Problems of Psychology in The 21st Century, Vol. 5, 2013

Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-8587
VOLUME 5, 2013
DIVERSITY
IN MODERN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH –
2013
Scientia Socialis in Cooperation with Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia

Educologica“, Lithuania,
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Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Dr., prof. Serhiy Boltivets, Grigory Kostyuk Psychological Institute of the Ukrainian National
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
Dr., assoc. prof. Irena Gailiene, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Irakli Imedadze, Dimitri Uznadze Georgian Psychological National Society, Georgia
Dr. Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., assoc. prof. Vadim N. Kolesnikov, Karelian State Pedagogical Academy, Republic of Karelia,
Russia
Dr., prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., assoc. prof. Jan Lašek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Dr., prof. Mary Anne Lauri, University of Malta, Malta
Dr., prof. Maria Ledzińska, University of Warsaw, Poland
Dr., prof. Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., assoc. prof. Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bul-
garia
Dr., prof. Guna Svence, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Copyright of this volume entitled Diversity in Modern Psychological Research – 2013 is the prop-
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journal, issued by the Scientia Socialis in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“.
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ISSN 2029-8587 © Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2013

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Contents 3
Editorial
WORK IN MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Stanislava Stoyanova
Articles
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ON CASE OF

ETHNIC MINORITIES OF GEORGIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Ia Aptarashvili, Mzia Tsereteli
EXPERIENTIAL GROUPS IN GROUP COUNSELORS TRAINING:

A VIEW THROUGH THE MULTIPLICITY OF CONTEXTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Birutė Jakubkaitė, Rimantas A. Kočiūnas
EXPERIENCE OF THE FINALITY OF LIFE: STRIVING TO LIVE MORE VALUABLY . . . . . . . . 23

Agnė Jurgaitytė-Avižinienė, Rimantas A. Kočiūnas
HIERARCHICAL PRINCIPLE IN THE PROBLEM OF A TYPOLOGICAL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT . . . 35

Valentina Kamenskaya, Larissa Khokhlova
THE EFFECTS OF PARASITES ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR: AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE . . . 46

Pavol Prokop, Peter Fedor
SEXUAL HEALTH AMONG PORTUGUESE ADOLESCENTS:

CHANGES IN A 8 YEAR PERIOD (2002-2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Lúcia Ramiro, Margarida Gaspar de Matos, Marta Reis
THE PERSON-ORIENTED APPROACH IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY . . . . . 79

Diana Raufelder, Danilo Jagenow, Frances Hoferichter, Kate Mills Drury
PSYCHOLOGICAL RECURRENCES AND INTERVENTION PROPOSAL

FOR PATIENTS FOLLOWING BARIATRIC SURGERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Aída M. Reséndiz Barragán, Mariana A. Sierra Murguía
FACTORS OF RESILIENCE, WISDOM AND SELF-EFFICACY AS POSITIVE RESOURCES

OF LEADERS IN SAMPLE OF LATVIAN BUSSINESS MANAGERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Guna Svence, Vineta Greaves
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

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WORK IN MULTICULTURAL
ENVIRONMENT
Stanislava Stoyanova
South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bulgaria
E-mail: avka@abv.bg
Many people meet the differences of national cultures not only as tourists but also in their
everyday working life, because the fast process of migration, internationalisation and globalisation
inevitably integrate cultures within the framework of multinational organizations (Konečná,
2006).
Multicultural environment means diversity in terms of ethnicity, gender, religious, social be-
longing, etc. Multicultural environment retains workers from a variety of cultural backgrounds. The
work is such environment differs in the various approaches to time, information, planning, decision-
making, relationships, communication style, power, resolving conflict, developing leadership and
motivation (CHARIS, 2012).
Organizations and cultures whose values are weak uncertainty avoidance, femininity, and low
power distance strive for maximizing the benefits of diversity – like in the case of Scandinavian
countries for example (Hofstede, 2001). The knowledge of cultural differences may help the workers
operating in multicultural environment to reduce the possible misunderstandings and it enables them
to foresee the possible reactions of their partners (Konečná, 2006). Work in multicultural teams re-
quires flexibility, adaptation, understanding and respect for different cultures and values, tolerance,
open-mindedness, friendly communication and good non-verbal communication skills.
The employees who strive to demonstrate only acceptable in the organization emotions would
probably suffer from harmful consequences related to their health, relations, and work performance,
including burn-out. The correspondence between the experienced and demonstrated emotions is not
related to such harmful consequences (Mesmer-Magnus, DeChurch & Wax, 2012).
Environment that constantly changes provokes stress and tension (Petrov, 2006). The require-
ments of the work (tension, physical exhaustion) are the main risk factors for burn-out (emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and less successful coping, less personal realization) (Recchia &
Steffgen, 2007).
There are different educational methods and approaches for work in intercultural environment.
The interactive methods are used, as well as discussion, the methods of the concrete situation – ca-
sus, role-playing games, games for intercultural competence; games for introduction, cooperations,
etc. Their goal is increase of tolerance, intercultural sensitivity and intercultural communicative
competence (Totzeva, 2012).
Communicative competence in multicultural environment includes the proper use of verbal and
non-verbal expressive linguistic messages - appellative (strive for impact on the others), informa-
tive, evaluative, and self-revealing ones. The implicit appeals in the process of communication are
expressed in an indirect way by means of establishment of such emotional climate that makes the
other people execute the untold wish – for example, if someone looks sad, we strive to make him/
her glad. The paradoxical appeals in the process of communication aim to provoke the opposite reac-
tions to these that they announce as aiming to provoke. For example, if a child in the kindergarten
does not want to eat, this child is told that the food is not for him/her and s/he must not eat it. The
explicit appeals are avoided because of fear of self-revelation, fear of denial, fear of limiting the
other’s freedom, reluctance to take responsibility (Mizova, 2004).
Stanislava STOYANOVA. Work in Multicultural Environment ISSN 2029-8587
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Work in multicultural environment has different aspects from the points of view of the organi-
5
zations, managers, employees, and their families.
The boys till 5th grade in Korea, Japan, and USA are more interested in the numbers and in the
objects than the girls who are more interested in the words (Henderson, Marx & Kim, 1999). The
boys are more competitive than the girls are in the Anglo-American, Indian and Mexican cultures,
but the opposite trend is found for Israeli children (Strube, 1981).
The children raised in the institutions do not trust the world in the unknown and unsure situ-
ations. They do not take the initiative in the play. Their play misses the organizational part related
to role distribution, planning, and plot development. They strive for possessing the toys. Their play
could have a correctional and therapeutic function in a secure environment of a restricted place where
the child feels protected and the child’s behaviour is not assessed (Milenski, 2009).
The scientific journals like Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century are the result of the efforts
and the co-operative work of the authors, the editors, the reviewers and the readers in multicultural
environment. Its aim is to promote scientific knowledge that could improve mutual understanding
and coping strategies in everyday life situations.
References
CHARIS (2012). Managing the Multicultural Environment. Winner of the “Excellence through Diversity”
Award. .,http://www.chariscorp.com/mime.asp
Henderson, B. B., Marx, M. H., & Kim, Y. C. (1999). Academic Interests and Perceived Competence in
American, Japanese, and Korean Children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30 (1), 32-50.
Hofstede, H. (2001). Kulturi I organizatzii: softuer na uma [Cultures and organizations: mind softwere]. Sofia:
Klasika and stil.
Konečná, Z. (2006). Cross-Culture Management: Worker in a Multicultural Environment. Vadyba / Manage-
ment, 3–4 (12–13), 58-64.
Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., DeChurch, L. A., & Wax, A. (2012). Moving emotional labor beyond surface and deep
acting: A discordance-congruence perspective. Organizational Psychology Review, 2 (1), 6–53.
Milenski, I. (2009). Osobenosti na igrata pri detza vazpitavani bez roditeli [Peculiarities of the play of the
childrens raised without their parents]. Psihologia jurnal, 6 (1-55), 14-17.
Mizova, B. (2004). Ubejdavashtata verbalna komunikatzia [Persuasive verbal communication]. Insight, 4,
35-37.
Petrov, D. (2006). Postdinamikata [Post-dynamic]. Insight, 3, 55-56.
Recchia, S., & Steffgen, G. (2007). Risk factors of teacher burnout. Paper presented at Xth European Congress
in Prague, Czech Republic, in July 2007.
Strube, M. J. (1981). Meta-Analysis and Cross-Cultural Comparison : Sex Differences in Child Competitive-
ness. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 12 (1), 3-20.
Totzeva, Y. (2012). Pedagogicheski tehnologii za rabota v multikulturna sreda. Avtorska programa [Pedagogi-
cal technologies for work in multicultural environment. Author’s syllabus]. Association “Professional
forum for education”, Retrieved on July 2012, from http://ytotseva.blogspot.com/
Received: January 31, 2013 Accepted: February 27, 2013
Stanislava Stoyanova PhD., Associate Professor, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, 66 Ivan Michailov Street,
2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria.
E-mail: avka@abv.bg
Website: http://acad.swu.bg/cvp.php?uid=avka
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PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SECOND

