskas, 2007). Thus, we can reasonably maintain that Augmented Real-
ity Technology promises breakthroughs in education and cognitive potential.
Another our project was connected with preparation of science teachers. The main ques-
tion is how to improve science teacher training, how to increase their scientific literacy. Our
consortium worked intensivelly on implementing all project „IQST“ (Improving Quality of
Science Teacher Training in European Cooperation) activities.
This international project (http://www.IQST.upol.cz) tried to implement newer peda-
gogical theories into initial science teacher training. It is important in the context that the con-
structivist perspective is becoming a dominant paradigm in the field of the natural science
education.
Partners of the project prepared training materials for initial science teachers training:
• Development Procedural Skills in Science Education – Constructivist Approach
(Bulgaria);
• Assessing Science for Understanding – Constructivist Approach (Czechia);
• Floating and Sinking of an Object in a Liquid – Based on Socio-cognitive Construc-
tivism (Cyprus);
• European Dimension in Integrated Science Education (Lithuania);
• Using the Laboratory to Enhance Student Learning and Scientific Inquiry (Turkey).
Training materials of five countries were prepared based on Constructivism theory. On
the basis of the preliminary observations we can state that all training materials are useful in the
university teaching process. We hope that all training materials prepared during the project im-
plementation will assist students, lecturers and administrators in their work. All training materi-
als are good support for prospective science teachers training programmes. Another important
thing is that all training materials can be used in many different ways by students and lecturers.
Some customers will be able to point their users directly to our project website, others will be
able to integrate the material with their own website or learning environment. Finally, we hope,
Vincentas Lamanauskas. International  Projects „ARiSE“ and „IQST“ for Improving Quality of Science Teaching
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that all users of these training materials will be able to match the different learning styles of 
prospective science students to really help them succeed (Nezvalova, Lamanauskas, Raikova,
Valanides, Pekel, 2009).

Summing-up

It is obvious that all projects are different. For example, large-scale scientific projects
are very different to standard scale projects, which can be characterised mainly in four aspects:
budget, human resources, time scale, productivity. The projects usually comprises experts from
different areas of science and education. Another argument is that the globalization is becom-
ing an international trend making countries open their doors, integrate and participate further in
international co-operation activities. Generally speaking, we should recognize the importance
of projects to education success. Projects generally are doing something new, innovative and
this is very important.

References

Adams M. (2005). The 10 most important emerging technologies for humanity. Truth Publishing Inter-
national, Ltd.
Bilinghurst M. (2002). Augmented Reality in Education. New Horizons for Learning. [2007-05-02]. On
line http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/technology/billinghurst.htm#a
Kiyokawa K., Billinghurst M., Hayes S., Gupta A., Sannohe Y., Kato H. (2002). Communication Behav-
iors of Co-Located Users in Collaborative AR Interfaces. In: Proceedings of the IEEE and ACM Interna-
tional Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR 2002), 30 Sept. - 1 Oct., 2002, Darmstadt,
Germany, IEEE Press, Los Alamitos, CA, pp. 139-148.
Lamanauskas V., Pribeanu C., Vilkonis R., Balog A., Iordache D., Klangauskas A. (2007). Evaluating the
Educational Value and Usability of an Augmented Reality Platform for School Environments: Some Pre-
liminary Results. Proceedings of 4th WSEAS/IASME International Conference on Engineering Education
(Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, 24-26 July, 2007). Mathematics and Computers in Science and
Engineering, Published by World Scientific and Engineering Academy and Society Press, pp. 86-91.
Nezvalova, D., Lamanauskas, V., Raikova, D.Z., Valanides, N., Pekel, O.F. (2009). The Training Modules
for Improving Quality of Science Teacher Preparation: Methodological, Procedural, and Didactical Is-
sues. In.: V.Lamanauskas (Ed.), Development of Science and Technology Education in Central and East-
ern Europe (Proceedings of 7th IOSTE Symposium for Central and Eastern Europe, 14-18 June 2009).
Siauliai: Siauliai University Publishing House, p. 104-111.
Müehl, J.K. (2005). Augmented Reality in School Environments (ARiSE). Project outline (Contribution to
EU-Call IST4 within FP6, Call Identifier FP6-2004-IST-4) /unpublished manuscript).

Professor, Siauliai University, Natural Science Education

Vincentas Lamanauskas
Research Centre, 25-119 P.Višinskio Street, LT- 76351, Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 687 95668.
E-mail: lamanauskas@projektas.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.projektas.lt
 problems
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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: TEACHING

IN THE PRESENT, PREPARING STUDENTS
FOR THE 21st CENTURY

Luljeta Buza
“Luarasi” Law University, Tirana, Albania
E-mail: luljetabuza@yahoo.com

Abstract

This paper examines the environment not as a scientific subject matter, but as a teaching process which
includes social and cultural elements. The purpose of this study was to investigate the teaching methods,
curriculum planning needs and how we shape hands-on the subject; what information and lessons we
provide. Research data indicate ways how to improve these issues and provides answers to the ques-
tions: Why is environmental education important? How do curriculum and methods of teaching help in
the quality of knowledge? How are we (professors) preparing our students to live in this new century?
The findings showed a considerably low level of environmental knowledge among all the investigated
students. The study is based on the analysis of questionnaires about students’ perception and beliefs.
The paper is divided into two parts. Part I outlines the key issues related to the understanding of “the
importance of environmental education reform”. Part II analyzes teaching, learning approaches, conclu-
sions and recommendations.
Key words: environment, education, curriculum, quality of teaching, knowledge.

Introduction

In the 21st century, there is an important concern about how to preserve and protect the
environment for future generations. As our planet is facing a growing number of problems re-
lated to the environment, its education becomes an important discipline to achieving these goals
having the duty to assist our learners to become citizens in a world that demands knowledge,
problem solving skills, competence and caring. The environmentally responsible thoughts and
willingness to make sacrifices in later life is mostly dependent on the formation of our stu-
dents. “It is widely agreed that education is the most effective means that society possesses for
confronting the changes of the future. Indeed, education will shape the world of tomorrow”
UNESCO. Educating for a Sustainable Future (1997: 13).
The study points out that the environmental education lags behind when it comes to
adopting changes related to environmental and social justice and to engage the community in
making what is learned in public schools and universities as a central concern. The many factors
that we encounter as the study highlights are indicative of educational problems, because the
present curriculum does not consider them as connected events. As a matter of fact the envi-
ronmental studies are not yet integrated into other fields and are only taken seriously by a mi-
nority of university faculties at a time when the universities, have a high responsibility for the
Luljeta Buza. Envronmental Education: Teaching in the Present, Preparing Students for the 21st Century
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successful integration of Albania to European Union. The research defines the importance of 
environmental education in the concept of intercultural competence and it’s establishing within
the framework of transformative learning theory by offering ideas and strategies for facilitating
its development. The study examined a level of environmental awareness and knowledge in the
concept of intercultural competence and its relation with environmental responsibility among
high school students. We recognize the need to do more, we know many environmental prob-
lems have solutions, but we often lack the information and the understanding to act and plan
effectively for our future. From the student perspective, the key problem still lies in the area of
quality and quantity of environmental knowledge. The survey highlights that the knowledge,
values, skills and tools are all sourced from formal and informal education. As educators we
need to use the past as a guide to the present and to be better prepared for the future.

Methodology of Research

The study was designed to the curriculum planning needs and problems in line with
global environmental issues. The study aimed to provide evidence of such needs from prac-
titioners` perspective and opportunities to explore the effectiveness of current environmental
approaches. The study is based on 1) the perceptions and beliefs of the students of Political
Science and Law University; 2) level of environmental knowledge in two cities; 3) the role of
curriculum in the development of future aspects of environment; and 4) the role of media in the
process of environmental education. The research methods used were questionnaires analysis,
formal discussions and interviews.

Participants

A considerable number of social groups of two cities were part of the research. The tar-
get students in the research were comprised of first year students of “Luarasi” Law University,
Political Science aiming to provide evidence of the needs of current environmental approaches.
All the students are freshmen. They are preparing for the bachelor degree in the field of law and
political science. These students are first state certified in Albania and then they may continue
further studies in other national or international universities. The curriculum is based upon
professional standards and includes a general studies component and a professional compo-
nent of subjects exploring the theories of different subject matters with a total of 30 credits per
semester, and 180 credits after three year studies. (Credits are based on the European Transfer
Credit System).

Instruments

Interviews were undertaken with the district teachers of natural science and civic educa-
tion in the frame of a broader activity increasing public awareness of the environment in two
regions of Albania that covered a considerable number of primary schools students, science
teachers, and people with higher and lower education. A group discussion was arranged provid-
ing the opportunity for each group to summarize their opinions on the points and then provide
their concerns and their statements. Sixty percent of the interviewers consider themselves to be
active in environmental issues, while only 25 percent have actually made a concrete effort in
any specific issue.
The activities covered a wide spectrum of environmental activities and range from the
general to the specific, from first year to upper levels, and from graduate to postgraduate, they
can move between the levels as they engage in the learning process. They involve student
engagement in pair work, small and large group work, case analyses, debates, simulations and
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10 role-play. The activities were divided into three broad levels: 1) Developing the understanding
of the environmental education; 2) Raising awareness on environmental issues; 3) Facilitating
autonomy toward environment.
A questionnaire was administered in December 2009 and consisted of four questions: 1.
Why is environmental education important? 2. Do you consider environment as an integrated
subject? 3. Do media play a role during the teaching process? 4. What exactly is intercultural
competence in educational environment?

Findings

The findings are analyzed according to the key questions mentioned above and in rela-
tion to the themes which emerged from the data analysis. It is noteworthy that the responses
of the two respective faculties Law University and Political Science faculty have differences
which may be attributed to different orientation of the subject matter. Questionnaire ensured
data from all the participants in the target population (Berat and Fier) to provide an overview of
their knowledge on environment. The study gives a clear picture of:

1) The existing situation of environmental knowledge in two cities of Albania.

2) The background of curriculum environmental education in two faculties (“Luarasi”

Law University and Political Science of the University of Tirana) and what is done
towards infusing such issues into specific subject’s matters.

The survey highlights the fact that there is a need for concrete curriculum reform to pro-
tect human health and improve the quality of life even through environmental education. The
results highlight that teaching and learning environmental disciplines can play a very decisive
role in shaping the new global citizen. The results indicate ways how to improve these experi-
ences and provide some recommendations.

The Importance of Environmental Education

The concept of environmental education is not new, although it has changed over the
years. Environmental education teaches students about the natural environment and about how
human beings can live in a way that respects the ecosystem and does not damage the environ-
ment. “We generate our own environment. We get exactly what we deserve. How can we resent
a life we’ve created ourselves? Who’s to blame, who’s to credit but us? Who can change it, any-
time we wish, but us?” W. Clement Stone (Quotations 5 May. 2010). Today, a great majority
of Albanians are convinced that the environment will become at least one of the dominant is-
sues and challenges of the 21st century; as the growing needs of the growing global population
exercises pressure towards the limits of the earth’s resources and ecosystems.
From the theoretical point of view, we may therefore consider environmental preferenc-
es as a long-term result of education and socialization, and that they may not easily be changed
in the short-term and the environmental issues do not only depend on preferences but also on
the situational context. As humans have great impacts on the environment and its resources,
education seems to be the best tool for providing the people with an understanding of the effect
of their actions. Albania like many other countries is becoming more concerned with the idea of
being a country with high standards of ecology and with leading green lives, teacher educators
have a decisive role to play in promoting those ideals and teaching others how to do it. It is a


www.thinkexist.com/quotations
Luljeta Buza. Envronmental Education: Teaching in the Present, Preparing Students for the 21st Century
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way of helping individuals and societies to resolve fundamental issues relating to the current 11
and future use of the world’s resources. This education offers a perfect opportunity for educa-
tors to use this kind of approach since many of the solutions to current environmental problems
call on interdisciplinary resources.
Environment is multi-disciplinary, which involves natural science (physical and biologi-
cal science), social sciences, and applied sciences demanding a solid knowledge of technology,
land use, ethics, domestic law, international law and many other subjects. According to Alba-
nian State reports of the Environment 2009, a number of issues provide grounds for serious
concern and serves as a serious reason why we should infuse environmental knowledge into
high schools.

Teachers` Opinion

The majority of teacher educators think, 95 percent of them, consider environmental

education an important subject to students and to our education system as a whole. All of them
think that environment is a complex area, simultaneously existing as a political movement
and economic, social, and cultural one and the environmental education projects as an ideal.
The teachers said that the building of the curriculum according to different levels by bringing
information from the real world into the classroom in a strong academic context will improve
the quality of knowledge. They also said that their students ‘knowledge gained through educa-
tion, will be the most successful strategy of environmental management. According to them it
is environmental education which can best help students make the complex, conceptual con-
nections between economic prosperity, benefits to society, environmental health, and the well
being. As educators they need to use the past as a guide to the present and to be better prepared
for the future.
The majority of teachers think that media is a very decisive factor to promote the im-
portance of such education because the schools prepare students for the new century. The use
of this information can help them and educational institutions achieve better results from the
activities which are considered as more effective in imparting environmental knowledge and
motivating them to action. The teachers consider as an important instrument if they focus on all
of the problems that are likely to affect students` actions on the environment. The teachers think
that to foster global citizenship in students, colleagues, they must create conditions to require
knowledge that push participants to understand their role in the world, their understanding of
other cultures, and their exploration of solutions to pressing 21st century challenges. They know
that this reflection doesn’t happen immediately it takes intentional and well thought planning
on the part of all to ensure that all students will push themselves to deeper thinking (critical
thinking) on the environment. If environmental education emphasis critical thinking, interdis-
ciplinary teaching and the achievements of the students will help to meet educational reform
objectives said the teachers.

Students` Opinion

A majority of these problems are of our own making the students said, 58 percent of law
students and 62 percent of social science students consider environmental knowledge a huge
volume of literature to digest, and 90 percent of both students answered that values, knowledge
and skills to achieve results in support of a sustainable environment will not occur overnight.
They highlight as well that on global level, environmental education prepares them to solve
even the environmental crisis. They think that to ensure a sustainable future, it is very impor-
tant its impact on community attitudes and specific sectors (business and industry). The study
points out that 43 percent of students consider educational programs traditionally seen as places
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12 for learning about things, rather than how to do things; not venues for action.
Therefore, the results of the survey pointed out that the teachers and students opinion go
in line with the following UNESCO`s Declaration that: “Environmental education is a learning
process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated
challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters at-
titudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action
(UNESCO, Tbilisi Declaration. 1978).”

Environmental Education as Social Instrument in Developing New Concepts

Today in Albania, one of the latest tendencies in education has to do with the push for the
integration of different subjects and disciplines when presenting information to students in the
classroom. This concept is appealing to environmental education as well. It is becoming more
popular for teachers to integrate the subjects of natural science, and technology with different
aspects of the humanities to help students gain a better understanding that they may effectively
apply the concepts and knowledge in real world situations. In addition, we face significant chal-
lenges with respect to those environmental teaching problems which are essentially domestic.
Decades ago when environmental conservation was not the important issue that it is today,
the goal was to establish an appreciation for the enjoyment of the nature but today education
in Albania does not only retain enjoying the nature as a goal for consolidating environmental
knowledge to students but it also includes the importance how to improve the quality of life
by protecting the environment and by enhancing intercultural competence. The strength of our
curricular tools through intercultural competence is measured through the life actions of our
students and therefore its impact will be a decisive factor of the next generations` integration
that is going to become global. “Different scholars have written that intercultural competence
does not comprise individual traits but is rather the characteristic of the association between
individuals and that no prescriptive set of characteristics guarantees competence in all intercul-
tural situations (Lustig and Koester 2003)”. This kind of comparative analysis has the potential,
as Byram (1997, p. 20) notes, to turn “learners’ attention back on the practices, beliefs and
social identities”. We must strive to create educational experiences that challenge our students’
perspectives both locally and globally.

Different Social Groups` Opinion

There were some questions in the survey which covered a wide spectrum of activities
in relation to the development of intercultural competence in the environmental education and
other disciplinary contexts. The questions are focused on examining the education related to
embedding intercultural competences aiming to analyze the main issues of environment during
the teaching process.
The study was completed in the frame of a broader activity increasing public awareness
of the environment in two regions of Albania that covered a considerable number of social
groups such as primary schools students, science teachers, people with higher and lower educa-
tion and students of the two different universities. The main criteria to evaluate knowledge were
“a knowledge indicator” constructed by the district teachers of natural science and civic educa-
tion. It consisted of six questions relating to the basic knowledge of environment. Questions
in the first part tested the knowledge of environmental issues as an instrument of intercultural
competence. The second part was constructed in order to verify their attitudes and opinions
toward protection of environment. The research defines the environmental education in the
concept of intercultural competence, and establishes: 1) the framework of transformative learn-
Luljeta Buza. Envronmental Education: Teaching in the Present, Preparing Students for the 21st Century
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ing theory, 2) the raise of the awareness of the new generation who understand the need to have 13
humans’ live sustainable lives and 3) the need for personal initiatives and social participation to
achieve this sustainability. It offers ideas and strategies for facilitating these developments.
The following findings showed a considerably low level of environmental knowledge
among all the investigated students and revealed that public suffers from an environmental
literacy gap that of course appears to be decreasing. Only 14% of all students identified correct
answers for the six questions included in the “knowledge indicator”; 67% was able to respond
correctly to three questions. A group of students who originated from Berat showed higher
knowledge on environment comparing with those of Fier because environmental education at
the high school level can vary widely. Some schools offer highly scientific classes where stu-
dents learn about the science of the environment and how human actions may change it. Other
classes may be more political or legal in nature and discuss different environmental laws and
United Nations declarations and conventions. It was pointed out that the students cannot link
their knowledge of science with the environmental protection, and their civic education with
environment as well. In the educational curriculum most of the subjects, its principles are not
always realized in full. They lack the link of a subject matter with other subjects because the
infusion is not considered as an essential part.
The data also indicate that out-of- door experiences can be combined very effective-
ly with formal school programs and enhance the learning obtained from both. It should be
highlighted that out-of-school environmental education experiences account for a significant
amount of what most people know about the environment, their attitudes and values toward the
environment, the knowledge of environmental issues, and knowledge of environmental actions.
The survey pointed out that schools and out-of-school organizations must work together to use
the strengths, their resources, and settings to enhance intercultural competence. Such inner en-
vironment which enables culture values become a part of students’ spiritual world in the basis
of the integration of subject and process levels of their inter-cultural competences.
The research data also indicate that the potential of media evidently has not been used
during the teaching program but still the media (television and newspapers) is considered as an
important and effective instrument for improving intercultural competences and environmental
actions. However, simply raising awareness of these issues is insufficient to bring about change
but the use of the model of raising the awareness campaigns in line with the perception of cul-
tural similarities and the their differences is highlighted as an effective one.
Too often law students and social science are left feeling overwhelmed at the enormity
of environmental problems having no sense of connection to the judicial system because the
teaching scope is usually too limited to constitute a complete environment law course. Although
substantial progress in this field has made, further advances in both technical and social aspects
of this concept but still further development is needed. The study highlights that to understand
the laws and the policy; the students of both universities must spend a significant amount of
time on studying environment through case studies and legislation. It is pointed out that an
effective policy framework for protecting and managing the environment in the future is the
teaching course which covers the sound legislation, sustainable management, and responsible
actions by individuals and communities. We must strive to create educational experiences that
challenge our students’ perspectives both locally and globally. If, as Gieve (1999) hopes, such
study “empowers students to co-create an interactive context of their own intercultural space”
(p.7), then the teaching process can be very successful and the teachers can develop effective
teaching methods and materials for increasing cultural, environmental awareness and sensitiv-
ity among the students. In doing so, it goes far beyond traditional emphases on the achievement
of such formal skills or specific knowledge of the course content in the national curriculum.


Berat and Fier are two cities in the south of Albania
 problems
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Volume 22, 2010

14 Recommendation

1. Environmental educational materials should be fair and contemporary in their de-

scription of environmental problems, issues and conditions; 2. Environmental education should
make students aware of the feelings, values and attitudes that guide opinions on such issues;
3. Environmental education should build skills such as critical thinking to enable students to
handle problems of environment in different situations; 4. Environmental education should
promote civic education, responsibility and encourage students to make a change. 5. Environ-
mental education should be instructionally sound and clear. This means that different learning
styles should be used and that there should be objective goals for the assessment of the students;
6. Environmental education materials should be designed in a way that can easily be used.

References

Council of Europe. (2000). Common European Framework of Reference: Learning, Teaching, Assess-
ment. Council for Cultural Education. Cambridge University Press.UK.
Delors, Jacques: “Learning: The Treasure within - Report to UNESCO of the International Commission
on Education for the Twenty-first Century”, UNESCO, 1996. Paris. France.
Evans, Micki McKisson & L. Campbell, Our Only Earth Series - A Curriculum for Globa Problem Solv-
ing. Tucson AZ. Zephyr Press. 1998. Germany.
Faculty of Foreign Languages of University of Tirana, June 2008. Pre-service teacher education pro-
gram. Tirana. Albania.
Gardner, R. (1985). Social Psychology and Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation.
Edward Arnold. London. UK.
Juelich, Ralf Szentndre, (2005) Progress in Environmental Law Drafting in South Eastern Europe. Hung-
ary.
Klemp, G. O. Jr. (1979). “Identifying, Measuring and Integrating Competence.” Germany.
Pottinger & J. Goldsmith. (Eds.) Defining and Measuring Competence. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. CA.
USA.
Lustig, M. W. & Koester. J. (2003). Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication across
Cultures, fourth edition. Allyn and Bacon. Boston. MA. USA
Merizow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. CA.
USA.
Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration. (2008). National Environmental Strategy.
Tirana. Albania.
Rizvi, I. Ali. (2000). Environmental Communication and Education. Lahore. Pakistan.
Saraceni, Claudia. 2003. Adapting Courses: A Critical View. Tomlinson B. (ed.) developing Materials for
Language Teaching. Cromwell Press. London. UK.
Spitzberg, B. & Cupach, W. (1984). Interpersonal Communicative Competence. Beverly Hills, CA.
USA
Sullivan, C. Thomas. (2003) Environmental Law Handbook, sixteen edition. Rockville. MD.
UNESCO, (2006). Guidelines on intercultural education. UNESCO. Paris. France.
Heinzerling, Lisa. (2009). Environmental Law and the present future. Retrieved from http://law.george-
town.edu.
Luljeta Buza. Envronmental Education: Teaching in the Present, Preparing Students for the 21st Century
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

Megacities. (2007). Megacities Codex. Retrieved from http://www.megacities.nl/codex.html. 15

Meyer, Maggie. Learning and Teaching through the Naturalist Intelligence. Retrieved from http://www.
newhorizons.
Remington, Chuck. Connecting People with Nature. Retrieved from http://www.audubon.org.

Adviced by Elida Tabaku, University of Tirana, Albania

Luljeta Buza Professor, “Luarasi” Law University, Rr. Lidhja Prizrenit, Pall.10, Ap, 1, Tirana, Albania.
Phone: + 355 42 2 23 06 32.
E-mail: luljetabuza@yahoo.com
Webiste: http://www.luarasi-univ.edu.al/alb/default.htm
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16

BIOLOGICAL OBJECTS REFLECTED IN

THE VERBAL ASSOCIATIONS OF
BULGARIAN TEENAGERS

Yordanka Dimova, Margarita Panayotova

Plovdiv University “Paisii Hilendarski”, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
E-mail: dimova@uni-plovdiv.bg; margopan@uni-plovdiv.bg

Darina Uzova
Secondary School “Ivan Seliminsky”, Sliven, Bulgaria
E-mail: dari_uz@mail.bg

Abstract

The article aims to introduce the reader with the results from the second part of a survey on the concept
of “Nature” in the minds of 13-year-old Bulgarian students. This time, we focus on the question: What
biological objects and knowledge are reflected in the verbal associations of the students?
The method of study used is a chain associative experiment carried out following the S (stimulus) – Ri
(reactions) pattern. Each participant is required to write down the first 7 words that come to their mind
when the word “nature” is pronounced. 1400 reactions are used to reconstruct the associative fields
objectifying the conscious and unconscious layers of the cultural concept of ‘nature’ in the linguistic con-
sciousness of the participants (100 students in the 6th and 100 students in the 7th grade). We analyze 988
words-reactions that have connection to the biological aspects of the concept of “Nature”.
We have also described how the associative experiment became a stimulus for organizing a competition
for best painting and essay on the subject of “Me and Nature” at a school in Sliven.
Key words: associative experiment, the concept of “Nature”, knowledge in biology.

Introduction

Knowledge about nature and the perception to nature as something important and valu-
able are key components of the cultural concept of “Nature”. One of the main factors influenc-
ing the content and structure of this concept in the individual linguistic consciousness of the
child and adolescent is natural sciences education.
A previous paper of ours that was published in the journal Problems of education in the
21st century (Dimova, Angelova, Russev, 2009) introduces a research on the associative field of
the word “nature” in the linguistic consciousness of 13-year-old Bulgarian students. The results
show that in the conditions of an associative experiment the teenagers from the groups that took
part in the survey get over the already set stimulus-reaction pattern for verbalizing the concept
of “nature” and go beyond the boundary of object and events perception and description of the
material world (Dimova, Angelova, Rusev, 2009).
Yordanka Dimova, Margarita Panayotova, Darina Uzova. Biological Objects Reflected in the Verbal Associations of
Bulgarian Teenagers
problems
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in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

The current paper describes the results from a survey that is related to the biological 17
aspects of knowledge about nature. Again, we have chosen 13-year-old students for the asso-
ciative experiment because at this age a neat system of biology terms is being formed in their
linguistic consciousness through their education in the school subjects of “Man and Nature” (5th
and 6th grade) and “Biology and Health Education” (7th grade). The results from the survey give
enough reliable information about the linguistic development of the average language carrier,
about the productivity of the non-arbitrary (that is, guided and structured through education)
acquisition by the carrier of concepts related to the knowledge about nature.

Context of the Survey

In Bulgarian schools, the purposeful development of the content and structure of the cul-
tural concept of “Nature” in the minds of the students is defined to a great extent by the content
of the school subjects from the cultural and educational sphere of “Natural Sciences and Ecol-
ogy”. ”Man and Nature” is the subject that is taught during the elementary educational degree
(from the 3rd to the 6th grade). The content of the subject includes basic physical, chemical, bio-
logical and axiological knowledge about nature, about the unity and variety of natural objects
and phenomena. This propaedeutic knowledge is a good cognitive basis for the introduction in
the 7th grade of the school subjects of “Physics and Astronomy”, “Chemistry and Environmen-
tal Preservation”, and “Biology and Health Education”.
The biology modules in the school subject “Man and Nature” (5th and 6th grade) focus
the students’ attention on basic vital processes of organisms (plants, animals, man). The school
subject “Biology and Health Education” in the 7th grade focuses on the knowledge of grouping
of organisms; on basic taxonomic categories of the five-kingdom taxonomic system; on the
role of the unicellular and multi-cellular organisms in nature and their importance to man. The
main goal of the syllabi is to set up natural sciences knowledge and skills for examining natural
objects, and to create conditions for teaching students to have a respectful attitude towards na-
ture and perceive it as something important and valuable. [Учебни програми/School Syllabi,
2003]
The survey of the goals and terms (concepts) in the syllabi for the “Man and Nature”
(5th and 6th grade) and “Biology and Health Education” (7th grade) school subjects allows us to
introduce in a summarized form the biological aspects of the content of the concept of “Nature”
(Table 1.). This figure is later used as a reference point for the coding, introduction and inter-
pretation of the data from the associative experiment.
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18 Table 1. Biological aspects of the concept of “NATURE”.

NATURE
ANIMATE NATURE INANIMATE NATURE
ORGANISMS’ TAXONOMIC INFLUENCE OF
VITAL PROCESSES
ORGANS AND GROUPS OF MAN ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
OF ORGANISMS
SYSTEMS ORGANISMS ENVIRONMENT

Feeding Prokaryotes Air

Organs of plants Preservation
Breathing Organs and Unicellular Atmosphere
systems of Terrestrial
Excretion animals and environment Soils
human beings
Pollution
Plants
Response to
Organs of plants Lithosphere
Stimuli
Movement
Destruction Мarine Water
Reproduction Organs and Fungi
systems of environment
Growth Animals, including Hydrosphere
animals and
Man Recovery
Development human beings

KEY: 5th grade 6th grade 7th grade

Methodology of Research

In the introduction we stick to the ideas of the Russian scientist Yuri Karaulov (Караулов,
1987; Караулов, 1989) about the linguistic person and to the ideas of the Moscow Psycho-
linguistic School for the linguistic consciousness (Ufimceva, N.V., Tarasov, E. F., Cerkasova,
G.A., et al.), for the verbal associations through which research can be made and through which
conclusions can be drawn, which conclusions would be important for the theory and practice
of teaching various school subjects (Костова, 1992; Мартинович, 1993). The methodology of
conducting a survey by carrying out an associative experiment has been presented in greater
detail in our previous paper published in the journal Problems of education in the 21st century
(Dimova, Angelova, Russev, 2009).
The object of the present survey is the linguistic consciousness of Bulgarian teenagers:
13-year-old Bulgarian students from four Bulgarian schools (in Plovdiv and Sliven). The sub-
ject of the survey consists of some of the verbal associations of the students that took part in the
survey. The purpose of the survey is to reconstruct that part of the associative field of the word
“nature” which is related to the biological aspects of the content of the concept of “Nature”.
At the end of April 2009, an associative experiment was carried out with 380 students
from the 6th and 7th grade (students at the age of 12 to 14). The experiment was carried out fol-
lowing the S (stimulus) → Ri (reactions) pattern. Each student was required to write down the
first seven words that came to their mind when the word “nature” was pronounced. The students
were specifically instructed to try to react spontaneously and quickly without much consider-
ation as to what exactly to write down.
After the end of the experiment, we separated the answer sheets only of the students
who were 13 years old. A cross section was compiled on an arbitrary basis. The cross-sectional
Yordanka Dimova, Margarita Panayotova, Darina Uzova. Biological Objects Reflected in the Verbal Associations of
Bulgarian Teenagers
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

data contain the answers of 50 girls and 50 boys from the 6th grade and the same number of 19
girls and boys from the 7th grade. All words-reactions from the work sheets that had been taken
for the cross-sectional data were copied. In this way we got the data about the reactions of 100
students from the 6th grade and 100 students from the 7th grade; the total number of reactions
being 1400.
We compiled a frequency glossary of the words of both groups with the help of a com-
puter program. From this glossary we only took the words-reactions that have a direct connec-
tion to the biological aspects of the concept of “Nature”. They are 988 (≈ 70, 57 %). Only these
words are coded and used for the compilation of comparative tables with data for the frequency
of the reactions (Tables 2 and 3).
So as to compare two relative frequencies in the study of two independent survey samples
the following statistics is used (Гласс и Стэнли, 1976, p. 295):

p1 − p2
z=
f1 + f 2  f + f2   1 1  ,
1 − 1   + 
n1 + n2  n1 + n2   n1 n2 
where:
n1, n2 – is the volume of the reactions studied (n1 – of the students from the 6th grade; n2
– of the students from the 7th grade);
f1, f2 – is the absolute frequency of the reactions;
p1, p2 – is the relative frequency of the reactions;

f1 f
p1 = ; p2 = 2 .
n1 n2
The empirical hypothesis is redefined for the purposes of the statistical analysis into
statistical hypotheses.
Hypothesis Н0: there is no difference between the reactions in the two survey samples.
Hypothesis Н1: the reactions in the two survey samples differ.
The calculated value of the quantity z is compared to the critical value for the chosen
level of truthfulness (α) which is taken from statistical tables. If the value of z is smaller than
the negative and greater than the positive critical value for the chosen level of truthfulness, Н0
is denied, and an alternative hypothesis Н1 is accepted. Otherwise, Н0 is accepted. For α = 0.05,
the critical values of the quantity are z = ± 1.96.
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20 Results of Research

The results from the survey have been presented in the following tables:

Table 2. Summarized data from the associative experiment.

Frequency
Criterion for Dif- Criterion for Differentia-
Aspects of studying and Frequency of of the
ferentiation tion
comparison features the reactions different
z z
reactions
f1 f2 f1 f2

• standard reactions 428 456 z = – 2,05 < – 1,96 z = – 1,19 > – 1,96
30 32
Но is denied Но is accepted

• reactions in diads z = 1,91 < 1,96 z = – 0,96 > – 1,96

22 12 11 6
Ноis accepted Но is accepted

• individual reactions z = 1,08 < 1,96 z = 0,56 < 1,96

39 31 40 31
Но is accepted Но is accepted

n1 n2 n1 n2
Total number of reactions:
489 499 81 69

Table 2 presents summarized data about the reactions of the students according to the
properties of the concept of “Nature” that are listed in table 1. We use a classification of the re-
actions according to the level of originating of the answers (Мартинович, 1993): the reactions
are standard (with frequency greater than 2) and individual (with frequency 1), and the words
with frequency 2 make up a middle layer within the associative field (in table 2 we have marked
them as reactions in dyads).
Table 3 is more informative. On its first horizontal line, we have listed terms or groups
of terms reflecting biological aspects of the concept of “Nature”. The second horizontal line has
the words (in columns) which can be related by their meaning to the corresponding systems
of terms. The digits after each word show the frequency of the reactions for both groups, and,
the digits in parentheses correspond to the answers of the students from the 6th and 7th grade.
The third horizontal line shows the frequency of the reactions of the students. The fourth line
reflects the total number of the words used, and, the digits in parentheses show the number of
words used correspondingly by the 6th-grade and 7th-grade students. The fifth horizontal line
lists the number of words that have been used by both groups of students. The last horizontal
line contains the values for the relative quantity K.
In order to make the interpretation of the data easier, we introduce the relative quantity
K, which shows the ratio between the frequencies of the reactions related to the corresponding
systems of concepts and the total number of words reflecting these reactions. The higher values
of K show greater similarity in the frequency of the reactions, that is, they show similar associa-
tions in the minds of the students from the groups that have been studied. The low values of K
show a certain deficit of associations.
Table 3. Words-reactions related to concepts from the syllabus in Man and
Nature (5th and 6th grade) and Biology and Health Education (7th grade).

ORGANISMS VITAL PROCESSES OF ORGANS AND SYSTEMS INFLUENCE OF

CONCEPTS NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
TAXONOMIC GROUPS OF ORGANISMS ORGANISMS OF ORGANISMS MAN ON THE ENVIRONMENT
TERRESTRIAL ENVIRON-
Bulgarian Teenagers

PLANTS ANIMALS, MAN ORGANS OF PLANTS MENT, PROTECTION

• plant, -s, 71 (28+43)
• weed, 3 (0+3)
• oak tree, 2 (2+0)
• bamboo, 1 (0+1)
• beech-tree, 1 (1+0)
• strawberries, 1 (1+0)
• wild geranium, 1 (1+0)
• fern, 1 (0+1)
• linden tree, 1 (0+1)
• pine, 1 (0+1)
FUNGI
Frequen-
cy of the • fungi, 2 (1+1)
reactions
in the
survey
(6th + 7th
grade)
ORGANISMS
• tree, -s, 108 (60+48)
• flower, -s, 53 (30+23)
• grass, 44 (29+15)
• bush, -bushes, 25
(14+11)
• animate, 14 (10+4)
• people, 13 (6+7)
• animal, -s, 116 (53+63)
• man, 23 (7+16)
• birds 11 (8+3)
• insect, -s, 4 (1+3)
• mammal, -s, 2 (2+0)
• butterfly, -butterflies
2 (2+0)
• bees, 2 (1+1)
• frog, 2 (1+1)
• bat, 1 (1+0)
• bear, 1 (1+0)
• beetles, 1 (1+0)
• woman, 1 (0+1)
• rabbit, 1 (0+1)
• reptiles, 1 (0+1)
• snakes, 1 (0+1)
• snail, 1 (1+0)
• wolf, 1 (1+0)
• fox, 1 (1+0)
• tree stump, 2 (2+0)
• vegetables, 2 (2+0)
• birds, 2 (2+0)
• rabbits, 2 (2+0)
• squirrel, 1 (1+0)
• bear cub, 1 (1+0)
• ducklings, 1 (1+0)
• life, 14 (6+8) • leaf, leaves,
• development, 4 (3+0) 20 (12+8)
• reproduction, 2 (1+1) • fruit, 7 (7+0)
• feeding, 1 (1+0) • branches, 2 (2+0)
• photosynthesis, 1 (0+1) • blossom, 1 (1+0)
• breathing, 1 (0+1) • pine cones, 1 (0+1)
• blossoming, 1 (1+0) • roots, 1 (1+0)
• vitality, 1 (1+0)
• health, 1 (0+1) ORGANS AND SYSTEMS
• disease, 1 (0+1) PF ANIMALS AND MAN
• system, -s, 4 (0+4)
• cell, -s, 3 (0+3);
• tissue, 1 (0+1)
• organs, 1 (0+1)
• nervous (system), 1 (0+1)
• musculoskeletal (system),
1(0+1)
• reproductive, 1 (0+1)
AIR, SOILS
• forest, -s, 58 (12+46) • protection, 5 (0+5)
• air, 47 (21+26) • fertility, 3 (3+0)
• mountains, 27 (16+11) • cleanness, 1 (0+1)
• glade, -s, 22 (8+14) • preservation, 1 (0+1)
• soil, -s, 10 (6+4) • agronomy, 1 (1+0)
• field, -s, 6 (1+5)
• meadows, 5 (1+4) POLLUTION
• park, 2 (1+1)
• valleys, 2 (2+0) • pollution, 14 (11+3)
• jungle, 1 (0+1) • pollutants, 2 (0+2)
• desert, 1 (0+1) • not-taken care of,
• sand, 1 (1+0) 1 (1+0)
• soil, 1 (1+0) • waste, 1 (0+1)
MARINE ENVIRONMENT,
WATERS DESTRUCTION
• water, -s, 46 (25+21)
• river, -s, 42(19+23) • fire, 2 (0+2)
• lake, -s, 19 (7+12) • burnt down, 1 (1+0)
• sea, -s, 16 (9+7) • destruction, 1(1+0)
• waterfall, -s, 6 (4+2) • disaster, 1 (1+0)
• ocean, -s, 6 (3+3) • hunting, 1 (1+0)
• reservoirs, 2 (1+1)
• brook, 2 (2+0)
• lagoon, 1 (1+0)
• spring, 1 (1+0)
• swamps, 1 (1+0)
OTHER
• variety,12 (5+7);
• cloud, -s, 3 (3+0)
Yordanka Dimova, Margarita Panayotova, Darina Uzova. Biological Objects Reflected in the Verbal Associations of

• organisms, 4 (3+1) • insects, 1 (1+0) • rain, 3 (0+3)

• bio, 4 (2+2) • wheat, 1 (0+1) • wind, 2 (0+2)
• environment, 2 (0+2)
• world, 1 (1+0)
• cycle, 1 (1+0)
Number of
21

534 (280/254) 26 (13/13) 44 (23/21) 349 (153/196) 35 (20/15)

the reactions
Number of
46 (36/16) 10 (6/6) 13 (5/9) 31 (26/21) 14 (8/7)
words
Identical
problems

Volume 22, 2010

26 3 1 16 1
words
of education

К 11,60 (7,78/15,87) 2.6 (2,17/2,17) 3.38 (4,60/2,33) 11.26 (5,88/9,33) 2.50(2,50/2,14)

in the 21st century
 problems
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Volume 22, 2010

22 Discussion

The analysis of the data from the associative experiment shows the following:
1. The statistical analysis shows that the group associative fields do not differ greatly
according to the level of originating of the answers. Only the difference between the standard
reactions is of statistical importance as far as this feature is concerned.
2. The words-associations which can be related to the biological aspects of the concept
of “Nature” are 114 for the unified cross-sectioned data. For the group from the 6th grade the
words-associations are 81, and for the group from the 7th grade, 69 (table 2), which is not a
significant difference at first glance. But having in mind the fact that from all the words only 46
(that is, about 41%) have been used by students from both groups, we can say for sure that the
difference in the reactions is actually quite significant. What is more, in the cross-sectioned data
from the 7th grade, there are more standard reactions as words-reactions with the meaning of
more general scientific terms, and in the cross-sectioned data from the 6th grade, the individual
reactions expressed in words-reactions naming more concrete objects are greater in number.
The difference in the standard and individual reactions between the two groups can be
explained with the difference in the volume, content and structure of the basic systems of scien-
tific terms (concepts) which function in the process of education in the 6th and 7th grade.
3. The students from both groups most frequently associate nature with plant and animal
organisms: 534 (280/254). We find this similarity of the reactions to be important.
In the group associative fields, the words with greatest frequency are: animal, - s, 116
(53+63); tree, -s, 108 (60+48); plant, - s, 71 (28+43); flower, -s, 53 (30+23). These words
can be related to the core of the linguistic consciousness because of statistical considerations.
(See more information about the method of research in the Bulgarian Associative Dictionary:
Караулов, 2003, p. 10).
When comparing only the first associations (words-reactions) of the students from the 6th
and the 7th grade, there is similarity again: the words tree, - s, 50 (30+20); plant. –s, 20 (7+13)
and animal, -s, 15 (8+7) are most frequent. These words-reactions (85) comprise 47.5 % of the
total number (200) of the first words-reactions of the two groups that took part in the survey.
This confirms the finding from our previous associative experiment that for 13-year-old
students the concept of “Nature” has associations with a positive connotation related to the tree
as a symbol of life, to the world of animals and plants (Dimova, Angelova, Rusev, 2009).
4. Special attention should be paid to the fact that in the group associative field of the
unified cross-sectional data the words man, 23 (7+16) and people, 13 (6+7) have relatively
low frequency. The word man is the first association of only 1 student from the 6th grade and
of 3 students from the 7th grade; this word has been written down as a second association by
1 student from the 6th and 2 students from the 7th grade. We might assume that most of the 13-
year-old students who took part in the survey still do not perceive Man as an inseparable part of
Nature. This could be the explanation for the fact that there is a small number of associations in
the unified cross-sectional data (35) related to the influence of man on nature. We can assume
that school work is not focused enough on teaching students to perceive nature as something
valuable and important (as we have previously stated, this is one of the main goals set up in the
syllabi of “Man and Nature” and “Biology and Health Education”).
5. The next thematic group of words-associations can be related to objects from the
natural environment. Only a few associations appear with great frequency in this part of the
associative fields: forest, - s, 58 (12+46); air, 47 (21+26); water, -s, 46 (25+21) and river, -s, 42
(19+23). These words can also be related to the core of the linguistic consciousness of 13-year-
old students.
The rest of the words-associations are quite diverse. This could be explained by taking
into consideration the life experience of the students obtained from direct contact with nature,
Yordanka Dimova, Margarita Panayotova, Darina Uzova. Biological Objects Reflected in the Verbal Associations of
Bulgarian Teenagers
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

and also by the reflection in their linguistic consciousness of the intra-subject connections cre- 23
ated during their education in “Geography and Economics”, “Man and Nature”, “Biology and
Health Education”.
6. For the rest of the thematic groups of words-associations, the values of the relative
quantity K are low. The individual reactions dominate.
The summarized data from the associative experiment allow for drawing the following
conclusion: the production of associations about Nature (that is, the creation of a field of links
between words and images) is achieved by the 13-year-old students in a cultural context which
synthesizes spontaneous activeness of images mainly of biological objects and activates knowl-
edge in the form of acquired scientific terms.

Instead of a Conclusion

The results from the experiment lead us to ask two new interesting questions:
• Whether there will be similarity or difference when the concept of Nature becomes
explicit in various task situations which activate the logical and visual thinking of the students
(for example, a semantic evaluation, an image, etc.)
We looked for an answer to this question through an experiment with students from
the 7th grade in Secondary School “I. Seliminsky”, Sliven. After the end of the experiment we
asked the students what they would draw or tell about if they had the task to describe nature.
74 students readily took part in a painting contest and 10 of them took part in an essay contest.
The preliminary data suggest similarity with the results from associative experiment. This find-
ing can be more readily accepted after the examination of more comprehensive cross-sectional
data.
• Whether the cycle of associative thinking in question can provoke in students self-
evaluation of their personal knowledge and understanding of nature.
An answer to this question could be found through the use of an appropriate methodol-
ogy described by Kostova, Z. and Atasoy, E. (2009): the students are required to self-evaluate
their knowledge about the meaning of a certain number of terms.

“Comparisons of the results of teacher and self-evaluation combined with critical and construc-
tive discussion can help students to develop understanding and skills for self-regulated learning
in pursuit for excellence” (Kostova, Z. & E. Atasoy, 2009, p. 52).

We could use this idea in some future survey.

References

Dimova, Y., Angelova, T., Rusev, E., (2009). Verbal associations of Bulgarian teenagers for ‘Nature’.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century (Trends and Problems in Science and Technology Education),
Vol. 11, pp. 37-44.
Kostova, Z. & Atasoy, E., (2009). Comparative Assessment and Self-Assessment of Students’ Envi-
ronmental Knowledge in Bulgaria and Turkey. Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy
(BJSEP), Vol. 3, Number 1, pр. 49-67.
Гласс Дж. и Стэнли, Дж. (1976). Статистические методы в педагогике и психологии. Пeрев. с
англ. Москва: Прогресс.
Караулов, Е. Ф. и др., (2003). Български асоциативен речник. София: Университетско
издателство.
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24 Караулов, Ю. Н., (1987). Русский язык и языковая личность. Москва: Наука.

Караулов, Ю. Н., (1989). Русская языковая личность и задачи ее изучения. Язык и личность.
Москва: Наука, с. 3-8.
Костова, З. (1992). Как да учим успешно? Иновации в образованието. София: Педагог.
Мартинович, Г. А., (1993) Опыт комплексного исследования данных ассоциативного
эксперимента. Вопросы психологии, 2, 93-99.
Уфимцева, Н. В. и др., (2004). Славянский ассоциативный словарь: русский, белорусский,
болгарский, украинский. Москва: Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации,
Московский государственный лингвистический университет, Российская академия наук,
Институт Языкознания.
Учебни програми по „Човекът и природата” за 5. и за 6. клас. (2003). София: Министерство на
образованието и науката.
Учебна програма по „Биология и здравно образование” за 7. клас. (2003). София: Министерство на
образованието и науката.
Языковое сознание и образ мира (2000). Сборник статей. Отв. ред. Н. В. Уфимцева. Москва: Инс-
титут языкознания РАН.

Adviced by Zdravka Kostova, Plovdiv University “Paisii Hilendasrki”, Bulgaria

Yordanka Dimova Assoc. Professor, Plovdiv University “Paisii Hilendasrki”, 24, Tsar Asen Str., 4000 Plovdiv,
Bulgaria.
Phone: +35932261230.
E-mail: dimova@uni-plovdiv.bg
Website: http://argon.uni-plovdiv.bg/

Margarita Panayotova Assoc. Professor, Plovdiv University “Paisii Hilendasrki”, 24, Tsar Asen Str., 4000 Plovdiv,
Bulgaria.
Phone: +35932261504.
E-mail: margopan@uni-plovdiv.bg
Website: http://bio.uni-plovdiv.bg/

Darina Uzova Teacher, Secondary School “Ivan Seliminsky”, 1, Dragoman Str., 8800 Sliven, Bulgaria.
Phone: +359044624774.
E-mail:  dari_uz@mail.bg
 problems
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25

ON EFFECTIVITY OF INDUCTIVE
METHODS IN MATHEMATICAL
EDUCATION AT SECONDARY SCHOOL

Petr Emanovský
Palacký University in Olomouc, Czech Republic
E-mail: emanovsky@inf.upol.cz

Jiří Břehovský
J. E. Purkyně University Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
E-mail: brehovsky@fvtm.ujep.cz

Abstract

Effectivity and quality of mathematical education at secondary school is always very actual didactic
topic. One way how to increase them is using unconvencional experimentally inductive methods. There
are described the methods as well as process and results of research conected with this problem there.
The aim of the research was to check possibilities of using of modern unconvencional methods for
more effective mathematical education at secondary school. The inductive methods are compared with
the traditional ones when students get completed knowledge without any derivation or proof. Using
Student′s t-test and F-test were verified two hypotheses. The first hypothesis that the experimentally
inductive approach and methods in mathematical education at secondary school are more effective
and interesting for students than the traditional methods was validated. The second hypothesis which
supposed longer persistence of knowledge obtained by the inductive methods was not validated.
Key words: deduction, induction, mathematical education, secondary school, pedagogical research.

Introduction

Since mathematics represents very abstract discipline one should be careful about
formalism during transfer of mathematical knowledge. Particularly, such danger is actual at
university mathematical education (Kopka, 2000; Emanovský, 2001) as well as at secondary
school (Kopka, 1999; Břehovský, Emanovský, 2009). The authors of the articles recommend to
use some non-traditional methods based on experiment and induction.
Despite of traditional deductive approach in mathematics most mathematical theories
have both an experimental and inductive character. Their beginnings arise out of tentative
searching and speculative trial and error; they gain a deductive character only after their period
of investigation. Investigations, as described in Kopka, J. (2004), is a method of teaching and
learning mathematics which permits students to enter and penetrate more deeply into the world
of mathematics that most other teaching approaches fail to do. If one wishes the students to
have experiences of how mathematics evolves, then it should be respected how mathematical
theories come into existence, how they develop and how they finally gain their form and na-
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26 ture. Too frequently students are only exposed to mathematics in its final and approved form.
Using investigations is one method of teaching involved in the full range of the development
of a mathematical theory. Investigations also provide students with insights into what it is like
to be a mathematician and to experience mathematical thinking at work. Students should be
able to investigate certain mathematical situations and consequently to formulate problems and
hypotheses. This inductive approach should be completed by validation of the hypotheses, i.e.
by return deduction. Clearly, the inductive way is much more time-consuming and difficult for
teachers and students than traditional one. On the other hand, it contains very important and
worth student activities which are all about making the students more active participants in the
learning process – an observation, an investigation, formulation and solving of problems and
formulation and validation of hypotheses.

Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods

The most commonly used inductive teaching and learning methods are inquiry learn-
ing, problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based teaching, discovery learning
and just-in-time teaching (Prince, Felder, 2006). The investigations according to Kopka, J.
(2004) is possible to consider as a method of the first cathegory. The inquiry learning means that
students are presented with questions to be answered, problems to be solved, or a set of obser-
vations to be explained (Bateman, 1990). If the method is implemented effectively, the students
should learn to „formulate good questions, identify and collect appropriate evidence, present
results systematically, analyze and interpret results, formulate conclusions, and evaluace the
worth and importace those conclusions“ (Lee, 2004).

Research Problems

The experimental inductive methods are much more suitable for student at secondary
school because of their age. The objective of this paper is to describe the inductive approach (in
the sense of Kopka′s investigations) as well as the process and results of research whose aim
was to verify the effectivity of the non-traditional inductive methods for mathematical educa-
tion at secondary school.
There were formulated the following problems for the research:
• Does the submission of the inductive methods to mathematical education guarantee
more effective and permanent transfer of knowledge?
• Does the using of the inductive methods in mathematical education contribute to bet-
ter understanding of learning?
• Does the using of the inductive methods in mathematical education contribute to bet-
ter ability to apply new knowledge and skills?

Metodology of Research

There were set the following two hypotheses for the research:
H1: The using of the inductive approach and methods in mathematical education raises
the standard of student knowledge in given topic in comparison with the traditional methods?
H2: The using of the inductive approach and methods in mathematical education leads
to longer persistence of obtained knowledge and skills in comparison with the traditional meth-
ods?
Petr Emanovský, Jiří Břehovský. On Effectivity of Inductive Methods in Mathematical Education at Secondary School
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Pedagogical experiment was chosen as research instrument for verification of the hy- 27
potheses. Linear functions were chosen as the topic suitable for using the experimental meth-
ods. The research was realized at two technical schools and two grammar schools because of
comparison (Břehovský, 2010).

Pedagogical Experiment

The experiment was based on division of chosen student sample to two comparable
groups – control and experimental. The division was done according to results of entrance test
(pretest) for investigation of entrance knowledge and skills level. There were used the tradi-
tional teaching methods in the control group and the non-traditional ones in the experimental
group during the experiment.
The traditional methods in this context mean that students are only exposed to math-
ematics in its final and approved form without any experiment, derivation or proof. The tradi-
tional teaching in the control group was realized in the common manner, i.e. by presentation of
input information, speciment example, exercise and revision of knowledge.
In contrast of it, by the non-traditional approach is understood inquiry learning based on
observation, investigation, formulation and solving of problems and formulation of hypotheses
and their validation. Within the non-traditional teaching in the experimental group the students
are presented with simple real problems to be solved. Consequently, the students should for-
mulate and solve another more difficult and more general problems or formulate and validate a
hypothesis. The students work on their solutions separately and then they show them to others.
Each idea is scarified by others and consequently used for the following work or refused. The
role of a teacher is to supervise all described activities, to help students with formulation of
problems and hypotheses, with verification of hypotheses and putting conclusions more pre-
cise. At the close of the class there are summarized all essential results which were discovered
by students and there are repeated all steps that anticipated the discoveries.
Testing of exit knowledge level (posttest) was worked out immediately after the experi-
ment (verification of the hypothesis H1). To check the persistence of the new knowledge was
realized the retest a month later (verification of the hypothesis H2). Using standardized didactic
test (Břehovský, 2010) were obtained data for posttest (see Table 1.) and for retest (see Table
4.). Each test contains 15 problems intent on memorizing and understanding of knowledge and
ability of their application in standard and problem situation. The standardization of the tests
was realized before the experiment according to Chráska (1999) with 355 students at 5 second-
ary schools (Břehovský, 2010). Student′s t-test and F-test were used to validate the hypothese
because of the type of data.

Results of Research

Verification of Hypothesis H1

The following table shows results of the test which was done immediately after the
experiment. Total number of students taking part in the experiment was 101 (50 students in
experimental group and 51 in control group) and maximal number of points in the test was 15
(Břehovský, 2010).
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28 Table 1. Results of posttest.

 
Experimental group E Control group C
   
   
Cumulative fre- Cumulative fre- Percen-
Points xi Frequency ni Percentile Frequency ni
quency quency tile order
order

0 0 0 0,0 0 0 0,0
1 0 0 0,0 2 2 2,0
2 0 0 0,0 1 3 4,9
3 0 0 0,0 0 3 5,9
4 4 4 4,0 7 10 12,7
5 0 4 8,0 5 15 24,5
6 8 12 16,0 8 23 37,3
7 3 15 27,0 3 26 48,0
8 2 17 32,0 4 30 54,9
9 4 21 38,0 4 34 62,7
10 7 28 49,0 2 36 68,6
11 5 33 61,0 5 41 75,5
12 3 36 69,0 3 44 83,3
13 5 41 77,0 1 45 87,3
14 4 45 86,0 5 50 93,1
15 5 50 95,0 1 51 99,0

To verify the hypothesis H1 was formulated the following zero hypothesis H01 and alter-
native hypothesis HA1 :
H01 : There is no statistically significant difference between average number of points
obtained in posttest in the group E and in the group C.
HA1 : There is statistically significant difference between average number of points ob-
tained in posttest in the group E and in the group C.
Using data from the posttest one can compute value of t-test criterion t = 2,8018 (for
details see Table 2., Table 3. and e.g. Chráska (2007)). Since the table value of the criterion for
significance level α = 0,05 is equal to 1,984 < 2,8018 the hypothesis H01 is refused. It means
that for this significance level there exists statistically significant difference between average
number of points obtained in posttest in the group E and in the group C and the hypothesis H1
can be accepted.
Petr Emanovský, Jiří Břehovský. On Effectivity of Inductive Methods in Mathematical Education at Secondary School
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Volume 22, 2010

Table 2. Partial results for computation of test criterion t (hypothesis H1). 29

Experimental group Control group

nE = 50 nC = 51

Σ xi = 494 Σ xi = 403

Σxi2 = 5442 Σxi2 = 3869

average ΦE = 9,88 average ΦC = 7,9

dispersion sE = 3,38 dispersion sC = 3,7

Table 3. Results of computation of test criterion t (hypothesis H1).

computed test criterion t = 2,8018

number of degrees of freedom f = 98
table value of criterion t for α = 0,05 and
t0,05(100) = 1,984
f =100
table value of criterion t for α = 0,01 and
t0,01(100) = 2,626
f =100

Verification of Hypothesis H2

The following table shows results of the retest which was done a month after the ex-
periment for the same student sample and maximal number of points in the test (Břehovský,
2010).

Table 4. Results of retest.

Experimental group E Control group C

 
   
   

Points Frequency Cumulative Percentile Frequency Cumulative Percentile

xi ni frequency order ni frequency order

0 0 0 0,0 0 0 0,0
1 1 1 1,0 1 1 1,0
2 2 3 4,2 3 4 4,8
3 1 4 7,3 1 5 8,7
4 2 6 10,4 4 9 13,5
5 4 10 16,7 3 12 20,2
6 2 12 22,9 6 18 28,8
7 7 19 32,3 6 24 40,4
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30
8 6 25 45,8 3 27 49,0
9 0 25 52,1 3 30 54,8
10 1 26 53,1 4 34 61,5
11 5 31 59,4 3 37 68,3
12 3 34 67,7 5 42 76,0
13 2 36 72,9 2 44 82,7
14 3 39 78,1 4 48 88,5
15 9 48 90,6 4 52 96,2

To verify the hypothesis H2 was formulated the following zero hypothesis H02 and alter-
native hypothesis HA2 :
H02 : There is no statistically significant difference between average number of points
obtained in retest in the group E and in the group C.
HA2 : There is statistically significant difference between average number of points ob-
tained in retest in the group E and in the group C.
Similarly, using data from the retest one can compute value of t-test criterion t = 0,99
(for details see Table 5. and Table 6.). Since the table value of the criterion for significance level
α = 0,05 is equal to 1,984 > 0,99 the hypothesis H02 is accepted. It means that for this signifi-
cance level there does not exist statistically significant difference between average number of
points obtained in retest in the group E and in the group C and the hypothesis H2 can not be
accepted.

Table 5. Partial results for computation of test criterion t (hypothesis H2).

Experimental group Control group

nE = 48 nK = 51

Σ xi = 449 Σ xi = 444

Σxi2 = 5037 Σxi2 = 4602

average ΦE = 9,35 average ΦK = 8,54

dispersion sE = 4,22 dispersion sK = 3,99

Table 6. Results of computation of test criterion t (hypothesis H2).

computed test criterion t = 0,99

number of degrees of freedom f = 98
table value of criterion t for α = 0,05 and
f =100 t0,05(100) = 1,984

table value of criterion t for α = 0,01 and

f =100 t0,01(100) = 2,626

The tables 3. and 6. show that 0,99 < t0,01(100) = 2,626 < 2,8018, i.e. the same conslu-
sions for the hypotheses H1 and H2 can be pronounced for significance level α = 0,01.
Petr Emanovský, Jiří Břehovský. On Effectivity of Inductive Methods in Mathematical Education at Secondary School
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Discussion 31

The results of the described research correspond with several published analyses which
conclude that inquiry-based teaching is generally more effective than traditional instruction
for achieving a variety of learning outcomes (Smith, 1996; Haury, 1993; Shymansky, Hedges,
Woodworth, 1990).

Conslusions

• The results of the described research have validated the hypothesis H1

which supposed that the experimentally inductive approach and methods
in mathematical education at secondary school are more effective and in-
teresting for students than the traditional methods.
• The hypothesis H2 which supposed that the using of the inductive ap-
proach and methods in mathematical education at secondary school leads
to longer persistence of obtained knowledge and skills in comparison with
the traditional methods was not validated.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the project PrF_2010_008 of the Palacky University.

References

Břehovský, J., Emanovský, P. (2009). Inductive and Deductive Methods in Teaching of Mathematics at
Secondary School. In. Proceedings of XXVII. International Colloquium on the Management of Educa-
tional Process, Brno, Czech Republic. pp. 31.
Břehovský, J. (2010). Inductive and Deductive Approach in Mathematical Education. Ph.D. dissertation,
Palacký University Olomouc, Department of Algebra and Geometry, Czech Republic.
Emanovský, P. (2001). Some Possibilities of Experimentally Inductive Approach in University Mathe-
matical Education. In. Proceedings of XIX. International Colloquium on the Management of Educational
Process, Vyškov, Czech Republic, pp. 87-89.
Chráska, M.( 2007). The Methods of Pedagogical Research. Grada, Praha, Czech Republic.
Chráska, M.(1999). The Didactic Tests. Paido, Brno, Czech Republic.
Kopka, J. (2000). How to Lecture to Future Teachers of Mathematics? In. Proceedings of  International
Conference of Mathematical Departments of Faculties Preparing Teachers of Mathematics. Liberec,
Czech Republic, pp. 21- 32.
Kopka, J. (1999). The Clusters of Problems in School Mathematics. Acta Universitatis Purkynianae 40,
Mathematica I. Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic.
Kopka, J. (2004). The Investigative Approach in School Mathematics. Acta Universitatis Purkynianae
101, Studia Mathematica. Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic.
Prince, J. M., Felder, R. M. (2006). Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons
and Research Bases. Journal of Engineering Education, 95(2), pp. 123-138.
Lee, V.S. (2004). Teaching and Learning through Inquiry. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Bateman, W. (1990). Open to Question: The Art of Teaching and Learning by Inquiry. Josseey-Bass, San
Francisco.
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32 Smith, D. (1996). A Meta-Analysis of Student Outcomes Attributable to the Teaching of Science as In-
quiry as Compared to Traditional Methodology. Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University, Department of
Education.
Haury, D. (1993). Teaching Science through Inquiry. ERIC/CSMEE Digest, ED359048.
Shymansky, J., Hedges, L., Woodworth, G. (1990). A Reassessment of the Effect of Inquiry-Based Sci-
ence Curricula of the 60′s on Student Performance. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 27,
No. 2, pp. 127-144.

Adviced by Bronislava Štepankova, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech Republic

Petr Emanovský Doc., RNDr., Ph.D., College Lecturer, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, tř. 17.
listopadu 1192/12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
Phone: + 420 585 634 658.
E-mail: emanovsky@inf.upol.cz
Website: http://www.upol.cz

Jiří Břehovský Mgr., Lecturer, Faculty of Production Technology and Management, J. E. Purkyně University
Ústí nad Labem, Na Okraji 1001, 400 01, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic.
Phone: + 420 475 283 684
E-mail: brehovsky@fvtm.ujep.cz
Website: http://www.ujep.cz/en/welcome.html
 problems
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33

application of the different

development indexes in the
research of science didactics1

Janis Gedrovics
Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
E-mail: janis.gedrovics@rpiva.lv

Jari Lavonen
University of Helsinki, Finland
E-mail: Jari.Lavonen@helsinki.fi

Jekabs Raipulis
Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
E-mail : Jekabs.Raipulis@rpiva.lv

Abstract

In the last few decades the analysis of data, obtained from different science and technology education
related international surveys, has produced some new viewpoints such as the diversity of cultures, the
trends of globalization, different theories such as postmodernism, self-determination. Within those re-
searches different reference factors have been investigated to obtain results, possible to explain different
phenomena observed in the society.
In our research some indexes such as Human Development Index (HDI) and Environmental Sustainabil-
ity Index (ESI) normally used in sociological research have been used with the aim to find correlations
with the international ROSE (The Relevance of Science Education) project data. The items in the ROSE
questionnaire are measuring students’ general interest in science and technology and their interest in dif-
ferent content and contexts of science and technology as well as students’ science and technology related
experiences. Based on our analysis, there were relatively high correlation between the mean values of
different national ROSE variables and responding HDI index.
Key words: science didactics, indicators, Human development index, Environment sustainability index,
Gross domestic product.

Introduction

Recently a greater significance is being gained by international comparative surveys in

all spheres including natural and environmental sciences. Moreover, if initially these surveys
concentrated on pupils’ knowledge as in, for instance, TIMSS (Third International Mathematics
and Science Studies (1995). Trends In Mathematics and Science Studies (2003), OECD PISA
1
Extended paper, based on materials from conference „Cilveks un vide” [Man and environment], May 2006,
Liepaja (Gedrovics, Raipulis, 2007).
 problems
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34 (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, The Programme for International
Student Assessment) in 2000, 2003 and especially 2006, and its ‘predecessors’, then today re-
sults are interpreted also according to cultural differences, as well as to the impact of economic
and social factors. A good example here is also the international project ROSE (The Relevance
of Science Education (Schreiner & Sjøberg, 2004) aiming to clarify students’ general interest
in science and technology and their interest in different content and contexts of science and
technology as well as students’ science and technology related experiences.
When evaluating international comparative surveys, various indexes characterising the
development of society have lately been used. For instance, the TIMSS survey reveals that stu-
dents in countries with low income cannot reach high results (Kangro & Geske, 2001). Another
survey conducted within OECD countries, where Latvia was an especially invited participant,
indicates that in none of the countries where Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per Capita is lower
than 15000 USD students’ average achievements reach the average indexes of OECD (Kangro
& Geske, 2001).
Along with the above mentioned GDP also Human development index (HDI) is used to
compare students’ interest in science and technology in various countries. F ex C.Schreiner has
used HDI in her doctoral investigation of ROSE data (Schreiner, 2006) as a sign for the degree
of modernisation of society and such assumption has allowed her to explain some interesting
hypothesis about youth attitude to science and technology including students’ interest to study
different science and technology topics (Items A, C and E in ROSE Questionnaire, (Schreiner &
Sjøberg, 2004)). HDI has been used as indicator by Kristjan K. Stefánsson in his Master Thesis
(Stefànsson, 2006) to analyse students attitude to school science and their opinions about sci-
ence and technology as socially important phenomena, as well as for youths attitude to their
future occupation (Items F, G and B resp. in ROSE Questionnaire). But both researchers has
been investigated a relatively big group of countries, totally 29 countries.
Moreover, there was analyzed also the applicability of Environmental Sustainability in-
dex (ESI) and GDP for these comparisons. Student interest in science and technology in Nordic
countries, the Baltic countries, except Lithuania, as well as in the United Kingdom, Russia, Po-
land and the Czech Republic (totally 11 countries) is measured by the international comparative
ROSE survey (Schreiner & Sjøberg, 2004).
The research questions are:
 What kind of correlation there are between ROSE items measuring students’ interest
in science and technology related themes and national Human Development Index,
Environmental Sustainability Index and Gross Domestic Product per Capita index?
 Are there differences in the results among the various development indexes?

Methodology of Research

Background

The ROSE project is a new type of comparative studies. Unlike the already familiar in
Latvia TIMSS and OECD PISA this survey, involving 15- year-old students (in the majority of
countries they were Form 9 students) from 40 countries, puts the main stress on researching the
respondents’ attitude to science and technology, and analyses the data in the context of cultural
diversity. So, in this study, unlike in the above mentioned TIMSS and OECD PISA, students’
knowledge of science does not play a decisive role.
Janis Gedrovics, Jari Lavonen, Jekabs Raipulis. Application of the Different Development Indexes in the Research of
Science Didactics1
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Respondents 35

The total number of respondents from Latvia and several European countries (Denmark,
Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Russia, The Czech Republic, Poland, and The
United Kingdom) was 13 180. The ROSE project in Latvia was conducted between March
- April 2003 (collecting questionnaires from 39 comprehensive schools). The ROSE Project
has been repeated in Latvia (25 schools), Poland (5 schools) and Czech Republic (5 schools)
autumn 2007/ early 2008 (in text named as 2008).

Instrumentation

The instrument of this project is a questionnaire with 250 various statements arranged
into 10 sections. Three of those (sections A, C and E) are devoted to issues students would like
to study in science lessons (108 statements altogether) and the rest, correspondingly, to reveal-
ing the respondents’ viewpoints on environment, on the role of science in school and society,
on the criteria of choosing a career and on students’ own experience with science and using
technologies. There is also a section where students are asked to describe, in open format, what
they would like to investigate, if they became scientists, and why. This publication uses Items
A, C and E: What I want to learn about? as examples. Besides, the analysis includes also sev-
eral statements from those sections where respondents have described their willingness to study
environment related issues in scientific context and to take part in environment protection (B:
My future job; D: Me and the environmental challenges; F: My science classes; H: My out-of-
school experiences).
The questionnaire is based on the four-point Likert scale, which in itself is a kind of
range scales. Respondents have to provide answers ranging from total denial (not interested,
disagree, never) to strong affirmative (very interested, agree, often). Having coded the students’
answers with numbers from 1 to 4 we receive the average mean M where 1≤ M ≤4. Those
values reveal the trends in the answers among a particular group of respondents. With average
mean M > 2.5 we can assume that the majority of respondents agree with respective statement.
More information about the project can be obtained from C. Schreiner’s Ph.D. Thesis (Sch-
reiner, 2006) as well as from (Schreiner, Sjøberg, 2004) and (Stefánsson, 2006).

Description of Different Development Indexes

The Human Development Index

The Human Development Index is an indicator used by the United Nations experts to
determine countries’ development (Human Development Report, 2005). Actually this is a com-
plex indicator consisting of three indexes each characterising, correspondingly, achievements
in health, education and the standard of living in a particular country (Table 1). The advantage
of this index is that it allows ranging countries by their achievements in human development.
It must be noted that in the context of education HDI concerns adult literacy and the total
number of students at basic, secondary and university levels. GDP is part of this index as an
indicator of living standards, namely – of people’s purchasing capacity. However, while allow-
ing comparison of various countries, HDI does not provide a clear answer as to the reasons of
changes in this index in a particular country in the course of time.
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36 Table 1. Human Development Index, Environmental Sustainability

Index and Gross Domestic Product (per Capita, in purchasing
parity, USD).

Human Environment
Gross Domestic
Development Sustainability
Country Product (GDP)
Index (HDI) Index (ESI)
20011 20032 20075 20023 20032 20076 20023 20054
Czech Republic* 0.868 0.874 0.903 12 891 16 357 18 557 49.7 46.6
Denmark 0.930 0.941 0.955 25 341 31 465 56 115 58.1 58.2
Estonia 0.833 0.853 0.883 8 247 13 539 14 267 59.8 58.2
Finland 0.930 0.941 0,959 22 008 27 619 44 492 73.7 75.1
Iceland 0.942 0.956 0.969 26 626 31 243 37 977 65.7 70.8
Latvia* 0.811 0.836 0.866 6 027 10 270 11 607 62.8 60.4
Norway 0.944 0.963 0.971 27 864 37 670 79 085 72.8 73.4
Poland* 0.841 0.858 0.880 8006 11 379 11 288 46.1 45.0
Russia 0.779 0.795 0.817 6 943 9 230 8 694 48.8 56.1
Sweden 0.941 0.949 0.963 21 483 26 750 43 986 72.2 71.1
United Kingdom 0.930 0.939 0.943 21 270 27 147 35 334 45.2 50.2

1Schreiner, 2006; 2Human Development Report, 2005; 32002 Environmental Sustainability

Index, 2003; 42005 Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005, 5 Human Development Report 2009, List
of European countries by GDP (nominal) per capita, 2010.

HDI is calculated almost for every year, and it is one of most usable indicator as well,
although there are some other economical indicators, which has been used to analyse and char-
acterize different countries. One of them is The Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality-of-life
index (QOLI), calculated firstly 2005, which is based on a unique methodology that links the
results of subjective life-satisfaction surveys to the objective determinants of quality of life
across countries (The Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality-of-life index, 2005). This index,
which includes about 9 different factors such as material wellbeing, health, political stability
and other, therefore QOLI is more complicated as HDI. On the other hand we calculated, that
there is a very high correlation between QOLI and HDI (r = 0, 97), although HDI includes only
three important components. This fact, as well as irregularity of QOLI calculation, compel us
to incline for HDI as one of our research object.

The Environmental Sustainability Index

The Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) which characterises a country’s progress

in ensuring sustainability in environment protection is in itself a complicated and complex in-
dicator consisting of 20 different sub-indicators (Pilot 2006 Environmental Performance Index,
2006). All those are split into 5 groups that characterise: the state of ecosystems, danger to
environment, ecological danger to humans, and capability of society and institutions as well as
their readiness to take global responsibility (Table 1).
ESI is not calculated and published each year, though. The most recent data available are
of year 2002 (2002 Environmental Sustainability Index, 2003) and year 2005 (2005 Environ-
mental Sustainability Index, 2005). Besides, as we can observe from the index can change quite
considerably within a couple of years; therefore it should be applied carefully when describing
Janis Gedrovics, Jari Lavonen, Jekabs Raipulis. Application of the Different Development Indexes in the Research of
Science Didactics1
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

environmental problems. A number of researchers have stressed its too broad interpretation 37
(Pilot 2006 Environmental Performance Index, 2006) as one of its drawbacks. Moreover, from
time to time, new criteria are added when calculating the index thus causing difficulty to com-
pare ESI of different years (2002 Environmental Sustainability Index, 2003). Both HDI and ESI
are non dimensional quantities.
Under last few years due to a shift in focus by the teams developing the ESI, a new in-
dex was developed, the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), which uses outcome-oriented
indicators, then working as a benchmark index that can be more easily used by policy makers,
environmental scientists, advocates and the general public.

The Gross Domestic Product

The Gross Domestic Product per Capita, which, for better comparability, is often ex-
pressed in purchasing parity prices (USD), is one of the most widely used indicators of eco-
nomic development (Table 1). Very often it is used a separate indicator; however, sometimes it
is included into the complex indicators, such as HDI. Like as HDI, the GDP has been calculated
for almost every year.
Correlation of HDI and ESI. As mentioned above, neither Human Development Index
(HDI) nor Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) is calculated each year; therefore a ques-
tion arises, which of the HDI values published would be useful. In the paper (Schreiner, 2006)
which analyses relationship between students’ interests and HDI, values of HDI-2001 have
been used even though the interests of Norwegian students were researched in early 2003, the
same time as in Latvia and other countries. As can be observed from Table 1, HDI in years 2001
and 2003 differ little, not more than by 3%. Besides, as testified by correlative analysis, the
correlation coefficient between HDI values in both years is 0.996 (α = 0.95; p = 0.01). On the
other hand, Table 1 confirms that HDI for year 2007 has increased for all countries analyzed in
our investigation.
Environmental Sustainability Index values in years 2002 and 2005 differ little as well.
Moreover, the correlation coefficient between ESI-2002 and ESI-2005 in the above mentioned
11 European countries is 0.96 (α = 0.95; p = 0.01) which expressed correlation, i.e. change in
ESI in all those countries has been equal within the 3 years. But comparing HDI and ESI values
we cannot observe a very good correlation, so in HDI-2001/ ESI-2002 the correlative coeffi-
cient is only 0.44, but in HDI-2003/ ESI-2002 it is 0.46. In both cases the correlation is poorer.
Though it is not disturbing as quantities included into each indicator are totally different.
A certain correlation can be observed comparing GDP and HDI values. So comparing
GDP-2003 with HDI-2001 and HDI-2003 in both cases the correlative coefficient is the same
0.96 (α = 0.95; p = 0.01). The correlation is high also between GDP-2002 and HDI-2001 (r =
0.95) and HDI-2003 (r = 0.96). Obtained correlations let us assume that HDI and GDP could be
considered equal indicators.