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ON CASE OF
ETHNIC MINORITIES OF GEORGIA
Ia Aptarashvili, Mzia Tsereteli
Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
E-mail: ia.aptarashvili@tsu.ge, mzia.tsereteli@tsu.ge
Abstract
The purpose of the presented research is to determine the relations between success or failure in second language
acquisition on one hand and personal - social factors and attitudes of an individual on the other. Besides, to
define what is the predictive value of personal or social features and the attitudes of the given individual for
reaching high competency in the second language. 374 schoolchildren (165 boys and 202 girls) from three
regional non-Georgian schools were administered with the questionnaire consisted of several blocks: Parents’
attitude to second language acquisition; Motivation; Anxiety related to the second language usage; Anxiety in
class; Sense of self-confidence in the process of the Second language acquisition. The best predictors for success
in SLA are: General interest in the foreign languages, parents’ involvement in learning process, instrumental
motivation and self-confidence in the process of language acquisition. The study has implication for foreign
language teachers and experts of bilingual educations.
Key words: academic achievement, instrumental motivation, second language, self-confidence, SLA.
Theoretical Framework of the Research
Almost every next man in modern society knows at least two languages as a result of their ev-
eryday common conditions or professional work. Language is the main instrument of socialization
and integration of an individual in the social-cultural spheres (Firth & Wagner, 1997). Nowadays
the problem of bilingualism and multilingual education is very essential and diverse. Different as-
pects of it have been studied and are at present being studied for several years by many scientists
(Gardner, 1979; 1985; Lambert, 1974; 1979; 1981; Baker, 2006; Ervin & Osgood, 1954; Weinreich,
1953; Imedadze & Tuite, 1992 and at). One of the most important research questions is what factors
influence on the successful acquisition of the second language? Scientists have different viewpoints
about which ones from numerous groups of factors are more important and weighty in the sense of
second language acquisition (Martos, 2006). According to what factor is emphasized and considered
essential as carrying high predictive value in the process of second language acquisition, there are
several models explaining the reasons of success or failure in that process. What these models have
in common is that they emphasize individual-psychological factors. However, each of these models
chooses one factor as leading factor defining successful behavior.
The professor of McGill University W. Lambert has been studying this problem for several
years. According his model, the main factor in successful acquisition of the second language is mo-
tivation, which in its turn conditions development of identity (Identitätsentwicklung) in the second/
foreign language learning process (Lambert, 1974; 1979; 1981). Lambert distinguishes two kinds of
motivation: motivation of integration and instrumental motivation (Lambert, 1981). In his opinion,
motivation for integration is stronger and more important than instrumental motivation, as it has
long-term, sustained, stable goals.
The second important model is R.C. Gardner’s Social-Educational Model (Gardner, 1979; 1985),
which partially shares the essence of the Lambert’s model but in addition, he reviews the influence
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of the social-cultural environment in the second language acquisition context. The cultural and
7
social environment in which the individual exists determines his attitudes and perceptions of other
cultures and languages; in its turn, those perceptions have an effect on success or failure in language
acquisition (Gardner, 1979; 1985). Gardner exemplifies the monoculture countries (Great Britain)
where the population may consider it useless to study other languages, and consider minor groups
of other language speakers obliged to study the dominant language and culture and get assimilated.
He distinguishes 4 main variables influencing the quality of second language acquisition. They are
as follows: Intelligence, Skill (talent) in languages, Motivation, Fear of the concrete situation of
language using. The influence of each of those variables may be different according the different
cultural-social environment (Gardner, 1985; Lalonde, & Gardner, 1984).
The Clément’s social context model emphasizes the importance of the social-cultural environ-
ment even more. To his opinion relation between fear of assimilation and motivation for integration
determines the motivation for acquiring the second language and its result. If the fear of assimilation
prevails, the motivation for acquiring the second language is lower and the result is less effective;
but if motivation for integration prevails, than the motivation for acquiring the second language is
high and correspondingly the result is effective (Aellen & Lambert, 1969).
He speaks also about such variable as self-confidence. As Clément himself says, self-confidence
includes anxiety as an affective aspect and self-evaluation concerning language-competence, as a
cognitive aspect. Clément and his followers determined that indicators of self-confidence are cor-
related with indicators of the second language competence (level of acquisition) (Clement, Dorney
& Noels 1994; Gardner & Smith, 1977, 1980; Clément & Crudenier, 1985).
Social-cognitive model by Muller unites the models by Lambert, Gardner and Clément.
According Mueller, success in studying the second language in the formal, namely, school
environment may depend on two variables: Talent (talent for language acquisition and general intel-
lect) and School language concept. In this model the most important variable is the pupil’s language
self-concept. „language self-concept of the pupil“ - self-confidence, self-trusting (Selbstvertrauen)
- this is the trust in one’s own language skills, as Muller calls it - language self-program which is the
result of long accumulation of the experience. Accurate self-evaluation of the own skills in language,
which is founded namely on this basis, expresses the pupil’s achievements more exactly (Müller &
Dittman-Domenichini, 2008). This construct resembles that of Clément’s but in fact is quite differ-
ent. Muller’s construct contains Clément’s construct of self-confidence and in addition - his own
language self-program -motivation for language studying.
Problem of Research
The goal of the presented research is to investigate the relations between the success in second
language acquisition and personal-social factors of an individual, and defining, what are the predictive
values of personal or social characteristics of the given individual and his attitudes with regard to the
high competence in second language acquisition.
Specific predictions of the study were the following:
(1) If parents’ attitude to Georgian language and their involvement in the language learning
process has predictive value with regard to successful acquisition of the second language,
then it follows that the high is parents involvement in Georgian language acquisition process
the higher must be student’s marks in Georgian language performance, and correspondingly,
the higher is his language competence.
(2) If instrumental motivation of an individual has predictive value for successful second
language acquisition, then it follows that the stronger is this kind of motivation, the better
are the pupil’s grades in Georgian language and correspondingly, the higher is his language
competence.
(3) If the pupil’s self-trusting, self-confidence has predictive value for second language
acquisition, then it follows that the greater is the sense of self-confidence the higher are
grades in Georgian and correspondingly, the higher is his language competence.
(4) If the language anxiety of the pupil (the situational fear of the second language usage)
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has predictive value for successful acquisition of the language, then it follows that the lower
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is the indicator of anxiety, the higher grades he has in Georgian language and the higher
is his language competence.
Methodology of Research
Participants
374 schoolchildren from three regional non-Georgian public schools participated in the research.
Sample description:
• Gender of the participants: 165 participants (45%) were male and 202 (55%) were fe-
male;
• Age of the participants: Consequent to the research goal we were interested in specific
aspects of studying Georgian as the second language in the formal learning environment
(namely in a school environment). The age of the students was determined from the begin-
ning. The research work has been carried out among the students of the XI and XII grades,
so; correspondingly, the age of participants was between 16 and 18. Though, the statistical
analysis of the results shows that among the students of the XI and XII forms were some
children aged 15 or 19. 37% of the inquired schoolchildren were 16 years old, 46, 6% -17;
13, 5%-18; 2, 1%-19; and 0.7%- 15 years old.
• Region: The research work covered three regions: Shida Kartli (Marneuli, Sadakhlo),
Samtskhe-Javakheti (Akhalcikhe, Vale, Tskruti), and Tbilisi. 4, 6 % of the inquired (92
students) were from Shida Kartli; 26, 42% (98 students) from Samtskhe-Javakheti and 49,
2% (184 students)-from Tbilisi.
• Nationality: Majority of the inquired schoolchildren were Armenians (58, 3%); 25, 8% -
Azerbaijanians; 12, 1% - Georgians, 2, 4% - Russians, and among the rest 1, 4 % there are
Jews, Kurds and Ossetians.
• Family language: for the 42.5% of the participants the family language is Armenian, for
21.9% Azerbaijanian, for 16, 7% - Russian, for 7.4% Georgian and for the rest 11, 5%- it is
the mix of Armenian-Russian, Azerbaiajanian-Russian Armenian-Georgian, Azerbaijanian-
Georgian and so on.
Instrument and Procedures
The students filled in the questionnaire in the classroom individually. They were briefed, includ-
ing the information about the goal of the research and the guidelines how to answer the questions. The
guidelines for filling in the questionnaire were given also on the questionnaire sheet, at the beginning.
As soon as the students finished with their answers, we began interviewing the teachers of Georgian.
Research Tool
The students were administered with the questionnaire consisted of several blocks: demographic
information about the student, Attitude to the Georgian people, Attitude to the Georgian language,
Integration orientation, Instrumental orientation (Gardner, 1985). Parents’ involvement into the pro-
cess of second language acquisition, anxiety in class, Situational fear of using the language (Clément,
Dorney & Noels 1994), Evaluation of the Georgian lesson, evaluation of the teacher of Georgian and
Self-confidence.
To define the level of skillfulness in Georgian as the second language for each participant, we
used a pupil’s yearly assessment marks in this subject. At present, we do not have any general test for
checking skillfulness according the following fundamental aspects: writing, reading, listening, and
speaking. Skillfulness in the language assumes certain competencies in all of the mentioned aspects. It
was significant to consider these aspects, so we have developed a questionnaire to interview the teach-
ers. Teachers conducted students assessment in Georgian using the range of scores 0-10, likewise
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the marks of the academic performance in writing, reading, listening, speaking or in other words, a
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pupil’s knowledge was evaluated by 5 scores: 1 score as a yearly academic mark and 4 scores- allocated
one for each skill. Based on these scores we defined the final summing score, which assessed student’s
competence in the Georgian language.
Results of Research
• Study results showed that the significant predictor for the high competence in the sec-
ond language acquisition is the General interest in the foreign languages (R2ADJ=0.143, F
(1,373) =13.105, p=0.000), specifically, I wish I could speak another language perfectly (ß
= 0.125, p=0.000); Studying a foreign language is an enjoyable experience (ß = 0.362,
p=0.000).
• Parents’ attitude to Georgian language acquisition was also predictor for students’ success
in the language acquisition process (R2ADJ=0.073, F (5, 374)=3.797, p=0.001), specifically,
parents’ good knowledge of Georgian language (ß = 0.247, p=0.000); Parents’ often talk
about the fact that knowledge of the Georgian language is the basic foundation for success
in life (ß = 0. 252, p=0.000); Parents’ interest in the outcome of the Georgian language
lessons (ß = 0.311, p=0.000) and parents’ help in doing lessons (ß = 0.091, p=0.000).
• Another significant predictor for success is instrumental motivation (R2ADJ=0.228, F (6,373)
= 1.952, p =0.05), specifically, knowledge of the Georgian language, as a necessary condi-
tion for passing the high school (ß =0.210, p =0.000); Georgian, as a means of establishing
relations with the Georgians (ß = 0.125, p=0.03); Georgian as a necessary requirement to
find a good job (ß = 0.160, p=0.000); Knowledge of the Georgian language as a means to
gain more respect from the society (ß = 0.091, p=0.000).
• The factor how the students assess their abilities in the process of learning a second lan-
guage (R2ADJ =0.360, F(9,372)=1.897, p=0.000), was a significant predictor for success
in SlA: In comparison with my classmates a can learn Georgian better (ß=0.222, p=0.001);
I think that I will never be able to learn the Georgian language well (ß = -0.183, p=0.000);
Learning the languages isn’t a problem for me (ß=0.224, p=0.000).
• The factors of Anxiety related to the second language usage (R2ADJ=0.199, F(11,374)=12.583,
p=0.000) were also significant predictors for success in Georgian language acquisition:
specifically, speaking Georgian make me nervous any time (ß = -0.286, p=0.000) ; I am
nervous, when I am asked something in Georgian (ß = -0.543, p=0.005); I refrain from
speaking Georgian because I may become funny (ß = -0.422, p=0.005).
Discussion
As can be seen from the data analysis, the results of the research proved all sub-hypothesis. The
following factors: parents involvement in the process of second language acquisition of the child, in-
strumental motivation, self-confidence in the process of second language acquisition have predictive
value for success in Second language acquisition.
The Fact that the Instrumental motivation is good predictor for the mentioned population is
natural, because the Georgian language is the state (nation) language and for ethnic minorities it is
an instrument for fulfilling their future plans: most of them see their future career through learning at
Georgian Universities (majority of interesting programs and courses are not available in the languages
of ethnical minorities) and correspondingly, they will have to compete with Georgian candidates at
the entrance exams.
Also, we can tell same about the factor “parents’ involvement”. In our study parents’ involve-
ment in the learning process is equally significant and this factor has predictive value for SLA. If the
Parents are more concerned about explaining the importance of the Georgian language skills, if they
talk with the children about future and the role of the Georgian language in this future, if they are
aware about the methods and the textbooks, which are considered appropriate for this aim and if they
know the Georgian teachers at school, and even give their children advices about learning, then more
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higher are child’s marks of academic achievement in Georgian language and appropriately higher is
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the language competence.
We know that in the process of any kind of activity the sense of self-esteem is very important
(Gardner & Lambert, 1985; Cook, 2008; Heyde, 1979) Especially - pupil’s evaluation of own skills
and abilities is critical in the process of language learning (Müller & Dittman-Domenichini, 2008). The
pupil’s anxiety related with usage of the second language in several situations plays significant role in
the process of second language acquisition (Bailey, 1983; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989). If the pupil is
especially concerned about failure, consequently he tries to avoid the situations, in which the probability
of such negative feeling is high. For him receptiveness of the environment is the significant repercus-
sion. If the pupil considers that assigned task exceeds his abilities, is very complex and unfeasible, then
he quits learning as he is pre-determined that he can reach no results. This interpretation can explain
why the language anxiety of the pupil (the situational fear of the second language usage) has predictive
value for successful acquisition of the language. According to our results, the lower is the indicator of
anxiety, the higher marks has pupil in Georgian language and the higher is his language competence.
Conclusions
Our research work represents very urgent and interesting theme in Georgian reality. We can con-
clude this from the fact that the Georgian language became the language for communication between
the Georgians and ethnical minorities living in Georgia, replacing the Russian language with this
function; and on the other hand, Georgian is the State Language in Georgia and education is attainable
mainly in this language. Correspondingly, it became very important for the ethnical minorities to learn
Georgian. Additionally, language is the best tool for any cultural integration.
The study of the psychological factors has been carried in many countries, especially in those where
the problem of the second language acquisition is important in terms of national or social purposes
(China, Japan, Canada and so on). Our research work is responding those researches and perhaps one
more theoretical importance of it is that we can share our experience with the researchers from many
other countries, receive recommendations from them for further development of our work.
As for the practical value of the research, the results of the analysis and consequent conclusions
may be used for further developing of Georgian as the second language acquisition methodology and
making corrections in methods of teaching.
As it was shown by the results of study, in the process of the Georgian language learning as the
second language, the determinant of the success or failure is the pupil’s language consciousness which
implies his own and his family’s attitude to the Georgians and Georgian language, and the level of
comprehension the role of the Georgian language, the advantages of its acquisition for the ethnical
minorities as well as generally the level of awareness about the role of the Georgian language. As it
can be seen from these conclusions, training modules can be created for teachers and parents in order
to increase the level of language perception.
Another predictor of success in Georgian, as second language acquisition is students’ self-confi-
dence, degree of self-trust. Training modules can be planned in this direction too.
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Advised by Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University,

Republic of Belarus
Received: January 28, 2013 Accepted: March 08, 2013
Ia Aptarashvili PhD., Assistant Professor, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

E-mail: ia.aptarashvili@tsu.ge, aptarashvili@gmail.com.
Website: http://tsu.ge
Mzia Tsereteli Doctor of Psychological Sciences (Habilitation), Full Professor, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi,
Georgia.
E-mail: mzia.tsereteli@tsu.ge, mziatsereteli@yahoo.com
Website: http://tsu.ge
ISSN 2029-8587
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12
EXPERIENTIAL GROUPS IN GROUP

COUNSELORS TRAINING: A VIEW
THROUGH THE MULTIPLICITY OF
CONTEXTS
Birutė Jakubkaitė, Rimantas A. Kočiūnas
Vilnius University, Lithuania
E-mail: birute.jakubkaite@fsf.vu.lt, rimask@parkas.lt
Abstract
Experiential groups are one of prevailing forms of group counsellor training, which is devoted to exploring
group dynamics and other aspects of group work through direct personal experience. However, there is still
too little research carried out in this topic and some lack of consistency appears in this field of research. The
research reported here was aimed at analyzing group participants’ perceptions of multiplicity of contexts, as
a distinctive characteristic of such group, which appears due to different goals raised and variety of roles
performed in the same group. A qualitative approach was employed in this study using semi-structured inter-
views with graduates from international group therapy program. 5 participants of the Group therapy training
program at the Institute of Humanistic and Existential Psychology (Lithuania) were chosen for this study.
Besides theoretical lectures, program participants went through three experiential groups that were guided
by experienced group counselors and also gained sort-time group guiding experience. The work of all groups
was observed by two program supervisors. Study participants were asked to share the experience about tak-
ing part in group counselors training program, mostly focusing on experiential groups and their discussions
with supervisors. The data gathered during interviews then was subjected to thematic analysis. Based on the
results, the main topics related to group multiplicity were revealed and discussed: intrapersonal context of
participants; organizational context of the training program; interpersonal context and wholeness context.
Intrapersonal context of participants was associated not only with their personal dynamics in experiential
group process, but also with participant’s personal traits, motivation, anticipatory expectations, attitude towards
psychological help, the training program, other participants, experiential group counselors and supervisors.
Talking about organizational context of the training program participants mentioned analysis writing that
assisted in better understanding of experiential group processes and structuring own experience. Experien-
tial groups and their supervision processes were perceived by participants as extended and complementing
each other. Interpersonal context encompassed interactions with group participants, group counselors and
supervisors. Wholeness context involved the perception of group dynamics in experiential group as well as
in participating in the whole training program. Perception of this wholeness helped participants understand
the multidimensionality of training and adapt to it. According to data of this study it can be noted that these
various contexts are intertwined together, therefore it would be useful to focus separately on each of them in
the future. This could assist in more detailed and clear understanding of their interactions.
Key words: counselor in training, experiential group, group counselors.
Introduction
Group is a distinctive form of psychological help different from individual psychological

help, therefore good individual counseling or psychotherapeutic skills are not sufficient (Yalom &
Birutė JAKUBKAITĖ, Rimantas A. KOČIŪNAS. Experiential Groups in Group Counselors Training: A View through the Multiplicity of Contexts ISSN 2029-8587
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Leszcz, 2005; Markus & King, 2003). Group counseling is exceptional for different interrelations
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in the group happening at different levels of functioning (individual, interpersonal and group as
a whole); moreover, each of these levels has its own dynamics. According to Rowan (1993) and
Barbender, Smolar and Fallon (2004), an ability to observe all of these levels and their dynamics
is an important skill and the choice of intervention from one level to another, when and how it
has to be done, is the essence of guiding the group (Pollack & Slan, 1995). Therefore, the group
counselor training requires the integration of two experiences – knowledge and practice. Essentials
of group work assist the group counselors in organizing and giving meaning to these experiences.
Taking this into account, many theorists and practitioners of group therapy (e.g., Yalom & Leszcz,
2005; DeLucia, Bowman & Bowman, 1989; Brabender et al, 2004) besides didactic educational
methods emphasize the importance of observation of proficient group counselor work, a consistent
and thorough professional supervision of group counselor’s work, personal group experience and
individual therapy in group counselor training. Similar requirements are also set in most organiza-
tions accrediting such specialists (e.g., The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Education Programs Training Standards or The Association for Specialist in Group Work), as well
as most of the master’s and doctoral degree programs in psychology (by Schumaker, Ortiz & Bren-
ninkmeyer, 2011). These standards are also applied in Lithuania (e.g., group counselors are trained
in Institute of Humanistic and Existential Psychology). This paper focuses on experiential training
groups, which serve for integration of knowledge and practical experience.
Background of the Problem
Approach to experiential training groups. A successful training program has to enable a trainee
to gain knowledge how a group process is related to the results of group work and how a group coun-
selor can affect this process and its dynamics. Experiential groups have become the most prevalent
training form of group counselors that is aimed to meet the requirements of group therapy training
(Shumaker et al, 2011; Anderson & Price, 2001; Merta, Wolfgang & MacNeil, 1993). Group is a
central training component where the lectures, case discussions and personal therapy takes place
(Lennie, 2007). Despite the fact that experiential groups are incorporated into mandatory group
counselor training programs more often (Shumaker et al, 2011; Markus & King, 2003; Merta et
al., 1993), there is no unanimous approach towards them. Some authors (e.g., Anderson & Price,
2001; Yalom & Leszcz, 2005; Geller, Norcross & Orlinsky, 2005) reveal the benefits of these groups
stating that this kind of personal involvement in group helps in better understanding of experiences
of ordinary group members and giving meaning to gained theoretical knowledge on a personal
and emotional level. As Yalom and Leszcz (2005) indicate, most of the students learning group
counseling evaluated their group as the most beneficial experience in the whole training program.
Geller et al. (2005) present similar data. They refer to an international survey of group counselors
which states that 85% of all those who participated in experiential groups answered that they had
at least one personally beneficial experience, and more that 75% stated this experience as having
a positive influence on personal experience as well as professionalism. Anderson and Price (2001)
indicate that despite certain negative evaluations of this experience, trainees perceive it as valu-
able and highlight its professional and personal benefits. According to Kaslow (1984), experiential
training groups provide the future group counselor a multidimensional reflection of self experience
in group that is obtained thanks to other group members. Other authors note the difficulties that
arise for trainees in these groups: their complex negative experience and an adverse influence to
study results. Anderson and Price (2001) and Merta et al. (1993) beside positive approach to the
experience gained in these groups also indicates some difficulties arising in such training groups:
competition with colleagues, a desire to boast, defensiveness, fear of condemnation, attempts to
assist the proficient group counselor and thus avoid a sincere personal involvement. Lennie (2007)
invites to deepen the understanding of ongoing processes in these groups and notes that an optimistic
view towards experiential groups in counselors training can simply arise from their prevalence in
the training programs and the lack of empirical studies. She writes that the widespread use of these
groups and strong feelings arising in them are the phenomena that require systematic empirical
studies, and wonders how many authors indicate the lack of these studies. In 1980 Stockton noted
ISSN 2029-8587 Birutė JAKUBKAITĖ, Rimantas A. KOČIŪNAS. Experiential Groups in Group Counselors Training: A View through the Multiplicity of Contexts
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that despite the impressive increase in the literature about group work, the literature about group
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counsellor training is not abundant and often refers to statements without any scientific basis and
overly general, abstract ideas. This, according to Stockton, Morran and Krieger (2004), also applies
currently. And the limited empirical basis is still very controversial (Lennie, 2007).
Thus, not enough studies about the topic of experiential groups in counselors training are car-
ried out and they lack consistency in order to refer to a comprehensive and accurate scientific basis
of these groups. It is also too little known about personal experiences and psychological changes
in experiential training group participants. Little scientific data is available on the proportion of
positive and negative experiences in group participants and their role in further professional and
personal functioning. There is a lack of systematic and comprehensive studies that could reveal and
clarify the influence of these groups on professional and personal maturity of group counselors.
Multidimensionality of experiential group in group counselors training. The most popular
experiential group model in counselors training is a group consisting of other trainees (Yalom &
Leszcz, 2005). Though usually there are attempts to avoid difficulties arising because of different
roles in the group (Goodrich, 2008; Davenport, 2004; Merta & Sisson, 1991) this is not always the
case (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005), therefore a multiple structure is distinctive characteristic of expe-
riential groups in counselors training. On one hand, the experiential training group is a formally
formed group that has clearly set goals – training of group counselors. On the other hand, it is the
group that sets not only professional, but also personal or psychotherapeutic goals that create a
background for group processes. It is also a group of colleagues whose personal traits and experi-
ences influence the interactions in group. Thus, trainees are involved in many roles (such as a group
leader, group participant, student, supervised and a colleague) and face difficulties in learning and
performing them simultaneously (Olk & Friedlander, 1992).
However, the more accurate and comprehensive description and substantiation of interaction
features need consistent scientific descriptions and research that could help to evaluate the influ-
ence of different roles employed in the same group on training of group counseling and personal
experience, and also could further reveal and evaluate the possibilities and limits of their compat-
ibility more accurately.
The goal of this study is to analyze how experiential training group participants experience
the multidimensionality in group. In order to accomplish this goal, a qualitative study strategy was
employed, since it allows a disclosure and structural description of this kind of experience.
The Researcher’s Role
In carrying out the qualitative studies the authors’ role in gathering and analyzing the results
is essential. The authors of this study are familiar with tradition and practice of qualitative stud-
ies and have the experience of psychological group counseling. Thus, inevitably while planning
of this study, question choice and the primary assumptions are formulated on the basis of author
beliefs: (a) that a group experience is valuable; (b) taking part in experiential training groups helps
mastering theoretical knowledge and gaining important group counseling skills; (c) taking part in
the experiential training groups can be most helpful in experiencing group dynamics and relation-
ship diversity; (d) taking part in these groups is an intense personal experience; (e) participants of
experiential training groups face multifaceted relations. Thus, most of attention while gathering and
analyzing data was focused on the reflection of these beliefs and their possible influence.
General Background of Research
The study was organized and carried out according to the principals and requirements of the-
matic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). One of the advantages of this method is its flexibility that
is associated with the ability to satisfy various theoretical approaches. Thematic analysis assists
in identifying, analyzing and bringing out the themes emerging in the data. Also the possibility of
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interpretation of obtained data is available (Boyatzis, 1998). Considering the aim of this study, the
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inductive thematic analysis was chosen, i.e., themes are closely related to the obtained data. Accord-
ing to these principles crystallized out themes are not put into theoretical framework in advance,
but emerge directly from the available data.
Participants
Participants of Group therapy training program at the Institute of Humanistic and Existential
Psychology (Lithuania, Vilnius-Bir tonas) were chosen for this study. This training program goes
through three stages.
During the first stage, program participants besides theoretical lectures go through three expe-
riential groups that are guided by experienced group counselors and psychotherapists. Group work
is being observed by two program supervisors. These experiential groups continue for three days.
The work is intense: there are four 1.5 hour sessions during the day and afterwards there is a 2 hour
group work and dynamic discussion. During the discussion group participants, group counselors
and supervisors present their own views on the processes going on in the group.
During the second training stage, program participants gain short-time group guiding experi-
ence. They are participants as well as group counselors in these groups (every program participant
guides the group for one day). Their work is being observed by supervisors. After four group work
sessions (i.e., after one group work day) the overall (trainees and supervisor) group work discus-
sion and supervision is held.
The third training stage is intended to organizing and guiding a psychotherapeutic group in-
dependently. This stage of the program is not included into this study.
5 people participated in this study – 1 man and 4 women whose age was between 32 and 58
years (mean age 49 years). 4 participants have a background in psychology and 1 in pedagogy.
Only one program participant has never had any group guiding experience. All the participants have
participated previously (not within the framework of the program) in various experiential groups.
Since the program is international, 2 participants have come from Russia, 2 from Latvia and 1 from
Lithuania. All participants of the same training group who completed the first two stages of the
program and fulfilled all the training requirements were chosen for the study.
Data Collection
Data of this study was gathered by structured interview. Study participants were asked to share
the experience about taking part in the above mentioned two stages of training, mostly focusing
on experiential groups and their discussions. Questions for study participants were formulated as
follows: (a) share your experiences about participation in this program; (b) share your experiences
about experiential groups when you were a participant; share your experiences about experiential
groups when you were a participant as well as a group counselor; (c) share your experiences about
experiential group discussions and supervisions when you were a participant and a group counselor.
Also clarifying questions that arose from participant narratives were asked during the interview and
were intended to reveal the experience and its perception. The interview took from 35 minutes to 1
hour and 5 minutes (mean duration – 55 minutes) and was tape-recorded. The participants who came
from Russia and Latvia were interviewed in Russian. The main language of the study program was
also Russian. The interview was held in the premises of the Institute, in a cozy, isolated room.
Ethical Consideration
In order to meet the ethical requirements, before the interview study participants filled an
informed consent form. Participation in the study was voluntary. Study participants knew that
their refusal to take part in the study will not have any influence on their further participation in
the training program and their evaluation, and program lecturers and supervisors will not have any
direct access to the interview. Study participants were informed about the fact that interviews will
be recorded and they became familiar with the form and length of interview storage. Participant
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actual names were changed as well as details that could be helpful in identifying a certain excerp-
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tion author were eliminated. Also, participants could receive all the information necessary for their
decision to take part in the study or they could refuse to take part in the study at any point.
Data Analysis
Interview data was analyzed according to Braun and Clarke’s (2006) recommendations and
included the following stages: (a) interview transcription and multiple readings noting thoughts
and remarks; (b) primary coding when the transcribed data was systematized into codes; (c) theme
search when the coded data was grouped into primary themes; (d) theme review in search of rela-
tionships with systematized data and codes; (e) theme establishment and naming; (f) selection of
interview quotes that best describe the themes.
Limitation
As every scientific research this study has its limitations. Qualitative study strategy does not
allow making generalizations – all study results are presented only in the context of a described
group. The study is aimed not at wide generalization of results, but at raising further questions about
the research of experiential groups in group counselors training. Moreover, it is important to note
that only participants who fulfilled the training program were chosen for this study and the ones who
discontinued the program were not included. This narrows down the results and their interpreta-
tion. Study results are limited to the notion that study participants represent one approach to group
therapy. The inclusion of different training programs in such studies could widen the perception of
experiential training group experience.
Results of Research
Analyzing the available data four main groups of themes emerged that concerned these contexts:
intrapersonal context of participants; organizational context of the training program; interpersonal
context; wholeness context.
Intrapersonal context of participants involved the following themes: (a) previous training and
psychotherapeutic experience; (b) personal traits of a participant, current difficulties and personal
changes; (c) individual motivation to learn.
Organizational context of the training program included the following themes: (a) training
structure; (b) writing and reading analyses.
Interpersonal context included the following themes: (a) interaction with other participants;
(b) interaction with experienced group counselors; (c) interaction with supervisors.
Wholeness context involved: (a) supervision as a distinctive form of experiential group follow-
up; (b) wholeness is a group.
Intrapersonal context of participants: (a) previous training and psychotherapeutic experience.
One of the components of intrapersonal context of participants is their own previous training and
psychotherapeutic experience. Referring to it, group participants outlined the anticipatory expec-
tations towards training program, experiential groups, and behavior of other participants, group
counselors and supervisors. When referring to anticipatory expectations group participants also
chose their own behavior that is either helping them to adapt to program requirements or interferes
with it.
/.../1 learning in group seemed to me like skill training. Well, such training, well … I have par-
ticipated in this kind of trainings before. There is a certain program when a counselor has certain
exercises you can take part in or not. Or even taking part you cannot get involved much personally.
Say, I expected something like this. I am going to learn psychotherapeutic tools, techniques, and
methods that the group counselor uses. And I never expected I will have to “take my shirt off”. And
I behaved like I would in this kind of skill training group when I do not want to disclose myself.
1 All citation in original languages (Lithuanian and Russian) are available by e-mail: birute.jakubkaite@fsf.vu.lt
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The previous psychotherapeutic experience is usually associated with their choice to learn
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how to guide psychotherapeutic groups and reflects a whole belief in the value of psychological
as well as group help.
/../ I understood and was certain that psychotherapeutic work, no matter if its individual or
group, nonetheless give these kinds of significant and polysemantic effects. There were changes
happening in my life and somehow I was completely persuaded that it is necessary. And when I
came here to study, I already had experience, a great one.
Intrapersonal context of participant: (b) personal traits of a participant, current difficulties
and personal changes. Other component of intrapersonal context is personal traits of participants
and their current difficulties which directly arise while participating in experiential groups and are
also associated with their feelings and behavior during experiential groups and discussions.
/… / Coming to the group itself has always made me anxious. Considerable amount of anxi-