Data Processing

The data is obtained by inquiring the students. Acquired data was analysed by SPSS
program using the methods of statistical analysis (t-test, correlation analysis) of the (version
14.0.).

Results of Research

Taking into account the considerations discussed above, further analysis has been
conducted based on the values of Human Development Index and Gross Domestic Product
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38

CZ – Czech Republic,
DK – Denmark,
EE –Estonia,
FI – Finland,
IS – Iceland,
LV – Latvia,
NO – Norway,
PL – Poland,
RU – Russia,
SE – Sweden,
UK –United Kingdom
Mean_average – average mean through Items A, C
and E; HDI – Human Development Index

Figure 1. Sample of a dispersion graph for ROSE-2003.

that have been determined in year 2003, as well as Environmental Sustainability Index of 2002
as the ones closest in time to the period of research (1st quarter of year 2003). Using the built
in modules of the SPSS program, graphs were drawn (Fig. 1) depicting the dispersion of data
together with the regression curve as well as the respective regression equation, like as y = ax +
b, where x is HDI, ESI or GDP, and y is calculated mean value of respective variable. But coef-
ficients a and b do not are notably informative, unlike R², obtained by linear regression analysis:
it characterises the quality of regression curve, i.e. to what degree the initial data correspond to
the regression model.
On the other hand, R as Pearson correlation coefficient (Table 2) testifies, that there are
relatively asset correlation between average mean value ACE (average mean trough Item A,
Item C and Item E – What I want to learn about, resp., 108 items total) and HDI, as well as
GDP. Comparatively high R² value (0.81) has been calculated for a great group of other vari-
ables, but it must be specified that in the most cases (except variables D06 and H24; see expla-
nation of variables in Appendix) the Pearson correlations are negative both for HDI and GDP
as indicator testifies that higher development of respective country, measured by HDI or GDP,
produce lower interest to study different science problems and so one. This conclusion conflicts
at the first moment with ones obtained by TIMSS – as higher HDI as higher level of knowledge.
But we must accentuate the principal difference between ROSE project (evaluation of attitude)
and TIMSS (assessment of knowledge). It seems that in countries with higher HDI (and GDP as
a component of HDI) it is possible to spend more finances for school development, and growth
of knowledge sounds on financial facility but not on more positive attitude.
Janis Gedrovics, Jari Lavonen, Jekabs Raipulis. Application of the Different Development Indexes in the Research of
Science Didactics1
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

Table 2. Correlation coefficients for different items from ROSE project’ 39

question naire for all 11 countries.

HDI (2003) ESI (2005) GDP (2003)

Items
R p R² R p R² R p R²
ACE -0.899 0.000 0.808 -0.594 0.054 0.353 -0.813 0.002 0.661
B04 -0.766b 0.006 0.587 -0.819b 0.002 0.671 -0.526 0.097 0.277
D06 0.567 0.069 0.321 0.836b 0.001 0.699 0.595 0.053 0.354
D10 -0.806b 0.003 0.650 -0.516 0.104 0.266 -0.785b 0.004 0.616
D11 -0.751b 0.008 0.564 -0.137 0.689 0.266 -0.753b 0.007 0.567
D12 -0.750b 0.008 0.563 -0.550 0.080 0.303 -0.706ª 0.015 0.498
D17 -0.925b 0.000 0.856 -0.454 0.161 0.206 -0.920b 0.000 0.846
D18 -0.720ª 0.012 0.518 -0.559 0.074 0.312 -0.688ª 0.019 0.473
E03 -0.758b 0.007 0.575 -0.495 0.121 0.245 -0.657ª 0.028 0.432
E04 -0.677ª 0.022 0.458 -0.584 0.059 0.341 -0.779b 0.005 0.607
E05 -0.725ª 0.012 0.526 -0.359 0.278 0.129 -0.609ª 0.047 0.371
E06 -0.854b 0.001 0.729 -0.382 0.247 0.146 -0.820b 0.002 0.672
F14 -0.660ª 0.027 0.436 -0.480 0.135 0.230 -0.763b 0.006 0.582
F16 -0.674ª 0.023 0.454 -0.309 0.355 0.095 -0.632ª 0.037 0.399
H24 0.691ª 0.019 0.477 0.376 0.255 0.141 0.579 0.062 0.335
ª Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). b Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
(2-tailed); R – Pearson correlation; ACE, – average mean through Items A, C and E

ESI as indicator for analysis within science didactics seems less usable: firstly, the calcu-
lated R and R² values are mainly remarkably lower as one by HDI and/ or GDP and, secondly,
ESI is a very complicated indicator, which changes often, although as shown in Table 2, the ESI
as indicator correlate quite well with the average mean obtained through questionnaires. But in
some other variables the calculated values of R and R² are relatively small, about 0.25 resp. 0.3.
Therefore it must be pointed that it is not enough to explain ESI as indicator’ impact to respec-
tive variable. Of course, there was observed that sometimes ESI, on the one hand, and HDI, on
the other hand, have opposite effect on R and R², f ex by variables D06 (personall influence on
the environment) and D17 (Human activity is damaging for the environment). This observation
requests a further research.

Table 3. Several individual results of the ROSE Project, average mean¹,

1 ≤ M ≤ 4.

CZ² DK EE FI IS LV NO PL RU SE UK
2003 2008 2003 2003 2008 2003 2003 2008 2003
Biology Chemistry ACE³

2.55 2.52 2.35 2.48 2.36 2.42 2.65 2.61 2.43 2.58 2.46 2.78 2.36 2.48

2.33 2.33 2.28 2.29 2.18 2.25 2.45 2.45 2.24 2.40 2.33 2.53 2.22 2.33

2.66 2.55 2.46 2.55 2.44 2.51 2.71 2.63 2.51 2.71 2.52 2.77 2.45 2.59
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40

Physics
2.59 2.46 2.35 2.54 2.37 2.44 2.70 2.62 2.48 2.54 2.45 2.78 2.38 2,48

B04 2.21 2,01 1.84 1.90 2.06 1.87 2.23 2,08 1.78 2.23 2,05 2.18 1.84 1.94
D06 2.65 2,82 2.87 2.82 3.02 2.86 2.31 2,38 2.98 2.04 2,47 2.35 3.16 2.07
D10 3.58 3,08 2.89 3.50 3.08 3.21 3.28 3,31 3.18 3.47 3,38 3.63 3.13 3.14
D11 2.29 2,37 2.20 2.45 2.33 2.05 2.74 2,70 2.20 2.32 2,36 2.46 2.27 2.27
D12 3.30 3,16 2.98 3.43 2.94 3.21 3.13 3,15 3.10 3.43 3,12 3.41 2.93 3.01
D17 2.18 2,32 2.09 2.41 2.20 1.87 2.53 2,46 1.96 2.43 2,38 2.53 2.05 2.13
D18 2.79 2,63 2.79 2.94 2.69 2.42 2.78 2,77 2.70 3.14 2,83 2.92 2.50 2.63
E03 2.39 2,23 2.32 2.25 2.22 2.33 2.50 2,45 2.28 2.37 2,20 2.52 2.24 2.29
E04 2.33 2,24 2.19 2.16 2.22 2.07 2.27 2,34 2.03 2.38 2,16 2.31 2.23 2.18
E05 2.56 2,55 2.62 2.49 2.55 2.52 2.77 2,70 2.58 2.77 2,47 2.85 2.44 2.45
E06 2.20 2,28 2.06 2.30 2.22 1.84 2.39 2,34 2.07 2.49 2,16 2.43 1.90 1.94
F14 1.79 1,91 1.56 1.72 1.76 1.80 1.86 1,78 1.56 2.05 1,66 1.88 1.68 1.70
F16 2.06 2,23 1.92 2.18 2.04 2.16 2.07 2,07 1.97 2.14 2,05 2.40 2.12 2.04
H24 2.67 2,22 2.07 1.77 2.49 2.11 1.64 1,88 2.42 2.07 2,86 1.39 2.50 2.07

¹ average mean M > 2.5 assuming that the majority of respondents agree with the statement, are
marked bold
² explanations of abbreviations see Fig. 1.
² total average mean through items A,C and E

Discussion

As pointed above, the mostly values of Pearson correlation are negative, but in two cases
- items D06 (I can personally influence what happens with the environment) and H24 ([I have]
sorted garbage for recycling or for appropriate disposal), the correlation is positive, which
means - the larger the value of the respective indicator that, in turn, corresponds to a higher
human development, the higher the average mean obtained through questionnaires. Moreover,
the higher the average mean of a certain variable (statement), the more there are respondents
who have answered in the affirmative (agree, very interested, often opposed to the negative
disagree, not interested, never) the respective indicator, that, in turn, corresponds to a higher
human development, the higher the average mean obtained through questionnaires. However,
regarding the statement about sorting garbage (I have sorted garbage for recycling or for ap-
propriate disposal; H24) only the majority of Czech students (M = 2.67) have affirmed (Table
3) that they have taken part in such sorting, while students from all other countries, have gener-
ally answered in the negative. Though Norwegian, Finnish and Swedish youngsters are close to
the average mean (M = 2.50), M respectively: 2.42; 2.49 and 2.50.
Sadly in more economically developed countries students are often not greatly inter-
ested in a number of environmental issues that have been mentioned in the ROSE project ques-
tionnaire, for instance, those regarding their wish to learn about certain scientific topics in the
context of environmental education (E03-E06) as well as those regarding the respondents’ at-
titude to environmental problems (D10 - D12, D17 – D18).
Of course, there are exceptions. For example, in statements D10 (People should care
more about protection of the environment) and D12 (I think each of us can make a significant
contribution to environmental protection) the average mean in all eleven countries is above
the middle-point (M = 2.50), but in statement D18 (The natural world is sacred and should be
Janis Gedrovics, Jari Lavonen, Jekabs Raipulis. Application of the Different Development Indexes in the Research of
Science Didactics1
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

left in peace) the majority of mean values is above 2.50. Thus the negative value of correlative 41
coefficient can most probably be explained by the fact that in economically developed countries
great attention to environment protection has been paid not just recently but for already a long
period. Therefore, perhaps, students from those countries do not perceive this topic so acutely
as students from the post-socialistic countries.
Interesting results are provided by item D17 (Nearly all human activity is damaging for
the environment). Except for Latvia and Russia, in all other countries students have expressed
no considerable support to this statement. The majority of respondents have not expressed a
wish to learn about such topics as E03 (The ozone layer and how it may be changed by humans)
and E04 (The greenhouse efeect and how it may be changed by humans), as well as about using
of technology as a tool for waste’, garbage’ and sewage’ handling (E06). On the other hand the
interest is strong in the problems of clean air and clean drinking water (E05; What can be done
to ensure clean air and safe drinking water).
This brief analysis includes also statement B04 which regards students’ future career
(Working in the area of environmental protection). Again, the more developed the country the
smaller is the number of students having participated in the project, who envisage their future
jobs connected with environment protection. It must be added here, that though in post-social
countries the interest is stronger, the highest average mean is still only 2,23 (in Latvia). Of
course, there is the question how many employees would be able to find work in the sphere of
environment protection.
To conclude this small insight into individual results of the ROSE project which charac-
terise students’ attitude to environmental problems, including environmental education, in the
Nordic and several post-socialistic countries, it should be noted that, by applying the indica-
tors meant for describing economic development (Human Development Index, Environmental
Sustainability Index, etc.), we can obtain quite interesting material for consideration and further
research in order to discover the true motivation behind students’ attitude towards natural and
environmental sciences.

a b
Figure 2. Dispersion graphs for three countries, Latvia (LV), Czech Repub-
lic (CZ) and Poland (PL) in 2003 (a) and 2008 (b).

On the other hand we must remember that the asset correlation (high coefficient of cor-
relation) is only a number which do not explain realistic or exactly the background of correla-
tion. It needs more investigations on this integrated and complicate field. F ex – are the number
of countries, namely 11 in our investigation, enough to do such explanation. We can compare
some R² values obtained by other researchers, who used HDI in their investigation connected
 problems
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42 to bigger number of participating countries. C. Schreiner has calculated R for ACE average and
HDI as -0.85 at p < 0.01 (Schreiner, 2006), which is at the same level as our calculation (-0,899,
Table 4). Similar result is found by K.K. Stefánsson, who has been calculated R values for dif-
ferent items in parts B, F and G. He founded, that R values for B04, F14 and F16 are -0. 82,
-0.95 resp. -0.92 (Stefánsson, 2006), which are, of course, higher as our results (-0.766, -0.660
resp. -0.674; table 2), but it seems that our results are good enough for qualitative analysis of
data in such inquiries.
As it was pointed above, in three countries (Latvia, Czech Republic and Poland) the
ROSE project has been repeated once more autumn 2007/ early 2008. Some results (Table 3)
confirm that in general there do not are significant differences between 2003 and 2008 for those
countries. The mean values (1≤М≤4) for students’ interest in particular science topics, grouped
according respective science subject (Chemistry, Biology, and Physics) had decreased in all
three countries, except for Chemistry in Latvia and the Czech Republic. However, the level of
interest in Chemistry was as low as 2.5, which meant that most of the students surveyed were
not interested in Chemistry topics. It was demonstrated that there was no significant statistical
difference between students’ interest in science topics found in the studies from 2008 and 2003,
with the exception of the interest in Biology in Poland (t = 2,855; p = 0,004, α = 0,95). On the
other hand, there are some significant differences in several statements such as D06 for all three
countries, as well as in some other statements in single countries (H24: highly decreased in
Czech Republic, but increased significantly in Poland).
Figure 2 confirms, that there are significant differences between R² values obtained in
2003 and 2008, namely, R² (2003) = 0,985 and R² (2008) = 0,268. It is a big difference, al-
though the central trend is equal in both years: for higher HDI value corresponds lower average
mean value through A, B and C Items in ROSE questionnaire, although the values, calculated
for Czech and Polish students in 2008 partly do not confirm it. Probable the reason for this
observation (Fig. 2) must be partly explained as result of an inadequate number of respondents
participated in pilot project 2008 (about 140 respondents in both countries). But it is possible
that there are some other factors, which affect our measurement and which do not are estab-
lished now. Without fail the dispersion of the average mean value for all three countries in 2008
compared with ones in 2003 seems too big for simple explanation.

Conclusions

The indicators we have used in our analysis are widely used to determine countries’
economic development can be successfully applied in the sphere of natural and environmental
sciences. Therefore, it is interesting to look national level correlations between the indexes and
some ROSE interest items.
Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) displays a poorer correlation with the ROSE
project results than Human Development Index (HDI) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per
Capita. The ROSE project results in section D (Me and the environmental challenges) correlate
well with GDP per capita. This would, probably, allow analysing indicators of different regions
within one country, provided GDP for those regions is known.
Since the new index, Environmental Performance Index (EPI), which partly substitutes
Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI), has been launched, the use of ESI as indicator for
researches in science didactics is not anymore topical. The usefulness of EPI must be investi-
gated separately, although it seems that the complexity of EPI (about 25 sub-indicators) do not
will allow simply use it as a practical tool in science didactics research.
As even a high correlative coefficient does not fully explain the causal relationship, it
is necessary to continue researching the impact of various economic, social and other factors
on the formation of students’ attitude to environmental and natural sciences. The investigat-
Janis Gedrovics, Jari Lavonen, Jekabs Raipulis. Application of the Different Development Indexes in the Research of
Science Didactics1
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

ed amount of countries seems good enough for qualitative correlation analysis from inquiries 43
data.

Acknowledgements

To co-researchers of the ROSE project in other countries: Prof S.Sjøberg and C. Sch-
reiner (Norway), A. Jidesjö and O. Magnusson (Sweden), H. Busch (Denmark), J. Lavonen
(Finland), M. Rannikmäe (Estonia) M. Bilek (The Czech Republic), S. Bogdanov ( Russia),
H. Arason (Iceland), R.M.Janiuk (Poland), E. Jenkins (The United Kingdom) for their kind
permission to use their initial data in this research; as well as to U. Abele (Latvia) for providing
his valuable advice in the process of designing this work. We are especially thankful to M.Bilek
and R.M.Janiuk for participating in the repeated collection of data in 2008.

References

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44 Appendix

Items EXPLANATION
B04 Working in the area of environmental protection
D06 I can personally influence what happens with the environment
D10 People should care more about protection of the environment
D11 It is the responsibility of the rich countries to solve the environmental problems of the world
D12 I think each of us can make a significant contribution to environmental protection
D17 Nearly all human activity is damaging for the environment
D18 The natural world is sacred and should be left in peace
E03 The ozone layer and how it may be changed by humans
E04 The greenhouse efeect and how it may be changed by humans
E05 What can be done to ensure clean air and safe drinking water
E06 How technology helps us to handle waste, garbage and sewage
F14 I would like to become a scientist
F16 I would like to get a job in technology
H24 (I have) sorted garbage for recycling or for appropriate disposal

Adviced by Modris Drille, Riga Technical University, Latvia

Janis Gedrovics Assoc. professor, Department of Management and Economics, Riga Teacher Training and
Educational Management Academy, Imantas 7. linija No 1, Riga, LV-1083, Latvia.
E-mail: janis.gedrovics@apollo.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv

Jari Lavonen Professor of Physics and Chemistry Education, Head of the Department of Teacher Educa-
tion, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 9 (Siltavuorenpenger 5), FIN-00014, Finland.
E-mail: Jari.Lavonen@helsinki.fi
Website: http://www.helsinki.fi/university/

Jekabs Raipulis Assoc. professor, Department of Management and Economics, Riga Teacher Training and
Educational Management Academy, Imantas 7. linija No 1, Riga, LV-1083, Latvia.
E-mail: jekabs.raipulis@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv
 problems
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45

ALTERATION OF STUDENTS’ INTEREST

IN SCIENCE TOPICS IN LATVIA:
2003 – 2008

Janis Gedrovics
Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
E-mail: janis.gedrovics@rpiva.lv

Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere

University of Latvia, Latvia
E-mail: tuttii@inbox.lv, dagced@lanet.lv

Abstract

A number of researches confirm that students’ interest in science both in Lower and Upper secondary
school has a tendency to decrease. Various international comparative studies such as OECD PISA,
TIMSS and ROSE reveal comparatively low achievements of students in Latvia. To analyze the causes
behind such a situation it is important to carry out longitudinal studies. The analysis of the results ob-
tained during ROSE studies in 2003 - 2008 show that, through the five year period, the most popular and
unpopular science topics basically have remained the same, and there are no significant differences in
the distribution of ranks. Changes in the mean value are also not statistically significant, though absolute
values have a tendency to decrease. One of the most unpopular topics is “Atoms and molecules”, which
is the ground topic in the chemistry course.
The results confirm that the differences between mean values marked by girls and boys have slightly di-
minished, which testifies that the Latvian cohort of students both in Lower and Upper Secondary school
has become more homogenous.
Key words: comparative study, interest, ROSE project, science topics.

Introduction

Different researches in Latvia as well as worldwide confirm, that students interest in sci-
ence both in Lower secondary school and Upper secondary school has a tendency to decrease
(Schmidt, 2000; Bartuseviča, 2006; Lamanauskas & Vilkonis, 2007). Although science educa-
tion in Latvia during recent years has been designated as a national priority, still students do not
wish to acquire science subjects.
Various international comparative studies such as OECD PISA1(Kangro,2007), TIMSS2
(Geske, 2005), and ROSE3 (Gedrovics, 2005) show a comparatively low Latvian students` in-
terest in learning science. For example, students’ achievements in OECD PISA international re-
1
OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
2
TIMSS - Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies
3
The Relevance of Science Education
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46 search statistically are significantly below the level of the OECD countries, in various fields of
science, rating from 25 to 34 out of 57 countries (OECD, 2007). Also the analysis of the inter-
national ROSE project results (obtained 2003 and 2008) has revealed that overall 15-years-old
Latvian students have grown less enthusiastic about science subjects at school. Consequently
the number of students regarding science subjects, in particular - chemistry and physics, as
difficult has increased (Gedrovics, 2010). Science is one of the most important components in
education. Further attitude of a new generation to environment and nature in general is based
largely on the quality of chemistry education. It is important to clear up the students’ opinion to
make the studying process adequate to the needs, abilities and interest of modern student. State-
ment that interest enables the acquirement is commonly known fact (Lipman, 2003), though
following question stays topical – is the role of the interest in studying process overestimated?
Dahlbom M. has proven that students` interest towards science subjects even during long period
of time stays unaffected (Dahlbom, 1988).
By changing the preconditions of learning chemistry, it would become possible to
change the tendency of students’ interest and there would follow the changes of the attitude to-
wards science. This is why the basic task was posed for the long-lasting finding to compare the
students` interest in different phenomena and science education problems by researching the
aspects of science topics in which students are interested for improving chemistry learning.
Therefore we have drawn the following research questions:
What kind of topics Latvian students are interested to learn in science and especially in
chemistry?
What changes have been observed during the last few years?

Methodology of Research

General Background

The research was based on the International comparative project ROSE (Schreiner &
Sjøberg, 2004). The first cycle was carried out in 2003, and it involved students at the age of 15
(grade 9) from 39 schools (Gedrovics & Praulite, 2007). The next stage was organized in late
autumn 2007/early 2008, which comply with the methodology of the project – one class from
at least than 25 schools in a country and about 25 students from each class. The 25 schools were
selected from those 39 which were involved in the project ROSE 2003.

Respondents

Totally 1065 students from grade 9 participated in the first cycle in 2003. There were
involved 325 students from grade 9, as well as 420 students for comparison from grades 8-12
took part in the pilot research in 2008, totally 746 respondents from 25 schools of Latvia.

Instrumentation

The questionnaire included 108 questions of the closed type, where a respondent should
give answers using the 4 categories of the Likert scale (1≤M≤4), it means that each respondent
should choose from the four answers provided (Schreiner & Sjøberg, 2004) indicating the one
that most precisely reflects their opinion. Though the instrumentation of the project ROSE does
not allow ascertaining unequivocally, why students have chosen or declined one or another of-
fered topic. This is the reason why in early 2007 a pilot research was carried out by involving
students from Lower secondary school and Upper secondary school at 20 schools in Latvia. We
were able to include students from other grades, not only grade 9, on the basis of previously
Janis Gedrovics, Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere. Alteration of Students` Interest in Science Topics in Latvia: 2003 – 2008
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published results proving that the questionnaire of the project ROSE is very well suited for use 47
with other age groups, too (Gedrovics & Platonova, 2005). Since the concept of the project
ROSE, unlike TIMSS or OECD PISA, is based on the research of students’ attitude, not largely
on the evaluation of their knowledge. Moreover for this pilot research, unlike the basic version
of the ROSE, all respondents were asked to evaluate the importance of every suggested topic
learning science according to Likert scale (not important; of little importance; rather impor-
tant; very important), and supplement their answers with a brief explanation of their choice in
free form.

Data Processing

The data processing was obtained by using the methods of statistical analysis (t-test,
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test) of the SPSS program (version 17.01).

Results of Research

By analyzing the topics related to different science subjects, the pilot research of early
2007 as well as the repeated ROSE study (2008) both have confirmed the following. Grade 9
students’ common interest in chemistry topics displays the tendency to decrease, though a slight
increase is obvious regarding at least two the offered topics, namely Chemicals, their properties
and how do they react and Atoms and molecules. However, neither issue attracts the majority of
respondents (Maver< 2.50). Statistically significant differences between the results from years
2003 and 2007 are observable only in the girls’ cohort, which proves that boys’ and girls’ inter-
ests have grown relatively similar (mainly due to the fact that boys are losing interest in such
“boys’ themes” as How the atom bomb functions and Explosive chemicals.
Looking at students’ from other grades and their interest to learn one or another chem-
istry topic, it was established that, irrespective of differences in mean values (1 ≤ Maver ≤ 4),
students’ from different grades display a similar level of interesting the offered topics for exam-
ple the issue Atoms and molecules is marked as one of the least interesting in all grades from 8
to 12 (Maver<2.50), while he issue Chemicals, their properties and how they react in secondary
school grades (10-12) of in general is rated as interesting (Maver>2.50).

Table 1. Respondents’ reasoning for their choice of chemistry topics.

(% from the amount of respondents)

Answer Grades
category Explanation abut the choice of an answer
8 9 10 11 12
1 Do not like, do not need, disgusting 8.7 4.3 4.2 3.5 1.6
Not interested, because already familiar; boring;
2 29.0 31.9 27.7 19.5 15.6
complicated; hard
Interested, because do not know yet; can be use-
3 18.8 26.7 29.4 13.3 31.1
ful; must know
Interested, because familiar; interesting; want to
4 7.2 6.0 10.9 7.1 7.4
know; very absorbing; like chemistry
No answers 36.2 31.0 27.7 56.6 44.3
Total amount of respondents 69 116 119 113 122

Students from all grades (8-12) rated also such topics as Deadly poisons and what do
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48 they do to the human body, The ozone layer and how it may be affected by humans, What can
be done to ensure clean air and safe drinking water as most interesting, but as the most im-
portant topic related to chemistry students from all grades indicated How alcohol and tobacco
might affect the body and How different narcotics might affect the body. While the mean values
characterizing students’ wish to acquire respective topics still prove existing interest in general
(Maver>2.50), they so show decreasing interest in the period between 2003 and 2007. So stu-
dents have greater interest in topics that are connected with practical life rather than the ques-
tions related to theory.
By evaluating students’ reasoning behind their choices (Table 1), it was established that
it is hard for a great part of respondents (more than half in Upper Secondary level) to phrase the
explanation of their choice. This is why the existing numbers should be considered as approxi-
mate in Table 1, though they reveal a very interesting distribution of answers. For example,
until grade 10 on average every third student has indicated dislike of, needlessness and com-
plexity of the chemistry topics and expressed difficulty to learn chemistry. However an almost
similar number of students of the same age indicate usefulness, interest in and curiosity about
the chemistry topics, which in general proves that the eyes of students (grades 8-10) chemistry
topics are still quite popular. In grades 11-12 the number of students that do not explain their
choice of answer increases, while interest in chemistry topics decreases. Partly this could be
explained with the upcoming graduation from secondary school; fewer students consider sci-
ence as an interesting choice for their future career.

Table 2. The ranking [R] of most popular topics in science.

2003¹ 2008
Explanation p
Maver S.D. R Maver S.D. R
E42 Phenomena that scientists still cannot explain 3.34 0.932 1 3.18 1.014 4 **
C08 The possibility of life outside earth 3.30 0.944 2 3.12 0.988 7 **
Why do we dream while we are sleeping, and
C13 3.29 0.926 3 3.38 0.862 1 *
what our dreams may mean
A34 How does it feel to be weightless in space 3.27 0.932 4 3.20 0.960 3 n.s.
How to exercise to keep our body fit and
A40 3.27 0.900 5 3.20 0.933 2 n.s.
strong
How meteors, comets or asteroids may cause
A23 3.23 0.926 6 3.04 0.990 9 ***
disasters on earth
Thought transference, mind-reading, sixth
C15 3.19 1.017 7 3.13 1.036 6 n.s.
sense, intuition, etc.
C10 Unsolved mysteries in outer space 3.14 1.045 8 2.92 1.074 24 ***
Black holes, supernovas and other spectacu-
A22 3.09 1.049 9 2.99 1.059 15 n.s.
lar objects in outer space
Cancer, what do we know and how can we
E08 3.09 0.963 10 3.06 0.991 8 n.s.
treat it
C11 Life and death and the human soul 3.06 1.021 12 3.16 0.992 5 n.s.
A30 How does the atom bomb function 2.91 1.073 29 3.03 1.075 10 *
¹ Data from (Gedrovics, 2006)
1≤ Maver ≤4, R - ranking, * p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001, α = 0.95
n.s. non significant differences 2003-2008

The comparison of the results from years 2003 and 2008 show, that both the most popu-
Janis Gedrovics, Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere. Alteration of Students` Interest in Science Topics in Latvia: 2003 – 2008
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lar topics (Table 2) and most unpopular science topics (Table 3) during five year period basi- 49
cally have remained the same. In addition, there are no obvious significant differences in the
distribution of ranks. The changes in the mean value are not statistically significant, though
absolute values have a tendency to decrease.
It is evident that such important topics as Chemicals, their properties and how they react,
Atoms and molecules, which are the basic topics in chemistry, are the ones most unpopular, as
well as the topic How is crude oil converted to other materials, like plastics and textiles, which
just like the previously mentioned themes are at the bottom of the rank (Table 3). research in
2008 the change of students’ scientific interest in biology, physics and chemistry was evalu-
ated by appraising the common mean value in biology, physics and chemistry topic groups,
respectively. These results are summarized in Table 4 and they prove that the absolute M values
for boys have a tendency to decrease, while the M values for girls rather have the tendency to
increase. Therefore we can consider that during the five years (2003 - 2008) girl’s attitude to
science statistically has become far less positive than in the case of boys, and 15-year-olds have
grown more homogenous in their opinions about school science subjects.

Table 3. The ranking [R] of most non-popular topics in science.

2003 2008
Explanation p
Maver S.D. R Maver S.D. R

A03 The inside of the earth 2.23 0.902 97 2.09 0.895 101 **

E37 Famous scientists and their lives 2.15 1.038 99 2.11 1.021 100 n.s.

A02 Chemicals, their properties and how 2.12 0.996 2.12 0.952 n.s.
100 99
they react
E25 Plants in my area 2.09 0.959 101 2.04 0.905 104 n.s.

A47 How do petrol and diesel engines work  2.09 1.080 102 2.19 1.075 96 n.s.
Organic and ecological farming without
E19 2.09 1.038 103 2.08 0.960 103 n.s.
use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers
Benefits and possible hazards of
E33 2.05 0.964 104 2.03 0.930 105 n.s.
modern methods of farming

C01 How is crude oil converted to other 1.96 1.004 2.08 0.991 *
105 102
materials, like plastics and textiles
A15 How plants grow and reproduce 1.88 0.872 106 1.81 0.858 107 n.s.

A17 Atoms and molecules 1.83 0.937 107 1.82 0.890 106 n.s.
Symmetries and patterns in leaves and
E01 1.54 0.777 108 1.56 0.784 108 *
flowers 
1≤ Maver ≤4, R ranking, * p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001; α = 0.95
n.s. non significant differences 2003 – 2008

In general, the differences in mean values for different groups of topics in years 2003
and 2008 are not statistically significant (p>0.05), and therefore it can be stated, that in the
period of five years no relevant changes in students’ scientific interests have taken place, al-
though regarding separate questions there is obvious statistically significant decrease of interest
(Table 4).
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50
Table 4. Average means values of students’ scientific interest.

Mean value, 2003 Mean value, 2008

Groups of topics
Total Girls Boys Total Girls Boys
Total 2.64 2.65 2.63 2.61 2.64 2.58
Chemistry 2.42 2.26 2.64 2.45 2.32 2.58
Physics 2.65 2.56 2.78 2.62 2.54 2.71
Biology 2.66 2.74 2.53 2.63 2.74 2.50

By changing the preconditions of learning science it would become possible to change

the tendency in students’ interests, and there would follow changes in attitude towards science.
The methodology of teaching is relatively easy to be changed. This is why the development of
new methodological approaches in future, by researching how to improve chemistry learning
process with an aim to promote students` scientific interest, was posed as the basic task.

Discussion

International research ROSE, which was launched in Latvia in 2003, indicates that stu-
dents’ interest in science, including chemistry, in Latvian schools displays a common tendency
to decrease. Although, in this research mainly the regular students’ attitude towards science in
general is analyzed, focusing also on their choice future career, the questionnaire contains also
questions about chemistry and topics related to chemistry, e.g. Atoms and molecules, Chemi-
cals, their properties and how they react, Detergents, soaps and how they work etc. (Možeika,
Cedere & Gedrovics, 2007). The analysis of the ROSE project results obtained in Latvia prove
that 15- year-olds in Latvia find the more or less are pseudoscientific and/ or mysterious topics
(for example (The possibility of life outside earth, Unsolved mysteries in outer space etc.) most
interesting.
Among the top ten (from totally 108 offered, Table 2) most popular topics students
have ticked, there are also some issues related to human health (How to exercise to keep your
body fit and strong, Cancer, what do we know and how can we treat it etc.). Although, students
indicate that they would like to learn also such issues, which either just partly relate to science
or generally are considered pseudoscientific, like Why do we dream while we are sleeping, and
what our dreams may mean, Astrology and horoscopes, and whether planets can affect human
beings. Several questions are equally interesting for both boys and girls, though statistically
significant differences are observed, regarding questions about health and the previously men-
tioned pseudoscientific topics (Gedrovics, 2006; Gedrovics & Praulite, 2007). It is obvious that
among the ten most unpopular topics are such items as Chemicals, their properties and how
they react (rating 102 out of totally 108 topics) and Atoms and molecules (rating 107 out of
totally 108 topics), besides there is no statistically significant difference between students from
schools in cities and small rural places, also there is no difference in gender context (Gedrovics
& Praulite, 2007).
There are always two kinds of participants in the learning and teaching process– stu-
dents and teachers, and the efficiency of this process depends from consensus between both of
them within teaching and learning aims. If we compare teachers’ observations in Latvia and
other countries then it should be mentioned that Swedish science teachers have indicated Atoms
and molecules as the most important theme (Maver=3.56) from the same 108 topics offered
in project ROSE, and added that it should be learned by students – in opposition of Swedish
Janis Gedrovics, Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere. Alteration of Students` Interest in Science Topics in Latvia: 2003 – 2008
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students who ranked this theme as the 98th (girls) and 73rd (boys). The other chemistry related 51
topic Chemicals, their properties and how they react is viewed as important by teachers (rank
14; Maver=2.99), while for Swedish students it ranks as the 87th (girls) and 66th (boys) (Os-
carsson, et al., 2009).
Chemistry teachers in Latvia, during a similar research, have ranked neither of these two
topics among the 10 most important ones (Gedrovics et al., 2007): Latvian chemistry teachers
consider that the most important themes, which should be acquired in grade 9 are How differ-
ent narcotics might affect the body (Maver=3.92), How alcohol and tobacco might affect the
body (Maver=3.85) and What can be done to ensure clean air and safe drinking water (3.85).
Students in Latvia ranked the respective themes as the17th (Maver=3.02), 20th (Maver=2.99)
and 43rd (Maver=2.77) in year 2003 (Gedrovics, 2006), and as the 23rd (Maver=2.94), 12th
(Maver=3.00) and 47th (Maver=2.70) in year 2008. An interesting difference, which could be
explained by the fact that in foreign countries learning is generally related to every day life, but
for teachers and learners in Latvia it is something relatively new.
The fact that students do not want to learn about atoms and molecules is understandable
– they tend to avoid excessive theory; however, they have admitted that learning chemistry in
the context is more interesting and useful. It was observed within the other research project too
(Gedrovics, Cedere, & Mozeika, 2009), and such observations confirm that there are relatively
big differences what the students and their teachers accept as important themes for science edu-
cation/ learning. Such situation requests to change teaching methods, which alloy to understand
necessity and importance of corresponding themes in science education.
The answers obtained from Latvian students in ROSE-2003 do not differ significantly
from those in Germany and Austria (Elster, 2007), in Czech Republic (Bilek, Radkova, & Ge-
drovics, 2006), as well as from other European countries in general (Schreiner, 2006). The
repeated ROSE-project in Czech Republic and Poland, organized January-February 2008, re-
veals, that there are some differences between Latvian and Czech/ Polish results (Gedrovics et
al., 2008). Though the observed differences are not diametrically opposed; they only point, that
due to various teaching traditions, methodological approaches etc. relatively small differences
occur. However, they are not sufficiently remarkable to indicate at important changes in stu-
dents’ interest in science topics. M. Dahlbom has proven that Swedish students’ attitude towards
separate science subjects even during a long period of time stays unaffected. The results of the
research confirm that the students` interest to learn different science topics depends on various
generalized factors, which are now similar in many countries. M. Dahlbom also highlights that
students’ developmental psychological features, the content of the subject and methodology of
teaching, as well as social-psychological and other environmental factors affect the tendencies
in students’ attitude to science (Dahlbom, 1988).
For science teachers it is important to know students’ today’s interests as well as under-
stand the possible changes in this field, therefore it helps to develop new teaching methods to
promote students’ learning achievements as an indicator of efficiency of science education.

Conclusion

In general students’ scientific interest in different grades, during five years period (2003
- 2008) has not relevantly changed. The comparison of the results shows that the most popular
and unpopular science topics have basically remained the same. Students’ interest is compara-
tively higher in such themes which are presently topical and affect every individual in the world
(personal health, problems in nature). The interest in chemistry problems is lower comparing
with that in physics and biology, as well as in science in general.
During the five years some differences can be observed in the context of gender: girls’
interest to learn science has had a slightly tendency to increase compared to boys. On the whole,
 problems
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52 15-years-old students have become more homogenous in their opinions about learning science
at school.
There are some important differences regarding what Latvian students and their teach-
ers consider as most interesting (students) and important (teachers) science themes to learn.
Although it seems that it is impossible to have absolute conformity of opinions for both groups,
there needs to be more agreement in order to achieve better results in the science teaching/
learning process.