ety. Overall, anxiety is my trait and it is one of the biggest problems form me in this period of my
life.
Study participants notice an increasing personal discomfort in the initial part of groups and
discussions. It is a specific component of intrapersonal context that is mentioned by participants
as a kind of interference when shifting from group participant to other (trainees or group coun-
selor) positions.
/… / This training, it is somehow different that it is, at least in my opinion, very deep and it
exposes problems.
Speaking about their own experience participants often mention significant personal changes
reflected in their participation in the program and their personal as well as professional life, and
their further participation in this training program. One of these changes is a greater consistency
in group guiding skills and acquired knowledge with their personality.
/…/ and group counselor learns how to be a counselor “inside”. This is very beneficial for
me. It is important, well, I was shocked when I discovered for the first time that group counselors
/…/ you are taught how to be a professional inside and relate it to yourself, your mind.
Intrapersonal context of participant: (c) individual motivation to learn. Despite the fact that
participating in experiential groups experiential motivation itself is important as oriented more to
personal disclosure, understanding of self and others, in participant interviews the fact emerges
that clearly perceived training motivation is what helps them to continue the program when fac-
ing a complicated experience. Namely this motivation encourages them to better understand the
experience that is intense and raising stress.
/… / I wanted to learn and with me, I had a very clear goal to acquire skills that I did not have.
For me, I understood that I will not have time for this in my life anymore. It is the last chance for
me. Here I understood that this, well, this is what I will never have this kind of chance anymore.
And if I want to change something in my life, whether I can change it or not, I still don’t know, I
do not know. And what I can do about this – is to stay in this program. I was highly motivated.
Organizational context of the training program: (a) training structure. Talking about their
experiences group participants note that formal training structure adds to the intensity of experi-
ences. Intensive program holds tension and altering work nature – the experiential group and the
discussion followed by it – intensifies participant experience, helps in acknowledging them, and
encompasses more nuances of group work. However, experiencing intense feelings training par-
ticipants shift with greater difficulty from the role of a group participant to group discussant and
this results in additional, mostly challenging, experiences.
/…/ and it is also due to a few people. Fairly long and long lasting work. Analyses that we
carried out afterwards, that we wrote afterwards, that is also follow-up. Supervisions – follow-up.
Well, so many edges and grounds. /… / Difficulties were caused by the fact that there had always
been recognition of one more follow-up, after the group is done with its work, and the completion
of supervisors. The analysis, and follow-up, and other focuses of the view to situation, there. And
when, well, when the time passed, viewing from the distance, it seemed that everything is settling
and concentrating, and this analysis writing for me was one of the ways to return to one more
group. Like the same thing once again. And the experience of this great, greater distance and
maybe from such a distant viewpoint. Although I cannot say that it was the same thing with all of
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the groups. Well, it was filled and colored emotionally with such a great, great tension.
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Organizational context of the training program: (b) writing and reading analyses. One of
the most mentioned training program requirements mentioned by participants is analysis writing.
These experiences initially cause resistance, but help in structuring and professionally defining
their experiences. Analysis writing requires conscious effort and teaches a deeper reflection and
flexibility in combining participant and trainee roles, the more because group participants write
down notes on their own initiative in the initial training process. These informal notes help them
handle group processes and take part in discussion more efficiently. Also writing lessens the in-
tensity of experiences outlived in group and allows reflecting on them later.
/…/ we had this little scheme how to do the analysis. This has also helped to give structure,
it gave a serious thought. Here is an important connection, right? You sit there yourself and then
you start to give meaning to this structure.
Interpersonal context: (a) interaction with other participants. First when talking about their
experiences training participants mention interpersonal relations that are affected by their likes,
attitudes towards professional background, knowledge, and experience of others. These compo-
nents color personal interactions of participants.
/…/ personal likes are more important for me and this kind of individual people perception.
/…/ but it was very important for me what I feel towards that person, that kind of feelings he trig-
gers in me.
Obviously, training participants perceive collegiality and support for each other differently.
/…/ I expected that the group will support me, simply because basically everyone will end
up in this kind of position, and when it didn’t happen, I basically stamped in one place. I made
some kind of mistakes.
Common experiences modified the interactions and most of participants of this training group
began to conceptualize others as “deep colleagues” with whom they can talk about everything and
firstly about themselves in the relationships.
/… / Now we can talk about what we want. And about ourselves. I have in mind, not about
something, about myself. And namely about myself in the interpersonal relationships. It is not that
I am acting somehow somewhere, but right here and now we can talk to each other. There. That
we are colleagues. Deep colleagues, profound colleagues. We understand when we are talking.
We understand, we become aware, we are involved, we can listen to each other and hear, what a
person is saying.
However, there were participants who perceived others as competing, unsupportive, oriented
to evaluations, insufficiently competent to be equal training participants and written analyses or
feedback of others would not be valuable.
/… / I lacked a deeper analysis and I lacked such, well, such commonness, analysis com-
monness was missing, because it seemed to me that there was an orientation towards evaluations
and willingness to conform the standards. And I wanted a professional refining, maybe. Such
completeness. I don’t need any evaluation now.
These relationships reflected in participant interactions in experiential groups. Interactions
that take place in experiential groups especially when significant conflicts and dislikes were pres-
ent disturbed the receiving of feedback and maintaining the role of group counselor. When intense
relationships are present it is difficult to react to others from the group counselor position and easy
to return to the interactions between group participants.
/… / It is yet related to unsolved problems in the group. Because I already entered the role
of group counselor with some unresolved problems that were in the group and stayed there. They
stayed unresolved. And with all this baggage I guided the group, entered the role, well function
of the counselor. And when two of the participants clearly expressed aggression towards me, this
aggression was strong enough and I did not withstand – I retreated to feelings. I drowned in my
own feelings and I precisely realized that moment, but I was struck with intense emotionality with
what happened there. Well, roughly, I simply fell out.
Interpersonal context: (b) relation to experienced group counselors. Other important compo-
nent of interpersonal context is interaction with experienced group counselors who were mentioned
as “training models” and who encourage group processes. An attitude towards the experienced
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group counselor and his work in group was commonly based on personal experience rather than
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professional analysis.
/…/ Well, the person who, well, the group counselor, the professional – he comes and leads
the group. Well, actually a master – you can learn and see. There. Different styles, different ap-
proaches. Different methods.
/… / The variety of group counsellor styles and work, they also, well, like not that they pro-
vided the group with different direction, but they also provided with different possibilities to get
close to your own problems, but differently. And encountering these problems, difficulties. And
this is a very complex process.
Interpersonal context: (c) interaction with supervisors. It is one of the most mentioned com-
ponents of interpersonal context. Training participants pay great attention to supervisors. Some
of them mention that their presence is felt while working in experiential group. Initially supervi-
sors are perceived as absolute authorities and sometimes an important portion of group counselor
functions are attributed to them.
/…/ and the same happened to supervisors as well as group counselors, lecturers and my fellow
trainees. They also became more casual, and I also began to notice many of their human traits.
/…/ first I perceived the work of supervisors as, maybe, well … well, such seeing from the
distance, if I can say that. And it always seemed to me that some personal supervisor existence
still can be felt.
Wholeness context: (a) supervision as a distinctive form of experiential group follow-up. In
narratives of study participants an association between experiential groups and their discussions is
observed. Participants tend to see discussions as distinctive group process follow-up that encour-
ages and corrects group processes.
/… / I perceived it as a follow-up, but in a new form. And there was no, well, that a clear
set of boundaries. Nor in the group, or supervision, or group life. For me it is a plunge to one
common process that is happening but in different blocks. It is like days of the week – Monday,
Tuesday, Wednesday. It is the same. I do not exclude them and I do not exclude myself from this,
I always was in the common process.
Participants notice that discussion deepens group processes and as the group processes deepen,
the professional value of discussions increases.
/…/ And after that everything become more serious, deep and professional, and the group pro-
cesses started to become more serious and deep, and everything worked together. In a parallel.
Wholeness context: (b) wholeness is a group. When sharing their experiences group partici-
pants mention the discovery of perception of group dynamics that they associate with personal
participation in experiential group as well as group work discussions. Perception of group dy-
namics encompasses not only the perception of a specific group process, but the perception of
what is happening during training as a whole, in all contexts. This perception is also transferred
to understanding of everyday interpersonal relations.
/… / And when I sat here in the firsts groups, I was concentrated, for example, on personal
problems /… / But, … when I kept learning and sat in groups, I suddenly noticed the group dy-
namics. This was a shock for me, right? That something is happening besides my problems and
personal problems of other people. And relationships between us, like always there is something
between us /… / And here to me it happened … that deep perception, I understood that: what am
I doing? And who is doing that here, right? Then they, we say it, what are we doing, and here I
caught it, right? This group process, this group dynamics. That people are saying one thing and
we can discuss personal problems, but there will be something always happening and it is an
important process that I have not personally seen before.
Discussion
Experiential group in group counseling training does not exist by itself. As the analysis of
experiences of this study participants shows, some intertwined contexts exist – intrapersonal context
of participants, organizational context, interpersonal context and wholeness context. Experiential
group and taking part in it is associated with all of these contexts. This interdependence of con-
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texts can be the source of great intensity of feelings and constantly mentioned tension. Obviously,
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group counselor in training is involved in many roles at the same time and as Olk and Friedlander
(1992) note, he encounters difficulties performing them in the same group.
Intrapersonal context of participants described in this paper is associated not only with their
personal dynamics in experiential group process, but also with participant motivation, anticipatory
expectations, attitude towards psychological help, the training program, other participants, experi-
ential group counselors and supervisors. Personal traits and current difficulties of participants are
reflected not only in the experiential group itself, but also in other contexts. Intensifying personal
problems and stumbling on them not only causes intense feelings and tension, but also requires
more participant efforts to take part in the training process, e.g., the supervision of experiential
group. However, gaining more knowledge and understanding of group processes, participants
become aware of their personal difficulties and anticipate forms of their control or solutions. This
corresponds to Yalom and Leszcz’s (2005) propositions that experiential training group provides
an opportunity for future group counselors to experience what it means to be a group participant
and link their knowledge with personal experience.
Group participants’ feelings and experiences reflect how the training program is organized
and also the participation in experiential groups. In this paper participants often mention auxiliary
forms such as analysis writing and multiple readings that assist in better understanding of expe-
riential group processes and structuring own experience.
Conducting further research of experiential groups it is also important to focus on the influ-
ence of organizational context in training on participant experience, and how the training program
is organized. Currently there is more focus on the prevalence of groups and description of their
structure (Markus & King, 2003; Merta et al., 1993; Shumaker et al., 2011). The more so experien-
tial groups and their supervision processes were perceived by this study’s participants as extended
and complementing each other and this interaction is little researched and is not clear.
Interpersonal context, encompassing interactions with group participants, group counselors
and supervisors, is mentioned by participants when talking about their own vulnerability, fear of
authority and evaluation, and support as well as understanding each other. Yalom and Leszcz (2005)
take notice that professionally guided experiential groups can improve interrelations between
training participants. The experience in this group would confirm these authors’ opinion, because
participants talk about being “deep colleagues”, a sense of understanding and deep belonging.
However, a sense of belonging can appear not only caused by positive experience. Painful experi-
ences can also be unifying. These experiences of group participants confirm negative experience
and learning difficulties, as described by Anderson and Price (2001) and Merta et al. (1993).
Wholeness context involves the perception of group dynamics in experiential group as well
as in participating in the whole training program. Perception of this wholeness helps participants
to better understand the multidimensionality of training. Like so, the perception of multidimen-
sionality can assist in adapting more successfully to complex goals and requirements set for group
counselors in training.
According to data of this study it can be noted that these various contexts are intertwined
together, therefore it would be useful to focus separately on each of them in the future. This could
assist in more detailed and clear understanding of their interactions.
Conclusions and Implication
The goal of this study was to analyze how participants of experiential groups in group coun-
selors training perceive the multidimensionality of this group and provide a structured description.
According to the data participants of group counseling training inevitably experience the existence
of separate contexts in experiential groups. Firstly, every participant refers to prior experiences,
expectations and attitudes that inevitably form the relations in the group. Personal traits and cur-
rent difficulties are reflected not only in the processes of experiential group itself or interpersonal
relations in the group, but also are apparent during the supervisions. The structured context of
formal training program, analysis writing and reading is also noted in the experience of group
participants as related to group processes and their understanding. Interpersonal relations with
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group participants, group counselors and supervisors create one more distinctive context that en-
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compasses not only the experiential group, but also the interactions that exist in the whole training
program. Program supervisors are important to group participants. The participants of this group
perceived them as significant in their training and experiential processes, and the supervisions
often were perceived as distinctive follow-up of group work. The perception of group dynamics
encompasses not only the perception of processes of a specific group, but also the perception of
what is happening during entire training, in all the contexts. This perception assists in understand-
ing the existent multidimensionality and adapt to it.
References
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visory Relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 389-397.
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Stockton, R. (1980). The Education of Group Leaders: A Review of the Literature with Suggestions for the
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Advised by Paulius Skruibis, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania.
Birutė Jakubkaitė Master Degree in Clinical Psychology, Postgraduate Student (Doctoral Studies) Vilnius
University, Department of Clinical and Organizational Psychology, Universiteto Street 9/1,
Vilnius Lithuania.
E-mail: birute.jakubkaite@fsf.vu. lt
Rimantas A. Kočiūnas PhD, Professor, Vilnius University, Department of Clinical and Organizational Psychology,
Universiteto Street 9/1, Vilnius Lithuania.
E-mail: rimask@parkas.lt
ISSN 2029-8587
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23
EXPERIENCE OF THE FINALITY OF LIFE:

STRIVING TO LIVE MORE VALUABLY
Agnė Jurgaitytė-Avižinienė, Rimantas A. Kočiūnas

Vilnius University, Lithuania
E-mail: agne@pkc.lt, rimask@parkas.lt
Abstract
The aim of this study was to reveal the experience of finality of life of young adults and to develop a substantive
theory, based on experience of young participants. In this research, the definition of death anxiety was opera-
tionalised and the term finality of life was used. Based on a distinctive philosophical background, this term
enables to research the prevailing phenomenon in novel ways and to have a different look at its experience. The
classical grounded theory (GT) method was chosen for the research as it empowers to study and explain the
phenomenon in a variety of ways, to extract its key points and concepts, and to provide its theoretical construct.
18 healthy adults aged 22 – 45 participated in the research. 2 in-depth interviews were conducted with each of
the participants. They wrote a diary on the topic. The data was analysed using classical GT principles. Central
theoretical component, core category, was named - striving to live more valuably. It discloses the extent to
which participants deal with the main concern of this phenomenon – inevitability of death. Two subcategories
emerge: finding a lively life and striving for subjective value of life. The latter is characterized as condition
facilitation, satisfaction with life. The use of visual imagery for the explanation of the created theory help to
reveal better the experiences, which are encountered by the young adults, while facing the finality of life or
talking about this topic. It is expected that the present research will draw attention on the fact that in order to
understand the human relationship with death and mortality, it is not sufficient to talk about avoidance and
anxiety, it is necessary to speak about human desire to have a nice and valuable life.
Key words: finality of life, grounded theory, inevitability of death, striving to live more valuably.
Introduction
As a scientist starts taking an interest in the death psychology (thanatopsychology), he/she first
encounters an abundance of literature, opinions of people, historical, religious, philosophical and other
works and views. Thus, Neimeyer (2008), one of the most famous modern thanatologists, starts the
introduction of the book about death by stating that “The field of death studies has a long history, but
short memory” (p. 1). In a sense, human thinking about death is probably as old as the mankind itself.
However, most of social sciences research the topic of death in a very simplistic, theoretically weak
way, which prevents from seeing the deeper heritage of Western culture. As a consequence, there is
a random, superficial distribution of correlations, which does not reach the human depths, linking us
with mortality (Neimeyer, 2008). Moore and Williamson (2003), Tomer, Eliason and Wong (2008)
also emphasize a multifactorial study of death phenomenon by highlighting the importance of culture,
religions, philosophies and the position of public of that age, as well as its interdisciplinary aspect,
and have shown the increased interest in this topic during the last decade (Hayes, Schimel, Arndt &
Fautcfer, 2010)
One of the difficulties, faced, while exploring the death phenomenon, is an abundant confusion
of concepts. A lot of various terms and concepts for examining the death phenomenon are met both in
ISSN 2029-8587 Agnė JURGAITYTĖ-AVIŽINIENĖ, Rimantas A. KOČIŪNAS. Experience of the Finality of Life: Striving to Live More Valuably
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literature and everyday life: the fear of death and dying, death anxiety, threat of dying, view towards
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death, concern about death, acceptance of death, finality of life, etc. The terms in this field are used in
a quite free way without any accurate separation and definition (Jurgaitytė-Avižinienė & Kočiūnas,
2004). They are used, while analyzing very different experience of people, often without going deep
into the fact, what exact experience it is talked about, how comprehensively it describes the well-
being and life of person, what impact it has on it. It is evident that the death phenomenon itself is very
complex; even as a book about death and dying is taken from scientific literature on psychology of
death, it is difficult to predict its object: it can be a statistical analysis of causes of death, the studies
on dying people, the mourning, experienced by relatives after loss, the economic death analysis or
analysis and research on healthy adults’ encounter with death.
According to observations of scientists (Mikulincer & Florian, 2008; Wong, 2008; Neimeyer,
2008), the research on encounter with death anxiety and perception of own mortality lacks deeper
understanding of phenomenon and often a philosophical foundation. The attempts to remain scientific
and to maintain an accurate focus on specific research have impoverished the researched phenomenon
itself; holistic approach is often ignored, while narrow-field research is more popular. The present
research will follow Heidegger’s (1992) view towards death, while the human life is considered as
being-towards-death. In this context, the concept of finality of life seems more appropriate than the
concept of death anxiety. The term of finality of life does refer to the event that terminates the life, but
rather emphasizes what is happening in the life process, refers to the death phenomenon in the context
of life. During the process of operationalization of the main concept, while carrying out intelligence
research, it was revealed that the question about death anxiety is completely incomprehensible to people.
It is obvious that it is more a psychological construction than the actual experienced phenomenon. The
wording of concept about finality of life and its experience used to be clear and acceptable enough for
the surveyed ones, in order they could disclose and share their unique experience.
Furthermore, while exploring the encounter with death, it is recommended to avoid links with
other fields, which might have a significant impact on the experience of anxiety. It is recommended
to avoid surveys with people, who experience severe, critical or traumatic situations, since it gives a
certain shade to research. In order to maintain a purity of phenomenon under research and in order
it would not be affected by any extraneous factors, the age of people is also limited. In research, the
attention is paid only on age of early maturity, the so-called young adults. This age is the period of
matured adults, usually with maximum strengths, when they have the lowest number of health prob-
lems (Levinson, 1978).
In this context, the methodology, used by grounded theory, seems to be logical and acceptable,
since it enables to review the phenomenon under research in a broad and comprehensive manner by
presenting a substantive theory, which explains it, while the usage of selected concept is in line with
research method and allows exploring the phenomenon without distorting its essence, without pre-
narrowing it. What is more, the aforementioned method enables to go deep into the group of certain
age (e.g., young adults) and to indentify the categories and their interrelationships. Thus, the aim of
the present research was to reveal the experience of finality of life of young adults and to develop a
substantive theory, based on the experience of young participants. It is expected that a broader research
on the elements and process of experience of finality of life will allow deepening the understanding
of this phenomenon and improving its bases, since the currently existing knowledge in scientific
literature is insufficient.
The classical grounded theory (GT) method (Glaser, 1978, 1998, 2001) was chosen for the
research, which was the most appropriate for achieving the set aims. During classical GT research a
researcher can be flexible and start from his curiosity by knowing that “all is data” (Glaser, 2001), and
continue further by following the surveyed ones, coming into place, where there is their main concern
and trying to understand, how it is solved. A successful research provides a theoretical construct, a
substantive theory, which explains the researched phenomenon, enables to understand it better and
to research it further.
Agnė JURGAITYTĖ-AVIŽINIENĖ, Rimantas A. KOČIŪNAS. Experience of the Finality of Life: Striving to Live More Valuably ISSN 2029-8587
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18 healthy adults of both genders, aged 22 – 45, participated in the research. This number of
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participants was sufficient, in order to saturate the main categories. 2 in-depth interviews were con-
ducted with each of the participants. The period between the interviews was least one month. They
wrote a diary on the topic during that period. The duration of first interview was about 1 hour, while
the second lasted for shorter time. The people, who met the research requirements and the criterion of
theoretical sampling, and who are able to reflect on their thoughts and to verbalize them, were selected
for research. They voluntarily agreed to take part in psychological research and confirmed the consent
to participate and to use their anonymous data for scientific purposes. They were also informed about
availability of assistance in case of facing difficulties, related with the research topic.
While carrying out the research, according to GT principles, a researcher follows the principle
of “full package” (Glaser, 1998) and implements the following processes: 1) problem identification;
2) theoretical sampling; 3) data collection; 4) analysis; 5) writing up the memos; 6) theory develop-
ment. It is evident that it is possible to describe and name the individual GT steps, however, it cannot
be called a linear process. This systemic method is cyclical and a researcher is constantly “walking in
circles” among data collection, analysis, conceptualization, writing up the memos, and returning to data
collection, etc. Thus, the aforementioned principles were also following during this research, data are
collected and analyzed simultaneously. As the data from interview started indicating that theoretical
saturation is achieved, data collection was stopped. While coding, the method of constant comparison
was followed, when the events are distinguished during open coding and then they are compared
with each other, later – with emerging concepts and again with each other, and with emerging wider
and more abstract categories. When the core category emerged, it was moved to selective coding by
maintaining the focus on the core category. According to Glaser (1978), the core category expresses
the main concern of all or almost all participants in an abstract manner. During theoretical coding
and while sorting the conceptual memos, the relationships between the core category and concepts
are looked for. The sorted memos make the theory in the final stage, which in this case is striving to
live more valuably. Moreover, it should be noted that GT must be conceptual, which means that the
developed concepts must be independent of time, place, people (Glaser, 2001).
The research was carried out by following the requirements of classical GT methodology: first,
the research and analysis was carried out and only then, when the first contours were obtained, the
analysis of scientific literature takes place. Thus, it is ensured that the obtained results of research
are based on empirical data, appeared from the real experience of research participants and not from
hypotheses of scientific literature.
Results of Research
First of all, GT pays attention on how the participants solve their main concern (Glaser, 1998),
therefore, it is preferred to start from its naming. No matter of how the main question is formed or how
the experience of finality of life of participants is accessed, the most important thing here is how to
accept the fact that “I will die one day” and “cannot do anything” for that, death becomes noticeably
inevitable. A person feels, perceives and shortly experiences the inevitability of death. As the interview
starts, the first thoughts and comments are always about death and how this phenomenon, which is
near and causes confusion, anxiety and other strong feelings, is noticeable in life. At the same time this
experience is accompanied by clear understanding that “my personal” death is inevitable – it is like
“tangible”, and it will certainly come one day, and I will not escape from it and not get out of it.
All participants immediately recall a lot of situations of different and various natures, how they
faced the proximity of death, felt a tangible inevitability of this fact and understood its presence. Usu-
ally, both the situations of personal encounter with death and becoming a witness of other people’s
encounter with death are named. These can be very significant, stressful situations – not only bereave-
ments, but also everyday events, for example, the accidents, which failed to cause a lot of damage.
It might include the self-imposed situations, fantasies or just memories, when the death was near, or
mentioning the death in news programs and poetry.
Regardless of age or experience, all participants have memories, experiences, thoughts, ideas,
philosophical insights about death and its meaning, impact on human life. The experience of finality
of life always starts from naming the fact of death and understanding that it is near, while its inevi-
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table invasion into life is constantly emphasized. It is often highlighted that these questions arouse in
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childhood or adolescence. It is emphasized that there is a lot of information, reflections and a wish
to share them. Usually, naming the death causes a lot of strong feelings as anxiety, fear or confusion,
however, a person tries to control himself and remain calm, even to demonstrate courage.
Striving to Live More Valuably: Reviews and Features of the Theory
“Thus the goal for a research using grounded theory is to discover the core variable as it resolves
the main concern” (Glaser, 1998, p.115). What a man, who faces the fact that the death exists and it is
inevitable and is somewhere very near, should do? The category “striving to live more valuably” in
this research is one of the ways the healthy adults solve their perception of proximity of death and is a
central topic, the naming of which provided the possibility to link the data that were collected during
this research. The core category – “striving to live more valuably” – clearly specifies and distinguishes
a few things. First of all, it is an obvious opposition to the concept of death. All participants talked
about life and clearly understood that as long as there is no death, there is life, thus, our conversation
used to naturally turn to their life. What is more, it is always the conversation about life, which is im-
portant and valuable for them, about how they understand what is subjectively valuable for them. The
following different value aspects can be distinguished: condition facilitation, satisfaction with life.
During research and conceptualization Glaser’s (1998) suggestion that “the smaller the amount
of concepts that account for the greatest variation in substantive behaviour resolving the main con-
cern is the goal“ (p. 190). Thus, 2 substantive categories, which were related with the main concern
of participants, emerge along the core category through a constant comparison: “negotiating reality
of death” and “negotiating changes in life”; and 4 contextual concepts comprehensive link, constant
negotiation, individuality and affectability. As all these categories were combined, the main theoreti-
cal construct was formed, which explains the dynamics that takes place as a young adults face the
finality of life.
The categories, mentioned in the theory “striving to live more valuably”, are interrelated and
intertwined. The present research attempts to “extract” and isolate each category separately – by
describing and explaining it. It is known that in order to try to understand and explain the researched
phenomenon, the amount and interrelationship of these categories must be borne in mind. Figure 1,
showing the main elements and concepts of this theory, is presented below.
Figure 1: Theoretical structure of “striving to live more valuably” revealing the

experience of finality of life.
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The entanglement and overlap of these categories is the essence of aforementioned theory.
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It is also well reflected by the concept of comprehensive link. During the present research, the
interviewees often switched from one to another topic – from death to life. While talking, they
used to emphasize “entanglement” and natural indivisibility. The words “related”, “network”, “in-
tertwined” were directly used during conversation by demonstrating and illustrating the inability
to dissociate, by highlighting the relationship among many things, by paying attention on the link
between death and life, the relation of world with experiences and well-being, human relationship,
the relationship with the next world, etc.
The other concept reflects in the theory as emphasis of “negotiation” and “striving” in the core
categories by showing that they are not static processes, but a constant movement, which takes
place both among the categories and in the categories. Some people consciously understood and
reflected this dynamic aspect – constant negotiation – by naming it clearly. While other people
used to express it in words without full understanding of that impact. It is obvious from the data
obtained that a person is no longer the same after certain events, insights and changes. His relation-
ship with himself, the world and other people changes inevitably. It forces to reconsider a number
of beliefs, values and other basic issues. For example, after hearing about illness of close friend,
various processes, which affect many different fields, start taking place inside. The other very
typical example is that while celebrating the anniversary, the life changes, the values or value of
relationships are reflected on. It is evident that the element of “constant negotiation” is inevitable
search by person for answer one has to find to feel better and to change the condition, which ap-
peared as the life situation changed (in this case, as it was heard about illness of friend).
This substantive theoretical model refers to healthy young adults. However, it is obvious that
these participants have a quite different personal experience, knowledge and skills to overcome
the difficulties of life. It is very difficult to talk about the mentioned group of broad range of age
as about homogenous one. Even without going deep into different age and related life experi-
ences, it is evident that the participants of this research were quite different people with different
understanding of value of life, different self-reflection level and ability to share their experience
with other person (researcher). It is obvious that both different personal structures and different
experiences and knowledge are related not only with the fact that a person takes part and talks
during research, but also with how he functions in life, how he overcomes the difficulties, how
he accepts the challenges of life. It is evident that the extent of “success” of “striving to live more
valuably”, the extent of efforts, distractions and difficulties a person will encounter in this path is
closely related with a person himself. This phenomenon is described by the concept of individual-
ity, thus, keeping the abstraction of “time, place, people”.
While facing the stories of participants during interviews and through diaries, it can be seen
that this topic involves, prevents from being indifferent, forces to express the position both in respect
of own experiences and by being interested in position of other people or just simply speaking on
this topic. One cannot remain neutral in the topic of finality of life. It also reveals itself through
intense experience by remembering the events or experience and sharing them, and by feeling the
need to present own position or assess other people. Even the arising desire to defend or simple
avoidance shows that it is impossible to avoid involvement, to remain unaffected, neutral. The
aforementioned phenomenon is generalized by the concept of affectability in the theory and it
exists during the whole period of research by playing an important role in individual categories.
It seems that a person can provide a number of reactions, which are very different and individual,
more or less adaptive, with different emotional colours, more or less defensive, however, one or
another reaction is always quite intensive. Both while speaking on this topic during interview and
later filling the diary or meeting during second interview, a person is full of various ideas, con-
siderations, overestimations and underestimations, and demonstrates a great interest in the results
of work and thoughts of other people. Irrespective of kind of reactions provided, of number of
experiences and of number of sharing the experiences, they are certainly not neutral and always
hide the originality and individuality of position of person. Even if this evidences by strong avoid-
ance and passionate attempt to devalue the experience, it is also a reaction.
Thus, the core category of finality of life, i.e., striving to live more valuably, emerges in above
described context of concepts. This category consists of two sub-core categories: finding a lively
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life and striving for subjective value of life. The core concept of the category contains and assimi-
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lates the mentioned sub-core categories, which are the main characteristics and components of
this core category. In this way the axis is formed around which the grounded theory revolves. The
aforementioned sub-categories and their sub-concepts are described in details in further parts.
Finding a Lively Life: A Sub-core Category
The encounter with death is always accompanied by experience of sudden and intense vital-
ity, which can be illustrated by slogan “but I am still alive!” The aforementioned experience in
the present paper is conceptualized as finding a lively life. Being near death, which contrasts with
life, strongly intensifies the experience of this vitality. It is not always important how a person
encounters death: whether it is the “everyday” death observation or experience of more stressful
event, or just intellectual reflection on death - it is accompanied by a sudden and intensive feeling
of vitality, which later is named as “as far as there is no death here, I am alive”. What is more, it
should be noted that although this experience of vitality is accompanied by euphoric tone, it is not
always pleasant due to its high intensity and result fairly strong anxiety. 4 quite clear characteristics,
accompanying the experience of vitality, can be distinguished: to act, to feel, to become involved
intensively and to be in time, which not only helps to feel vitality, but also fixes the vitality in the
experience of finality of life, thus, further pulling back from inevitability of death. It is like the
mechanisms, when you get involved by life itself and when it does not allow a person to escape
from his vitality.
It is important to mention that as people encounter the finality of life and name their death
as a tangible one, they quite quickly move to their life and taking care of it. The transition from
death to life is a typical action, even if the participants cannot realize it (although usually they do
realize). The data of research include many examples, showing that, in principle, people focus on
their life and try to look for other forms, situations or conditions, where they would feel better,
while meeting the inevitable fact of finality of life, and attempt to make some kind of actions,
which could influence the life and its value. Even they consider about death, more specifically,
about the process of dying, people look for the ways, how they could feel better in aforementioned
process as they are still alive, thus, the focus turns on life.
Striving for Subjective Value of Life: A Sub-core Category
After passing from death to life and discovering the life with his possibilities, a person tries
to live in a subjectively meaningful way and set out his priorities. A person starts looking for and
actively seeking what he would call value. Here, the personally experienced subjectivity becomes
very important: a person appreciates only that, what is valuable for him. Even if the moment of
value is not a long-term one, it shortly exists in the mind of person and, thus, motivates a person to
follow it. It should be noted that the phenomenon of value may become more active or emerge very
spontaneously and suddenly, when a person appears in the situation of finality of life (e.g., sees the
accident and suddenly realizes that instead of working he will spend the evening with family and
the loved ones, because it is more important for him), or it might be the result of long-term search,
when a person has been looking for and could not find a valuable life path for years. The effect and
the extent of intensity of persistence of this behaviour or trait, the extent of its value not always
depends on duration of search, it more depends on the value a person assigns to the phenomenon
and experience. Usually, he implements it in two ways: by looking for satisfaction with life and
condition facilitation. It should be noted that these are not contradicting phenomena. They can
take place simultaneously in a man and influence each other. These two concepts of striving for
subjective value of life will be discussed in details by highlighting their essential features.
Satisfaction with Life
The concept of satisfaction with life is described by some features, for example, subjective
value, self-being and sufficiency, which are discussed below. The issue of subjective value becomes
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very important in the background of finality of life. It seems that while facing the possibility of
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death and realizing (although for short time) the possibility of disappearance, a man immediately
faces the question of what is valuable, meaningful, and starts seeking this value. While looking
from a side, it is sometimes difficult to understand the aforementioned value, since it is not always
seen, however, a person usually has explanations and asks himself, what is valuable for him at that
moment: it can be getting drunk with friends in a bar, celebrating the false diagnosis of terminal
illness, quitting the job, leaving the annoying wife, faith in God, etc. Regardless of whether it
meets the public norms or not, it is important that it is valuable and meaningful for him, that it has
a subjectively experienced value. What is more, this issue of value can also include very broad
fields: it can be simple physical things (e.g., purchase of items, which have been wanted for a
long time), social matters (e.g., remembering the people, who have not been visited for a long
time), personal (e.g., decision not to listen to others’ opinions), spiritual (faith in God), ethical
(identification of important values). It seems that a man gets free then and allows himself starting
behaving in the way he wants – in the way that seems valuable for him.
It is important that the need of value and the corresponding behaviour are accompanied by
the strong feeling that it is really me, which can be described as self-being. It is the feeling, when
a person recognizes himself in that behaviour, when that behaviour makes him more himself. By
continuing to behave in the way described above, he more experiences the satisfaction with what
he does, creates, selects. It becomes as a clear opposition to alienation – a clear understanding of
what really does not exist, what is completely alien. It is focused, following the aforementioned
feeling of self-being. It becomes as internal compass, a person starts feeling, what is own and
what is not. It is important to note that the experience of self-being leads to great satisfaction and
encourages continuing the activity without being interested in how it is assessed by others.
The concept of sufficiency is the experience, born in the context of finality of life, when a
person realizes that he cannot have everything, reach everything, do everything, experience every-
thing, and starts looking for the extent, which would be sufficient for him, or realizes that what he
already has or has already experienced is sufficient. It is like a change in coordinate system: it is
moved from absolute measurement to very specific measurement. The experience of sufficiency
is often accompanied by a sense of relief and usually gives inner satisfaction.
Condition Facilitation
One more not less important striving for subjective value of life is person’s concern about
condition and striving to facilitate it, thus, ensuring his well-being. It is reflected by concept of
condition facilitation. As a person encounters the finality of life, he starts actively looking for what
to do, what to perform, in order it would be easier for him, in order to reduce the internal stress,
which appears as inevitability of death is realized. Condition facilitation has two characteristics:
search for facilitation and fading away. As a person encounters the finality of life, he becomes
constantly concerned with his condition. It is worth mentioning that the concern about it is very
valuable. Sometimes, the concern about condition may coincide with striving for subjective value
of life, while certain condition achieved is like the greatest symbol of value.
It is obvious that as a person encounters the finality of life, he immediately starts looking
for something that would help him to feel better, since he experiences anxiety at that moment
(even if it is not always named) and under its influence gets actively involved in it, the search for
facilitation starts. A part of energy is devoted to “taking care” of that he would feel better, one or
other active efforts are made, in order to achieve the aforementioned facilitation. A man notices
that he tries to practice the favourite activity, to be with the loved ones, to become involved in
usual routine activity, thus, often trying to forget about the death and finality of life. Sometimes,
a person denies or tries to distance himself from the thoughts, fantasies or memories, related with
this experience, and he even does not allow touching them anymore. Denial is probably one of
the most frequently encountered phenomena: when a person openly recognizes (although previ-
ously saying otherwise) for both himself and researcher that he does not feel anything, does not
experience anything, does not think about death or finality of life at all. It is often possible to feel
that failure to think and ability to deny is a great value and is considered as a result of successful
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inner life and work. While the moments, when fear is experienced, are considered as foolishness,
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weakness or inability to cope with internal disorder. The search for facilitation is also often ob-
served, when avoiding thinking or doing something that is related with experience of finality of
life. Thus, it is attempted to protect oneself in advance from difficult experiences and facilitate
the condition before the concept of affectability takes place. The mechanism of avoidance is well
reflected in a diary, when it was observed, how it is difficult to force oneself to think and write on
this topic, even if there were enough thoughts and wish.
The concept of fading away is like the opposite mechanism, which helps to facilitate the
condition, however, it often takes place without intervention of human will and only its result is
usually observed, which frequently surprises a person himself. While search for facilitation is
more “acute” phenomenon, fading away is a “chronic” one. It is a gradual, not sudden, internal
work, which lasts for a certain time and which is like a resistance to the mechanism of affectability.
While affectability involves actively, fading away “pulls out” a person often without noticing. It
is like the other side of concept of affectability, when a person becomes less affectable. This con-
cept is often described by people as the reaction of “forgetting”. It is probably best illustrated by
understanding, which became apparent during the second interview, that participants think about
experience of finality of life far less than they thought during the first interview. This experience is
often accompanied by surprise, since during the first interview people usually tell that they often
think about death, finality of life, have many thoughts and related experiences. It is often stated
that the thoughts about death are very common phenomenon. A person, met after some time, re-
ports with surprise that he had thought far less. As in case of writing a diary: during the first days
a man faced an abundance of ideas, which used to die away, and sometimes the desire to write
something more even disappeared.
The present article focuses only on the core category, however, as it has already been men-
tioned and illustrated in Figure 1, two other topics obviously dominated in research. Later, these
topics were given the titles of two significant categories: negotiating reality of death and negotiat-
ing changes in life. The mentioned topics will not be presented in details. It is just sought to show
that striving to live more valuably is strongly related with that what relation or control version,
theoretical view is chosen by person in respect of his death and how he accepts his life changes,
for example, aging, crumbling relationship, etc.
Discussion
The term value is rarely mentioned in the literature on death research and death anxiety. It is
even less stated that the value is the core element, speaking about encounter with inevitability of
death, personal mortality and the resulting feelings and experiences. However, precisely the value
plays a central role in this theory and enables to understand the experienced process better. The
term “more valuably” is perfect for reflecting the fact that these changes (sometimes, not changes,
but just adaptation or calming) take place not chaotically and randomly, but in very targeted man-
ner by emphasizing what is valuable for person at that moment. It is important to note that the
opposite things can also be very valuable. Therefore, the subjective value in this theory is also
experienced as from two sides: through attempts to find satisfaction with life and through condition
facilitation. There is abundance of ideas, grounding the significance of aforementioned concepts,
in the literature on death anxiety. However, its one or another aspect is more often highlighted,
therefore, we will review them.
Various mechanisms of denial, avoidance, distortion are used and emphasized in psychol-
ogy. They are most prevalent, when speaking about death anxiety or other encounter with death.
“Because we cannot live frozen in fear, we generate methods to soften death’s terror” (Yalom,
2008, p. 17). For some purpose, the first striking thing that was noticed, as it was started being
interested in this topic or while conducting interview with participants, is the great extent to which
people “defend”, while talking about death. Therefore, one of the elements of subjective value of
life in this research is condition facilitation. It is evident that a man is engaged in a lot of activi-
ties, in order to facilitate his condition, to start feeling better, since as a man encounters death and
his mortality, he immediately starts taking care of his condition. However, the present research
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attempts to draw attention on the fact that aforementioned behaviour – taking care of condition,
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sometimes preventing oneself from seeing, thinking about death or attempts to forget it – has a
value, since it is easier for a person. The present theory emphasizes that taking care of condition is
very valuable phenomenon for a person and not only denial and inaccurate reflection or distortion
of reality. Mikulincer and Florian (2008) often emphasize that adding additional factors rather than
just focusing on defence mechanisms can determine the success of deeper understanding of death
phenomenon. Thus, while talking about death one has to speak about life too. It is important to
note Tillich’s (1999) idea about courage to be and human ability to turn around and have a brave
look at situation and life in the face of obligation to die. In some sense, the research reveals that
despite of threat of death, a man turns to life. It is one of key elements of this theory, it is the
feature of the concept finding a lively life to shift from death towards life.
According to Moore and Williamson (2003), and Mikulincer and Florian (2008), there is no
doubt that the phenomenon of death understanding is very difficult, multidimensional and complex
construct, and people differ not only by intensity of experienced fear or anxiety, but also by meaning,
which they assign to death and concern, experienced and expressed when facing the death in reality.
For example, meaning management theory (Wong, 2008) draws attention on the fact that in order to
understand the relationship of person with death and mortality, it is not enough to talk about avoid-
ance of death, it is necessary to speak about human wish to have a nice, happy and meaningful life.
In this research, it is illustrated by the concept of subjective value, which specifies that a man seeks
to experience value and meaning, in order everything he does would not be empty, meaningless or
useless. However, a constant emphasis on the term “subjective” value should be noted. A value, as a
meaning, which is discovered and important for man, is not abstract, but very individual. According
to Frankl (1998), it is impossible to define the meaning of human life as it is impossible to answer
the questions about meaning by general statements. Similarly, a personal subjectivity, emphasizing
the fact that what is subjectively valuable in the experience of finality of life for one person can be
incomprehensible and obviously meaningless for other person, is of utmost importance in the pres-
ent research. It seems like contradicting with statement of representatives of terror management
theories, i.e., Solomon, Greenberg and Pyszczynsky (1991), that identification with standards of
certain culture or identification with specific system helps people to experience the finality of life in
an easier manner. It is strongly related with the concept of self-being that the need of value and the
resulting behaviour is accompanied by strong feeling that it is really me. It is the feeling that a man
recognizes himself in this behaviour, that he becomes more himself by this behaviour. Here, it is
important to mention Heidegger (1992) and his ideas about authentic life, since he emphasizes that
the nature of death and possibility enables to disclose the structures of authentic being. Similarly,
the participants of research sometimes succeed to discover their self-being, which could be under-
stood as authenticity, through encounter with inevitability of death. The concept of sufficiency is
also characterized by similar relation, when a man no longer seeks the vague ideals of perfection,
but looks for clear and specific things, is able to experience the feeling of sufficiency, while facing
both everyday matters and more important events of life. It is related with rapprochement of Rogers’
(2005) “real self” and “ideal self”. As a result, there is less stress and the relief comes. Here, it might
be related with Neimeyer and Chapman’s (1980-81) research, when they followed the idea of Sartre
(1956) that death will be more frightening for those individuals, whose life project is incomplete,
because death will have the action of terminating the life and will be incompatible with sufficiency
of realization of ideas. Similarly, the present research demonstrates that sufficiency has a meaningful
value and is a part of satisfaction with life.
The theory striving to live more valuably constantly refers to striving and constant move-
ment, which is called a constant negotiation in the present paper and illustrates a dynamic aspect.
The word to negotiate at first seemed too managerial and not exactly revealing the psychological
picture of a man, however, the attempts to find the concept, which would outline the researched
phenomena more accurately, have been unsuccessful. This term is also used in Kubler-Ross’ (2001)
papers, where she calls the third stage of encounter with death as negotiation. Perhaps the author
more emphasizes the human desire to postpone the verdict of fate by changing the behaviour,
lifestyle, habits through negotiation with God (or some other higher power). However, the present
research also felt the attempts of person to negotiate, confer, look for some ways out and solutions
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by making various dialogues with themselves, facts, other people, with events or changes in the
32
life. Therefore, the term “to negotiate” seemed to be appropriate for expressing a constant move-
ment and attempts to find a personally suitable position.
The present research shows that it can be seen that one cannot remain neutral in the topic of
finality of life. The theme of encounter with inevitability of death involves, prevents from being
indifferent, forces to express the position both in respect of own experiences and by being inter-
ested in position of other people or just simply speaking on this topic. This phenomenon has been
relatively little described and explored in the literature. Perhaps the closest would be the mortality
salience, proposed by authors of terror management theories (Schmeichel et al., 2009). It is obvious
that the future research should explore the phenomenon of affectability more, in order to describe
its impact and levels more accurately. Terror management theory mainly deals with influence of
self-esteem (internal and external) and its protective function from mortality salience (Solomon
et al, 1991; Herman-Jones et al., 1997; Schmeichel et al., 2009). However, as it has already been
mentioned, affectability is a broader concept, which includes not only the embarrassing death
events, but also aging, as well as events that seem not to be directly related with mortality, for
example, celebrations and anniversaries, and sometimes even wedding. It is evident that this topic
has not been exhausted yet and requires further analysis and deeper understandings.
As all researches are characterized by unique limitations, this research also has some. Some
limitations were related with the topic itself, its conceptual confusion, resistance of people to be
open and at the same time the great desire to talk about death and finality. Furthermore, other
limitations were related with methodological nuances, with classic GT itself and its aim to develop
a specific theory: when the maximum conceptualization was sought and when it was distanced
from specific person, place and time. It is obvious that the selected method limited and at the
same time enabled to explore the topic of finality of life in precisely this way. It dictated both the
originality of research, the number of participants, type and presentation of results, adaptation
possibilities. While carrying out the research and preparing this paper, the requirements of “full
package” were followed without omitting any significant working procedures, using the necessary
research instruments and following the ethical and transparency requirements. However, it was
often pity to “sacrifice” the interesting experience of people, significant quotes by hiding them in
abstract codes, concepts and categories. Despite this fact, with the help of conceptual categories
it was possible to develop and expand the theory itself. What is more, the question how the theory
would look like, if we selected other core category, remains open. GT seeks not to create a precise
and universal truth, but to develop a theory with meaning both in substantive field, where the
research is carried out, and for those, who concern about this phenomenon. There is no one way
to examine the data as there is no way to explain the theoretical model, especially, when talking
about such complex phenomenon as finality of life. In this case, one has to block his fantasy and
leave it for further research. Therefore, the evaluation of theory “striving to live more valuably”
should be left for further research by using other methods of empirical research. There is an
increasing number of data about usage of structural equation modeling to test the core elements
of GT theory and their links in the literature (Rosenbaum, 2012). What is more, it also should
be noted that this research was carried out in Lithuanian language, while translation to English
was obviously an additional step, which inevitably affected and influenced the concepts and their
wordings. Recently, the articles, stating that translation is additional GT work and action, have
appeared (Tarozzi, 2012). However, we do expect that despite the aforementioned limitations, the
theory will help psychologists, psychotherapists or other professionals, who face this phenomenon
in practice, to understand its structure and change better, and will help to draw attention on im-
portance of value, experienced in the background of finality of life, and will stimulate to go deep
into what is valuable and important in the life of a person.
Conclusions
As encounter the finality of life, healthy young adults are “thrown” into experience of inevi-
tability of death and already during interview try to reflect, what is happening with them, attempt
to cope with this experience, seeking to live more valuably and increasing the value of their life.
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The theory striving to live more valuably attempts to explain and conceptualize how they expe-
33
rience and deal with, when facing the finality of life. The centre of aforementioned theoretical
structure is a person, who is placed to the field of comprehensive links thanks to his individuality
and affectability, thus, forcing him to look for solution by increasing the value of life and to bal-
ance between tensions, which appear, while negotiating the reality of death and life changes. By
doing so, a person seeks the well-being and value of his life in a few fields: condition facilitation
and satisfaction with life. Satisfaction with life is sought through subjective value, self-being and
sufficiency. Condition facilitation is thought through search for facilitation and fading away. The
theoretical model striving to live more valuably can serve as multifactorial and innovative concept,
which can expand and direct future research towards fresher direction, enrich the understanding
of death phenomenon and finality of life, and stimulate further empirical research.
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Advised by Agnė Matulaitė, Vilnius University, Lithuania
Received: February 11, 2013 Accepted: March 14, 2013
Agnė Jurgaitytė-Avižinienė Doctoral Student, Department of Clinical and Organizational Psychology, Vilnius
University, Universiteto Street 9/1, Vilnius, Lithuania.
E-mail: agne@pkc.lt
Website: http://www.fsf.vu.lt
Rimantas Antanas Kočiūnas Professor, Department of Clinical and Organizational Psychology, Vilnius University,
Universiteto Street 9/1, Vilnius, Lithuania.
E-mail: rimask@parkas.lt
Website: http://www.fsf.vu.lt
ISSN 2029-8587
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35
HIERARCHICAL PRINCIPLE IN THE