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Schmidt, H. (2000). Should chemistry lessons be more intellectually challenging? Chemistry Education:
Research and Practice in Europe, 1(1), 17-26.
Schreiner C. (2006). Exploring a ROSE-garden/Norwegian youth’s orientations towards science – seen
as signs of late modern identities. Oslo, University of Oslo, 315 pp. http://www.ils.uio.no/ english/rose/
network/countries/norway/eng/nor-schreiner-thesis.pdf (Retrieved 04.02.2010).
Schreiner, C., Sjøberg, S. (2004). Sowing the seeds of ROSE. Background, rationale, questionnaire de-
velopment and data collection for ROSE (The Relevance of Science Education) - a comparative study of
students’ views of science and science education. Acta Didactica, 4, 120. Oslo: Dept. of Teacher Educa-
tion and School Development, University of Oslo.
Adviced by Laima Railiene, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania

Janis Gedrovics Assoc. professor, Dr. chem., Department of Management and Economics, Riga Teacher Train-
ing and Educational Management Academy, Imantas 7. linija No 1, LV-1083 Riga, Latvia.
E-mail: janis.gedrovics@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv

Daina Mozeika Mg. chem, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Kr. Valdemara street 48, Riga, LV-1013
Latvia.
E-mail: tuttii@inbox.lv
Website: http://www.lu.lv

Dagnija Cedere Assoc. professor, Dr. chem., Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Kr. Valdemara street 48,
Riga, LV-1013 Latvia.
E-mail: dagced@lanet.lv
Website: http://www.lu.lv
 problems
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54

UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’
ARGUMENTATION IN SCIENCE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Tuula Keinonen, Sirpa Kärkkäinen

University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu
E-mail: tuula.keinonen@uef.fi, sirpa.a.karkkainen@uef.fi

Abstract

In science and environmental education, one of the objectives is to prepare students for participation
in the decision making. To be able as an informed citizen to make decisions, it is important to learn to
present an argued point of view. The everyday sense of argumentation suggests that participants present
claims, defend their claims, and rebut the claims of their opponents. The study focuses on practising
university students’ argumentation in an authentic situation and also the way students argue. University
students familiarized themselves with a proposal to change a provincial plan. After reading the plan, they
assumed to the role of a resident of the area in question and wrote to the planners starting their opinion.
We had two different cases: the first case was in science education course and the other case in environ-
mental education course. In the second case students wrote to the Wiki-environment and the opponent
commented on the argumentation. These writings (N=17) were analysed by content analysis. Although
the students used scientific knowledge, especially ecology, in their argumentation, it often consisted of
personal feelings about the effect of the plan on their own lives.
Key words: argumentation, environmental education, science education, higher education.

Introduction

Argument and argumentative practice is a core activity of scientists; it is also one of the
goals in environmental and science education which aims to prepare students for future par-
ticipation in society. There are many areas of public science-based policy in which the public
has a legitimate voice. Many of these issues are complex. Discussion of sosioscientific issues
requires a range of skills in order to analyze issues and work toward a decision. In decision
making, the skill of being able to present an argued point of view is implicit (Kortland, 1997).
As argument is an important feature in science, research on argument and argumentation
in environmental and science education has intensified over the last twenty years. Scientific
knowledge is socially constructed, and argumentation is especially needed in pedagogical dis-
cursive activities. Driver, Newton, and Osborne (2000) see the centrality of argument in sci-
ence from three perspectives: the nature of scientific enterprise itself; the role and function of
argument within science; the need for science education to promote a better understanding of
science and its nature, this enhancing the public understanding of science.
Argument can be considered to be an individual activity, either through thinking and
Tuula Keinonen, Sirpa Kärkkäinen. University Students’ Argumentation in Science and Environmental Education
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writing, or as a social activity within a group, a negotiated social act within a specific commu- 55
nity (Driver, Newton and Osborne, 2000). According to Driver et al., in rhetorical mode, argu-
ment is used to inform others and persuade them of the strength of the case being presented. The
dialogical or multivoiced interpretation of argument is involved, when different perspectives
are being examined and the purpose is to reach agreement on acceptable claims or courses of
action. The multivoiced nature of argument construction is much more obvious within a group,
as individuals take different positions over the claims advanced, and influence, the nature of
the argument that can be put together. When student’s practice argument in groups, it is an im-
portant mechanism for scaffolding students’ individual construction of argument (see Driver,
Newton and Osborne, 2000.)
The theory of argumentation has been developed since Toulmins’ contribution in 1958.
It can provide a theoretical basis for developing tools to analyze and improve argumentative
discourse. Toulmin’s (1958) argument pattern has been used for coding arguments in different
contexts. It contains:
• claims, which are assertions about what actually exists and values already held;
• data, which are statements that are used as evidence to support the claim;
• warrants, which are statements that explain the relationship of the data to the claim;
• qualifiers, which are special conditions under which the claim holds true;
• backings, which are underlying assumptions that often remain inexplicit; and
• rebuttals, which are statements that contradict either the data, warrant, backing or
qualifier of an argument (see also Simon, Erduran and Osborne, 2006; Sampson and
Clark, 2008).
In applying Toulmin’s framework, it is difficult to distinguish claims, data, warrants, and
backings, because the comments made by students can often be classified into multiple catego-
ries (see Sampson and Clark, 2008). Kelly and Takao (2002) state that the scheme in Toulmin’s
model is restricted to relatively short argument structures and that the argument components
pose ambiguities. When the arguments are longer, as is the case when students are writing a
paper stating their positions, statements may serve as a new claim or as a warrant for a pre-ex-
isting claim (Kelly and Takao, 2002). In the model which Kelly and Takao (2002) used, there
are six epistemic levels ranging from most specifically, grounded claims to progressively more
general, theoretical claims. In addition to the epistemic levels, the model includes explicit links
over the assertions made in the argument. This model allows for the use of multiple claims to
support complicated arguments; Kelly and Takao (2002) applied the model to specific cases in
a University oceanography course.
Several analytic frameworks have been used in literature to study arguments constructed
by students. Regardless of the diverse perspectives, according to Sampson and Clark (2008),
these frameworks share several focal issues. Sampson and Clark (2008) see three issues to be
of critical importance in the research of the ways students generate argument in the context of
science: the structure or complexity of the argument (i.e. the components of an argument); the
content of an argument (i.e., the accuracy or adequacy of the various components in the argu-
ment when evaluated from a scientific perspective); and the nature of the justification (i.e.,
how ideas or claims are supported or validated within an argument). For example, the model of
Schwarz, Neuman, Gil, and Ilya (2003) is designed for contexts in which students were invited
to produce arguments in essays to express their standpoint. In this framework the argument is
simply a conclusion with at least one reason. The arguments are quantified by identifying the
(a) argument type, (b) soundness of the argument, (c) overall number of reasons, (d) number
of reasons supporting counterarguments, and (e) types of reasons included. The hierarchy of
argument structure is fairly simple, ranging from a simple assertion to a compound argument.
Simple assertions consist of a conclusion that is not supported by any type of justification. One-
sided arguments include only a conclusion with one or more reasons. Two-sided arguments
 problems
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56 include reasons that both support and challenge the conclusion. Compound arguments include
phrases such as, it depends.., if.., but only if... Also the soundness, the acceptability of the argu-
ment, and the relevance of the reasons used to support a conclusion, are valued.
Good argument is relative to the context in which it takes place: the validity of an argu-
ment is a matter of informal, rather than formal logic, and different areas of human activity will
have their own distinctive forms of argumentation (Newton, Driver, Osborne, 1999). Current
research indicates that it is difficult for students to learn how to engage in productive scientific
argumentation to propose and justify an explanation through argument (Sampson and Clark,
2008). Skoumios and Hatzinika (2009) studied the quality of dialogic argumentation and found
that there is a relation between the ground levels and content levels of oral comments of 11-
12 year old pupils. Jimenez-Aleixandre and Pereiro-Munõz (2002) found, in the context of
environmental management, that 16-17 years old students’ decisions were not based solely on
conceptual understanding or scientific evidence: value judgements played an important role.
Teaching argumentation is challenging for teachers. Newton, Driver & Osborne (1999)
found that opportunities for the social construction of knowledge, afforded by secondary school
science through the use of argument-based pedagogical techniques, were few and far between.
Simon, Erduran and Osborne (2006) also investigated the teaching of argumentation and found
that teachers, whose lessons included the highest quality of argumentation, also encouraged
higher-order processes in their teaching.
Here in Finland, Marttunen (1994) studied argumentation skills among Finnish univer-
sity students and contributes to the measurement of argumentation. The data was derived from
written tasks concerning argumentation in the field of sociology education. The analysis was
separated into the claims, the grounds and the conclusions. According to the study of Marttunen
(1994), students’ argumentation skills can be divided into two categories; the analysis of argu-
mentative texts and the skill of composing one’s own arguments. Furthermore, results indicated
that students’ argumentation skills were poor (see also Marttunen & Laurinen, 2009). Also in
the context of physics the study of Finnish primary school teacher students’ reasoning revealed
that students used everyday reasoning based partly on beliefs, and scientific reasoning based on
school science (Keinonen, 2007; Keinonen 2008.)
Åhlberg (1998) and his research group has used the ARRA argumentation model, devel-
oped from Toulmin’s model, because some of Toulmin’s original categories and examples were
somewhat unclear. ARRA or Analysis of Reasoning Rhetorics and Argumentation contains 9
categories: claims, grounds, warrant, backing, qualifications, rebuttals, real/proper question,
rhetorical question and emotional expression (see Åhlberg, 1998.)
The purpose of this study is to clarify the level of arguments used by university students
in the context of science and environmental education, especially in the context of participa-
tion.

Methodology of Research

Due to the complexity of the problems under study environmental conflicts offer good
opportunities for evaluating options. University students were asked to assess and comment
on an authentic provincial plan under development. The students could assume the position of
somebody living in the planning area, whose life may be influenced by the plan. Real-life issues
as a teaching strategy, involves conflicts between contradictory interests and cannot be resolved
with straightforward affirmative or negative answers. Authentic problems do not need to be
‘genuine’, but the issue chosen should be authentic as it adds motivation and interest for the
students, offering them the possibility of discussing it in the classroom and to some extent try-
ing to influence, the real world outside the classroom (Jiménez-Aleixandre and Pereiro-Munõz,
2002).
Tuula Keinonen, Sirpa Kärkkäinen. University Students’ Argumentation in Science and Environmental Education
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The provincial plan affected the area near the university. Two case studies were carried 57
out with different teaching strategies, but studying participation the same authentic issue was
used. Firstly, in 2007-2008, primary school teacher students (N=8) in Science and Technology
education wrote their comments on the plan as a piece of homework, having familiarized to
themselves with the plan and the corresponding map. The students first presented their com-
ments to their peers in one of the 45 minutes lessons and these comments were then the subject
of discussion.
In the second case, university students (N=9) participating in the course: Basics of en-
vironmental education in 2009, wrote their comments on the same plan. The course consisted
of working in groups and lectures aimed at introducing the theory of environmental education
with its practical examples and general models. In accordance with most of environmental
education, the goal of working in small groups was to promote students’ skills in four dimen-
sions: sensitivity, knowledge, action, and participation. Sensitivity should be aroused in the
early stages of education, to be later developed towards skills for participation in society as a
globally responsible citizen.
The Wiki-e-learning environment was used in this latter case. Students wrote the first
version of their comments, and their answered as opponents in the Wiki environment. Taking
opponents’ comments into account, the students modified or corrected his/her first comments.
In other words, they could choose the topic and write a standpoint on it. Students could also
see the maps in question on the internet page of the Regional Council of North Karelia. As an
outcome, students documented and wrote descriptions. The length of these descriptions varied
from half to one A4 page.
Seventeen writings were analysed in the framework of the argumentation theory. It was
found that in addition to the modification of Toulmin’ s model, the model of Schwarz, Neuman,
Gil, and Ilya (2003) was also applicable. The arguments could also be classified according to
the nature of both the statements as well as the writings.

Results of Research

Case 1

In case 1, teacher students wrote a one-sided standpoint on the provincial plan from the
point a fictional person living somewhere in the planning area. The students chose a living area
near a spring and fen (N=1), near a quarry (N=5), or near peat production (N=2). Students’
statements were classified as data (D), claims (C), grounds (G), warranties (W), backings (B),
and qualifications (Q). Excerpts of the statements are as follows:

D The hill of Kakkarimäki is marked as being in the area where rock is quarried. S7
C Because of this quarrying rock is not economically profitable. S4
G The fen in Niskala is very rich in nutrients. S1
W According to planning regulations, the intake must be reconciled with the area’s natu-
ral, cultural, and environmental values. S2
B It is an important place for bird-watching, collecting berries and mushrooms, and
rambling. S3
Q ... marking the area as a provincial plan is debatable. S3

There were, however, difficulties in classification, as Sampson and Clark (2008) have
argued. The statements could be classified in several categories. The frequencies of statements
in different categories are shown in Table 1.
 problems
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58 Table 1. The nature of students’ statements.

Qualifica-
Category Data Claims Grounds Warranties Backing tions Total

Protection of nature, S1 10 11 1 2 1 - 25
Caring about risks, S2 3 6 - 4 1 - 14
Personal beliefs/
caring about landscape
S3 3 6 2 4 8 1 24
S4 1 9 2 1 3 - 16
S5 2 9 - 1 5 - 17
S6 1 6 - - 6 - 13
Disagreement through
counterarguments, 4 4 - 4 - 1 13
S7
Challenging through
4 11 - 1 8 - 24
pondering, S8
Total 28 62 5 17 32 2 146

The teacher students mostly made claims, a total of 62, and these were not always re-
lated to other statements. When a statement was connected to the claim, it was mainly backing
or data. The students made 4 to 11 claims in their comments.
Student 1 used ecological data when he argued, based on the provincial plan or personal
(fictional) knowledge of the area. One of the claims was related to human well-being, others to
nature. Student 2 had two claims connected to well-being, others were nature-related. Student 2
also highlighted the control of risks. Students 3, 4, 5, and 6 used their own beliefs when arguing,
and focused on the landscape issue. Student 7 used counterarguments to the arguments in the
provincial plan and student 8 impugned the plan through pondering alternatives.
Student 1, who was concerned with nature presented 11 claims. The argument patter is
described in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The statement chain presented by Student 1.

The student has used a lot of data from the provincial plan but has also included ecologi-
cal knowledge and everyday knowledge to reason his claims. His argument on behalf of the
spring and the fen in the area explains the use of ecological data but he is also making an appeal
for the well-being of the human being.
Figure 2 represents the statement chain of student 7. This was the shortest chain.
Tuula Keinonen, Sirpa Kärkkäinen. University Students’ Argumentation in Science and Environmental Education
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59

Figure 2. The chain of statements Student 7.

Student 7 mainly used beliefs when he argued in his written comments. He was strongly
against the provincial plan, but did not name any authorities, or facts in his statements.
When applying the model of Schwarz, Neuman, Gil, and Ilya (2003), it was evident that
there were many arguments which included only an assertion. There were one-sided arguments,
somewhat less two-sided arguments, and only a few compound arguments. The classification of
the quality of reasons leads to the following findings. The students used abstract reasons, such
as hoping that the issue would still be examined, and consequential reasons such as ‘damaging
effects could be smaller.’ However, the students used a lot of sensible reasons including ones
that consist of generally accepted beliefs or truths, appealing to the authority (Environmental
Institute), or reasons that were based on personal experiences. Vague reasons consisting of im-
precise statements were also used in many cases.

Case 2

Phase 1

In case 2 the university students (N=9) wrote comments on the same provincial plan as
in the case 1, though it wasn’t topical any more. The students, main subjects were peat produc-
tion (N=3), quarrying areas (N=3), the shooting range area (N=1), the power line (N=1) and the
valuable landscape (N=1).
Students’ statements were classified into data (D), claims (C), grounds (G), warranties
(W), backings (B), and qualifications (Q). Excerpts from the statements are as follows:

D MU-earmark means an area marked for agriculture and forestry in the provincial
plan. S11
C The quarrying of the rock incurs damage to the environment which is irretrievable.
S12
G The mire is a valuable ecosystem for birds. S13
W According to the Finnish mire scientists….S14
B It is an important place for me for recreation and picking berries S11
Q ...marking the area on the provincial plan is debatable. S16
Table 2 shows the frequencies of statements in different categories which belong to
case 2. The students mostly made claims, a total of 80.
 problems
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60 Table 2. The nature of students’ statements from case 2.

Category Data Claims Grounds Warranties Backing Qualifications Total

Personal
beliefs
S9 - 5 - - - - 5
S13 1 6 1 8
Caring
about risks
S10 - 9 - 3 2 - 14
S12 2 8 1 11
S17 1 12 3 2 3 1 22
Recrea-
tional
Need
S11 3 8 1 1 1 14
S15 2 7 2 11
Economy
3 14 1 1 2 21
view, S14
Society
3 10 3 5 1 22
view, S16
Total 15 79 7 8 15 4 128

Student 9 had a personal and emotional belief but lacked any knowledge. She wrote that
she was thankful for the good hogback area in the North Karelian district. The hogbacks are
a very important recreational area for herself and her grandchildren. The agreement pattern is
described in Figure 3. This was the shortest and simplest chain.

Figure 3. The statement chain of Student 9.

Student 13 also wrote about emotional beliefs and she was generally worried about
the shooting areas in the Joensuu district. She emphasized the noise and used the qualification
“every time”.
Student 10 presented knowledge which was based on information published in the local
and Finnish media. She argued that the peat mining area is too large. She highlighted the risk of
drainage for peat extraction. Peat mires are important sites for biodiversity e.g. ecosystems for
birds, human heritage and landscape. Many of these values are irreversibly destroyed by drain-
age and they cannot be restored. The agreement pattern is described in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The statement chain of Student 10.

Tuula Keinonen, Sirpa Kärkkäinen. University Students’ Argumentation in Science and Environmental Education
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Student 16 agrees that the peat mining areas on the provincial plan is good, because in 61
the future the use of electricity will be so huge in Finland and local employment is important.
He used backing in his e.g. EU renewable energy polices, Finnish scientists and the Finnish
Ministry for trade and industry.
Students 11, 12 and 15 wrote about gravel resources. Student 11 recognised the needs
of the local customers and society. She highlighted that the environmental aspects have been
taken into account in production. Gravel and sand resources need more environmental research
and environmental risk management. Student 12 also wrote that the gravel areas are the ground-
water resources and she is worried about the risks to the neighbourhood and especially for the
local kindergarten. Also the recreational needs are considered important in the writings of both
students (12 and 15).
Student 14 wrote that electricity lines are not suitable in his gardening economy. His
claims are based on employment and he had personal knowledge about the area. Student 17
used ecological and economic data when she argued. For example she questioned the unclear
calculations about the use of electricity in Finland and the forecast of economical growth in the
future.

Phase 2

The students first wrote their comments in the Wiki e-learning environment to which
their peers reacted with their own comments. After the peer had argued his/her viewpoint, the
student revised his/her initial comments. In table 3 we show the nature of the students’ state-
ments.

Table 3. The nature of students’ statements at the beginning of the task and
following their peers’ comments.

Data 1st writings 2nd writings

Category Number of statements Number of statements Total
Personal beliefs 2 0 2
Personal beliefs, real
4 2 6
impacts
Society, few aspects 3 3 6
Society, board view 0 4 4
Total 9 9 18

It seems that the peer argumentation practice in the Wiki-environment does provide in
some extent the opportunity to develop students’ ability to construct an argument. But, if the
student had a view which was based on a strong personal belief, it did not change during the
reviewing process. The arguments had in some cases changed after the comment phase, taking
the whole society more into account, some students’ arguments remained unchanged.
Comparing cases 1 and 2, we found that the standpoint written as homework was longer
than that written in the Wiki-environment, the argument chains being extended. However, the
Wiki-arguments were more precise. Three of the issues which the students chose were the same,
but the issues chosen in case two were more varied. This is probably due to the differences in
the major subjects of the students.
 problems
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62 Discussion and Conclusions

The provincial plan used as a context, interested the students. Authentic problems do
not need to be ‘genuine’, but when the issue chosen is a real problem, it adds motivation and
interest for the students, as Jiménez-Aleixandre and Pereiro-Munõz (2002) have reported. In
case one, argument can be seen to take place as an individual activity, through thinking and
writing; the case two social activity takes place within the groups, a negotiated social act within
a specific community of peers (see Driver, Newton and Osborne, 2000). Argumentation is thus
not only context specific (Newton, Driver, Osborne, 1999), but it was also found to be teaching
strategy specific. When the students wrote their comments alone with the normal text program,
their comments were longer than in the case, where the Wiki e-learning environment was used.
However, in the latter case, the comments were more precise and based on thinking thoroughly
about the subjects. We need to develop a teaching strategy using the good features from both
these strategies. Opportunities for the social construction of knowledge should be afforded
more (see Newton, Driver & Osborne, 1999).
Argumentation is clearly a skill which needs to be practiced. The university students’
argumentation was not precise and did not consist of logical chains of reasoning. Obviously,
argumentation should be practiced much more during university studies. However, it was dif-
ficult to apply Toulmin’s (1958) framework, to distinguish claims, data, warrants, and backings
because the comments made by students could often be classified into multiple categories,
agreeing Sampson and Clark (2008).
The university students used several pieces of evidence in their reasoning, not only
conceptual understanding or scientific evidence but also value judgements which agreed with
the findings of Jimenez-Aleixandre and Pereiro-Munõz (2002). The model of Kelly and Takao
(2002) with its six epistemic levels, was not found to be applicable; even that the comments
should consist of long arguments. In future development work, when the teaching strategy leads
to a higher quality level of argument, the model will probably be suitable.
The findings of Simon, Erduran and Osborne (2006), that teachers whose lessons in-
cluded the highest quality of argumentation also encouraged higher-order processes in their
teaching, together with our findings of the level of argumentation, challenges us to use more
argumentation in our lessons. Participation in society requires increasing awareness of envi-
ronmental action. In the future, the environmental problems will be more extensive and more
significant because of changes in the environment, thus the role of argumentation in science
and environmental education is important. Both environmental education and science educa-
tion deal with involvement and participation. It is obvious that the university students lacked
the opportunity for the practice of argument. Briefly, it is important to develop science and
environmental education for university students in order to help students improve their argu-
mentation skills.

References

Driver, R., Newton, P. & Osborne, J. (2000). Establishing the Norms of Scientific Argumentation in
Classrooms. Science Education, 84, p. 287-312.
Jiménez-Aleixandre, M.-P. & Pereiro-Muñoz, C. (2002). Knowledge producers or knowledge consum-
ers? Argumentation and decision making about environmental management. International Journal of
Science Education, 24, p. 1171-1190.
Keinonen, T. (2007). Explanations for physics phenomena given by primary school would-be teachers.
Journal of Baltic Science Education, 6, p. 78-90.
Tuula Keinonen, Sirpa Kärkkäinen. University Students’ Argumentation in Science and Environmental Education
problems
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in the 21st century
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Keinonen. T. (2008). Science Education: A Study on Finnish Teacher Students´ Views, Saarbrücken: 63
VDM Verlag.
Kelly, G.J. & Takao, A. (2002). Epistemic levels in argument: an analysis of university oceanography
students’ use of evidence in writing, Science Education, 86, p. 314-342.
Kortland, K. (1997). Carbage: dumping, burning and reusing/recycling: students’ perceptions of the waste
issue. International Journal of Science Education, 19, p. 65-77.
Kuhn Berland, L. & Reiser, B.J. (2008). Making Sense of Argumentation and Explanation. Science Edu-
cation, 93, p. 26-55.
Marttunen, M. (1994). Assessing argumentation skills among Finnish university students. Learning and
Instruction, 4, p. 175-191.
Marttunen, M. & Laurinen, L. (2009). Secondary school students’ collaboration during dyadic debates
face-to-face and through computer chat. Computers in Human Behaviour, 25, p. 961-969.
Newton, P., Driver, R. & Osborne, J. (1999). The place of argumentation in the pedagogy of school sci-
ence. International Journal of Science Education, 21, p. 553-576.
Sampson, V. & Clark, D.B. (2008). Assessment of the Ways Students Generate Arguments in Science
Education: Current Perspectives and Recommendations for Future Directions. Science Education, 92, p.
447-472.
Schwarz, B.B, Neuman, Y., Gil, J. & Ilya, M. (2003). Construction of collective and individual knowl-
edge in argumentative activity. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12, p. 219-256.
Simon, S., Erduran, S. & Osborne, J.F. (2006). Learning to Teach Argumentation: Research and develop-
ment in the science classroom. International Journal of Science Education, 28, p. 235-260.
Skoumios, M. & Hatzinika, V. (2009) Learning and Justification during a Science Teaching Sequence.
The International Journal of Learning, 16 (4), p. 327-341.
Toulmin, S. 1958. Uses of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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ronment and good life. Bulletins of the Faculty of Education. University of Joensuu 69.

Adviced by Sari Havu-Nuutinen, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland

Tuula Keinonen Professor, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Faculty of Philosophy, School of Applied
Education and Teacher Education, PL 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland.
E-mail: tuula.keinonen@uef.fi
Website: http://www.uef.fi

Sirpa Kärkkäinen Senior lecturer, University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Philosophy, School of Applied
Education and Teacher Education, PL 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland.
E-mail: sirpa.a.karkkainen@uef.fi
Website: http://www.uef.fi
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64

Lithuanian students`
experiences with technology:
some important issues

Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė, Loreta Ragulienė

Šiauliai University, Lithuania
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt, violeta@fm.su.lt, loretar@gmail.com

Abstract

The role of ICT in education in whole and particularly in science education is very important topic. It is
worth emphasizing that in recent years, a general degree of integrating ICT in the process of teaching has
increased in Lithuania as well as in other countries. It is accepted that ICT makes the process of teaching/
learning more effective and beneficial whereas the education system starts functioning faster. The devel-
opment of ICT and the process of globalization determine alteration in the education system as well as in
the whole society. The implementation of new technologies in the educational process raises new possi-
bilities for both teacher and learner, enhances education quality and makes the educational process more
versatile. The research ‘Student and Computer-Based Technologies’ was conducted in January – March,
2010. Research sample consisted of 663 respondents who were 1st year university students (freshmen). To
analyze research data, the measures of descriptive statistics (absolute and relative frequencies, popular-
ity/usefulness/necessity indexes) have been applied. It has been stated, that respondents have practically
unlimited opportunities to use mobile phone, computer, internet and e-data mini storage device - USB
stick. Relatively new and rather expensive digital technologies are barely used. The most useful informa-
tion communication technology for the first year students while studying is compute.
Key words: information communication technologies, first year students, experience.

Introduction

Rapid growth of information communication technologies and their penetration into

education process is inevitable. New innovative technologies are constantly being creat-
ed. We can mention one of the newest technologies – Augmented Reality teaching/learning
platform – having been created while implementing international science innovation project
„ARiSE“(Augmented Reality in School Environments). 21st century requires from the teacher
deeper understanding of the pupil‘s general ability and culture competence education. It is
necessary to seek that the pupil could be able operatively react to rapid society changes, to be
flexible, active, trying to improve and form an attitude that he will have to learn for the rest of
his life. On the other hand, the amount of information is continuously growing. The need rises
to use the newest ICT effectively. Using ICT gives many possibilities to make education proc-
ess more picturesque, more interesting and more diverse. The same attitudes are valid in the
university study process as well. It would seem that pupils nowadays are able to use informa-
tion communication technologies rather well. However, we can notice that quite often a lot of
difficulties arise both to students and teachers trying to effectively use ICT in the study process.
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė, Loreta Ragulienė. Lithuanian Students` Experiences with Technology:
Some Important Issues
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

Using ICT is very important for scientists and teachers because currently without using them 65
or using insufficiently will not guarantee suitable standard of the studies. It is also obvious, that
practically all ICT can be useful in the studies. The question is how to find optimal balance
between the newest and classical technologies.
Researches carried out in various countries show that students’ preparation level of us-
ing ICT is different. The research conducted in Australia shows that many first year students
are highly tech-savvy (Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray, Kerri-Lee Krause, 2008). However,
the researchers state that when one moves beyond entrenched technologies and tools, the pat-
terns of Access and use of a range of other technologies show considerable variation. The
research carried out in Denmark, in which first year medical students participated, showed that
significantly more males than females had access to a computer at home, and males had a more
positive attitude towards the use of computers in their medical studies (D¸rup, 2004).Similar
results were received in Great Britain. The researchers stated that students are receptive to new
types of ICT in principle, although their level of familiarity and comfort with each application
of technology varies (JISC research report, 2008). The researches are being carried out seeking
to analyze the usage and effectiveness of very specific ICT in the study process. For example, it
has been stated, that integration of educational technology such as wireless keypads are consid-
ered important elements in undergraduate health care students learning approaches. Williams,
B., & Boyle, M. (2008) stated that students enjoy learning when using wireless keypads and
that they offer an alternative and innovative pedagogical tool in providing better appreciation
and understanding of other health care disciplines. Knowing the students’ abilities in using ICT
is important. As to researchers, by knowing the level of technological experience that students
have when they arrive, university can utilize the most appropriate strategies, methods, and
resources to help students (Arora, 2005; Frankowicz, 2008; Turčani, Kapusta, 2008; Lamanaus-
kas, 2009). It is obvious that students need strong technology skills to succeed in the world of
work. The main questions are still open:
• How does technology enhance student achievement?
• How to assess student progress in using ICT? or how to find the most appropriate
ways of assessing existing skills?
• How to effectively incorporate modern ICT into study process?
Hence, the object of research is the first year students` experiences with technology. The
aim of the research is to analyze the first year students‘experiences in using modern ICT.

Methodology of Research

General Characteristics of Research

The research Student and Computer-Based Technologies was conducted in January –

March, 2010. Before that a pilot research entitled Student and Computer-Based Technologies
was conducted in October – November, 2009 (Lamanauskas, Đlekienë, Ragulienë, 2009). The
main results were presented at international scientific conference in Slovakia (Lamanauskas,
Šlekienė, Ragulienė, 2010).

The Applied Instrument

To collect the required data, an anonymous questionnaire including four main blocks
was prepared. Questionnaire arranged by Australian researchers was used as a research instru-
ment (Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray, Kerri-Lee Krause, 2008). Questionnaire comprises
four main blocks: demographic information (5 items), access to hardware and the Internet (13
items), use of abilities and skills with technology based tools (Computer: 11 items; Web: 18
 problems
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Volume 22, 2010

66 items; Mobile phones: 8 items) and preferences for the use of technology based tools in Uni-
versity studies (19 items). Mentioned instrument was partially modified taking into account the
study specifics of Lithuanian universities.

Research Sample

663 university studies’ first year students participated in the research. From them – 469
Siauliai University, 82 – Vilnius pedagogical institute, 112 – Kaunas medical university stu-
dents. According to sex 421 female (63.5%) took part in the research and 242 (36.5%) male.
From them 295 (44.5%) respondents, city school graduates, 368 (55.5%) regional school gradu-
ates.

Table 1. Respondents’ Characteristics (N/%).

Female Male Total

According to sex
421/63,5 242/36,5 663/100
According to school City school Regional school Total
graduation place 295/44,5 368/55,5 663/100
Vilnius pedagogical uni-
Siauliai university Kaunas medical university
According to uni- versity
versity 469/70,7 82/12,4 112/16,9

Sampling was structured applying the stochastic method of group selection i.e., a con-
secutive ’bunch’ system. Research sample is considered to be sufficiently reliable because of
several reasons: sample contains students from three Lithuanian universities; all first year stu-
dents graduated from secondary comprehensive schools in different places of Lithuania, there-
fore it is likely that they have varied experience in the field of using ICT.
Statistical data analysis
To analyze research data, the measures of descriptive statistics (absolute and relative
frequencies, popularity/usefulness/necessity indexes) have been applied. Independent Samples
Test – t-test for Equality of Means has been applied for comparing possible differences between
features. The SSPS statistics batch is used as an instrument for data processing.

Results of Research

Respondents were asked what possibilities they have of using mobile phone, computer,
camera, USB sticks, other technologies and the Internet (Table 2).

Table 2. Students about possibilities of using computer technologies

(N/%, PI – Possibility index, 0 ≤ PI ≤ 1).

Your possibilities of using information computer Have no

technologies and internet Unlimited Limited
access PI

Mobile phone 584/88.1 56/8.4 23/3.5 0.92

Desktop computer 458/69.1 157/23.7 48/7.2 0.81
‘Laptop’ computer 410/61.8 101/15.2 152/22.9 0.69
‘Palmtop’ computer 38/5.7 62/9.4 563/84.9 0.10
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė, Loreta Ragulienė. Lithuanian Students` Experiences with Technology:
Some Important Issues
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

Digital camera 414/62.4 144/21.7 105/15.8 0.73 67

Digital video camera 182/27.5 152/22.9 329/49.6 0.39

Memory stick 571/86.1 52/7.8 40/6.0 0.90
MP3 player 434/65.5 94/14.2 135/20.4 0.73
iPod touch 64/9.7 74/11.2 525/79.2 0.15
GPS navigator 74/11.2 128/19.3 461/69.5 0.21
Portable library (eBook Reader) 22/3.3 72/10.9 569/85.8 0.09
Games console 87/13.1 106/16.0 470/70.9 0.21
Internet Broadband 376/56/7 63/9.5 224/33.8 0.61
Dialup 234/35.3 120/18.1 309/46.6 0.44
Wireless 260/39.2 94/14.2 309/46.6 0.46

94.6% of respondents have unlimited possibilities of using computer. In the question-

naire, three kinds of computers are distinguished: desktop computer, laptop computer and palm-
top computer. The biggest possibility is of using desktop computer (possibility index PI = 0.81,
standard deviation SD = 0.31), palmtop computer is used the least (PI = 0.10, SD = 0.26). This
is one of the newest computer technologies, which is not very widely spread among our youth
yet.
A statistically significant difference has been noticed between students having gradu-
ated from city and regional schools. Regional school students have bigger possibilities of using
laptop computer (PI = 0.76), than city students (PI = 0.61). The null hypothesis about equal
averages is rejected considering the level of significance which is p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 4.64.
We may assume that when acquiring a new computer, regional school students give preference
to laptop computer.
Students, having unlimited possibilities of using computer, also widely use the most
popular e- data mini storage device- USB stick (PI = 0.90, SD = 0.26). It seems to be an insepa-
rable means of linking individual computers.
88.1% of respondents have unlimited possibilities of using a mobile phone. Possibility
index of using a mobile phone is PI = 0.92, SD = 0.22 and only 3.5% do not have access to
mobile phone. Digital camera is rather widely used as well (PI = 0.73, SD = 0.38). Digital video
camera is already not so popular among students (PI = 0.39, SD = 0.42). Less than one third of
respondents have unlimited possibilities of using digital video camera (182/27.5 %) and almost
half of them have no access (329/49.6 %). GPS navigator (PI = 0.21, SD = 0, 34) and games
console (PI = 0.21, SD = 0.36) have little popularity. iPod touch is little used (PI = 0.15, SD
= 0.32) and eBook Reader is used very little (GI = 0.09, SD = 0.23). These are relatively new,
rather expensive digital technologies that are not directly related with the studies. We could
ascribe them to luxury or goods of specific interest. Statistics showed that respondents having
e.g., iPod touch usually also have a GPS navigator (correlation coefficient r = 0.402), e-Book
Reader (r = 0.447), digital video camera (r = 0.415), palm computer (r = 0.484). This is prob-
ably predetermined by family financial possibilities.
A statistically significant deviation was obtained which shows that students from the city
(PI = 0.78) use MP3 players more than regional centre students do (PI = 0.68; p < 0.001; df =
661; t = - 3.01). Analysis in terms of sex showed that males (PI = 0.28) more than females (PI =
0.17) use games console (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 3.63) and GPS navigator: males - PI = 0.26,
females - PI = 0, 18 (p < 0.005; df = 661; t = - 2.76).
92.3% of respondents have unlimited access to the internet. The biggest possibilities are
of using broadband (cable) internet connection (PI = 0.61, SD = 0.46), and the least – dial-up
connection (PI = 0.44, SD = 0.45), though dial-up connection is significantly more popular in
 problems
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Volume 22, 2010

68 regions than in cities. Statistically significant difference was established on possibilities of us-
ing dial-up (modem) internet between students having graduated from city and regional centre
schools: regional - PI = 0.51, city - PI = 0.35 (p < 0.005; df = 661; t = - 2.76).
Questionnaire was made to find out how often and for what aims students are using
computer (Table 3).

Table 3. Students about aims of using computer

(N/%, UI – using index, 0 ≤ UI ≤ 1).