PROBLEM OF A TYPOLOGICAL SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT
Valentina Kamenskaya
Herzen State Pedagogical University, St. Petersburg, Russia
E-mail: kamenskaya-v@mail.ru
Larissa Khokhlova
Northern State Medical University, Arkhangelsk, Russia
E-mail: lkhokhlova@rambler.ru
Abstract
The study contains the theoretical review of different historical approaches to the study of typological prop-
erties of a man. One of the well-known typological systems in foreign psychology has been developed in
constitutionology, juvenility characteristics, however, haven’t been included in its structure. On the basis of
the studied samples the authors of the research consider the empirical proofs of juvenility existence, its signifi-
cance in typological perspective and the formation of mental functions. The research findings of typological
properties of the morphofunctional brain organization as a subject of both Russian and foreign psychology
and psychophysiology are analyzed. Theoretical and experimental material is integrated in the analysis of
individual typological peculiarities of students of higher educational establishments. The regularities of their
manifestation at genotypic, behavioral and personal levels representing various hierarchical layers of a per-
son’s typological system are revealed.
Key words: behaviour, brain, constitution, hierarchy of topological properties, interhemispheric relations,
juvenility, model, personal features.
Introduction
Being an important aspect of differential psychophysiology and psychology the investigations

of systemic typology don’t lose their relevance for several centuries. According to the system and
classification view points the entire history of a man’s study is the “arena” of numerous methodologi-
cal approaches. In the chaos of individual variations of behavior and reflex reaction scientists try to
reveal those determining factors of behavioral identity that are capable of composing the foundation
of typological classifications.
The study of typological peculiarities began with Hippocrates-Galen’s humoral theory based
on four humors of the organism. In the Middle Ages differences between people were attributed
to the prevalence of alchemical elements in the body. The epoch of Renaissance was marked by
the appearance of the anatomical approach. Its supporters began studying the differences of tis-
sues and width of the lumen of vessels. Followers of the endocrine theory appeared at the begin-
ning of the 20th century associated the peculiarities of the man’s behavior with the balance and
work coordination of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the vegetative nervous
system. After Pavlov’s research (1950) special emphasis began to be attached to the manifestation
specificities of the properties of the nervous system that allowed to compare them with tempera-
ment types. From the structural and system approach suggested by Nebylitsin (1976) two major
ISSN 2029-8587 Valentina KAMENSKAYA, Larissa KHOKHLOVA. Hierarchical Principle in the Problem of a Typological System Development
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constituents of the multilevel organization of the nervous system properties began to be spoken
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about: the level of the nervous elements (neurons) and the level of the structural complexes of the
brain. The investigations of the followers of the behavioral approach (Rusalov, 1991; Golubeva,
2005) were aimed at studying the dynamic side of the temperament, its intellectual, emotional
and psychomotor activity. The idea of the man’s complex study and his level organization with
the basic genetically determined individual level belongs to Ananiev (2001) the founder of the
psychophysiological school.
The presence of such a great number of approaches points to the complexity of personality
typologies. At the same time the undying interest of scientists to this problem indicates its great
scientific significance.
Permanent interest to the study of identity bases reflects not only the tendency to a more
successful prediction of the peculiarities of individual behavior, but certain transformation in the
understanding of the nature and essence of the individuality. The idea of the identity as a source
of imperfections of scientific observations and evolution by-product is steadily being changed by
the understanding of the identity significance as a necessary and natural result of the evolutionary
development, foundation and driving force of various types of communication and uniting people
(Medzhidova, 2007).
The main problem of the given research concerned the development of an integral model of a
person’s typological characteristics.
The research was conducted at the Department of Psychology and Psychophysiology of a