Less
How often do you use computer for Every Once a Once a than Do not
these aims day week month once a use it UI
month
Use a computer for writing documents (e.g.
143/21.6 294/44.3 128/19.3 91/13.7 7/1.1 0.68
using Word)
Use a computer for data processing (tables,
50/7.5 281/42.4 188/28.4 122/18.4 22/3.3 0.58
graphics and so on.)
Use a computer for working with digital
130/19.6 232/35.0 157/23.7 108/16.3 36/5.4 0.62
pictures/photos
Use a computer for creating web pages
21/3.2 25/5.3 27/4.1 59/8.9 521/78.6 0.11
(e.g. using Dreamweaver, Frontpage)
Use a computer for creating multimedia
28/4.2 149/22.5 292/44.0 173/26.1 21/3.2 0.50
presentations
Use a computer for creating editing audio
33/5.0 103/15.5 127/19.2 156/23.5 244/36.8 0.32
and video (e.g. iMovie)
Use a computer for general study, without
200/30.2 177/26.7 130/19.6 84/12.7 72/10.9 0.63
accessing the web
Use a computer to play digital music files
491/74.1 67/10.1 43/6.5 33/5.0 29/4.4 0.86
(e.g. iTunes) without accessing the Internet
Use a computer to play games, without
133/20.1 136/20.5 78/11.8 94/14.2 222/33.5 0.45
accessing the Internet / web

Use a games console to play games 56/8.4 59/8.9 55/8.3 46/6.9 447/67.4 0.21
Use a handheld computer (e.g. a PDA) as
50/7.5 64/9.7 52/7.8 57/8.6 440/66.4 0.21
a personal organiser

Students state that most frequently, almost daily they use computer for Listening to
music without accessing the Internet (UI = 0.86, SD = 0.27), nearly once a week – for Prepar-
ing/writing documents (UI = 0.68, SD = 0.25), for General study, without accessing the web
(UI = 0.63, SD = 0.33), for Working with digital pictures/photos (UI = 0.62, SD = 0.28). We can
see that computer became a daily necessity for students. It is intensively used to both studies
and leisure time.
Very rarely computer is used for creation of web pages (UI = 0.11, SD = 0.25). Only
3.2% of students create web pages every day and 78.6% - do not create at all.
Statistically significant difference was not obtained between students having graduated
from city and regional schools on possibilities of using computer. However, a statistically sig-
nificant deviation was established in terms of sex. Male students more frequently use computer
for Playing games using a games console: male - UI = 0.29, female - UI = 0.16 (p < 0.001; df
= 661; t = - 4.74); for Playing games, without accessing the Internet: male - UI = 0.58, female
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė, Loreta Ragulienė. Lithuanian Students` Experiences with Technology:
Some Important Issues
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

- UI = 0.37 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 6.69); for Creating and editing audio and video material: 69
male - UI = 0.41, female - UI = 0.27 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 5.59); for Creating web pages:
male - UI = 0.19, female - UI = 0.07 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 6.02). We can assert that boys
are using more complicated computer functions than girls. Besides, considerable correlation
link was obtained between respondents having a digital video camera and using computer for
creating and editing audio and video material (r = 0.411). Thus, students, filming important
events for themselves, usually are able to use special computer programmes, i.e., they create
and edit films themselves.
Table 4 shows for what aims students are using a mobile phone.

Table 4. Students about aims of using a mobile phone

(N/%, UI – using index, 0 ≤ UI ≤ 1).

Less than
How often do you use a mobile Every Once a Once a Do not
once a UI
phone for these aims day week month use it
month
Use a mobile phone to call people 531/80.1 86/13.0 16/2.4 27/4.1 3/0.5 0.92
Use a mobile phone to text/ SMS
618/93.2 30/4.5 8/1.2 4/0.6 3/0.5 0.97
people
Use a mobile phone to take digital
69/10.4 221/33.3 162/24.4 118/17.8 93/14.0 0.52
photos or movies
Use a mobile phone to send pictures or
52/7.8 131/19.8 119/17.9 115/17.3 246/37.1 0.36
movies to other people
Use a mobile phone as a personal
77/11.6 115/17.4 83/12.5 78/11.8 310/46.8 0.34
organiser (e.g. diary, address book)
Use a mobile phone to listen music,
213/32.1 143/21.6 84/12.7 90/13.6 133/20.1 0.58
radio
Use a mobile phone to access informa-
99/14.9 94/14.2 65/9.8 108/16.3 297/44.8 0.35
tion/ services on the web
Use a mobile phone to send or receive
69/10.4 35/5.3 37/5.6 50/7.5 472/71/2 0.19
email

Students use basic functions of a mobile phone almost every day: sending SMS or
MMS messages (UI = 0.97, SD = 0.11) and calling people (UI = 0.92, SD= 0.19). Besides, more
than once a month the phone is used to listen to music, radio (UI = 0.58, SD = 0.38), to take
photos or movies (UI = 0.52, SD = 0.30), and the least it is used to send or receive email (UI =
0.19, SD = 0.34). Statistically significant deviation on possibilities of using a mobile phone was
noticed only in terms of sex. Male students more often than female students are using special
mobile phone functions: to Take photos or movies - UI = 0.58, UI = 0.49 (p < 0.001; df = 661;
t = - 3.88); to Surf the net: male - UI = 0.44, UI = 0.29 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 5.06); to Re-
ceive and send email: male - UI = 0.25, UI = 0.15 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 3.68); to Listen to
music, radio: male - UI = 0.63, UI = 0.55 (p < 0.01; df = 661; t = - 2.61).
Respondents were asked for what aims and how often they use the Internet (Table5).
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70 Table 5. Students about the aims of using the Internet

(N/%, UI – using index, 0 ≤ UI ≤ 1).
Less
How often do you use the Internet for Every Once a Once a than Do not
UI
these aims day week month once a use
month
Use the web to access a school or university
173/26.1 294/44.3 95/14.3 89/13.4 12/1.8 0.70
portal
Use the web to look up reference information
353/53.2 194/29.3 49/7.4 54/8.1 13/2.0 0.81
for study purposes (e.g. online dictionaries)

Use the web to browse for general informa-

515/77.7 101/15.2 18/2.7 26/3.9 3/0.5 0.91
tion (e.g. news, holidaying, event timetables)

Use the Internet/web or a LAN to play net-

171/25.8 134/20.2 87/13.1 98/14.8 173/26.1 0.51
worked games

Use the web to listen to sound recordings

445/67.1 106/16.0 42/6.3 42/6.3 28/4.2 0.84
(e.g. via streaming audio or iTunes)
Use the web for other pastimes (i.e. for lei-
226/34.1 194/29.3 107/16.1 92/13.9 44/6.6 0.68
sure activities, movies)
Use the web to buy or sell things (e.g. eBay,
40/6.0 70/10.6 97/14.6 123/18.6 333/50.2 0.26
Amazon, air tickets.)
Use the web for other services (e.g. banking,
43/6.5 151/22.8 181/27.3 92/13.9 196/29.6 0.41
paying bills)
Use the web to send or receive email (e.g.
457/68.9 116/17.5 23/3.5 51/7.7 16/2.4 0.86
Hotmail, Yahoo, Outlook)
Use the web for instant messaging/ chat (e.g.
555/83.7 58/8.7 10/1.5 26/3.9 14/2.1 0.92
MSN, Yahoo, ICQ)
Use the web to build and maintain a website 16/2.4 32/4.8 36/5.4 56/8.4 523/78.9 0.11
Use the web to download MP3 files (e.g.
317/47.8 183/27.6 64/9.7 77/11.6 22/3.3 0.76
music, videos, podcasts)
Use the web to download software 136/20.5 176/26.5 176/26.5 103/15.5 72/10.9 0.58
Use the web to share photographs or other
145/21.9 183/12.6 170/25.6 98/14.8 67/10.1 0.59
digital material (e.g. using Blinklist, Flickr)
Use the web to make phone calls
145/21.9 110/16.6 88/13.3 86/13.0 234/35.3 0.44
(e.g. VoIP using Skype)
Use the web for web conferencing
69/10.4 100/15.1 91/13.7 117/17.6 286/43.1 0.33
(e.g. using a webcam)
Use the web to read RSS feeds (e.g. news
76/11.5 102/15.4 60/9.0 82/12.4 343/51.7 0.31
feeds)
Use social networking software on the web
183/27.6 111/16.7 104/15.7 105/15.8 160/24.1 0.52
(e.g. MySpace, Trendster)

Most frequently students use the Internet for communication (UI = 0.92, SD = 0.21), to
browse for general information (UI = 0.91, SD = 0.19), for e-mail services (UI = 0.86, SD =
0.26), to listen to music (UI = 0.84, SD = 0.28), for studies (UI = 0.81, SD = 0.26). The most
seldom computer is used for creation of websites (UI = 0.11, SD = 0.24), for buying/selling (UI
= 0.26, SD = 0.32). 27.6% of respondents every day take part in social websites (UI = 0.52, SD
= 0.39), and 24.1% do not use these websites at all. A similar situation is with the games on the
internet (UI = 0.51, SD = 0.39): 25, 8% use the internet for games every day and 26.1% do not
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė, Loreta Ragulienė. Lithuanian Students` Experiences with Technology:
Some Important Issues
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

play on the internet at all. 71

A statistically significant difference was obtained between students having graduated
from city and regional schools considering participation in social websites: city - UI = 0.575,
regional - UI = 0.48 (p < 0.005; df = 661; t = 2.79). Statistical analysis showed that social web-
sites are more popular in cities than in regions. Quite a few significant differences were noticed
in the analysis concerning sex. Boys use the internet significantly more frequently than girls
for these purposes: to Send various files (music, video, e-cards): males - UI = 0.82, females- UI
= 0.73 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 3.95), to Download necessary software: males - UI = 0.74,
females - UI = 0.48 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 10.72), to Watch films: males - UI = 0.77, females
- UI = 0.62 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 5.87), to Play games: males - UI = 0.66, females - UI
= 0.43 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 7.51), to Participate in conference calls/video conferencing:
males- UI = 0.40, females - UI = 0.29 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 3.89), to Buy/sell: males - UI
= 0.38, females - UI = 0.19 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 7.41), to Create websites: males - UI =
0.18, females - UI = 0.06 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 6.25). We can see that both boys and girls
use the internet mostly for communication, for search of information and for e-mail services.
However, boys use the internet much more variably than girls do.
The aim was to find out if information communication technologies are necessary study-
ing at university (Table 6).

Table 6. Students about the necessity of communication technologies for

studies (N/%, NI – necessity index, 0 ≤ NI ≤ 1).

Neither
Do you need these information communication technologies
Yes yes nor No NI
while studying
no
A computer for general study 631/95.1 27/4.1 5/0.8 0.97
A computer to create documents (e.g. using Word, Excel, PDFs) 597/90.0 58/8.7 8/1.3 0.94
A computer to create web pages (e.g. using Dreamweaver,
100/15.1 152/22.9 411/62.0 0.27
Frontpage)
A computer to create multimedia presentations (e.g. PowerPoint,
537/81.0 107/16.1 19/2.9 0.89
Director)
A handheld computer (e.g. a PDA) as a personal organiser (e.g. diary,
51/7.7 123/18.6 489/73.7 0.17
address book)
The web to access a learning portal (e.g. a ‘Course’ or ‘Learning
481/72.5 126/19.1 56/8.4 0.82
Management System’)
The web to look up or search for information (e.g. online dictionaries,
612/92.3 36/5.4 612/92.3 0.95
Google)
The web for other services (e.g. enrolment, sign up for tutes, paying
315/47.5 175/26.4 173/26.1 0.61
fees)
The web for instant messaging/ chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo, ICQ) 545/82.2 78/11.8 40/6.0 0.88
The web to build and maintain a website 78/11.8 128/19.3 457/68.9 0.21
Social networking software on the web (e.g. MySpace, Trendster) 252/38.0 239/36.0 172/26.0 0.56
The web to download MP3 files (e.g. podcasts, iTunes) 567/85.5 66/10.0 30/4.5 0.91
The web to download software 474/71.5 129/19.5 60/9.0 0.81
The web for web conferencing (e.g. using a webcam) 181/27.3 239/36.0 243/36.7 0.45
The web to read RSS feeds (e.g. news feeds) 161/24.3 186/28.0 316/47.7 0.38
A mobile phone to send or receive text messages/ SMSs 517/78.0 72/10.9 74/11.2 0.83
A mobile phone to send or receive email 173/26.1 138/20.8 352/53.1 0.37
A mobile phone as a personal organiser 141/21.2 188/28.4 334/50.4 0.35
A mobile phone to access web based information or services 149/22.5 181/27.3 333/50.2 0.36
 problems
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72 The most needful information communication technology for the first year students is
computer. Most of all it is necessary for general studies (NI = 0.97, SD = 0.13), to create docu-
ments (RI = 0.94, SD = 0.18), to make presentations (NI = 0.89, SD = 0.24). While studying
the internet is the most needful for information search (NI = 0.95, SD = 0.18), to download
various files (NI = 0.91, SD = 0.25), to talk/communicate (NI = 0.88, SD = 0.26), to download
necessary software (NI = 0.81, SD = 0.32). According to respondents, palmtop computer is little
necessary for studies to organise personal schedule (NI = 0.17, SD = 0.31) and mobile phone
for organising personal schedule (NI = 0.35, SD = 0.40). Few respondents require computer
to create websites (NI = 0.27, SD = 0.37), and the internet to create websites (RI = 0.21, SD =
0.35). Such results were expected because the great majority of respondents are studying social
sciences.
Statistically significant difference was not noticed concerning the necessity of commu-
nication technologies for studies between students having graduated from city and regional
schools. Analysis considering sex showed that information communication technologies inn
some aspects are more necessary for boys: Internet for downloading necessary software; male
- NI = 0.87, female - NI = 0.78 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 3.39), Mobile phone for searching the
net: male - NI = 0.45, female - NI = 0.31 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 4.37), Computer for creation
of websites: male - NI = 0.38, female - NI = 0.20 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 5.96), Internet for
creation of websites: male - NI = 0.31, female - NI = 0.16 (p < 0.001; df = 661; t = - 5.76).

Discussion

The process of training the teachers of sciences in Lithuania is aimed at developing

teacher’s abilities to work in a new teaching/learning environment applying the newest didacti-
cal principles. The methodology of preparing teachers is based on constructive teaching that
refers to the principles of humanistic education. All constructive methods are combined adopt-
ing an attitude towards knowledge acquisition as an active process of knowledge construction
the student in which performs the most important role.
Achievements in the field of information technologies have been noticed and used for a
rather long period of time, nevertheless, the present and constantly increasing level of compu-
terizing universities and schools enables to realize it in a more attractive and qualitative way.
However, a number of teachers applying ICT for education purposes encounter didactic
problems as they:
• do not have appropriate qualification to work with computer and complex software;
• feel a lack of time to get confidence in ICT and find out complex the programs ap-
plied in the classroom and practical activities when working with students;
• suffer from a shortage of willingness, initiative and enthusiasm.

A crucial point is that employing ICT must be highly efficient in the process of training
would-be teachers of sciences. The students graduated from comprehensive or upper secondary
(gymnasium) schools have a broad knowledge of mastering ICT the major part of which are
PCs, palmtop computers, mobile phones, different kinds of audio, video and digital players etc.
In this case, we encounter a problem of how to properly develop the acquired abilities in the
further process of studying. The researchers agree that the used ‘living technologies’ are treated
as ‘learning technologies’ (Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray, Kerri-Lee Krause, 2008). The
students most frequently use ICT as social or entertainment technology in their free time. The
integration of the acquired abilities in the process of studies (using the obtained knowledge
for the purposes of learning) is neither an easy nor automatic process (Kirkwood, Price, 2005;
Katz, 2005; Bierwagen, 2010) but a very important one as increases students’ abilities to study
(Beyerbach, Walsh, Vannatta, 2001; Campbell, Kent, 2010).
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė, Loreta Ragulienė. Lithuanian Students` Experiences with Technology:
Some Important Issues
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in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

A large number of recently conducted researches in the field have concentrated on sepa- 73
rate instruments like laptop computers, mobile phones, interactive whiteboard etc. as well as on
ICT as tools for investigating the wholeness. Full attention has been devoted to examining the
efficiency of different ICT in the process of studies (Deng, Doll, Truong, 2004; Selwyn, 2006;
Tunku Badariah Tunku Ahmad, Kamal Basha Madarsha, Ahmad Marzuki Zainuddin, Nik Ah-
mad Hisham Ismail and Mohamad Sahari Nordin, 2010). Our research has also revealed that the
effective use of ICT depends not only on the already acquired abilities but also on appropriate
teacher training and the available infrastructure of studies. It is clear that the latest ICT such as
handled computer are relatively expensive and still rarely employed. In this context, the teach-
ers of universities play a fundamental role. The representatives of an older generation are insuf-
ficiently familiar with using ICT, and therefore avoid applying them in the educational process.
Thus, the executives of universities and staff responsible for the quality of the studying process
should pay attention to the encountered situation and find proper ways to develop the skills of
science teachers in the field of ICT. B. Hoffman (2001) notices that successful implementation
of ICTs need to address five interlocking frameworks for change: the infrastructure, attitude,
staff development, support (technical and administrative) and also sustainability and transfer-
ability. The question of the sex remains a burning issue. Certain differences between male and
female students especially between those studying social sciences and humanities in the area
of using ICT can be noticed. The researchers only confirm the fact that such differences are
really enormous (Markauskaite, 2006; Valasidou, Bousiou-Makridou, 2008; Mahmood, 2009).
Further research has to be done to find out what importance these differences have attaining
equality. Another important point is to work out reliable methodologies in order to decrease the
above introduced differences at university level.

Conclusion

Having generalized the results of the research Student and information communication
technologies, we can assert that:
• Respondents have practically unlimited possibilities to use a mobile phone, compu-
ter, internet and e- data mini storage device - USB stick.
• Relatively new and very expensive digital technologies, such as iPod touch, eBook
Reader, palmtop computer, GPS navigator and other are still little used.
• Respondents, having, for example, iPod touch, most frequently have GPS navigator,
eBook Reader, digital video camera, palmtop computer. This might be predetermined
by family financial possibilities.
• Computer became everyday necessity for students. It is intensively used both for
studies and for leisure time. Boys use more complicated computer functions than
girls.
• Almost every day students are using basic mobile phone functions (SMS texting and
calling people). Special mobile phone functions (listen to music, radio, take photos
or record videos, receive and send e-mail) boys use more often than girls do.
• Respondents usually use the internet for communication, information search and for
e-mail services. Boys use the internet much more variably than girls do.
• The most needful information communication technology while studying for the first
year students is computer. It is the most needful for general study needs, to create
documents, to make presentations and so on.
 problems
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Volume 22, 2010

74 Note

This is a revised and expanded version of an international scientific conference paper in

Problems of Education in the 21st Century. The paper was recommended for republication by
the conference scientific committee.
The reference for the Conference version is:
Lamanauskas, V., Šlekienė, V., Ragulienė, L. (2010). First Year Students` Experiences
with Technology: the Case of Lithuania. In. DIVAI 2010 - Distance Learning in Applied In-
formatics (Conference Proceedings, Nitra, Slovakia, May 4-6, 2010). Nitra: Constantine the
Philosopher University in Nitra, p. 17-26.

References

Arora R. (2005). Computer and Information Technology Skills of First Year Medical and Dental Students
at CMC Ludhiana. Health Administrator, Vol. XVII, Number 1, p. 54 -58.
Beyerbach, B., Walsh, C. & Vannatta, R. (2001). >From teaching technology to using technology to
enhance student learning: Preservice teachers’ changing perceptions of technology infusion. Journal of
Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 105-127.
Bierwagen, G.S. (2010). The use of the blog as tool of aid in the education of sciences. Kn.: Gamtamoksli-
nis ugdymas bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje - 2010 [Natural Science Education at a General School - 2010]
(XVI nacionalinës mokslinës praktinës konferencijos straipsniř rinkinys, Anykđčiai, 2010 m. balandţio
mën. 23–24 d. /Proceedings of the Sixteenth National Scientific Practical Conference/). Siauliai: MMC
“Scientia Educologica”, p. 32-40.
Campbell, C., Kent, P. (2010). Using interactive whiteboards in pre-service teacher education: Examples
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447-463.
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& Information Technology, 23(6), 395-412.
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dents in Denmark: longitudinal questionnaire survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research, Mar 5; 6(1):
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and Communication Technology in Natural Science Education-2008 (Proceedings of International Scien-
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Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) - Report June (2008). Great expectations of ICT: How
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publications/research/2008/greatexpectations.aspx (12/04/2010).
Hoffman, B. (2001). What drives successful technology planning? Journal of Information Technology for
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Katz, R. (2005). Foreword: Growing up digital. In J. B. Caruso & R. Kvavik (Eds), ECAR study of stu-
dents and information technology, 2005: Convenience, connection, control, and learning. EDUCAUSE.
Available at: http://connect.educause.edu/Library/ECAR/ECARStudyofStudentsandInf/41159.
Kennedy, G.E., Judd, T.S., Churchward, A., Gray, K., Kerri-Lee Krause (2008). First year students’ expe-
riences with technology: Are they really digital natives? Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,
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Kirkwood, A., Price, L. (2005). Learners and learning in the 21st century: What do we know about stu-
dents’ attitudes and experiences of ICT that will help us design courses? Studies inHigher Education,
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Lamanauskas, V. (2009). The Common Goal of All Educators: How to Improve Science and Technology 75
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Teaching /Learning Sciences in Comprehensive School: Socio-Educational Aspects. Problems of Edu-
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- 2009), Vol. 16, p. 66-73.
Lamanauskas, V., Šlekienė, V., Ragulienė, L. (2010). First Year Students` Experiences with Technology:
the Case of Lithuania. In. DIVAI 2010 - Distance Learning in Applied Informatics (Conference Proceed-
ings, Nitra, Slovakia, May 4-6, 2010). Nitra: Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, p. 17-26.
Mahmood, K. (2009). Gender, subject and degree differences in university students’ access, use and atti-
tudes toward information and communication technology (ICT). International Journal of Education and
Development using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), Vol. 5, Issue 3.
Markauskaitë, L. (2006). Gender issues in preservice teachers’ training: ICT literacy and online learning.
Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(1), 1-20.
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spective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23, 83-94.
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Ismail and Mohamad Sahari Nordin (2010). Faculty’s acceptance of computer based technology: Cross-
validation of an extended model. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(2), 268-279.
Turčani, M., Kapusta, J. (2008). Modern University = Modern Education via Internet. In.: Information
and Communication Technology in Natural Science Education-2008 (Proceedings of International Scien-
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Valasidou, A., Bousiou-Makridou, D. (2008). The Impact of ICT’s in Education: the Case of University
of Macedonia Students. Journal of Business Case Studies, Vol. 4, No. 3, p. 29-34.
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(12/04/2010).

Adviced by Martin Bilek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic

Vincentas Lamanauskas
Professor, Natural Science Education Research Centre, Siauliai University, 25-119
P.Viđinskio Street, LT- 76351, Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 687 95668.
E-mail: lamanauskas@projektas.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.projektas.lt

Violeta Šlekienė Associate Professor, Head of Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences,
Šiauliai University, 19 P. Visinskio Street, LT-77156 Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 41 595721.
E-mail: fk@fm.su.lt
Website: http://www.su.lt/

Loreta Ragulienė Associate Professor, Lecturer of Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences,
Šiauliai University, 19 P. Visinskio Street, LT-77156 Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 41 595721.
E-mail: fk@fm.su.lt
Website: http://www.su.lt/
 problems
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76

PRE-SERVICE teachers’ Familiarity,

Interest and Conceptual
UNDERSTANDING of
Science process skills

Simeon Mbewe, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, Frackson Mumba

Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, USA
E-mail: smbewe@siu.edu, mweene@siu.edu, frackson@siu.edu

Abstract

This study explored pre-service teachers’ familiarity, interest, and conceptual understanding of science
process skills. A sample comprised ninety one primary school pre-service teachers at a university in the
Midwest of the USA. Participants were enrolled in two science education courses; introductory science
teaching methods course and advanced science methods course. The introductory science methods course
is mainly focused on developing science process skills among pre-service teachers while the advanced
science methods course is focused on content and pedagogical knowledge. Data were collected through
a questionnaire. Results showed that pre-service teachers had higher familiarity and interest levels in
science process skills, but very poor conceptual understanding of the science process skills. Their in-
correct definitions of science processes ranged from not having any idea to tautology. Moreover, most
participants interchanged definitions of some science processes notably measuring and quantification;
and predicting and inferring. The findings have implications for science teaching, learning and teacher
education.
Key words: conceptual understanding, familiarity, inquiry, interest, science process skills.

Introduction

Current USA science education reforms and standards require science teachers to teach
science process skills to their students (American Association for the Advancement of Science
[AAAS], 1989, 1993; National Research Council [NRC], 1996). The tenets of these reforms
and standards include the “processes of science” and require that students combine processes
and scientific knowledge as they use scientific reasoning and critical thinking to develop their
understanding of science and scientific inquiry process (NRC, 1996, p. 105). These reforms
and standards have identified thirteen science process skills that are divided into two major cat-
egories known as basic and integrated science process skills. The basic science process skills
include observing, measuring, classifying, inferring, predicting and communicating. The inte-
grated science process skills include interpreting data, identifying and controlling variables,
quantifying (counting numbers), using space/time (graph) relationships, defining operationally,
hypothesizing, and experimenting.
Simeon Mbewe, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, Frackson Mumba. Pre-Service Teachers’ Familiarity, Interest and
Conceptual Understanding of Science Process Skills
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These science process skills form an integral part of scientific inquiry (Anderson, 2002). 77
As such, science educators propose that inquiry science is strongly facilitative of both concep-
tual knowledge and the acquisition of science processes (Glynn & Duit, 1995; Minstrell & van
Zee, 2000). In addition to promoting deep conceptual understanding, science inquiry is often
thought to increase teachers’ and students’ science process skills, such as data gathering, organi-
zation of information, interpreting, and communicating conclusions (Metz, 2000). As a result,
extensive research has been done on inquiry science teaching and learning.
In particular, studies have examined science course content for prospective teachers
(Boardman & Zembal-Saul, 2000; Dana et al. 2000; Zembal & Oliver, 1998), and teacher prepa-
ration courses and/or programs aimed at developing understanding and abilities associated with
effective science teaching in school classrooms among teachers (Marion et al. 1999; Zembal-
Saul et al., 1999). However, research studies rarely discuss teachers’ conceptual understanding
of the science process skills such as scientific problem, hypothesis, assumption, prediction, con-
clusion, and models. Yet, conceptual understanding is the key to the full realization of what con-
cepts are worth and it is widely acknowledged as one of the central goals of science education
(Barbosa & Alexander, 2004). The premium placed on conceptual understanding is illustrated
by its prominence as an objective in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
science assessment (O’Sullivan, Reese, & Mazzeo, 1997). Among the definitions of character-
istic elements of knowing and doing science, conceptual understanding is included. Similarly,
Settlage and Southerland (2007) viewed the science process skills as an integral feature of the
actions of the scientific culture, although not as all there is to science. Settlage and Southerland
further states that teaching with an eye toward science process skills is an appropriate entry
point for beginning primary and middle school teachers. As a result, they proposed that science
process skills serve as a very important way for new teachers to learn about science teaching.
Therefore, teachers should possess a strong conceptual understanding of the science process
skills if they have to effectively teach them in their classrooms.
Although science process skills form an integral part of inquiry teaching (Anderson,
2002; Glynn & Duit, 1995; Minstrell & van Zee, 2000) and emphasized in science education
reforms (AAAs, 1993; NRC, 1996), few studies have investigated teachers’ familiarity with
science process skills and their conceptual understanding of science process skills. For instance,
Emereole (2009) investigated conceptual knowledge of science process skills among high
school pre-service science teachers in Botswana. Emereole’s study found that pre-service high
school science teachers did not have sufficient conceptual knowledge of science process skills.
Similarly, many studies have examined teacher understanding of inquiry and have concluded
that they lack a sufficient understanding of such a process (Lotter, Harwood, & Bonner, 2007).
Despite the aversion to inquiry, many studies have supported the fact that inquiry and
science process skills are closely related. For example, Luft (2001) found that pre-service teach-
ers’ achievement in science process skills were significantly improved with hands-on activities.
Further, Metz, (2000), along with several others, states that the science process skills are essen-
tial to doing inquiry. Teachers who are deficient in science process skill conceptual knowledge
further add to the deficiencies in teaching science by inquiry.
It is evident in the literature that few studies have explored primary school pre-service
teachers’ conceptual understanding of science process skills. In addition, no study has explored
the extent to which teachers are familiar with the science process skills, and their levels of in-
terest in learning more about the science process skills. Yet, it is important to find out teachers’
conceptual understanding of the science process skills and their interest in knowing more about
science process skills. Primary school teachers need to show strong interest in science process
skills and demonstrate a sound conceptual understanding of the science process skills in order
to effectively create conditions for their development among students. As such, there is also
need to establish teachers’ levels of familiarity and interest in science processes. Therefore, this
 problems
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78 study attempted to find out the extent to which primary school pre-service teachers were famil-
iar with the science process skills, were interested in knowing more about the science process
skills, and the extent to which they understood the science process skills.
This study was guided by three research questions: (a) To what extent are primary school
pre-service teachers familiar with science process skills? (b) To what extent are primary pre-
service teachers interested in knowing more about science process skills? (c) To what extent do
primary pre-service teachers understand science process skills?

Methodology of Research

This study was conducted in a primary school teacher education program at a university
in the Midwest of the USA. A sample comprised 91 primary school pre-service teachers who
were enrolled in two science education courses: an introductory science teaching and an ad-
vanced science teaching methods courses. Sixty (60) of the participants were in the introductory
science methods course and 31 participants were in the advanced science methods course. The
introductory science methods course is mainly focused on developing science process skills
among pre-service teachers while the advanced science methods course is focused on content
and pedagogical knowledge. The average age of the participants was 24 years. None of the par-
ticipants had a school teaching experience. These pre-service teachers had already taken, prior
to this study, two science content courses that covered life science, earth science and physical
science concepts aligned with the national and state science education standards.
Data was collected by administering questionnaire during class which lasted for about
45 minutes in each class. The completed questionnaires were collected immediately upon com-
pletion for analysis. The questionnaire was adapted from the one used by Emereole (2009).
However, a component on interest was added to the questionnaire, in order to find out if the
pre-service teachers were interested in learning more about the science process skills. The
questionnaire had three sections. Section 1 was intended to collect general demographic infor-
mation of the participants such as gender, area of certification, teaching subjects, number of
science courses taken at college/university, number of science courses taken at high school, the
courses done at college/university and the courses currently taken at college/university. Section
2 consisted of two parts: Table A and Table B. Table A had 13 science processes skills and each
had three responses: Term not familiar to me, Term familiar to me but I do not understand its
meaning, and Term familiar to me and I understand its meaning. Table B also had 13 science
process skills and each had three responses: Not at all interested in receiving information, In-
terested in receiving more information, and Very interested in receiving more information. Sec-
tion 3 also had the same 13 science process skills with space provided where participants were
expected to write definition or explanation of each process skill. It was intended to determine
the conceptual understanding of the science process skills by the pre-service teachers in this
study. The questionnaire was validated by three science education experts at the university this
study was conducted.
Data analyses involved computing reliability values for the instrument and for each
construct (familiarity, interest, and conceptual understanding). The data from section 2 was
analyzed using frequency variables and descriptive statistics. One way ANOVA and t-tests were
used to investigate differences among sub-groups on each of the constructs of familiarity, inter-
est and conceptual understanding. Participants’ responses in section 3 of the questionnaire were
scored and categorized as correct, partially correct, and incorrect. The responses were compared
to the standard answers used by Emereole (2009). The correct response was assigned a value of
3, partially correct response was assigned a value of 2, and an incorrect response was assigned
a value of 1. A response was considered correct if it contained all the aspects in the standard
answers completely. The response was considered partially correct if it contained some of the
Simeon Mbewe, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, Frackson Mumba. Pre-Service Teachers’ Familiarity, Interest and
Conceptual Understanding of Science Process Skills
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aspects in the standard answer and the response was considered incorrect if it was either com- 79
pletely wrong when compared to the standard answer or if the question was not answered or left
blank. Then the responses were analyzed and coded to identify recurring themes.
The overall reliability value for the questionnaire was 0.93. The reliability values for the
constructs familiarity, interest and conceptual understanding were 0.79, 0.97 and 0.37, respec-
tively. Although the reliability value for conceptual understanding is low, the overall reliability
values for the instrument and for the other two constructs are high enough to indicate some
internal consistency in the instrument.

Results of Research

Levels of Familiarity, Interest, and Conceptual Understanding of Science Process Skills

Table 1 shows t-test results comparing the two science methods courses; introductory
science methods course and advanced science methods course. There was a significant dif-
ference between the two classes in familiarity [t (89) = -2.39, p =0.02)]. This shows that par-
ticipants in the advanced science methods course expressed more familiarity with the process
skills than those in the introductory science methods course. However, there were no significant
differences between the two courses in interest [(t (89) = 0.40, p =0.69)] and conceptual under-
standing (t (89) = -0.55, p =0.59). This shows that the pre-service teachers in the two science
methods courses had the same interest and conceptual understanding levels.

Table 1. The t-test results between courses for each construct.

Advanced science
Intro science methods
method course p-
Construct course (N= 60) t df Sig
(N= 31) value
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)

Familiarity 34.6 (5.1) 36.8 (2.2) -2.39 89 0.02 Significant

Interest 24.0 (7.1) 23.5 (7.8) 0.40 89 0.69 Non significant

Conceptual
19.0 (1.7) 19.3 (2.5) -0.55 89 0.59 Non significant
Understanding

Sig at p<.05

Table 2 shows One-way ANOVA to determine any differences among the three constructs
familiarity, interest, and conceptual understanding in the introductory science methods course.
There was a significant difference among these three constructs (F (3,231) = 89.1, p=0.00).
In particular, there was a difference between familiarity and interest, with familiarity having
a higher mean than interest. This shows that these pre-service teachers were familiar with the
science processes but had lower interest. The difference between familiarity and conceptual
understanding showed familiarity with higher mean than conceptual understanding. This means
that these teachers were familiar with the science processes but did not have the understanding
of them. The difference between interest and conceptual understanding showed that interest had
a higher mean than conceptual understanding. This means that the teachers were interested in
the science processes but lacked conceptual understanding of the process skills.
 problems
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80 Table 2. One-way ANOVA in Introductory Science Methods course.

Construct Mean (SD) F df p- value Sig.

Familiarity 34.6 (5.1)
Interest 24.5 (7.1)
3
89.1 0.00 significant
Conceptual 19.1 (4.1) 231
Understanding

Sig at p<.05

Table 3 shows that there was significant difference among the three constructs familiar-
ity, interest and conceptual understanding in the advanced science methods course. For exam-
ple, there was a significant difference between familiarity and interest, with familiarity show-
ing a higher mean than interest. Again, this shows that the pre-service teachers were familiar
with the science processes but did not have interest in learning more. Another difference was
between familiarity and conceptual understanding, with familiarity having a higher mean than
conceptual understanding. This means that the pre-service teachers were familiar with the sci-
ence processes but did not have the conceptual understanding. The difference between interest
and conceptual understanding showed interest with a higher mean than conceptual understand-
ing. This means that the pre-service teachers had interest in learning more about the science
processes but did not have the conceptual understanding.

Table 3. One-way ANOVA in the Advanced Science Methods course.

Construct Mean (SD) F df p-value Sig.

Familiarity 36.9 (2.2)

Interest 23.5 (7.8) 3

30.1 0.00 significant
124
Conceptual under-
19.3 (5.1)
standing

Sig at p<.05

Table 4 shows the percentage comparison of the introductory science methods courses
and advanced science methods course levels of familiarity in science processes. Table 4 shows
that in both groups a higher percentage of the participants indicated that they were familiar and
understood most of the science processes. However, in both groups pre-service teachers indi-
cated low understanding of the science processes of quantification, making operational defini-
tions, and using space/time relations.
Simeon Mbewe, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, Frackson Mumba. Pre-Service Teachers’ Familiarity, Interest and
Conceptual Understanding of Science Process Skills
problems
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Volume 22, 2010

Table 4. Participants’ familiarity with science process skills. 81

Science
Process Not Familiar Familiar but not Understood Familiar & Understand
skill

Advanced Advanced
Introductory Introductory Introductory Advanced sci-
science science
  science meth- science meth- science meth- ence methods
methods methods
ods course ods course ods course course
course course

Observation 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 95.0 100.0

Classification 5.0 0.0 6.7 3.2 88.3 96.8

Quantifica-
18.3 3.2 43.3 32.3 38.3 64.5
tion
Measure-
5.0 0.0 3.3 0.0 91.7 100.0
ment
Inferring 6.7 0.0 21.7 12.9 71.7 87.1

Communica-
5.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 88.3 100.0
tion
Formulating
5.0 0.0 3.3 3.2 91.7 96.8
hypothesis
Experiment-
5.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 95.0 96.8
ing
Making
operational 26.7 22.6 53.3 35.5 20.0 41.9
definition
Interpreting
6.7 0.0 8.3 3.2 85.0 96.8
data

Predicting 5.0 0.0 1.7 0.0 93.3 100.0

Controlling
5.0 0.0 10.0 6.5 85.0 93.5
variables
Using
space/time 18.3 6.5 51.7 41.9 30.0 51.6
relations

Table 5 shows the percentage comparison of the introductory science methods course
and advanced science methods course levels of interest in science processes. A higher percent-
age indicates that they were just interested and not very interested or not interested at all in
learning about science process skills.
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82 Table 5. Participants’ interest in science process skills.

Science Pro-
Not at all Interested Interested Very Interested
cess Skill
Advanced Advanced
Introductory Introductory Introductory Advanced sci-
science science
science meth- science meth- science meth- ence methods
methods methods
ods course ods course ods course course
course course
Observation 25.0 41.9 63.3 48.4 11.7 9.7
Classification 23.3 32.3 60.0 58.1 16.7 9.7
Quantification 35.0 32.3 51.7 51.6 13.3 16.1
Measurement 28.3 38.7 60.0 48.4 11.7 12.9
Inferring 20.0 35.5 66.7 48.4 13.3 16.1
Communication 26.7 35.5 58.3 45.2 15.0 19.4
Formulating
23.3 35.5 63.3 48.4 13.3 16.1
hypothesis
Experimenting 18.3 35.5 55.0 45.2 26.7 19.4
Making opera-
30.0 35.5 55.0 48.4 15.0 16.1
tional definition
Interpreting
28.3 32.3 60.0 48.4 11.7 19.4
data
Predicting 23.3 32.3 63.3 54.8 13.3 12.9
Controlling vari-
25.0 32.3 60.0 58.1 15.0 9.7
ables
Using space/
33.3 29.0 55.0 51.6 11.7 19.4
time relations

Table 6 below shows the percentage comparison of the introductory science methods
course and advanced science methods course levels of conceptual understanding in science
processes. Table 6 shows that very few pre-service teachers in both groups had “correct” an-
swers. A majority had “partially correct” answers. This shows that a large number of pre-service
teachers did not have a complete conceptual understanding of the science processes. Further-
more, table 6 shows that pre-service teachers had a great difficulty defining the process skills
of quantification, inferring, communication, formulating hypothesis, experimenting, making
operational definitions, interpreting data, predicting, controlling variables and using space/time
relations.
Simeon Mbewe, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, Frackson Mumba. Pre-Service Teachers’ Familiarity, Interest and
Conceptual Understanding of Science Process Skills
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Table 6. Participants’ conceptual understanding of process skills for the 83

two courses.

Science
Incorrect Partially Correct Correct
Process Skill
Advanced Advanced Advanced
Introductory Introductory sci- Introductory
science science science
science meth- ence methods science meth-
methods methods methods
ods course course ods course
course course course
Observation 15.0 16.1 85.0 83.9 0.0 0.0
Classification 8.3 16.1 90.0 77.4 1.7 6.5
Quantification 50.0 48.4 50.0 51.6 0.0 0.0
Measurement 23.3 29.0 76.7 67.7 0.0 3.2
Inferring 75.0 67.7 25.0 32.3 0.0 0.0
Communica-
61.7 22.6 38.3 74.2 0.0 3.2
tion
Formulating
41.7 67.7 58.3 25.8 0.0 6.5
hypothesis
Experimenting 61.7 35.5 36.7 61.3 1.7 3.2

Making opera-
88.3 93.5 11.7 6.5 0.0 0.0
tional definition

Interpreting
55.7 51.6 43.3 35.5 0.0 12.9
data
Predicting 40.0 64.5 58.3 35.5 1.7 0.0
Controlling
88.3 96.8 11.7 3.2 0.0 0.0
variables
Using space/
95.5 100.0 3.3 0.0 1.7 0.0
time relations

From section 3 of the questionnaire, pre-service teachers showed technical ways in

which they did not exhibit complete conceptual understanding of the science processes. A large
number of pre-service teachers had incomplete answers. Listed below were some of the find-
ings:
• It was noted that many participants failed to distinguish between predicting and infer-
ring.
• They also could not distinguish between quantification and measurement.
• A number of pre-service teachers used tautology in defining the terms in almost all
categories.
• A number of pre-service teachers used everyday language in defining communica-
tion.
• There was frequent use of the phrase “educated guess” on formulating hypothesis,
prediction and inferring. However, it was more especially on formulating hypoth-
esis.
• Observation was mainly defined in terms of senses with sense of sight being most
prevalent. No mention of extensions to technological aspects of observations.
• Classification was defined mainly on basis of similarities ignoring differences.
• In measurement there was no explicit mention of measuring tools.
• In experimenting, often pre-service teachers were not explicit in the practical aspects
of the process.
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84 • In controlling variables, they mentioned what is done instead of defining it as a proc-

ess of identifying what to manipulate or keep constant.
• In defining Inferring, they mostly based it on a topic or knowledge instead of the
observed data.
• In defining interpretation, mostly the pre-service teachers did not refer to the treat-
ment or interpretation of data.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine primary school pre-service teachers’ familiar-
ity, interest and conceptual understanding of the science processes. The results show that prima-
ry school pre-service teachers perceived themselves as being familiar with science processes.
However, these teachers were not very interested in knowing more about science processes.
Furthermore, their definitions and explanations revealed that they did not have complete con-
ceptual understanding of the science processes. They had difficulties in defining and explain-
ing processes such as quantification, inferring, communicating, formulating hypothesis, ex-
perimenting, making operational definitions, interpreting data, predicting, controlling variables
and using space/time relations. These findings imply that these pre-service teachers’ claims of
familiarity with science processes did not corroborate with their abilities to define and explain
the processes. Although some pre-service teachers in our study gave traditional and correct
definitions of some basic science process skills such as observations and classifications, the
presence of additional incorrect statements suggest that some participants just rote-learned the
definitions. Similarly, Duit (1984) argued that it is difficult to distinguish whether even partially
correct definitions and explanations of a concept provided by research participants are based on
their understanding or merely rote-learned.
To a large extent, the results in this study are in keeping with previous studies on sci-
ence process skills involving different groups of teachers and students. For example, Emereole
(2009) also found that pre-service high school science teachers did not have sufficient concep-
tual knowledge of science process skills. Similarly, studies on teacher understanding of inquiry
have reported that teachers of different grade levels lack sufficient understanding of science
process skills (Lotter, Harwood, & Bonner, 2007; Luft, 2001).
Our results also show that most pre-service teachers were not very interested in know-
ing more about science processes. This finding confirms research-based assertion that primary
school teachers lack sufficient content knowledge, inquiry knowledge, and do not possess posi-
tive attitude towards science (Crawford, 2000). These deficiencies do not promote a positive
and effective science learning environment in schools. Other studies have concluded that a
poor attitude towards science prevents teachers from actively and effectively teaching it (Os-
borne, Osborne, Simon & Collins, 2003). Yet, teacher competence in the science process skills
has been found to promote a positive attitude towards science among students (Luft, 2001).
The results in this study and those in previous studies have implications for primary sci-
ence teaching and teacher education. For example these pre-service teachers claimed they were
familiarity with science processes, had low interest in the science processes and did not exhibit
a high conceptual understanding. How do we expect these teachers to be effective science
teachers if they don’t understand science process skills they are supposed to teach their stu-
dents? What can teacher educators do in order to harness teachers’ potentials? Lack of teachers’
interest and conceptual understanding of science process skills can impede effective science
teaching in schools. Further, such teachers would not be able to create laboratory experiences
that would help students develop science process skills. They would also not be able to teach
the students the required process skills effectively.
Therefore, there is a need to find ways of transforming teachers’ interest into conceptual
Simeon Mbewe, Vivien Mweene Chabalengula, Frackson Mumba. Pre-Service Teachers’ Familiarity, Interest and
Conceptual Understanding of Science Process Skills
problems
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understanding of the science processes. Based on these results, we recommend an explicit in- 85
tervention on science process skills in our teacher education program for pre-service teachers to
develop interest and conceptual understanding of the science processes outlined in the national
science education reforms and standards. As such, it is important to alert teacher educators to
the fact that even those pre-service teachers who claim to be familiarity with science process
skills may not have adequate understanding of the processes. Teacher educators should identify
pre-service teachers’ prior ideas about science processes in science methods courses. We also
recommend future research to examine in-service teachers’ familiarity, interest and conceptual
understanding of science process skills.

Conclusions

The results in this study showed that primary school pre-service teachers had higher
familiarity and some interest levels in science process skills, but very poor conceptual under-
standing of the science process skills. Their incorrect definitions of science processes ranged
from not having any idea to tautology. Moreover, most participants interchanged definitions of
some science processes notably measuring and quantification; and predicting and inferring. As
such, there was a gap between their claims of familiarity with process skills and their ability to
provide reasonable conceptual definitions and explanations of the science process skills. This
group of pre-service teachers did not have sufficient conceptual knowledge of science process
skills to help their future students to understand them in a meaningful way.

References

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M. Glynn and R. Duit (Eds.), Learning science in the schools: Research reforming practice, pp. 3-33.
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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86 Lotter, C., Harwood, W. S., & Bonner, J. J. (2007). The influence of core teaching conceptions on teach-
ers’ use of inquiry teaching practices. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44, 1318-1347
Luft, J. A. (2001). Changing inquiry practices and beliefs: The impact of an inquiry-based professional
development programme on beginning teachers and experienced secondary science teachers. Interna-
tional Journal of Science Education, 23(5), 517-534.
Marion, R., Hewson, P. W., Tabachnick, B. R., & Blomker, K. (1999). Teaching for conceptual change in
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Metz, K. E. (2000). Young children’s inquiry in biology: Building the knowledge bases to empower in-
dependent inquiry. In J. Minstrell & E. H. van Zee (Eds.), Inquiring into inquiry learning and teaching in
science, pp. 371-404. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Ministrell, J., & van Zee, E. H. (2000). Inquiring into Inquiry Learning and Teaching in Science. Wash-
ington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science
National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press.
Osborne, J; Simon, S & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: a review of the literature and its
implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9), 1049-1079.
O’Sullivan, C. Y., Reese, C. M., & Mazzeo, J. (1997). NAEP 1996 science report card for the nation and
the states. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Settlage, J., & Southerland, S. A. (2007). Teaching science to every child: Using culture as a starting
point. New York: Taylor & Francis.
Zembal-Saul, C., Boardman, L.A., Severs, M., & Dana, T. (1999, March). Web-based portfolios: A ve-
hicle for examining preservice primary teachers’ emerging ideas about teaching science. Paper presented
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Zembal-Saul, C. & Oliver, M. (1998, January). Meeting the science content needs of prospective primary
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the Association for the Education of Teachers of Science (AETS). Minneapolis, MN.

Adviced by Naglis Švickus, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania

Simeon Mbewe Graduate Research Assistant, Southern Illinois University, Dept. of Curriculum
and Instruction, 625 Wham Drive, MC 4160, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA.
E-mail: smbewe@siu.edu
Website: http://www.siuc.edu

Vivien Mweene Chabalengula Dr., Lecturer of Science Education, Southern Illinois University, Dept. of Curricu-
lum and Instruction, 625 Wham Drive, MC 4160, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA. 
E-mail: mweene@siu.edu
Website: http://www.siu.edu/

Frackson Mumba Dr., Associate Professor of Science Education, Southern Illinois University,
Dept. of Curriculum and Instruction, 625 Wham Drive, MC 4160, Carbondale,
IL 62901, USA.
E-mail: frackson@siu.edu
Website: http://www.siu.edu/
 problems
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87

PROMOTING STUDENT LEARNING

ACHIEVEMENTS IN CHEMISTRY BY
USING THE TETRAHEDRAL SPATIAL
MIND MODEL

Daina Mozeika
University of Latvia, Latvia
E-mail: tuttii@inbox.lv

Dagnija Cedere
University of Latvia, Latvia
E-mail: dagnija.cedere@lu.lv

Janis Gedrovics
Riga Teachers Training and Educational
Management Academy, Latvia
E-mail: janis.gedrovics@rpiva.lv

Abstract

Students’ knowledge is the main resource for stimulating the development of each country. The results
of international and national comparative studies in science show a tendency of a decrease of the level
of students’ knowledge. The problem draws attention to the need to promote organization in teaching
and learning and the use of progressive methodological approaches. The developed method, called the
TETRA-method, is directed to the formation of connections among various phenomena, it was tested to
ensure that students (grade 8-10) achieve stable knowledge, improve understanding and promote the
students’ learning achievements if the method is used in learning chemistry. The students’ achievements
were compared on different topics during the learning process. Obtained results of the research allow us
to conclude that the use of the TETRA-method gives an option to raise the students’ knowledge level more
frequently one level above the previous. The knowledge stability test showed that students’ knowledge
becomes stable. Students’ learning achievements have a tendency to enhance by using the developed
method.
Key words: chemistry, knowledge, teaching and learning method.

Introduction

The main resource in Latvia is the knowledge and the wisdom of people as well as skil-
ful and purposeful use of these qualities. Knowledge determines the quality of labor, promotes
the use of capital, and stimulates the development of technologies. Discussions about the qual-
ity of education and its developmental tendencies have taken place since Latvia regained its
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88 independence. The results of international and national comparative studies show a tendency
of a decrease of the level of students’ knowledge although science education has retained its
position as one of the country’s priorities (Mozeika, Cedere & Gedrovics, 2008). Therefore, the
problems mentioned before draw attention to the need to promote organization in the teaching
and learning process by using progressive methodological approaches, so that the understand-
ing about the nature of science forms in students. For the activation of students’ thinking and an
increase in the efficiency of learning it is recommended that graphical information organizers
be used by taking into account that the tendency of knowledge formation is more oriented to-
wards the selection and connection of information, addressing the students’ different approach-
es to comprehend the world (Zohar & Schwartzer, 2005; Hakkarainen & Ahtee, 2005; Siemens,
2006; Coll, Lay & Taylor, 2008).
The large proportion of students perceives the everyday flow of information fragmented;
hence majority of them have a problem to connect this information to further cognition proc-
ess. This causes difficulties for students to find united conception about the surrounding world.
Students learn biology, chemistry, physics that basically study the same phenomenon – nature,
the processes in nature, though in lessons the explanation of the processes in every subject is
different. The specificity of the chemistry is the fact that major part of „the real chemistry” is
to be explained in the level of atoms, ions and molecules, so using abstract concepts (Erduran,
2009). Exactly this is the uniqueness of the chemistry and simultaneously also a problem for
a student, because the incomprehension of the nature of chemistry deflects the chemistry to
the list of unwelcome subjects and the students’ learning achievements in chemistry decreases
(Mozeika, Cedere, 2008).
The formation of the connections is suggested for linking together incoming information,
fragmentary knowledge and for developing connected knowledge (Siemens, 2008; Downes,
2010). In general, spatial mind models as visual models give an opportunity to students to
visualize in their mind both abstract and specific connections (Held, Knauff & Vosgerau, 2006;
Barke, Hazari &Yitbarek, 2009).
Using the basic principle of connectivism – to establish connections - there is a chance to
use the tetrahedral spatial mind model. The name of the developed teaching and learning meth-
od, named as TETRA-method, was derived from of the selected form for the spatial mind model
– tetrahedron as a simplest polyhedron. The tetrahedron is the main tool for setting up the con-
nections. It is also used as visualization instrument according to the proposed activities in the
TETRA-method. The TETRA-method was developed for the increasing students` knowledge
level in scientific literacy context based on the results of pedagogical research which was done
in previous years. The action of the spatial mind model develops students’ skills in forming
the connections among several phenomena, stimulates learning activity, links knowledge and
as a result promotes students’ scientific literacy (Mozeika & Bleive, 2009; Mozeika, Cedere &
Gedrovics, 2010a; 2010b). The TETRA-method is intentionally oriented to achieve connected
knowledge which is based on the understanding. This means that students would understand
the regularity of the nature, they are able to use their knowledge for making the decisions and
in practical action by expressing critical and responsible attitude to environment.
This research is focussed to the ascertainment that the use of the tetrahedral spatial
mind models affects students` learning achievements positively and it is possible to acquire
more stabile students’ knowledge if the verification of statement places more emphasis on the
connected knowledge. The developed method will be tested at comprehensive school as an al-
ternative teaching and learning method to ensure that after using the TETRA-method students’
knowledge becomes stable, understanding about substances and their changes improves and the
students’ learning achievements in chemistry increase.
Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere, Janis Gedrovics. Promoting Studnt Learning Achievements in Chemistry by Using the
Tetrahedral Spatial Mind Model
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Research questions: 89
1. Does the use of the tetrahedral spatial mind model promote the students’ learning
achievements in chemistry?
2. What is the stability of the students’ knowledge if the tetrahedral spatial mind model
is used in learning chemistry?

Research Methodology

General Characteristics of Research

The method was approved at three comprehensive schools in 2009 and 2010. The meth-
od was integrated in the common teaching and learning process of chemistry. The experimental
group and control groups were formed. The data were obtained from the students’ learning
achievements in the experimental group which used the spatial mind model for the learning and
were compared with the students’ achievements of the control group who did not use the model
during the learning of chemistry.
The chemistry teacher evaluated students’ learning achievements mainly by using ex-
amination works at the end of the learnable topic. Students’ learning achievements were ana-
lyzed for both groups about various topics of the chemistry in order to show that the use of the
tetrahedral spatial mind model positively affects the learning process of chemistry. Additionally
the test Stability of students’ knowledge was organized to ensure that the forming of connections
promotes the stability of students’ knowledge and it becomes more long-lasting. Also some
science teachers apart from the approbation from different schools in Latvia were invited to
express their opinion on the TETRA-method. A discussion was carried out.

Respondents

The total number of respondents: 246 students including 71 students from grade 8, 84
students from grade 9 and 91 students from grade 10.
Three comprehensive schools (coded as school C, school L and school R) from vari-
ous areas of Latvia took part in the research. Each school had at least two parallel grades (for
example, grade 8A, and grade 8B), which one of them were accepted as an experimental group
but other as a control group without any special criteria. There were 39 students in experimental
group and 32 students in control group from grade 8. There were 46 students in experimental
group and 38 students in control group from grade 9. In grade 10 there were 43 students in-
volved in experimental group and 48 students in control group.
Totally 6 teachers; three chemistry and two biology teachers, one teacher of physics took
part in the discussion about the method.

Procedure

1. The TETRA-method was used for the experimental group in the common learning of
chemistry. The following topics Water, Chemistry language, Substances, Substance changes
were used for students in grade 8. The topics Structure of substances, Oxides, Hydroxides,
Salts were used for students in grade 9. Topics Substances and their properties, Structure of
substances, Groups of inorganic substances (Oxides, Hydroxides, Salts, Acids, Structure of sub-
stance) were used in grade 10. The learning materials were upgraded Microsoft PowerPoint
presentations about various topics mentioned above to make lessons more varied, exciting for
students and to ease the teachers’ work.
 problems
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90 2. The example for the use of the TETRA-method for a learning topic Substances
The basis of the TETRA-method is a four step system (Table 1),
Step 1 Thematic system,
Step 2 „Self-perception” phenomenon (base of theory from Bem, 1972),
Step 3 Systemic components,
Step 4 Interconnections of systemic components.
The spatial mind model is used in all steps, in each of them different methodological
activity is carried out (Mozeika, Cedere & Gedrovics, 2010a). The role of the model is to show
the connections among various topics and phenomena.
The teachable topic is written in the middle of the mind model (Step 1). This should be
imagined that all the tetrahedron is the particular topic. Teacher together with students discuss,
agree and moot four subtopics connected to the main topic. Subtopics are written on each peak
of the tetrahedron. It should to be mentioned that all connected topics that are placed of the
nodes of the model are also similarly important. Numbers on the nodes show the order of the
subtopics.
The model has an inner fractal structure (Step 1 and 4) which gives the possibility to
understand the world around as an united system more completely. The fractal technique allows
entering into the learning topic from the upper level to the level below, from the main topic to
a subtopic, to enter in the learning topic in details.

Table 1. The example of the using of the tetrahedral spatial mind model
for the learning the topic Substances.

During the lesson each student makes for himself a small tetrahedron model out of paper
kit (Step 2), which is going to be used in Steps 3 and 4 as a visualisation for learning supple-
mentary aid. In Step 3 the subtopics are characterized and explained. Each of four components
in thematic system can be further expanded with internal fractal structure. Step 4 provides
the characterization, explanation and summarizing of the interconnections of components of the
main topic. The previously mentioned Step system is equal for all topics.
3. The teacher of chemistry tested students’ learning achievements after their familiari-
zation with each topic by using examination works. The evaluation of the students’ achieve-
ments in learning chemistry was organized according to the evaluation criteria – knowledge
level, quality and acquired skills (section Measures).
4. The test Stability of students’ knowledge shows the persistency of students’ knowl-
edge in grade 9. The knowledge stability test consists of two parts: test and re-test. The test was
Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere, Janis Gedrovics. Promoting Studnt Learning Achievements in Chemistry by Using the
Tetrahedral Spatial Mind Model
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used to check the students’ learning achievements after 6 weeks of learning chemistry using 91
the TETRA-method to learn the topic Water, where the sub topics about water in nature, inor-
ganic and organic substances in the environment from the previous school year (spring time)
were included. The test was done to approve the stability of students’ knowledge. Students’
knowledge level was retested after the summer holidays (3.5 months). Similar questions about
the topic Water were used in the re-test, though they were not identical to those in the previous
test. The common evaluation of students’ learning achievements was used in the knowledge
stability test.
Measures

The learning achievements of students from experimental and control groups (evalua-
tion by chemistry teacher) were compared during the learning process. To make sure that the
student has acquired basic skills, tasks revealing students’ knowledge, understanding and prac-
tical skills are included in the examination.
Evaluation is a resolution of the acquirement level of the learning contents established
in learning; the result of an evaluation is expressed with a rating - the effective learning index.
Mainly it is the total number of points in the examination which is divided by the maximum
number of points possible. The index of effective learning was used to evaluate students’ achieve-
ments. Examinations were used to obtain qualitative data about students’ achievements.
In this study students’ achievements in learning chemistry were evaluated by using the
effective learning index (further in text IEL) scale according to the evaluation criteria – knowl-
edge level, quality and acquired skills which are divided into four positions:
 Very high level (0.85 ≤ IEL ≤ 1.0), a student has acquired knowledge and skills at a
level where he understands, comprehends the learning contents, and is able to use
them independently to acquire new knowledge and to solve creative tasks; is able to
see and explain regularities in practice; is able to express his opinion independently.
 High level (0.65 ≤ IEL ≤ 0.84), a student is able to reproduce learning contents com-
pletely, sees regularities, distinguishes the important from the unimportant; is able to
use knowledge and skills following everyday examples, in analogy or familiar situ-
ations, performs standard and combined learning tasks; expresses his/her personal
opinion at a level of fixing basic questions regarding the contents of the subject.
 Optimal level (0.45 ≤ IEL ≤ 0.64), a student has become acquainted with the subject
contents, distinguishes the important from the unimportant, knows and is able to
define the concepts, the main laws, is able to formulate recognition rules, solves
standard tasks.
 Low level (IEL ≤ 0.44), a student is only able to perceive and recognize the subject
contents, he/she reproduces an insufficient amount of acquirable contents, performs
only primitive tasks by following an example in a well known situation.
The system of evaluating examination works was formed to more completely display
students’ achievements in learning chemistry. In the examinations students were able to confirm
their acquired knowledge, analytical and creative skills, and the use of scientific verities which
are evaluated by taking into account the aggregation principle of positive achievements, by
registering the positive achievements at all evaluation levels of the learning achievements – the
level of understanding, use and independent, productive action of knowledge; the principle of
assessment compliance, by enabling a student to confirm his/her knowledge and skills at the
evaluation levels of the learning achievements in adequate tasks, examples and situations; and
the diversity principle of assessment methodological technique, by using the organization of ex-
aminations in writing, in words and combining the two; the evaluation of individual and group
achievements in ordinary examinations, practical works and tests.
 problems
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92 Methods of Analysis

The data for quantitative processing was obtained by using the methods of statistical
analysis (t-test, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test) of the SPSS program.

Results of Research

Students’ Learning Achievements

Grade 8. Obtained results of students’ learning achievements in grade 8 show that by

using the TETRA-method in chemistry classes the level of students’ knowledge increases in ex-
perimental classes if compared with control groups. Tendencies were observed in both schools
that took part in the approbation of the method. The students’ learning achievements in experi-
mental group (IEL=.69) at school R and (IEL=.71) school L reached almost similar results show-
ing no statistically significant differences (t=1.31, df=70, p>.05).
Statistically significant differences were observed in the experimental group of School L
between topics Chemistry language (t=1.78, df=69, p<.05) and Substance Changes (t = 2.40,
df=69, p<.05) if compared with the control group. The experimental group of school L showed
statistically significant results (IEL=.69) compared with students knowledge level of the control
group (IEL=.62) of school R in the topic Chemistry language (t=2.66, df=69, p<.05). A similar
situation was observed in control groups at both schools, where the control group of school L
showed higher results (t=2.73, df=68, p<.05) compared to school R in the topic Changes of the
substances (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Comparison of students’ learning achievements in acquiring

the topics used in grade 8.

There were also positive changes in the topic Substances at school L if compared to the
experimental group (IEL=.70) and control group (IEL=.60) by showing a lower result. Analysis
of the learning achievements on the topic Changes of the substances, as a subtopic of the main
topic Substances, showed that the students of experimental group (IEL=.76) at school L showed
higher results than students of control group (IEL=.65). Significant changes of the level of stu-
dents’ knowledge between experimental group (IEL =.68) and control group (IEL=.60; t=1.17,
df=69, p<.05) in topic Substances were observed at school R. In general, the experimental
classes from both schools showed relatively higher results of students’ learning achievements
Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere, Janis Gedrovics. Promoting Studnt Learning Achievements in Chemistry by Using the
Tetrahedral Spatial Mind Model
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if the TETRA-method was used, which proves the suitability of the method for acquiring chem- 93
istry in the group of grade 8.
Grade 9. The results of students’ learning achievements in grade 9 show that the variety
of different methods which are used in learning chemistry promotes students’ successes and
enhance their learning achievements (Figure 2).
The level of students’ knowledge increased at both schools if the TETRA-method was
used. Finally, students’ achievements and the level of knowledge in the first semester of the
school year at school L (IEL=0.73) was different from students’ achievements at school R
(IEL=.65).
In the gender context, girls (IEL=.66) showed relatively higher results when acquiring
the topic Structure of substance compared to boys (IEL=.52; t=2.56, df=81, p<.05) at school R.
The obtained results show that the topic Hydroxides was acquired differently at both schools
involved in the approval of the method.

Figure 2. The comparison of the students’ learning achievement in grade 9.

At school L girls showed a relatively higher effective learning index (IEL=.84) on the
topic Hydroxides than boys (IEL=.70; t= 2.08, df=82, p>.05). The exception was boys (IEL=.81)
from school L who showed relatively higher results in the topic Hydroxides than girls (IEL=.77),
although there is no statistical significance (p>.05).
Grade 10. Obtained results of students’ learning achievement in grade 10 showed that
students have a higher knowledge level if the TETRA-method is used in learning chemistry.
Students of the experimental group reached higher results (IEL=.86) than students of the control
group (IEL=.50; t = 2.69, df=90, p<.001) at school C. Achievements (IEL=.71) of the experimen-
tal group at school L also show a statistically significant increase (t = -2.37, df=89, p<.001) in
the first semester when compared with students who did not learn chemistry with the TETRA-
method (IEL=.55). It proves that it is possible to improve the level of knowledge if the spatial
mind model is used in learning.
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94

Figure 3. The changes of the students’ learning achievements of different

topics in grade 10.

Students of experimental group show relatively higher results of acquirement in topic

Substances and their properties then students of the control groups (t=2.69, df=88, p<.05) at
school L and school C. Students of experimental group (IEL=.68) at school L and experimental
group (IEL=.78) at school C achieved relatively higher results in the topic Structure of substance
then control groups respectively from school L (IEL=.54) and school C (IEL=.40). Subtopic Struc-
ture of atom was extendedly acquired (2 lessons) within the topic Structure of substance, this
was necessary for students to study in grade 10 according to the learning program. In experi-
mental class at school L the students’ acquirement (IEL=.68) of the topic Groups of inorganic
substances showed statistically significant lower result (t=2.29, df=89, p<.001) if compare with
the topic Substances and their changes (IEL=.81). Students’ results of the experimental group at
school C prove that method promotes the raising of the level of students’ knowledge for both
students with relatively lower results and students with relatively higher results of achieve-
ments (Figure 3).
The significant differences were not observed in the gender context, this proves that
method is adaptable for both girls and boys to acquire chemistry. In general, the girls’ mean
acquired level of knowledge is 6.0% higher in comparing to boys. Obtained results allow con-
clude that in general the using of the TETRA-method gives an option to raise the knowledge
level for students in grade 10. Learning materials which are used in the TETRA-method pro-
mote the developing of the connections for students among separate topics and unite fragmental
knowledge by forming knowledge based on comprehension.

Stability of Students’ Knowledge

Results of the knowledge stability test prove that the level of students knowledge in the
re-test decreased by 20.2% when comparing the instant level of knowledge (IEL=.71) with the
level of knowledge 3.5 months ago (IEL=.89; t= 2.69, df=79, p<.05). Students showed relatively
lower results (t=2.35, df=78, p<.001) in the re-test (Figure 4).
Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere, Janis Gedrovics. Promoting Studnt Learning Achievements in Chemistry by Using the
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95
50
Distribution of students, %

40

30

20

10

0
0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
Effective learning index
test re-test

Figure 4. The comparison of students’ learning achievement in the test and

re-test, grade 9.

There are observable differences both in the test and re-test in the gender context. Girls
show higher results compared to boys in both tests. The mean result for girls (IEL=.91) is 6.6%
higher compared to boys (IEL=.85; t=2.24, df=79, p<.05) in the test. Girls also show 4.3% higher
learning achievements (IEL=.72) in the re-test on the topic Water compared to boys (IEL=.69;
t=1.14, df=78, p>.05), though the data do not show statistically significant differences (Table
2).

Table 2. Comparison of the changes in the knowledge stability test in the

gender context, grade 9.

Paired Differences
t df p
Pair Item Std. Error
Mean Std. Deviation
Mean
1 Test, girls/ boys .80 1.105 .247 2.238 79 .004
2 Re-test, girls/ boys .32 1.204 .276 1.143 78 .268

The data show a tendency that boys have a comparatively lower decrease of learning
achievements than girls. Results prove that the spatial mind model can be used for all students
irrespective of gender. It should be mentioned that during the re-test the spatial mind model
was not used as a visual supplementary aid. This could be an explanation for the decrease of
the level of knowledge.
The knowledge stability test showed that students’ knowledge is stable. After three
months it decreased on average by 25%, while teachers’ experience shows that changes
like these are usually larger.

Discussion

The observations of chemistry teachers prove that during the lessons students do not
concentrate only to memorize the chemical facts, but start to comprehend the chemistry as
a component of a nature. Student forms a connected view about chemistry as the united sci-
ence subject by connecting acquirable topics in the subject. If these topics are connected with
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96 every day use, it gives an opportunity for students to become acquainted with chemistry from
practical aspect. Model is visually exciting, pays students’ attention, and stimulates cognitive
interest. However learning became creative, exciting, informal, simultaneously profound and
well-thought-out when the spatial mind model is used in the learning chemistry.
Students would willingly use team as one of the organization forms of the learning work
in chemistry classes. Majority of the teachers avoid using teams when acquiring basic topics,
due to students’ behavioural problems, which reduce efficacy of the learning process. Using
TETRA-method this problem is avoided if team consists of four participants. On the basis that
the spatial mind model has 4 peaks, every student researches and explores one of the connected
topics. Comprehensive, creative, active action in lesson and topical connection with the practi-
cal life promotes meaningful learning.
Those teachers of chemistry who were involved in the approval of the TETRA-method
see its prospect not only as a connection builder between separate acquirable topics in chem-
istry, but also in science subjects biology and physics. Therefore independent science teachers
were invited and asked for their opinion on prospect of the TETRA-method in chemistry and in
other science subjects (Table 3).

Table 3. Overview of teachers’ opinion on the using of the TETRA-method.

The method can develop the students` interest, activity, creativity and promote formation of topi-
Chemistry cal connection. Model systemizes incoming information and forms connected knowledge. Model
+
teachers is nice, sympathetic and congenial. „Self-perception” phenomenon enhances students appraisal,
stimulates to think about the role of human in nature.

­ It is not possible to use in all topics of curriculum.

It really could promote the students interest of acquirable topics. Use of the method could more
Biology easily explain conformity to natural laws. Transitions from main topic to subtopics are clear
+
teachers and understandable. Model is colourful; it is visually attractive and could catch the student’s
attention.

The making of small paper mind model takes at least 10 minutes. Virtual spatial mind model is
­
not identical with the paper mind model.

Physics + Method is interesting, it is easy to understand it, connected with everyday.

teacher

­ Great investment of mine should be done for making the materials in physics.

At the beginning of the discussion science teachers were informed about the success of
students` learning achievements in chemistry learning; and also about our aim to find out the
science teachers’ opinions about the using potentialities of the spatial mind model in learning.
At the first moment of the discussion teachers’ thoughts were more different about the place-
ment and the formation of connections if the TETRA-method is used in the learning. This should
be noticed, that teachers previously were not familiar with the method, and in the addition every
teacher at first analyzed the method from his /her subjects’ point of view. Teachers agree that
the method could rouse students’ cognitive interest, which is important precondition for the ac-
quirement of chemistry, so that students knowledge would be acquired more effectively, steady
and would form skills to use the knowledge, as a result the stability of students knowledge
would increase. All teachers were sure that”Self-perception” phenomenon promotes student
Daina Mozeika, Dagnija Cedere, Janis Gedrovics. Promoting Studnt Learning Achievements in Chemistry by Using the
Tetrahedral Spatial Mind Model
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interest in teaching-learning process. 97

The teachers of chemistry and other science subjects draw attention that the use of the
spatial mind model is successful solution to form scientific literacy for students and they think
that method is suitable to use it in both biology, and physics. The period of the learning method
efficacy probation gave an opportunity to ascertain the using potentialities of the TETRA-meth-
od in the process of chemistry learning.

Conclusion

The tetrahedral spatial mind model which represents the TETRA-method gives an op-
portunity for students to form the connections concerning various phenomena. The application
of this model improves the activation of students’ thinking, and as the result the connected and
knowledge-based understanding about the nature in the context of chemistry forms which in-
crease the efficiency of the learning.
The using of the spatial mind model also increases students’ cognitive interest, which is
important precondition for the acquirement of chemistry, so that learning material of chemistry
would be acquired more effectively, students would have steady knowledge and would form
skills to apply the knowledge, as a result the stability of students` knowledge would be im-
proved. The results of the research prove that by using the developed TETRA-method in learn-
ing chemistry students reach a relatively stable level of knowledge based on understanding.
Students’ knowledge level has a tendency to enhance more frequently one level above
the previous (mainly from optimal to high level); followed by improved students’ learning
achievements. In the context of gender there is no statistically significant differences, it means
that the application of the spatial mind model in the chemistry learning influences positively
both girls and boys. The level of students’ knowledge increases on average by 20% independent
of gender, grade and school. The influence of the teacher factor was not observed.
There is a visible connection between the application of the TETRA-method and the
formation of students’ scientific literacy: the use of the spatial mind model improves students’
activity in chemistry classes, understanding about chemical substances used every day as the
components of nature and - in connection with practical life - promotes the useful learning.
The TETRA-method has good prospects for use in learning chemistry in lower secondary
school and in secondary school as an alternative and innovative teaching and learning method.

References

Barke, H. D., Hazari, A., Yitbarek, S. (2009). Misconception in chemistry. Addressing perceptions in
chemical education. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 32, total 294.
Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-Perception Theory. In. L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology (Vol. 6, pp.1-62). New York: Academic Press. Retrieved 20 January, 2010, from: http://dbem.
ws/SP%20Theory.pdf
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Thinking Through an Investigation of Scientists Views About Superstitions and Religious. Eurasia Jour-
nal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 4 (3), 197-214.
Downes, S. (2010). Learning Networks and Connective Knowledge. Chapter 1. National Research
Council, Canada, 1-26. Retrieved 20 January 2010 from: http://www.igi-global.com/downloads/ex-
cerpts/34682.pdf
Erduran, S. (2009). Beyond philosophical confusion: establishing the role of philosophy of chemistry in
chemical education research. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 8 (1), 5-14.
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ence Education, 2 (8), 26-34.
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98 Held, C., Knauff, M., Vosgerau, G. (2006). Mental Models and the Mind: Current Developments in Cog-
nitive Psychology, Neuroscience, and Philosophy of Mind. Elsevier, Boston, 257 from 279. Retrieved 28
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ing%20about%20Relations
Mozeika, D., Cedere, D. (2008). Study on influence of students’ interest in natural sciences on the level
of knowledge and understanding in chemistry. Proceedings of conference “ATEE Spring University 2008.
Teacher of the 21st Century: Quality Education for Quality Teaching”, 258-264. Riga: University of
Latvia Press.
Mozeika, D., Cedere, D., Gedrovics, J. (2008). Knowledge and understanding in chemistry as promotes
of 14-19 year old students’ scientific literacy. Proceedings of XIII IOSTE Symposium “The Use Science
and Technology Education for Peace and Sustainable Development”. Izmir (Kusadasi), Sihhiye-Ankara:
Palme Publications & Booksshops Ltd.Co., 392-398.
Mozeika, D., Bleive, D. (2009). Spatial mental model for interesting chemistry learning in extracurricu-
lar lessons at school. Proceedings of International Scientific – practical Conference “Chemistry Educa-
tion - 2009”, Riga: University of Latvia Press, 114-122. [in Latvian]
Mozeika, D., Cedere, D., Gedrovics, J. (2010a). A new teaching and learning method in chemistry at
comprehensive school. Technology of Education (in print).
Mozeika, D., Cedere, D., Gedrovics, J. (2010b). Enhancing students’ chemical literacy by using the spa-
tial mind model. International conference “10th ECRICE - European Conference on Research in Chemi-
cal Education“. Abstract Book, Poland, Kracow (in print).
Siemens, G. (2006). Knowing- knowledge. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Lulu Press. Retrieved July 24, 2009,
from: www.knowingknowledges.com
Siemens, G. (2008). Learning and knowing in networks: Changing roles for educators and designers. Uni-
versity of Georgia IT Forum. Retrieved 1 February, 2010, from: http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/Paper105/
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Adviced by Anda Prikšane, University of Latvia, Latvia

Daina Mozeika Mg. chem, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Kr. Valdemara street 48, Riga, LV-1013
Latvia.
E-mail: tuttii@inbox.lv
Website: http://www.lu.lv

Dagnija Cedere Assoc. professor, Dr. chem., Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Kr. Valdemara street 48,
Riga, LV-1013 Latvia.
E-mail: dagced@lanet.lv
Website: http://www.lu.lv

Janis Gedrovics Assoc. professor, Dr. chem., Department of Management and Economics, Riga Teacher Training
and Educational Management Academy, Imantas 7. linija No 1, LV-1083 Riga, Latvia.
E-mail: janis.gedrovics@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv
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99

psychological and pedagogical

problems of distance education
for adults

Sławomir Postek, Maria Ledzińska, Jakub Czarkowski

Warsaw University, Poland
E-mail: spostek@psych.uw.edu.pl, marial@psych.uw.edu.pl,
jakubczarkowski@gmail.com

Abstract

Our main focus is to highlight the most important challenges in distance education aimed at adults: spe-
cific psychological challenges coming from adult development, the problems of quality and evaluation,
and the effect particular distance education forms and their content (interactivity, salience, and multime-
dia additions) have on adult learning. In the opening section, theoretical grounds for how adults learn,
treat learning, how they function in informational stress and in the role of a pupil are presented. This
is than followed by the discussion of pedagogical aspects (motivation, self esteem etc) of results evalu-
ation and didactical difficulties of planning high quality distance learning. Finally, a review of research
results into how different types of material content affects adults’ perception and comprehension and how
retention and transfer and influenced in effect. In the summary, we move on to discuss how b-learning
(blended) and c-learning (complementary) could be employed in order to facilitate adult distance learn-
ing and propose research fields to explore in this area.
Key words: adult education, educational psychology, e-learning, b-learning, quality and evaluation in
distance education, adult development.

Introduction

Adult education, and especially distance education aimed at this age group is still more
of a terra incognita for the more experimentally oriented psychologists and pedagogues than a
system of proven regularities and rules. The main reason for this is that, in recent years, the way
of thinking about how adults learn (or even function cognitively) changed rather dramatically.
Gone are the long-held beliefs about unavoidable declines in all cognitive areas and increasing
mental stiffness, making teaching adults an almost impossible task. Instead, more and more ide-
as are being put forward suggesting that an adult might be just an apt and motivated learner as
a younger pupil. This shift in approach to adult education, although already exercised by many
educational centers across the world, has not yet filtered down from theoretical thinking to sys-
temic research plans or research paradigms. The separate research fields that brought about the
changes remain just that, separate. The need for the development of a whole new educational
theory seems to be presenting itself, especially in the face of the fact that distance learning tech-
nology keeps developing rapidly, leaving little time for systemic reflection. Developing such
theory might turn out to be one of the most challenging tasks for educational psychologists and
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100 pedagogues alike in the nearest years.

In this article we attempt to present the Reader with three theoretical insights into how
adult education should (at least in our shared belief) be seen, planned and assessed. As shy as
such theoretical presentation might seem, we believe this is the level at which the research
thinking should begin and we hope to provide at least a small stepping stone, or perhaps an
inspiration, to the researchers who wish to explore the area.

What Makes Adults Learning Specific? The Changes in Thinking about Adult
Cognitive Development in Recent Years

In contemporary learning psychology, cognitively oriented psychologists assume the

leading role (Shuell, 1993, Good i Brophy, 1995, Przetacznik-Gierowska, Włodarski, 1998;
Dryden i Vos, 2000). The differentiating factors of this orientation are: the characteristic ap-
proach to understanding the essence of teaching and learning, and exploring their dynamics,
effectiveness and conditions in an individual’s lifespan. Every life situation is a good oppor-
tunity to learn – the claim is repeated by many well-known authors, stressing the importance
of both institutional and non-institutional education (Faure et al., 1975, Drucker, 1999, Delors,
1998). For this reason organizing complex learning processes requires also taking into account
various life contexts, e.g. the development of technology (Bruner, 2006), and this in turn in-
spired a large area of proposed (and realized) studies to focus on the possibilities of employing
information technology to enhance education in all of its stages (Delors, 1998, Drucker, 1999,
Morbitzer, 2007).
The thinking of learning and teaching is based on the main thesis – formulated in
the early decades of the previous century – claiming that an individual’s development keeps
progressing during their entire life, creating opportunities for learning regardless of actual age.
This thesis is further expanded by proposing that the peaks of human functioning are reached
at different ages for different areas of functioning. Creative activity, requiring a foundation of
knowledge, skills and wisdom, is an example of an area in which the highest levels of perform-
ance are reached in the later stages of life. This assertion – formulated by the representatives
of life-span psychology – is easily found nowadays in many psychological and pedagogical
handbooks (Banach, 2000; Kielar-Turska, 2000; Harwas-Napierała, 2000; Trempała, 2000),
although its reception among the so-called non-professional circles is rather weak.
The main reason for this is that there is a dominating belief in ‘popular knowledge’ that
there exist cognitive barriers in learning tied to growing age. This isn’t the only one of such ‘ur-
ban legends’ (otherwise called educational myths), one other of exceeding popularity is the one
explaining learning as a process chiefly based on information absorption, engaging memory as
the main cognitive function (Ledzińska, 2008). Meanwhile, in psychological terms, learning
is defined as a process of getting to know oneself, the world and the position of oneself in the
world, taking place as a result of mental effort. This effort – cognitive activity – covers not only
perception and memory, but also various forms of thinking developed during different stages of
life (Brown et al., 1983, Anderson, 1998, Ledzińska, 2000, Eysenck, Keane, 2005).
The scientific definition of learning diverts from many other popular claims, among
which the claim of directive steering of learning stands apart as a predominant one. Such steer-
ing, directing the learning efforts, is only justified in relation to younger pupils. However, even
while organizing – at the early stages of the schooling process – the learning of children, the
prospect of their future competences to independently steer their own learning needs to be taken
into account. This subjective competence is referred to by psychologists as ‘autoregulation in
learning’ and defined as the ability to plan learning, monitor its progress and asses its results.
The main goal of educational actions can thus be defined as reaching students’ cognitive inde-
pendence, as one of the factors of autonomy, subjectivity (Shuell, 1993, Schunk i Zimmerman,
Sławomir Postek, Maria Ledzińska, Jakub Czarkowski. Psychological and Pedagogical Problems of
Distance Education for Adults
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1994, Boekaerts, 1997, Pintrich et al., 2000). 101

Moving on to the main issue of the article, the education of adults, the complexity of the
matter, mainly due to the age differences (range) of studies’ respondents needs to be signalled.
The resulting need to take into account the results of time psychology studies is coupled by the
need to consider the conclusions of studies devoted to exploring psychological development in
adulthood. The main thesis that needs to be expressed here is that, in planning adult education,
there is a paramount necessity of an insight into knowledge of ontological changes in cognitive
functioning specifics.
In earlier writings on the subject of psychological changes during lifespan the dominant
reflection was rather on the scope, type and reasons for such changes. Newer publications
present readers with the possibility of moving outside that frame of thought (quantity analysis
of performance levels) – especially measuring what and how fast can be learnt by an adult
person. The most radical approach suggests (Trempała, 2000) abandoning the idea of finding a
generic ‘trajectory’ of changes in cognitive development with age. Instead, the need to identify
the functional changes is presented. One example of this chain of thought is the conviction that
the changes in the cognitive sphere – happening with age –depend on the performed tasks and
environmental demands or, from a broader perspective, the influences of the environment in
which an individual functions.
Moving on to the specifics, the ascertainment that ageing, and in particular psychical
ageing, takes place, and the peak of mental ability occurs around the middle of the third decade
of life needs to be made. During the fourth decade the decline in mental function in chrono-
logical advance (physical time) – as in the case of all psychological principles, statistical in
character – becomes more and more visible. The physical aspect of time, although most readily
apparent, is not the only one however, psychical and historical-sociological aspects also need to
be considered. Ageing and degeneration are not only a result of the passing of actual time but
also of the experiences an individual gathered. Ageing in general is a selective process, rarely
becoming global. It is prone to compensation mechanisms, which is most clearly exemplified
by selective optimalization phenomenon. It occurs when certain people, despite the passing of
time, remain very active in selected fields – arts, politics or science. In the case of scientists for
instance, a confirmed (regardless of their particular field) regularity of decreasing fluid (innate)
intelligence and an unchanged, or in some cases growing, crystallized (developed in the course
of activities) intelligence, all points to considerable development reserves. In more general
terms, the popular belief that the decrease in cognitive functioning has a broad impact is false
– instead it is usually only short-term memory that functions less well. ‘I can easily recall events
from many years ago, but I have trouble telling if I locked the door on my way out today’ – is
a common complaint from adults, alien to the younger generations. The considerable pace of
changes happening around us, including the omnipresence of technology, puts many adults
(especially older adults) in an uncomfortable position, leaving them with feeling of being seen
as ‘not following the reality’.
In the light of psychological knowledge, adults not only can learn, but should undertake
learning activities as one of the key factors to psycho-physical health. They require however, as
learners, individual approach, taking into consideration psychological and learning specifics of
their age, which can be put together as follows:
• eliminating fear motivation and overcoming forms of resistance (‘I don’t think I can
do it, it’s too late for me’);
• spreading the process of acquiring new content and skills in time;
• attention to solidify newly acquired information not only during learning, but also
after it;
• calling on previous life experiences and knowledge to aid comprehension;
• rewarding progress both on individual and group level.
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102 One of the too often-made mistakes in adult education remains the ignoring or misinter-
preting of the rule of learning individualization, one of the fundamental imperatives in learning
psychology and pedagogy. To individualize means to adjust the content and the form of educa-
tional influences to fit the dispositions of all learners, not only particular groups (for instance
of learners of high intellectual ability or special talents). The knowledge and skills in this area
co-determine the competences of teachers and the effectiveness of their efforts.

The Challenges of Gathering and Interpreting Evaluation Data from Adult

Distance Education

The issue of the quality in e-learning is crucial for the dynamics of its development,
in particular in the case of academic education (Mischke, 2007). In the dictionaries ‘quality’
is defined as a trait that makes an item or service simple ‘good’, but it can also be defined as
compliance with expectations or demands (Crosby, 1979). This standpoint allows for a rath-
er uncomplicated measurement of quality and results in some experts avoiding more specific
definitions. It is worth noting however, that in many cases quality, as an umbrella term – in
opposition to the Latin qualis, which simply meant ‘of a given kind’ – became abstract and dif-
ficult to operationalize. Various approaches to the problem stress the issues of time perspective,
process, scope or the possibilities of fulfilling individual needs in assessing quality. Combining
the above difficulties with the manifold area of education, and with the (still difficult to fully
comprehend for many adults) virtual reality gives an insight into the complexity and the number
of problems that those dealing with distance education quality need to face.
Traditional didactics put a lot of stress on the matter of perfecting the processes of
learning and teaching (Półturzycki, 2002, pp.379-389). The tools and methods were constantly
developed for improving the quality of both grading and evaluation, understood as a process
of systematically gathering knowledge about activities, characteristics and effects of programs,
teachers and educational processes – used later to improving all those but also to make further
decisions. Certain means of evaluation, also called control, were used to facilitate the planning
steps, but also the execution of a form or a cycle; and to summarize their results. They delivered
information, which ‘accepted and analyzed consciously by teachers influenced their level of
work, enhancing it and developing it, eliminating the flaws and drawbacks, making the process
of learning happening more in its own natural course, enriching and diversifying the forms and
methods of teaching’ (Półturzycki, 2002 pp.388-389). The arrival of e-learning brought about
new questions and dilemmas in relation to the quality of learning and its results. The experi-
ences reported by Universities across the world suggest that there is a large potential of newly-
created possibilities coupled by the possibility to upkeep the high standards of teaching. Such
positive feedback stimulates the development of e-teaching both in academic distance educa-
tion (Zając, Stanisławska, 2009) and in its other forms and types (Thorne, 2003). New ideas
of combining e-learning with more traditional approaches have also recently been presented
(Czarkowski, 2009).
The fundamental element of the process of evaluating e-learning, much like in the case
of traditional learning, is setting the standards for evaluation procedures, mainly by isolating
the criteria that will serve as the basis of any assessment of a program, a platform, a lesson or,
from a different perspective, the teaching content. The key questions that are raised in relation
to e-learning seem to be:
• what elements decide the value of a course, or influence that value in a significant
way?
• what forms of evaluation should be used?
• who is entitled to prepare or/and execute the evaluation procedures?
A proposition in this area was created by Polish Association of Academic E-learning
Sławomir Postek, Maria Ledzińska, Jakub Czarkowski. Psychological and Pedagogical Problems of
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(SEA). According to the ground rules of social constructivism assumed by SEA the criteria used 103
by institutions and individuals to asses the quality of Internet courses need to be commonly ac-
cessible and free of charge – for both the courses currently available and prepared in the future.
They can also be helpful to those who are in the planning stages of introducing e-learning,
pointing to the key areas determining the quality of distance education. According to the propo-
sition put forwards by SLE, e-education should be assessed based on the following four areas:
• organization of the course
• preparation of the course
• execution of the course
• evaluation of the course.
SLE suggests assuming various points of view during the assessment: technological,
didactical or even the availability of the course.
The introduction of e-learning requires also the introduction of highly specialized,
highly interactive tools designed to help evaluate it. Modern information technology allows
for multiple forms of evaluation, in consequence leading to the improvement in the work of a
teacher – and in the same time in the whole educational process. Possibilities exist for oversee-
ing evaluation processes of practically any given complexity, which means better coordination
and reduction of undesired occurrences and costs. One example of such tool is the famous
MOODLE platform, offering multiple ready-made tools for the assessment of evaluation of
education processes. The most important of those are the ‘Quiz’ for learning effects evaluation
and Questionnaires designed to perform initial and results evaluation.
Other tools available on MOODLE can also easily be employed as sources of evaluation
information, like discussion forums or class registers. In particular, the forums used for discus-
sions enable individual grading of posted messages by every user – properly moderated forum
can become a valuable source of information about the preferences and views of the participants
of any (stationary or distance) course. Registers are a form in which the students are, among
other functions, allowed to send private messages to the teacher, containing their opinions.
Moodle also allows for statistical analysis of the gathered data and offers various ways
of presentation of the results, a tool often left unused by many educators.
In the view of the fact that easy-to-use tools for gathering and processing many kinds of
feedback are readily available, the question, from the initial if and whether we could proceed
with evaluation on-line, becomes rather what should be the structure and content of the data
gathered. As mentioned above, the theoretical problem of pinpointing the crucial qualities of
distance education courses – and the even more serious practical problem of operationalizing
those qualities into questionnaire items – has only just begun being solved.

The Reception of E-learning Material by Individuals as a Research Problem

The arrival of the Internet, and with it education delivered ‘over the cable’, brought
many answers to the problems of ‘traditional’ education. Simply put, it allowed for one-to-one
tutoring, so richly advertised by Bloom’s followers (Bloom, 1980, Krathwohl, 1998), to take
place in a very comfortable way. It gave students freedom and it let them create their own learn-
ing environments.
However the fact was that e-learning, while making it possible to maximize the indi-
vidualism of the learning process, presented researchers from both the field of pedagogy and
psychology with an array of questions and difficulties. In psychology, they were mainly focused
on the issues of attention guiding (Jamet et al., 2008) and cognitive load experienced by the
students (Mayer, 2001, Moreno, Mayer, 1999) while pedagogy addressed more systemic mat-
ters of student support, help-seeking and the whole structure and didactics of e-learning (e.g.
Tanaś, 2007).
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104 In the area of attention guiding, an article by Jamet, Gavota and Quaireau (2008) reports
and discusses the findings of a study on how various types of attention guiding means affect
retention and transfer. Two types of often used attention guiding techniques were tested in the
study, sequential vs static presentation (parts of a picture either ‘popped’ on the screen in a se-
quence to illustrate the spoken – recorded – presentation, or the picture was present as a whole
during the presentation) and salient vs non-salient presentation (parts of picture either colored
red when spoken and than turned gray about or remained gray during the whole presentation).
This allowed for a 2 x 2 matrix to be formed for the purposes of statistical analysis. The results
of the study indicated that while salience (highlighting of the objects) indeed has significant ef-
fect on the understanding and retention of the material, sequentiality’s impact is not clear – in
some tasks it seemed important, in others the order in which parts of the picture were presented
was irrelevant. This was explained by the authors by the presence of the spoken explanation
(the study measured the effects of a computer-delivered lecture) – which was said to eliminate
the need to guide attention chronologically with visual clues by guiding it with spoken clues.
Another interesting finding of the study was that no effect for transfer tasks (applying the newly
gained knowledge to new situations) was observed for either salience or sequentiality, although
there is data available that indicates quite the opposite (Craig et al., 2002) – an interesting hy-
pothesis that attention guiding might indirectly (negatively) influence comprehension remains
to be tested.
Another study, comparing the effects of interactive and non-interactive pictures on the
efficiency of learning, was reported by Rasch and Schnotz (2009). Groups of students were
assigned a text to learn, in four groups coupled by interactive and non-interactive pictures that
illustrated the text, in the fifth group the text contained no pictures at all. The results were rather
baffling, as they indicated that adding pictures to the text was neither beneficial nor harmful to
learning – the students’ interactions with the texts were different based on what pictures were
used, but the outcome of learning remained the same. Moreover, pictures proved to be harm-
ful to the efficiency of learning. The results of the study contradicted both the well-established
multimedia principle (that multimedia means more effective, Mayer, 2001) and the redundancy
rule (Sweller, 2005) and the ensuing discussion only served to highlight how tricky and unclear
the ground is for practical planning of teaching materials.
A study into how the freedom of choice in shaping the learning environment affects the
effects of learning was presented by Segers and Verhoeven (2009). In the study of a group of
children assigned to either complete webQuests (directed search of the Internet) or do a free-
search (Google, Wiki) the authors tested their hypothesis that cued research would lead to better
learning results. Indeed, after filtering out individual conditions (generic linguistic and specific
writing skills, but also information processing-influenced learning gains), the authors proved
webQuests to be more effective, albeit only for boys.
The aspect of information processing (dealing with information overflow), cast aside in
the previous study as ‘individual disposition’, and therefore not related to the structural research
conducted, was made the key point of an extensive study reported by Ledzinska (2009). The
study on a very large group of students showed that information processing, or coping with
information overflow in broader terms, is a crucial factor for how information is processed,
retained and used – the importance of information processing grows even more as increas-
ing amounts of information are produced and delivered ‘into’ the society, and with it, into the
schooling system. This is an aspect of learning so far overlooked by most researchers, who
focused more on how e-learning conditions affect its effectiveness, not on how e-student condi-
tions do that.
The evidence from those psychological studies, pointing towards the problem of stu-
dents’ inability to cope with actually being made responsible for the large part of their learning
conditions – be is as a result of the inadequacy of the teaching techniques employed or the
Sławomir Postek, Maria Ledzińska, Jakub Czarkowski. Psychological and Pedagogical Problems of
Distance Education for Adults
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inadequacy of students’ processing, is further supported by studies more pedagogical in their 105
approach. Research into how students deal with this increased load of responsibility (and if
they deal with it at all) was conducted by Mercier and Frederiksen (2007) proving that not only
task-related, but even help-seeking behaviors in solving complicated tasks are a complex, stra-
tegic cognitive process which, to many, does not come naturally. An analysis into how science
exhibition visitors acquire knowledge was presented by Knipfer et al. (2009). The authors sug-
gest that while technology is a very effective tool for knowledge transfer in science museums,
it mainly inhibits only one of the three pathways believed to partake in such transfer – namely
museum-to-visitor path. On the other hand it makes the second path, visitor-to-visitor, much
harder to become activated. This in turn means that while technology allows for the knowledge
acquisition, it might negatively impact (Walter, 1996) the interactions that lead to knowledge
comprehension. This directly corresponds with the view (eg. Katra, 1995) that for an event
(experience or chunk of knowledge) to gain significance, that event needs not only to be ‘lived
through’, but also reflected upon, and than spoken about to others (interaction).
A growing number of research reports and meta-analysis led many scientists involved in
e-learning (Mc Cullough et al., 2006, Tanaś, 2004, Gajda et al., 2002) to believe that the sudden
shift in control over the learning process, although beneficial from Bloom’s theory’s perspec-
tive (as it allows the student to compensate for possible cognitive, affective (motivational) or
psychomotorical deficiencies by changing the structural conditions of learning) also created a
number of specific difficulties, coming from what was originally considered the upside of the
whole idea – the lack of rigid rules, the lack of controlling teacher, the lack of conditions forced
upon the students. E-learners, in many cases, are simply neither ready nor even aware of their
lack of readiness to take control over how, what and when they learn.
The concept of b-learning originates from the above conclusion (Graham, 2005, Young,
2002). It is a concept in which the distance learning’s benefits are combined (blended, hence
the name) with the advantages of direct teacher-student interaction. Its initial aim was to put
together the techniques employed in e-learning and those employed in traditional education, re-
quiring the presence of a teacher. Very soon however many authors (e.g. Osguthorpe, Graham,
2003) concluded that a simple combination of those would not address the difficulties of regular
e-learning. Instead, a proposition to redefine the role of a teacher in b-learning (and possibly the
role of a teacher in general) was made (Ward, La Branche, 2003). In the light of this proposi-
tion, the name b-learning becomes a little misleading.
Complementary learning, as many authors now call it, is a concept in which the teacher
assumes a two-fold role. In relation to the teaching material delivered via the now (at the risk of
sounding paradoxical) ‘traditional’ e-learning, the teacher becomes a guide, leading the student
through the material, assisting in organizing it, finding learning tactics and fusing the newly
acquired information with the existing body of knowledge. This directly addresses the psycho-
logical-level troubles students have with information overflow and the inability to organize it
presented by Ledzinska (2006). In relation to general experience of information overflow, its
availability on one hand and uncertainly of their source and value on the other, as well as to ad-
dress the difficulties with self-motivation, self-control and the need of a student to create their
own learning conditions, the teacher becomes a coach. That coach’s role is defined, in opposi-
tion to the traditional teacher’s role of a source of information (in a broader view, a source of
judgment and values too), as that of a trainer of the ability to deal with information coming from
elsewhere, to self-motivate and to control one’s progress.
Helping students to cope with psychological consequences of information stress (ex-
tensive study by Ledzinska, 2009): disorientation, inability to integrate the acquired informa-
tion into the already existing body of knowledge, the feeling of possessing only outdated (and
therefore useless) information, being unable to tell important knowledge from the trivial one
and the negative emotions stemming from all those – also adds to the possible tasks of such a
 problems
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106 ‘redefined’ teacher.

B-learning, and especially its enhanced version, complementary learning, seems to be
the cutting edge of today’s distance education. However, while providing solution to a lot of
difficulties of more traditional approaches, they at the same time force upon their followers
rather dramatic changes in what we grew to consider ‘normal’ teacher behavior. What the ‘new’
teacher behavior should be, and in fact what the ‘new’ teaching content should be, is far from
established.

Summary

Regardless of which stage of a teaching process aimed at adults the strobe lights fall on
– be it its theoretical foundations, content preparation, or the evaluation of results, problems
emerge for a keenly observant scientist. They have both theoretical and strictly practical back-
grounds. The problems with theoretical thinking stem from the fact that it changed quite dra-
matically in the recent years, from the assumption that adults’ unavoidable mental deterioration
condemns them to be poor learners. The practical aspect of the problems comes simple form
the fact that, while distance learning paradigms (e-, b-, c-, m-learning) develop rapidly, there
is really very little time to reflect upon their efficiency, let alone perform a systemic research
into it.
Perhaps a text like this one, highlighting the shortcomings of the current distance edu-
cation situation in as a conscience way as possible, could potentially inspire a larger, broadly-
planned program, addressing the problems of each teaching process stage. We believe this ne-
cessity will present itself as clearer and clearer in the future the more neglected it is now.

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Adviced by Maciej R. Tana, University of Warsaw, Poland

Sławomir Postek MA, Warsaw University, Faculty of Psychology, Stawki 5/7, Warszawa, Poland.
Phone: +48 661 464 771.
E-mail: spostek@psych.uw.edu.pl
Website: http://www.psychologia.pl

Maria Ledzińska Professor, Warsaw University, Faculty of Psychology, Stawki 5/7, Warszawa, Poland.
E-mail: marial@psych.uw.edu.pl
Website: http://www.psychologia.pl

Jakub Czarkowski Ph.D., Warsaw University, Faculty of Pedagogy, Stawki 5/7, Warszawa, Poland.
E-mail: jakubczarkowski@gmail.com
Website: http://www.uw.edu.pl/en/
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109

PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
PRECONDITIONS FOR THE
INDIVIDUALISATION OF TEACHING/
LEARNING PROCESS FOR LEFTHANDERS

Gunita Praulīte, Viktorija Perepjolkina, Juris Porozovs, Daina Voita

Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
E-mail: gunita.praulite@rpiva.lv, ppi@rpiva.lv, juris.porozovs@rpiva.lv, Dvoita@mits.lv

Abstract

One of the basic principles in organising educational (teaching/learning) process is individualisation,

in other words - ensuring opportunities and environment for successful learning considering individual
students’ personal characteristics. Approximately 10% of our society is the so called left-handers - people
with a dominant left hand. Obviously we encounter them at school, too. Left-handed children differ in the
ways how they perceive information, analyse space and time, think and feel, i.e. in their psycho-physi-
ological processes.
Our work deals with research results obtained by means of psycho-physiological testing: e.g. the compu-
terised DT (Determination Test) S1 version and MLS (Motor performance series) test from Vienna Test
System. The acquired results reveal that left-handers differ from right-handers in such psycho-physi-
ological aspects as attention distribution and stability, information perception and processing, reaction
to conflict situations and reactive stress duration. The former also consume more oxygen while under
pressure than the latter.
The research results indicate that left-handers require an individual educational approach.
Key words: functional asymmetry of brain hemispheres, lefthanders, right-handers, attention, educa-
tional (teaching/learning) process.

Introduction

One of the basic principles in organising educational (teaching/learning) process is indi-

vidualisation, in other words - ensuring opportunities and environment for successful learning
considering individual students’ personal characteristics. Or, according to I. Beļickis (2000)
- ensure a pedagogical situation in which a “value-oriented atmosphere” prevails. Humane-
education (Gudjons, 1998) focuses on human as a whole, attempting to understand each indi-
vidual’s actions and behaviour, and stresses student-centred education, with a child (student) in
the centre of attention ( as opposed to the subject-centred approach). The 21st century education
follows the child’s interests, needs and abilities instead of foregone verities (Špona, 2001).
Unlike differentiation which focuses on high academic achievements in separate sub-
jects ensured by considering students’ talents and creative characteristics, individualisation en-
visages applying various educational methods, techniques and approaches in order to ensure
 problems
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110 a certain level of academic achievement (established by the curriculum) for each student. It
is an approach demanding high pedagogical skill and knowledge of each student’s individual
characteristics. I. Maslo (1995) speaks of educational individualisation in the historical aspect
pointing out that even Jan Amos Komenský wrote about individual approach to educating in-
dividual children. Approximately 10% of our society is the so called lefthanders - people with
a dominant left hand. Obviously we encounter them at school, too. Left-handed children pos-
sess a different pre-programmed physical and mental potential which can be observed in their
behaviour.
Studies of brain function started in the 19th century (Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke) and
reached their peak in the late 20th century, and have proven that the specific behaviour of left-
handers is determined by the functional asymmetry and specialisation of brain hemispheres
- functional differences in the right and left hemisphere. The left hemisphere ensures people’s
(right-handers’) logical, rational and theoretical skills, whereas the right one is responsible for
creativity and intuition (Zigmond et al, 1999; Warner, 2000; Geake, 2009). The left-handers
may have it vice versa. The lateralisation of brain hemispheres develops along with the devel-
opment of articulate speech. Left-handed children’s psycho-physiological processes related to
perceiving information, analysing space and time, thinking and emotions are different. Several
recently conducted researches (Warner, 2000; Pelša, 2004) have clarified the most distinct left-
handers’ characteristics that should be considered in education. Left-handers are active and
energetic, impetuous and very emotional, quite creative and highly imaginative. They use their
energy resources economically, therefore at times seem to be tireless. Such children prefer di-
versity in their work which demands for high levels of accuracy. Their impetuousness can fre-
quently lead to stress, just like their emotions and pressure may cause a stronger fear syndrome,
drastic change in mood and unstable attention.
Even though the functional lateralisation of brain has been widely studied, children and
adolescents’ psycho-physiological features related to the functional asymmetry of brain have
still been insufficiently investigated. Pedagogy, in particular, pays very little attention to this
problem. Our aim was to detect the difference between children and adults with regard to indi-
vidual psycho-physiological features related to the functional asymmetry of brain.

Methodology of Research

Our psycho-physiological research involved 62 participants: 22 junior form pupils (10-

11 years old), 22 students of both genders (aged 20-21) and 18 adult male athletes (aged 20
-23); the latter were in excellent physical condition, according to Harvard Step-test indicators
(Auliks, 1985). All participants were questionnaired to detect their brain profile regarding the
lateralisation of sight, hearing and motor functions and later divided into two groups:
Group I - with dominant left hemisphere (right-handers);
Group II - with dominant right hemisphere (left-handers).
We tested school-children’s ability to distribute attention by means of numbers-arrange-
ment test, and their capacities of information perception and processing (speed of processing
information, accuracy and productivity of work) by means of a proofreading test during which
every participant, within a certain amount of time, has to look through 2000 printed characters
and cross out one particular of them (Психологические тесты, 1999).
While testing the adult participants’ (students’) psycho-physiological indicators: quick-
ness and accuracy of reaction, as well as quickness and accuracy of hand movements we ap-
plied the computerised DT (Determination Test) S1 version (Neuwirth, Benesch, 2003) and
MLS (Motor performance series) test (Neuwirth, Benesch, 2003) from Vienna Test System.
We selected maximum oxygen consumption levels (VO2 max), which we detected by the
Gunita Praulīte, Viktorija Perepjolkina, Juris Porozovs, Daina Voita. Psycho-Physiological Preconditions for the
Individualisation of Teaching/Learning Process for Lefthanders
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

indirect method (Auliks, 1985), as the indicator of an individual’s physical and mental working 111
energy.
The results were statistically processed by means of the t-Test: Two- Sample Assuming
Unequal Variances tool in Excel.

Results of Research

The functional asymmetry of the large brain hemispheres, aside from being genetically
predetermined, develops along with articulate speech. This functional specialisation of brain
forms gradually alongside the development of speech and abstract thinking up to the age of 14-
16 and reaches maximum during mature age (Pelša, 2004).
Young school-children’s lateralisation levels are still insufficient, consequently there are
significant differences observed in how left- and right-handers of this age perceive and process
information within a 3 minute interval (Table 1). Only in the 4th minute, possibly due to higher
determination, right-handers demonstrate an obviously higher rate of information processing
(3.09±0.67).

Table 1. Rates of information processing for students with differing

“dominant” hemisphere.

Research Information processing rates (bits per second)

participants
1st min 2nd min 3rd min 4th min
Group I 3.48±0.71 2.49±0.54 2.78±0.62 3.09±0.67 *
Group II 2.90±1,49 2.62±0.51 3.04±1.26 2.71±0.66 *

* Significant difference (p=0.05)

Table 2. Accuracy for young school-children.

Research
Accuracy of work
participants
1st min 2nd min 3rd min 4th min
Group I 0.94±0.04* 0.98±0.04* 0.88±0.01* 0.99±0.03
Group II 0.97±0.04* 0.91±0.03* 0.98±0.03* 0.99±0.01

* Significant difference (p=0.05)

The accuracy of intellectual work, detected by taking the number of accurately crossed-
out characters, dividing it by the total number of crossed-out characters and adding up the
number of mistakes (missed or incorrectly crossed-out characters), characterises an individual’s
attention capacities. The results show that lefthanders and right-handers’ working accuracy sig-
nificantly differs in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd working minute. During the 1st and 3rd minute lefthanders
are more accurate, whereas right-handers accuracy is higher during the 2nd minute (Table 2).
This testifies that left-handers’ emotions and impetuousness impede with their capacity to focus
attention. Also the numbers-arrangement test (lasted fro 2 minutes) revealed that only 295 of
left-handers were able to hold their attention as opposed to the 80% of right-handers.
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112 Table 3. Working efficiency in young school-children.

Research
Efficiency
participants
1st min 2nd min 3rd min 4th min
Group I 369.95±72.38* 276.71±67.78* 308.50±72.20 343.80±76.71
Group II 320.00±146.14* 295.72±55.28* 343.60±130.50 312.78±82.17

* Significant difference (p=0.05)

Working efficiency of young school-children, which depends on working rates and at-
tention stability, was calculated multiplying the number of scanned characters by the accuracy
indicator. The results revealed that efficiency is significantly different for left- and right-hand-
ers during the 1st and 2nd minute: during the first minute it is higher fir right-handers, whereas
during the second minute - left-handers are more efficient (Table 3). Although during the 3rd
and 4th minute there are also evident differences, they are not statistically significant, and might
have occurred due to large data dispersion. Adult students display higher levels of efficiency
and information processing rates, respectively: efficiency - 436.07 for left-handers and 536.41
for right-handers; information processing rate - 4.10 for right-handers and 4.69 for left-handers.
Evidently adult left-handers work more intensively than their right-handed counterparts. This
means also more intensive energy consumption; maximum oxygen consumption indicator (VO2
max
) is 64.82 for left-handers and 50.37 fro right-handers (a statistically significant difference).
Adults and children’s efficiency differs also dynamically. Children’s efficiency levels
fluctuate within the four minutes (Table 3), while adult right-handers’ efficiency steadily in-
creases: first minute 414.58; second – 413.22; third – 462.54; fourth - 475.28. Adult left-hand-
ers’ efficiency levels fluctuate just like children’s: first minute 586.59; second minute – 493.13;
third minute – 529.50; fourth minute – 481.17.
Table 4. Adult students’ reaction rates and efficiency levels.

Research Reaction rate

Reaction numbers
participants (in seconds)
Right Wrong Missed
Group I 255.30±29.72 21.20±13.05 17.70±6.67 0.75±0.07
Group II 255.60±28.50 16.18±9.11 16.00±7.07 0.73±0.08

Using the computerised DT (Determination Test), we detected students’ reaction to vis-

ual and acoustic stimuli. Working time limited - 4 minutes. Evaluating reaction rates along with
right, wrong and missed reactions we can judge an individual’s abilities to work under pressure
and take decisions in limited time. While learning or studying, individuals have to experience a
certain optimal level of stress (Krauklis, 1981). For an educator it is essential to organise edu-
cational process considering the psycho-physiological features of each particular age group. As
shown by Table 4 all participants’ reactions are within the norm: the norm for right answers is
175 - 278; for the wrong answers - 21-4 and for the missed ones - 20-4. Reaction numbers fro
right-handers and left-handers are not statistically different, however, right-handers have more
wrong reactions (21.20±13.05) than left-handers (16.18±9.11). Reaction rates also do not differ
significantly.
The number of wrong and missed reactions indicates at attention stability. Adult left-
handers and right-handers do not display significant differences as regards their reactions (Ta-
ble 4) whereas left-handed and right-handed children’s reactions differed remarkably during the
Gunita Praulīte, Viktorija Perepjolkina, Juris Porozovs, Daina Voita. Psycho-Physiological Preconditions for the
Individualisation of Teaching/Learning Process for Lefthanders
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

1st, 2nd and 3rd minute (Table 2). This proves certain instability in children’s brain hemisphere 113
lateralisation, which decreases in mature age.
The MLS (Motor Performance Series) test reveals the specific characteristics of CNS
functions (Figures 1 and 2). Hand motor capacities are measured by the number of taps on the
working panel registered by computer. The test is carried out in two modes: working with one
hand at a time and working with both hands simultaneously. While working with one hand sta-
tistically remarkable differences are observed in both right-handers (right hand - 203.10±12.40
taps; left hand -169.50±20.00 taps) and left-handers (left hand - 208.57±9.76 taps; right hand
- 181.17±21.57 taps). Comparing right-handers and left-handers’ ability to work with the right
hand we find no statistically remarkable differences (203.10±12.40 and 181.17±21,57), while,
regarding their ability to work with the left hand, left-handers remarkably surpass right-handers
(208.57±9.76 and 169.50±2000).

Taps with one hand

250

208.57 203.1
200 181.17
168.5
Number of taps

150

100

50

0
Right hand taps for Left hand taps for left- Right hand taps for Left hand taps for
left-handers handers right-handers right-handers

Figure 1. Motor performance of right and left hand in the one-hand

working mode.

Taps with both hands

250

205
197.33
200 189.1
167.1
Number of taps

150

100

50

0
Right hand taps for Left hand taps for left- Right hand taps for Left hand taps for
left-handers handers right-handers right-handers

Figure 2. Motor performance of right and left hand in the both-hand

working mode.
 problems
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114 While working with both hands simultaneously, left-handers do not demonstrate re-
markable differences in the number of taps performed with each hand (left hand - 205, 00±11,
00; right hand - 197, 33±20, 73). Meanwhile right-handers demonstrate significant differences
(right hand - 189, 10±22, 41; left hand - 167, 10±29, 86). This proves that right-handers’ func-
tional brain asymmetry is more stable and the dominance of the left hemisphere is more explicit
than the dominance of the right hemisphere in left-handers. Similar conclusions are drawn also
by other brain researchers. The group of young school-children could not be tested by means of
MLS test since it is designed for persons above the age of 15.

Discussion

A pedagogical process in which student-teacher interaction is organised to reach the

target is the basis for the development of educated individuals. During continuous and produc-
tive processes of cognition, interaction and personality development, each individual (also a
lefthander) acquires information, complements and consolidates knowledge, and develops new
skills. Nowadays the problem of coordinating the manifold external influences, determined by
environment, and the internal psychological processes, traits and states for a growing child,
student and adult is still topical (Špona, 2001).
It is essential to organise the learning process so that children and youths could prove
themselves and successfully apply their natural creative potential (talents, powers, will and
capabilities). According to the majority of authors (Warner, 2000; Špona, 2001; Pelša, 2004,
etc.), the 21st century educators make insufficient use of the latest discoveries in the filed of
neuro-psychology and psycho-physiology for the purpose of improving the quality of teach-
ing/learning process. This regards especially the latest research results in the field of functional
asymmetry and specialisation of human brain hemispheres. The authors of this article carried
out a poll among teachers which revealed that 31% primary school and 40% basic school teach-
ers misbelieve that left-handedness is related to dominant left brain hemisphere.
Primary school teachers regularly encounter problems with lefthanders: difficulties in
acquiring reading and writing, difficulty to understand the concepts “left” and “right”, inability
to concentrate and focus on work. This explains the fact, revealed by the poll, that individual
approach in work with lefthanders is more often used by primary school teachers (44%) and far
less of then by basic school teachers (20%).
Currently schools view the lefthanders problem mostly from ergonomic perspective. In-
dividual shops offer products for lefthanders - stationery, computer mouses, etc. Unfortunately
too little attention is paid to the organisation of teaching /learning process and to the psycho-
physiological processes ensuring a cognitive approach. This is particularly obvious in case of
secondary school and university students - the group with stable brain hemisphere asymmetry
(as proven by our research results), consolidated cognition processes and stabilised thinking.
The authors would suggest that, alongside with conceptual pedagogical and psychological ap-
proaches, the ones based in psycho-physiology should be applied when working with these two
age groups.
Gunita Praulīte, Viktorija Perepjolkina, Juris Porozovs, Daina Voita. Psycho-Physiological Preconditions for the
Individualisation of Teaching/Learning Process for Lefthanders
problems
of education
in the 21st century
Volume 22, 2010

Conclusions 115

Research results prove that information processing rates, working efficiency and ac-
curacy, as well as attention stability differs in children and adult students depending on their
dominant brain hemisphere. Children’s information processing rates are lower that those of
adults, however, at this age they do not remarkably differ for right-handers and left-handers.
Accuracy rates, in turn, differ, mainly due to children’s unstable attention, and are more evident
in left-handed children.
During the 4 minutes of proofreading a text working efficiency for children and adults
differs. Both right-handed and left-handed children demonstrate fluctuating levels of efficiency.
Right-handed adults’ efficiency grows by every minute, while left-handed adults’ efficiency
fluctuates just like children’s. This proves the stability of brain hemisphere functional lateralisa-
tion in adult right-handers and left-handers.
Determination test results for adult students, evaluating reaction rates, as well as right,
wrong and missed reactions, prove that both right- and left-handers are capable of working
under pressure posed by educational tasks.
MLS test results for students prove the specific characteristics of brain hemispheres in
right- and left-handers. While working with one hand, both groups demonstrate statistically
remarkable differences depending on whether they are working with the dominant or the pas-
sive hand. The capability to work with the right hand does not differ between the groups, while
the left-hand is obviously stronger for left-handers, which proves the functional dominance of
their right brain hemisphere. Test participants working with both hands, it becomes obvious that
right-handers’ left brain hemisphere is functionally dominant as compared to the dominant right
hemisphere in left-handers.

References

Auliks, I. (1985). Sporta medicīna. Rīga: Zvaigzne, 170 p.

Brazdeikiene, L., Rugevičius, M., Mažeikaite-Gyliene, Ž. (2004). Left-handers Difficulties in Educa-
tion Process and Their Relation with Peculiarities of Personality. Starptautiskās zinātniskās konferences
„Teorija un prakse skolotāju izglītībā I” materiāli. Rīga: SIA Petrovskis un Ko. pp.407-412.
Geake, J.G. (2009). The Brain at School. Educational Neuroscience in the Classroom. Open University
Press. 229 p.
Gudjons, H. (1995). Pedagoģijas pamatatziņas [Pädagogisches Grundwissen]. Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC.
394 lpp.
Krauklis, A. (1981). Emocionālais STRESS un tā optimizācija. Rīga: Zvaigzne. 183 p.
Maslo, I. (1995). Skolas Pedagoģiskā procesa diferenciācija un individualizācija. Rīga: RaKa. 172 p.
Neuwirth, W., Benesch, M. (2003). DT Determination Test. Manual. Release 31.00. Mödling, Austria,
Copyright by Dr.G. Schuhfried GmbH. 51 p.
Neuwirth, W., Benesch, M. (2003). MLS Motor Performance Series. Manual. Release 24.00. Mödling,
Austria, Copyright by Dr.G. Schuhfried GmbH. p.37.
Pelša, E. (2004). Varbūt arī tu esi kreilis? Rīga: Alis. 167 p.
Praulite, G., Spunde, A.Porozovs, J. (2003). Some Psycho-physiological Aspects of Mastering the Tech-
nique and Tactics of Basketball Game. New Ideas in Sport Sciences. Current Issues and Perspectives.
Warsaw, Poznan - Leszno: State School of Higher Vocational Education in Leszno, V.15, Part 1, pp.
207-211.
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116 Špona, A. (2001). Audzināšanas teorija un prakse. Rīga: RaKa. 162 p.

Warner, P. (2000). Preschooler plays and learns. Minnetonka, MN 55343: Meadowbrook Press. 159 p.
Zigmond, M.J., Bloom, F.E., Landis, S.C., Roberts, J.L., Squire, L.R. (1999) Fundamental Neuroscience.
San Diego et al.: Academic Press. 1024 p.
Психологические тесты. (1999). Москва: ВЛАДОС. 248 с.

Adviced by Vincentas Lamanauskas, University of Šiauliai, Lithuania

Dr. biol., Professor emeritus, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Acad-
emy (RTTEMA), Imantas 7. linija 1, Riga, Latvia.
Gunita Praulīte
E-mail: gunita.praulite@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv

Researcher, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy (RTTEMA),

Imantas 7. linija 1, Riga, Latvia.
Viktorija Perepjolkina
E-mail: ppi@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv

Professor, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy (RTTEMA),

Imantas 7. linija 1, Riga, Latvia.
Juris Porozovs
E-mail: juris.porozovs@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv

Associated professor, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy,

Latvia.
Daina Voita
E-mail: Dvoita@mits.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv
 problems
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in the 21st century
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117

EXPECTATIONS OF THE ELDERLY FOR

THE INTERNET AS AN INFLUENCING
FACTOR FOR THE INTERNET TEACHING

Tiina Tambaum
Tallinn University, Estonia
E-mail: tiina.tambaum@tlu.ee

Abstract

In summer 2009, a qualitative study among the late middle-aged and older people in Estonia was carried
out in order to find out the functions of the Internet for the older generation and the expectations and fears
of the elderly for the Internet. By this study, it was tried to find out what are the needs of the elderly for
which they prefer to use the Internet; what kind of contents or functions do the elderly miss in the Internet;
what kind of role-taking and contents are unpleasant or scaring for the elderly Internet user. Semi-struc-
tured interview was used, 34 elderly Internet users were interviewed during seven interviews.
The study indicated that the interviewed elderly find the Internet primarily as an environment for eve-
ryday practical operations and it is not perceived as an entertainer. Of the contents available in the
Internet, the elderly are disturbed by the negativism, superficiality, obscenities, humiliation and excessive
concentration on the topics of private lives. The waste of time and the risk to express itself incorrectly or
wrongly are felt as dangers of the Internet usage among the elderly. The article gives recommendations
for carrying out the Internet training for the elderly and explains which Internet functions and contents
could be chosen as the content of the Internet skills training in order to create and maintain the interest
and satisfaction of elderly learners.
The results referred to the need to continue the study on the expectations of the elderly Internet users and
to study thoroughly the attitude especially of the elderly men to the Internet as a tool of communication
and the role of the Internet games in the lives of the elderly and Internet training.
Key words: elderly internet learning, elderly internet fears, teaching elderly people.

Introduction

The citizens having remained distant from the Internet would have less chance to ex-
press publicly their opinions about the social development. Public services provided to them
are more expensive for the state compared with the Internet-based services. The non-users can
not use the less expensive communication possibilities and comfortable commercial services
which, in turn, influence their life quality. Several studies emphasize the benefits arising from
the Internet use particularly among the elderly (White & Weatherall, 2000; Russell, Campbell,
& Hughes, 2008; Chen & Persson, 2002; White et al., 2002). Although a group of the “vol-
untary non-users” exists among the elderly (Frissen, 2005; Pruulmann-Vengerfeldt& Kalvet,
2008, p 28), there are too many elderly people not using the Internet but at the same time not
necessarily having negative attitude towards the Internet training.
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118 In 2008 there were 70% of computer non-users among the people aged 60–74 in Estonia
(Estonian Cooperation Assembly, 2009). The average indicators of Europe do not differ con-
siderably from those of Estonia. There are 60% of non-users among the people aged 55–65 and
82% among the people aged 65–74 (Digital Literacy, 2008, p 12).
The spread of digital literacy is decreasingly influenced by the availability of comput-
ers and the price barrier. The non-use depends rather on the so-called soft indicators like the
interest of the elderly, their self-confidence, and presence and availability of the instructor (Pru-
ulmann-Vengerfeldt & Kalvet, 2008, p 71; Carpenter & Buday, 2007, p 3019). According to the
study of Pruulmann-Vengerfeldt and Kalvet (2008, p 68), the main obstacles for the non-users is
their lack of skills and the most suitable persons to instruct non-users are so-called soft experts,
i.e. friends and family members. Thus, the small number of the users among the older genera-
tion demonstrates that the soft experts should be more active in teaching the Internet skills to
the elderly by developing the strategic and instrumental skills of the Internet use.
The studies demonstrate that the older is the learner the more important is the learning
content as a learning motivator. For the elderly learner, the subject is a particularly impor-
tant component of the learning process on which the successful learning depends (Aldridge
& Tuckett, 2007, lk 13; Duay & Bryan, 2008). Thus, the Internet training carried out by soft
experts should also be based on the needs and interests of the learner as well as meet his or her
expectations.

Theoretical Background

Which are the elderly’s interests in the Internet? There are only few studies of the elderly
actively involved in the activities with the computer (Seals et al., 2008; Hernández-Encuentra
& Gómez-Zúñiga, 2009). Hernández-Encuentra et al. (2009, p 234) studied the older experi-
enced Internet users by qualitative method and they found that they primarily use the e-mail
(84%), newspaper reading (69%), banking (69%) and making reservations (69%). Participat-
ing in forums (30%) and support groups (23%) is in use but not very popular; content creation
(7%) and visiting the chat-rooms are the preferences for few elderly people. According to this
study the usefulness (84%) and interest (69%) have the most frequently been mentioned as the
reasons for the Internet use.
Carpenter and Buday (2007) studied both the elderly computer users and non-users. This
study also demonstrated that the most frequently used function in the Internet is e-mail (81%).
The study found the distribution of the Internet activities on the scale of mandatory-voluntary.
It turned out that Internet shopping, bank transactions, performance of work tasks and record
keeping of the events and facts were considered to be as mandatory activities, but the enter-
tainment, learning, planning travels and social communication are placed on the side of the
voluntary activities.
In Estonia, a representative sample was questioned about the use of web possibilities in
the study “Estonia 2008: work, home and spare time” (Müürsepp, 2009). The quantitative study
demonstrated that in the age group of 65–69, 54% of men and 58% of women use the Internet
to acquire the information, and 46% of men and 53% of women to pay the bills and read the
newspaper. 44% of women prefer the Internet also for the communication. The elderly do not
use the Internet for the participation in chat-rooms, very few of them download the music and
films (6% of women and 9% of men). The study demonstrated a big difference between men
and women in the importance of playing computer games – 9% of male and 33% of female us-
ers use the computer for playing.
Estonian Human Development Report 2008 describes the Internet preferences of the age
group of 55–74 in the following ranking: Internet banking (2, 81 on the scale of significance
1–5), searching for practical information (2, 6), e-government services (2, 25) and communica-
Tiina Tambaum. Expectations of the Elderly for the Internet as an Influencing Factor for the Internet Teaching
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tion (2, 16). The entertainment was of the least significance in this age group (1, 52) (Estonian 119
Cooperation Assembly, 2009).
Beside the quantitative studies there are only a few qualitative studies on the Internet
preferences of the Estonian elderly. Use of the qualitative methods is important in this area as
the target group is not homogeneous. For example defining the elderly as retired persons (gen-
erally aged 63 and more) the people with different life experiences, cultural background, health
condition, etc. belong into this group. They also have different Internet experiences. One senior
may have 15 years of experience and the next one may not have any at all. Thus, the understand-
ings of the meaning, need, and dangers of the Internet by the elderly also vary. Classifying the
elderly into one homogeneous group would be a mistake mentioned by several researchers of
the elderly teaching and learning (Nussbaum & Coupland, 2008; Jarvis, 2001; Findsen, 2005).
In addition to the results of the qualitative studies, it is important for the Internet train-
ing providers to know the deeper understandings related to the Internet use by the elderly: what
kind of Internet subjects the elderly prefer to use and what kind of dangers and shortcomings of
the Internet use do they perceive. Knowledge on these issues gives supporting information to
the trainers of the elderly, including soft experts. They would be aware of which aspects of the
Internet should be emphasized in order to reverse the possible fears and to create and maintain
the interest of the elderly non-users in the training on Internet.

Methodology of Research

Empirical study that employed a qualitative design was carried out in summer 2009.

Aims of the Study

The study among the late middle-aged and the elderly Estonians was conducted in order
to find out the most important subjects of the Internet for them and their expectations and fears
for the Internet. The answers to the following questions were searched by the study: (a) what
are the needs of the elderly for which they prefer to use the Internet; (b) what kind of content or
functions do the elderly users miss in the Internet; (c) what kind of role-taking and which con-
tent is unpleasant or scaring to the elderly Internet users; in order to give the recommendations
on the basis of the received answers for the content choice, structure of training and instruction
technique for the elderly.

Methods

Semi-structured interviews with groups and individually were used as the study instru-
ment. Structure of the interview is given in Annex 1. Questions 1–5 measure the target group’s
needs and opinions about satisfying their needs in the Internet, including the understandings of
the differences between the paper based and web based news (question 5) and preferences of
the different communication channels and functions (question 4). Questions 6–7 measure the
possible shortcomings in the existing Internet content. Questions 8–11 measure the fears of the
elderly and the aspects causing distastefulness in the Internet. In addition to the direct open
questions, one indirect question was asked in order to find out the meaning of the Internet and
the related fears: what do the elderly think about the idea of the virtual application of obituary
columns. In Estonia, the private obituaries have been published only in print until now and it
is known that this emotional section is very important among the elderly.
 problems
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120 Participants

The groups were selected on the principle of getting participants from different regions
(rural/urban, capital/peripheral areas) and from groups with different Internet experiences and
life styles. The researcher created contacts with the regional informal leaders who shared the
written research information among the local target group and asked to participate in an inter-
view. Before the interview the participants had been informed only about the general purpose
of the scientific research conducted by Tallinn University which was related to the improvement
of the Internet usage among elderly people.
The sample consisted of 34 people aged 55–79 years with a mean age of 66. The same
age group was presented in the quantitative research published in Estonian Human Develop-
ment Report 2008 (Estonian Cooperation Assembly, 2009). There were 5 men and 29 women
among the respondents. Half of the sample performed different work tasks (a part time lecturer
in the university, an accountant of the condominium, etc.) and the other half was not engaged
with any official tasks. Six of the respondents had a totally homelike life style, they even did
not participate in a day center activity. The interviews were carried out with senior social work-
ers of Nõmme Social Center in Tallinn (13 interviewees devided in two interviews), members
of Viimsi Elderly Day Center (11 interviewees), a professor emeritus in Tartu (1 interviewee),
elderly people in Äksi, Tartu County (4 interviewees), members of pensioners’ union of Kärdla
(2 interviewees) and elderly people in Kõpu (3 interviewees).

Procedure

Seven interviews were conducted. The first interview acted also as a test for the inter-
view structure, revealing the questions that were irrelevant to the target group. Thereafter the
interviewer no longer asked questions about the incomprehensible terms and about the Internet
as a so-called warehouse of the electronic materials. The first interview also demonstrated the
significance of the topic of games. As the game topic did not come forth in the following inter-
views, the interviewer asked a leading question about what kind of roles do the computer and
Internet play as playing tool (A1, Q.L1). Also the significance of the Internet as a tool of obtain-
ing the new knowledge and skills was discussed in each following interview (A1, Q.L2).
Notes about the interviews were taken on paper during the interviews and the material
was entered into the computer immediately after the interview. The interviews lasted between
50 minutes to 2 hours depending on the size of the group. The detailing questions were asked in
each interview in order to achieve the desired level of detail in order to have the results of the
interviews comparable. At the end of an interview, the interviewer made a summary about the
received information.
Results of the analysis also were used as base information by the news’ and information
portal www.olevik.ee that will be created for the experienced (extended term of the term eld-
erly) people. Six of the interviewees participated in testing of the portal. The test demonstrated
that the content and functionality of the portal met the expectations and caused positive emo-
tions among the elderly test users, which confirms the reliability of the results of the study.
Tiina Tambaum. Expectations of the Elderly for the Internet as an Influencing Factor for the Internet Teaching
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Results of Research 121

The results of the research are presented according to the research questions listed
above.

What are the Needs of the Elderly for which they prefer to Use the Internet?

On the type of activities, all respondents pointed out that they consider Internet as a
source of necessary information and as a tool for practical everyday operations. Internet reduces
their trouble caused by difficulties with walking and helps to spare time and expenses. The In-
terenet is not considered as entertainer. Even if the suggested activity has a relaxing effect on
the user, the respondents did not deem it the entertainment. The received answers implied that
the relaxation is one way of being active for the elderly. Internet helps the elderly feel them-
selves as a practical persons.
In all conversations, the question “What kind of applications do you usually visit in the
Internet?” caused also a spontaneous or directed discussion about playing. If the interviewee
did not raise the topic of playing, his or her reaction to the direct question, whether he or she
plays on the Internet, was rather negative. Nevertheless, it turned out that almost all users (28
interviewees) use the Internet more or less as a gaming environment. However, playing and the
chance of playing on the computer was not regarded as an important function or respondents
refused to regard it as an important function.
On the functions of the Internet, 95% of the respondents referred first to the communi-
cation possibilities. Communication with the family members and friends was regarded as an
important part of everyday practical life. Of the electronic means of communication, mainly
e-mail is used. In one region (Hiiumaa), Skype is preferred for electronic communication rather
than e-mail. MSN is not used at all which demonstrates that Internet is not just for chatting.
Only a few respondents (5 interviewees) have used some other communication tools
(forums, chat-rooms, commentaries). Possibilities of the so-called blind communication were
known and some respondents had even viewed the profiles of their contemporaries. However,
looking for contact via the Internet is unnatural when there are family and friends to commu-
nicate in reality or by telephone. Yet when there are no close people, looking for contacts in
Internet is accepted.

“I have viewed (TT: rate.ee). There were both young and old. Some were such old crocks. They
also want some company to go to the theatre and have a cup of tea.”

“I would never contact anybody myself. Perhaps there’ll be a match! We still have families
and young people around. Just out of interest you see how other people live.”

Communication was followed by the use of the Internet bank and search engine (26
interviewees) as well as reading newspapers (25 interviewed).
Internet as a place for acquiring new skills and study was mentioned by only one of the
34 respondents. There is a permanent need for a new and updated information among the eld-
erly but they look for and use only these pieces of information they are personally interested in
or which is necessary at the moment. There is no need for information that is useful in long run.
The elderly live by satisfying their present needs and think in the present and past. Thus, they
expect the support to these needs also from the Internet.
Survey for the assessment of significance of 23 given information sections in the daily
life (regardless of the channel) provided the following results. The most significant topics to
follow in the media for the elderly are in the following ranking: daily news, health, internal
politics, culture, travel descriptions. The least interesting topics in the ranking of irrelevance are
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122 the following: sales and purchase, science and technology, horoscopes, religion, women’s talk.
Relevance of the sections on average in total and per groups is given in Annex 2.

What kind of content or functions do the elderly users miss in the Internet

The first reaction for the question about which content is missed in the Internet was by all
interviewed the confirmation that everything is available in the Internet. If something is miss-
ing, then not because it does not exist in the Internet but because of the lack of skills of finding
it (33 interviewees). The Internet is a universal phenomenon for the observed target group.
Universality was also confirmed in reactions to the question about their readyness to be
an active creator of the Internet content. The elderly see themselves as consumers of the content
(27 interviewees) rather than creators of the content (7 interviewed). One of the reasons is the
understanding that “there is already a lot of information in the Internet” and it makes no sense
to add something. However, the further conversations demonstrated that people simply have not
thought about uploading something original.
After the discussions, all 34 interviewees agreed that they could upload the information
about their so-called production if they have or had it: images of their handicraft, photos, crea-
tive texts, etc. The Internet environment is also perceived as a good place to study and publish
the biographies.

“So many interesting biographies have been lost. Diaries should be kept to save them.”

“We disappear and there’ll be no sign of us. Yes, we should upload something there.”

Men would agree to create the contents about their hobbies and to be active in the cor-
responding forums. However, everybody having principally agreed with keeping a blog, found
it too complicated because of the time it would demand. According to the elderly, blog makes
sense only if it were kept up to date (correctness as a principle) which would take too much
time (waste of time).
Almost half of the respondents also implied that the content creation is prevented by low
degree of safety (“I would be afraid of making it all public.”)

What kind of role-taking and which content is unpleasant or scaring to the elderly
Internet users

Time factor has both positive (sparing time in the necessary operations) and negative
associations concerning the Internet. The elderly see how young people waste time on using the
Internet as well as do have slipped into the depth of Internet or longer discussions themselves.
This all contributes to creating an image of the Internet as an uncontrolled factor of wasting
time.
There is another danger associated with the Internet beside the uncontrolled time spend-
ing possibility. It is a risk to behave or express oneself improperly. Respondents expressed
opinion that computer does not always leave enough time to revise the text (26 interviewees).
Yet all of the interviewees found the correctness of their activities very important.

“I do not visit the (Internet) bank because I’m afraid I will incidentally tick two zeroes too
much.”

The same result was received in the discussion about the topic of the communication
channels. E-mail has an advantage in comparison with the telephone because it gives the pos-
sibility to reason things out, to contemplate, and the important topics will not be forgotten. The
Tiina Tambaum. Expectations of the Elderly for the Internet as an Influencing Factor for the Internet Teaching
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correctness was also referred to concerning the blogs. 123

The contents present in the Internet generally do not disturb the elderly users. All re-
spondents shared the opinion that as the Internet is not created only for them, there must be all
kinds of contents, including the contents that do not interest them. If a person as a reader dis-
likes something, he or she simply does not read it. The dominant opinion is that for each topic
there is someone who finds it important. This was the reaction of 100% of respondents in all
conversation groups. The elderly have a tolerant attitude towards the Internet content.
Not the contents, but certain type of Internet phenomena given in Table 1 were found
disturbing or irrelevant.

Table 1. The phenomenon the elderly find disturbing or irrelevant in the

Internet.

Disturbing phenomenon Number of respondents Illustrative quotation

“There should be less advertising. Luckily they blink only on

the front page and when you move further they don’t blink
advertising 30
that much any more.”

obscenities 26

“There is no need to read what people talk on the street.”

superficial chatting 18
“Internet is superficial.”
yellow press topics; very private
10 “Intimate topics are not brought to the public to settle.”
topics and settling the marriage

humiliating comments;
7
mudslinging the politicians

Two groups in Hiiumaa (5 interviewees in total), independently on each other, referred

to the need of “keeping some things in honor”. They referred to the institution of the president
of the country.

“Sometimes there are comments (TT: about the president) that are inappropriate. The President
and Mrs President should be respected. People should have more respect to themselves. No
dignified person would write such comments. This is simply not nice.”

The question about whether the obituaries published in newspaper might also be pub-
lished on the web required a bit of time to consider from the respondents. The dominant major-
ity of the respondents (31) agreed that the obituaries might also be published on the web. The
arguments were pragmatic – role of the obituaries is informative. It is really very tragic if the
information about the death of some acquantaince is delayed or never received. As the infor-
mation generally moves to the web, it is natural that also the information about the late ones is
published on the web.
The answer to this question demonstrates again that the Internet is a source of pragmatic
information and universal tool for the necessary daily operations for the elderly. They have a
tolerant attitude towards the Internet content till the content do not affect them personally.
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124 Discussion

The study confirmed the results of the quantitative studies carried out abroad. Those
studies also demonstrated that one of the most important functions of the Internet connection
for the elderly is the communication possibility by e-mail (Hernández-Encuentra & Gómez-
Zúñiga, 2009; Carpenter & Buday, 2007). The studies carried out in Estonia demonstrated that
the communication is only the third important function after the acquisition of knowledge and
Internet banking. The defferences between quantitative studies about Estonia (Müürsepp, 2009;
Estonian Cooperation Assembly, 2009) and present qualitative case may arise from the circum-
stance that the majority of the sample in this study was formed by women. Study focused on the
meaning of the e-mail and other Internet based communication possibilities among the elderly
men would give important additional information. Internet training of the elderly is especially
likely to succeed among women if the e-mail use was the first skill to introduce. Thereby the
study referred that by exercising the e-mail use it would be very important to stress how the user
can revise texts before sending them.
Results of the Müürsepp’s study (2009) and Estonian Cooperation Assembly (2009)
have confirmed indirectly and the results of this study have confirmed directly the fact that to
the older generation, the Internet is primarily a tool supporting person’s active and practical life.
In addition, the results of the present analysis confirm that the operations made in the Internet
and the searched contents support living in the present. Internet is not seen as an environment
of the potentially necessary information or learning for the future. For thiat reason, severely
pragmatic principle should be relied on at the choice of the content of the Internet training. The
instructor must show how the learners can get the information that is not just interesting but
is necessary for their everyday life and how they can make the operations that help to spare
the time, money and energy. In the communication it must be stressed that the Internet is not a
learning environment but an environment supporting the daily life.
What kind of information do the elderly need in their everyday life? In course of the
interviews the elderly filled the questionnaire by marking the most important topics they wish
to be familiar with. Teaching the use of online newspapers, to achieve the most accurate result,
it would be the best to ask the personal information preferences from the learners themselves.
If there is no such possibility, the choice can be made between the topics of daily news, health,
internal politics, culture and travel descriptions, and not to discuss the topics of sale and pur-
chase, science and technique, horoscope, religion and women’s talk.
The study demonstrated that the elderly do not see the Internet as an entertainer, even
when it actually is. This result is in contradiction with those of the same studies in the USA.
Rosenthal (2008) found that one of the four areas improving the living standard of the elderly is
precisely the bigger choice of the entertaining activities in addition to the extended communica-
tion possibilities, learning possibilities and availability of services. Duay & Bryan (2008) also
found that the entertainment is one of the six topics that has positive correlation with the elderly.
While in the quantitative study of Müürsepp, 33% of female and 9% of male elderly stated that
the computer and Internet are good for playing, this study referred to a certain confusion in the
attitudes towards playing or attitudes towards the self as a player. Playing is quite widespread
among the elderly Internet users but as the attitude towards it is not unambiguously positive,
it is not recommended to include games in the training program. It is possible that when the
games are included in the training not because of their entertaining nature but as a training
method, e.g. to use the mouse, it would give a double effect – the elderly can play without feel-
ing themselves like players.
It would be interesting to find out the attitude of the elderly to themselves as computer
players and it would be a useful topic in the further studies for the development of didactics.
The question deserving the further studies is about whether the circumstance that the Internet
Tiina Tambaum. Expectations of the Elderly for the Internet as an Influencing Factor for the Internet Teaching
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is not recognized as one of the entertainment channels by the Estonian elderly arises from the 125
cultural background or antagonism with the young spending a lot of time enjoying themselves
in the Internet.
In short, the answers to the question about what are the needs of the elderly for which
they prefer to use the Internet indicated three categories of important Internet functions. The
possibility of sending e-mails was important primarily for females. Internet is a tool for the
performance of the daily obligations and the sections followed by the Internet with the highest
probability are the daily news, health, internal politics and culture.
The study referred to the dominant principal satisfaction of the elderly to what is offered
in the Internet. However, when considering further, they would still name some aspects that
could be different. The unpleasant phenomena in the Internet for the elderly are the negativism,
superficiality, obscenities, humiliation and too much concentration on private lives. The result
illustrates the fact that social and emotional changes take place with the ageing – the older
adults express more the positive emotions and less the negative emotions than the young adults
(Pasupathi & Löckenhoff, 2005). When preparing the Internet training, it must be taken into
account that the elderly value the topics expressing the positive attitude, respect to the other
people and deep topic discussions.
In short, the answer to the question about which contents or functions do the elderly miss
in the Internet indicated that nothing is directly missing but the elderly blame for the vulgar and
superficial style.
While quantitative studies in Estonia demonstrated the low importance of the chat-
rooms, also the possible reasons can be given on the basis of this study – the elderly do not wish
to waste time and they prefer real friends instead of the virtual ones. The elderly rather take a
role of a passive user than that of an active content creator. For that reason, rather the skill of
orienting in the mass of information should be taught than the possibilities of the interaction
between the users. For example, in the information and news portals it is enough to teach how
to follow the comments. Chat-rooms are suitable in the Internet training only when the learner
is in need of communication opportunities.
The study confirmed two risk factors the elderly associate with the Internet. Similarly to
the results of Seals et al. (2008) that the elderly have high expectations for the use of time, also
this study demonstrated the opinion of the elderly that there is a risk of spending too much time
on the Internet. When carrying out the Internet training, it must be taken into account that the
elderly would always learn something more during the lesson to make them feel the time was
usefully spent. The training must also be organized so that the risk of failures (low or deficient
Internet connection, pauses when changing the topic, non-working addresses, etc.) would be
as low as possible. Importance of keeping the speed when teaching the elderly has also been
emphasized by Carpenter & Buday (2007).
In addition to the risk of loosing time, the elderly feel insecure of what kind of traces
they remain the Internet and how vulnerable they are by the others. The do not wish to litter the
public information forum or publish too personal information. Thereby, all topics of the Inter-
net training should be linked to the corresponding knowledge on safe behavior. When a learner
is ready for this, the topic of content creation may be started with uploading the results of the
personal creation or production (handicraft, research work) of the learner. Content creation in
the communication portals is likely to cause the resistance.
In short, the answer to the question about what kind of role-taking and contents are un-
pleasant or scaring for the elderly in the Internet indicated that the elderly do not prefer the role
of content creator, they feel the Internet potentially wastes their time and they are worried about
their traces they leave in the Internet.
This study gives some recommendations for the Internet training directed to the elderly
learners and does not claim to present the full package of guidelines. As the sample included
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126 only 34 people, the results can not be generalized for all elderly people. The interviews were not
saved in the course of the empiric study and because of this there is a chance of some informa-
tion being lost. The notes made during the interviews were reviewed with the interviewees, also
the testing of the information and news portal created on the basis of the study gave a positive
result, which proves the sufficient reliability of the study.
This study demonstrated the need to continue research activity to provide particular
didactic recommendations for both professional and soft experts to conduct Internet skills train-
ing among elderly non-users.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to all interviewees and people who helped to call the conversation groups: Viiu
Nurmela from Viimsi, Svetlana Reimets from Kõpu, Katrin Randrüüt and Kulla Kase from
Nõmme and Anita Priks from Äksi.

References

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Learning. National Institute of Adult Continuing Education.
Carpenter, B.D., Buday, S. (2007). Computer use among older adults in a naturally occurring retirement
community. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 3012-3024.
Chen, Y. & Persson, A. (2002). Internet use among young and older adults: Relation to psychological
well-being. Educational Gerontology, 28, 731-744.
Dickinson, A., Hill, R. L. (2007). Keeping in touch: talking to older people about computers and
communication. Educational Gerontology, 33, 613-630.
Digital Literacy. European Commission Working Paper and Recommendations from Digital Literacy High-
Level Expert Group. (2008). Vienna/Austria: E-Inclusion Ministerial Conference and Expo. 30th November
–2nd December 2008.
Duay, D. L.; Bryan, V. C. (2008). Learning in Later Life: What Seniors Want in a Learning Experience.
Educational Gerontology, 34, 1070-1086.
Estonian Cooperation Assembly. (2009). Estonian Human Development Report 2008. Tallinn: Eesti Ekspressi
Kirjastuse AS. Retrieved from http://www.kogu.ee/public/EIA2008_eng.pdf 16.05.10.
Findsen, B. (2005). Learning later. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.
Frissen, V. (2005). The myth of the digital divide. In: Zerdick, A., Picot, A., Schrape, K., Burgelman, J.,
Silverstone, R., Feldmann, V., Wernick, C., Wolff, C. (Eds.) E-merging media: Communication and the
media economy of the future, 271-284. Berlin: Springer.
Hernández-Encuentra, E. P. M., Gómez-Zúñiga, B. (2009). ICT and Older People: Beyond Usability.
Educational Gerontology, 35, 226-245.
Jarvis, P. (2001). Learning in laterlife: an introduction for educators & carers. London: Kogan Page.
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Eestis aastatel 1985-2008, 175-195. Tallinn.
Nussbaum, J. F., Coupland, J. (eds) (2008). Handbook of Communication and Aging Research. Taylor and
Frances e-Library.
Pasupathi, M., Löckenhoff, C. E. (2005). Ageist Behavior. Ageism, 201-236.
Pruulmann-Vengerfeldt, P., Kalvet, T. (2008). Infokihistumine: interneti mittekasutajad, vähekasutajad
ning hiljuti kasutama hakanud [online] (lk 26–81). Tallinn: Praxis. Retrieved from http://www.riso.ee/et/
infoyhiskond/uuringud/infokihistumine/ 16.05.10.
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Rosenthal, R. L. (2008). Older Computer-Literate Women: Their Motivations, Obstacles, and Paths to 127
Success. Educational Gerontology, 34, 610-626.
Russell, C., Campbell, A., Hughes, I. (2008). Ageing, social capital and the Internet: findings from an
exploratory study of Australian ‘‘silver sufers.’’ Australasian Journal of Ageing, 27(82), 78-82.
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White, J., Weatherall, A. (2000). A grounded theory analysis of older adults and information technology.
Educational Gerontology, 26(4), 371-386.

Annex 1. Structure of interview

Data of the participants in the interview (not to be disclosed by the interviewer to the
Subscriber nor any other interested parties)
Name
Age
How long has the Internet been used
How often is the Internet used
E-mail address if interested to participate in testing the portal
1. What kind of role does the Internet primarily play for you?
Non-directed question - answers SPONTANEOUS

Directed question after spontaneous answers:

Tool of sparing the time and money when performing the obligations (bank, appointments
with the doctor, e-shops, e-payments)
Channel of reading news

Tool of searching the necessary information (weather, bus schedule, opening times,
prices, service providers, etc.)
Tool of searching the interesting information (advice of a gardener/doctor/fashion
designer, etc.)

Channel of communication with the family members and friends (MSN, e-mail,
Skype)
Channel of communication with the strangers (commentaries, forums, blogs, blind
communication)

Q.L1 Playing tool

Q.L2 Learning tool

2. What kind of applications do you usually visit in the Internet?

Non-directed questioned everybody MUST answer

Directing references after the spontaneous answers: “Do you visit delfi.ee , etv24.ee , elu24.
ee , postimees.ee , epl.ee , maaleht.ee, elukiri, county newspaper, homepage of the local
government, homepages of the institutions, web shops (soov.ee, auto24.ee , city24 , osta.ee) ,
e24.ee , aripaev.ee , google.ee , neti.ee , 1182.ee , ilm.ee , wikipeedia , keeleveeb.ee , areng.ee
bussireisid.ee , piletilevi.ee , hobilehed: aiandus.ee , retsept.ee , trip.ee, blogs and communication
environments, fotoalbum.ee , saaga.ee, websites in foreign languages: youtube.com , orkut?”
 problems
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128 3. What kind of news and information do you need now?

QUESTIONNAIRE’

Please write if you are M or F and note your age. Please assess the importance of the topic for
you on the following scale
1 – very important; 2 – rather important; 3 – rather irrelevant; 4 – totally irrelevant
Daily news. Internal politics. Foreign politics. Economy. Culture. Health. Sport. Technique.
Science. Garden. Religion.
Humor. Celebrities. Recipes. Self-help advice. Women’s talk. Horoscope. Weather. Television
and radio programs. Portrait stories. Opinions. Travel descriptions. Sale-Purchase.

4. What kind of channels do you use for the communication and information sharing?
in reality: visits, hobby circles and events
phone
mail
e-mail
MSN, Skype
commentaries, forums, blind communication

5. Should the Internet articles

overlap the articles on paper carriers;
include the news of the paper edition and offer the Internet articles in addition
be totally different from the articles of the paper edition

6. What kind of information or articles do you want to see on the Internet? What do you
miss?
including the question whether the obituaries could/should be in the Internet

7. What would you like to write or upload in the Internet?

About yourself / your family / your friends / your home place / creation / opinion

8. In the Internet, do you prefer to be

anonymous / with the user name / with your own name
passive information consumer / active information creator
acting so that the Internet will have no dialogue with you / acting interactively
viewing what is offered / searching and ordering what you wish at the moment
short time but often / long time but more rarely

9. What kind of articles should not be present in the Internet (contents that disturb)?

10. What kind of sections you do not dare or want to view

You are afraid to find a page that would upset you;
You are afraid to find a page that confuses you (you do not understand)
You may be attacked by dishonest persons
You may become a laughingstock of your friends

11. What kind of information do you think will never move through the Internet
channels?
Tiina Tambaum. Expectations of the Elderly for the Internet as an Influencing Factor for the Internet Teaching
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Annex 2. Importance of the information topics on average in total. 129

Adviced by Peeter Normak, Tallinn University, Estonia

Tiina Tambaum MSc, MA, MBA, PhD student, Tallinn University, Estonia
Phone: +372 53 424 504.
E-mail: tiina.tambaum@tlu.ee
Website: http://www.tlu.ee/
 problems
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130 International Scientific Conference

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Dear Colleagues,
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