Child of Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia (HSPU) and the Foreign Language Depart-
ment of the Northern State Medical University (NSMU). The objective was twofold. One aim was
to reveal the individual typological peculiarities in students of higher educational establishments.
On the other hand it was necessary to see how these characteristics were manifested at genotypic,
behavioral and personal levels and if there was any hierarchical interrelation between levels of a
person’s typological system.
Sample of Research
Studies were performed on groups of students studying psychology and students with different
levels of proficiency in foreign language (well and badly advanced students). The sample size was
800 students of both sexes. The mean age ranged from 17 to 19 years. All participants gave informed
consent. Study protocols were approved by Ethics Committees of HSPU and NSMU.
The research included both psychophysiological and psychological methods. The psychophysi-
ological part of the study consisted of 1) EEG methods of brain investigation on a 16-channel “Neiron
Spectr 3” electroencephalograph using the International 10-20 system of electrode placement and
monopolar technique; 2) the authors’ program of the reflexometric investigation (Kamenskaya &
Tomanov, 2007); 3) the method of the experimental study and parameterization of the decision-making
mechanism developed on the basis of Anokhin’s theory (1980) of functional systems (investigation
on a psychophysiological complex “Binatest”); 4) the anthropometrical express method of juvenil-
ity assessment including the measurement of the head circumference or the length of the cerebral
skull on the sagittal line.
The psychological part of the study was aimed at the determination of personal characteristics
(Kettel’s test) and property assessment of the higher nervous activity (Strelau’s test).
Valentina KAMENSKAYA, Larissa KHOKHLOVA. Hierarchical Principle in the Problem of a Typological System Development ISSN 2029-8587
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Data Analysis
37
The statistical analysis package Statistica 8 (for Windows, V 8.0, StatSoft) and MatLab (R2007b)
were used for data analysis. For different experimental tasks and psychological tests sigma (statisti-
cal index of the variability), means and standard deviations were calculated. All measurements were
estimated for compliance to the normal law of distribution. The obtained data were statistically
analyzed by using Student t-test and calculating nonparametric correlations (Spearman correlation
coefficient). For all analyses a P- value ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant.
The EEG data recorded from each participant were visually inspected and trials were rejected
when contaminated by artifacts induced by eye movements and muscle tension. Functional brain
asymmetries were statistically analyzed according to coherence readings. Absolute spectral power
was taken into consideration while determining hemisphere dominance.
Juvenility level was determined by the following formula: the mean + sigma = an average juve-
nility level. Deviations from the mean (higher, lower) + sigma were considered as a high juvenility
level or a low juvenility level correspondingly.
Results of Research
The main choice made in favor of students of two higher educational establishments (HSPU and
NSMU) isn’t casual. University training often proceeds in conditions of the increased environmen-
tal uncertainty and intensive cognitive stress. It’s accompanied by a constant change of situational
afferentation resulting in alteration of the dominant functional systems composing the student’s
academic activity. Its success is greatly determined by individual peculiarities including genotypic
preconditions of abilities, mental state and the condition of physiological functions.
Structure determination of the typological properties can give some guidelines for psychologi-
cal support of students during their university training. Following the idea that people with different
typological features can be reliable in their activity and only certain ones make a person unreliable,
we demonstrate the findings of the investigations conducted in groups of students with high and
low levels of academic achievements. Typological properties are considered in the form of three
hierarchically connected levels: genotypic (individual, constitutional), behavioral (temperamental)
and phenotypically-personal.
The analysis of scientific literature, experimental works of Russian anthropology and psy-
chophysiology allowed to develop the model of four-coordinate typological system of compara-
tively autonomous genotypically determined constitutional properties. According to theoretical
conceptions (Rudkevich & Kamenskaya, 1999; Ananiev, 2001; Rudkevich, 2001). this individual
constitutional level includes somatotypological axis (mesomorphia, ectomorphia, endomorphia),
the axis of biological maturation speed (retardation, acceleration), juvenility axis and the axis of the
morphofunctional brain properties in the form of interhemispheric relations and general properties
of the nervous system (strength, steadiness, speed, stochasticity)
Considered category of juvenility representing one of the man’s constitutional properties, the
principles of his biological organization and evolution playing a significant role not only in the or-
ganism formation but psyche as well emphasizes the appropriateness of the undertaken researches.
The analysis of juvenility as a less studied constitutional property manifesting in interhemispheric
relations and their manifestations in personal features and behavior is a key aspect.
The study of correlations of different juvenility levels with the quality of the sensorimotor
integration assessed by the method of stochastic reflexometry (Kamenskaya & Tomanov, 2007) has
given some interesting findings.
Based on the juvenility level three groups were formed. They were: female students with a
low juvenility level (n=20), those with an average juvenility level (n=77) and the ones with a high
juvenility level (n=29).
The quality of the sensorimotor integration and speed characteristics of the sensorimotor reaction
were assessed in two sensory tasks differing in their complexity degree. There was a signal detec-
tion in the speed task. It was necessary to carry out the motor action with the greatest possible speed
to all incoming stimuli (visual stimuli of three colors with a total presentation probability 0.75 and
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acoustic stimuli with the appearance probability equal to 0.25). In differential more complex task it
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was necessary to execute a choice reaction to different visual stimuli: stimuli of red color required
inhibition of the reciprocal motor reaction with the preservation of high-speed motor actions to other
stimuli. Stochastic mode in these two tasks was fractal.
In addition to stochastic reflexometry we used a more complex perceptual task of the search of
figure stimuli on a certain color background changing under the law unknown to the examinee. This
dynamic matrix had four color backgrounds that changed and required voluntary attention distribu-
tion to the background color and to the search of the necessary figure in the matrix. Each correct
answer changed the figure location in the matrix. Its volume was rather large (100 symbols - 25 by
each color). After each correct answer the number of symbols increased by one. Incorrect figure or
incorrect color background were considered as mistakes. In case of any mistake there was a sound
signal. The examinee had to remember the last figure and pay attention to the color background. After
mistake correction the dynamic mode was restored and the work proceeded as before.
The verified hypothesis was that female students with different juvenility levels were character-
ized by the presence of differential features in the system of the sensorimotor integration, perceptual
and motor activity. Girls with a higher juvenility level are likely to have more effective mechanisms
of the sensorimotor reaction and high level of the selective attention organization as compared with
girls with a low juvenility level. At the same time, the developed juvenility feature must also deter-
mine the advantage at a perceptual-cognitive level manifesting in faster and better performance (with
a less number of mistakes) of perceptual tasks on figure recognition in the dynamic matrix.
It should be noted that girls with low and high juvenility levels carry out simple tasks on stimulus
detection almost equally. They have close average values of the response time (RT) to all sensory
stimuli. The RT to sound tends to be longer in girls with a high juvenility level. The task complica-
tion at the expense of the choice reaction emphasizes the ratio of the response quality in girls with
different juvenility levels as shown in Figure 1.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
dt RT color Rt sound
Figure 1: Speed parameters of the performance of the complex choice task.

Note: dt – mean value of the RT to all sensory stimuli both visual and acoustic. RT color – mean value of the RT to all visual stimuli.
RT sound – mean value of the RT to an acoustic stimulus. Left histograms in pairs – parameters of girls with a high juvenility level,
right histograms in pairs – parameters of examinees with a low juvenility level.
Girls with different juvenility levels have similar reactions to sensory stimuli, the RT to the
acoustic stimulus being significantly longer in girls with a high juvenility level as compared with the
RT characteristic of the girls with a low juvenility level. Students with a high juvenility level have
quicker reactions to highly probable stimuli (stimuli with a high appearance frequency), the visual
ones in the given task. They either miss signals with a low appearance frequency or have delayed
reactions to them. It means that at the level of the signal detection and choice reaction execution
the girls with a high juvenility level seem to be worse in the reaction speed than their peers with a
low juvenility level. They are therefore characterized by less perfect mechanisms of the selective
attention in comparison with the girls with a low juvenility level.
Different situation is observed in case of the performance of perceptual tasks of figure recogni-
tion on the background of different color. Girls performed two identical tasks of the figure search
on a changing color background with a break to test their motivational characteristics. During this
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interval the girls were asked to assess the time of the task performance. Several simple and clear facts
39
were received. Irrespective of the juvenility level girls learned in the course of the task performance.
During the second test they all had less time expenditure to the task performance with a less number
of mistakes as shown in Figure 2.
250
200 0 0
* 0
150
100 session 1
50 session 2
0
1st group 2nd group 3rd group
session 1 208,35 189,3 182,5

session 2 177,44 162,39 161,78
Figure 2: Mean time spent for test implementation.

Note: “0” – reflects a significant decrease of time expenditure characteristic of all girls in the second session as compared with the
first one. “*” – reflects significant differences of time expenditure in girls with a high juvenility level (3rd group) in comparison with
those with a low juvenility level (1st group).
Figure 2 indicates higher speed of processes of the figure recognition and less time expenditure
to the matrix performance both in the first and second sessions in students with a high juvenility level
in comparison with those with a low juvenility level. Higher speed of the cognitive and search activity
based on the random access memory, voluntary attention concentration and its switching corresponds to
a less number of mistakes made by the female students with a high juvenility level in comparison with
their peers with a low juvenility level. Thus, in more complex perceptual and cognitive task the girls with
a high juvenility level appeared to be more successful as compared with the girls with a low juvenility
level. Research findings (Kamenskaya & Pavlov, 2010) have concluded that it can be considered as a
manifestation of more perfect mechanisms of the random access memory and voluntary attention.
The carried out statistical analysis indicates some degree of autonomous functioning of the ge-
notypic level (EEG results, assessment results of the nervous system properties) composing 57.4%
of general dispersion. The levels of temperamental (investigation on a psychophysiological complex
“Binatest”, results of Strelau’s test) and personal properties (results of Kettel’s test) make up 45.7%
and 37.4% correspondingly.
External factors are well known to influence the psyche formation. When considering this thesis
from the psychophysiological investigations view points and taking into consideration the obtained
interlevel gap we must ask the following question – what external factors and through what internal
conditions influence the realization of the genotypic development program and manifestations of
genotypically determined psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of the person’s in-
dividuality.
It is hypothetically possible to believe that such conditions are the brain systems providing mental
functioning. Khomskaya (2000) gives a number of reasons to suggest that neuropsychological factors
reflect the genetic mechanisms of mental activity, i.e. genotype influences the mental phenomena
through morphofunctional brain formations.
Conducted EEG studies (Khokhlova & Deryagina, 2005; Khokhlova, 2011) have systematized
data related to the structurally functional features of the cortical activity of students with high and low
levels of academic achievements. Parameters of the alpha rhythm seem to be the most interesting ones
in our case. Reviews of research (Annet, 1995; Andersen, 2003; Dumenko, 2007) show that alpha band
is genotypically determined The studied groups differed in the power of biopotentials of the background
alpha band in the frontal and parieto-occipital areas of the left hemisphere (well advanced students) and
in the fronto-occipital leads of the right hemisphere (badly advanced students) (Figure 3).
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Well advanced students Badly advanced students
Figure 3: Map of the spectral power of the background alpha band in groups of
well and badly advanced students.
Note: darker red color – the greatest spectral power
The greatest concentration of the cross-correlation associations of the cortical potentials at rest is
registered in these areas. Sviderskaya (1990) points to the existence of the “cognitive axis” including
the abovementioned brain areas taking part in the analysis and synthesis of information in different
ways (successive and simultaneous) and at various levels of consciousness. It was shown (Sviderskaya
& Korolkova, 1994) that the “cognitive axis” was a genetically determined manifestation of the space
organization of the cortex biopotentials. The location of the hyperactivity areas can vary depending
on the physical condition of a man. Violation of the cortical, subcortical interrelations is considered
as inversion of the “cognitive axis” representing the defect in the system of extero- and interoceptive
information processing (Kiroi, 1991).
At a neurophysiological level the activity of the frontal and parieto-temporal areas of the right
hemisphere is associated with the system of the avoiding behavioral inhibition and high levels of
personal anxiety (Aftanas, 2005, p. 325). The prevalent activity of the parieto-occipital area of the left
hemisphere corresponds to a positive emotional condition that is likely to demonstrate the influence
of the genotypic factor on the phenotypic manifestation of anxiety. The investigation into EEG orga-
nization (Shepovalnikov & Tsitseroshin, 2007) indicates the presence of some association between
the nature of the regional cortical activity, functional brain asymmetry and personal specificities of
emotional functioning
According to research findings direct relation between the parameters of situational anxiety,
personal anxiety and alpha-band amplitude in the frontal areas of the right hemisphere was revealed
in badly advanced students. These data are likely to indicate some disadaptation manifestations in this
group of students.
Proved interrelation of cognitive and emotional processes with the alpha-band activity emphasizes
the role of their integration at the cortical level.
Optimal EEG parameters of the alpha band observed in the group of well advanced students
correlated with significantly (p≤0.05) greater indices of the mobility and steadiness of the nervous
processes (Strelau’s test) reaching 66.5±0.57 points on a mobility scale and 0.94±0.01 points on the
ratio of excitation and inhibition processes.
In the group of badly advanced students the results of Strelau’s test were the following: mobil-
ity – 54.2±1.33 points; steadiness – 0.80±0.02 points. The steadiness of the nervous processes in this
group of students demonstrated the negative interrelation with the activity of the sensory areas of the
cortex (r=-0.97) indicating the low threshold of sensory excitation. The results obtained let us speak
about the individual modulation of the intensity of the anterior and posterior focuses of the bioelectrical
activity of the brain depending on the type of the higher nervous activity.
Concerning the behavioral (temperamental) level considered as the following step of the identity
typology, the method results of the experimental study and parametrization of such fundamental mecha-
nism of the higher nervous activity as decision-making in the conditions of a choice from some alternative
purposeful reactions (psychophysiological complex “Binatest”, Russia) seem to be the most interesting.
The statistical analysis of our research findings showed the heterogeneity of the obtained data that
in turn dictated the need of the identification of certain typological features.
While investigating on the psychophysiological complex “Binatest” the mode without behavior
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determination by external stimuli when the examinee makes a multiple “free choice” should be men-
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tioned. The decision-making process determined by the internal mechanisms of the successive aim
formation only is manifested in this case. As a made choice is usually dichotomic we used the situation
of the choice from two alternative reactions – pressing by a computer mouse the right or the left but-
ton. By means of the computer mouse the examinee had to light two boxes in the sequence and with a
speed that seemed to be the most convenient for him or her.
Two opposite groups were revealed. They are students preferring “a single choice” (one button
pressing) and students preferring “a repeated and N times in succession choice”. The carried-out sta-
tistical analysis has revealed two groups of orthogonal factors characteristic of the general structure
of test parameters.
The first group was made up by the structural indices (choice preference) determining 43.57% of
the general dispersion. The second group included dynamic (high-speed) parameters (15.73%). Thus,
the choice preference appeared to be dominant in the general architecture of the behavioral act in the
conditions of free activity. Structural variations determined the difference in dynamic characteris-
tics of the studied groups. Maximal lability (or minimal mean time between reactions) was noted in
students preferring “a repeated and N times in succession choice” (0.30±0.01 s. against 0.57±0.03 s.
in the group of students preferring “a single choice”- one button pressing) that was likely to indicate
the high speed of the nervous processes of the frontostriated system realizing the purposeful behavior
(Simonov, 1997).
According to the differential indices of the decision-making time at a repeated choice we as-
sessed such functional patterns of the behavioral act as a mean time of the choice repetition reflecting
the information component and the mean time of the choice change – the dynamic constituent of the
motivational component, the search activity in particular.
In accordance with Simonov’s theoretical conception (1997) the presence of a certain dominant
need (motivational component) and the prediction of the probability of this need achievement (infor-
mation component) are the behavior determinants. The prediction success is determined by the man’s
knowledge of the environment. The motivational components are mainly manifested in the degree of
the search activity and depend on the signals of the environment. It should be noted that it is the search
activity that represents a general nonspecific factor determining the body’s resistance to stress and
harmful effects at various forms of behavior (Rotenberg & Arshavsky, 1994).
According to our research findings both the information (mean time of the choice repetition)
(0.50±0.04 s.) and motivational (mean time of the choice change) (0.48±0.03 s.) components are equally
demonstrated in the structure of the behavioral reactions of students preferring “a repeated and N times
in succession choice”. The information component indices composing the successful activity basis were
slightly higher although these differences were not statistically significant. The excess manifestation of
the search activity (dynamic constituent of the motivational component 0.66±0.05) indicating the high
level of the behavior uncertainty was noted in the group of students preferring “a single choice”.
Considering the above, it should be noted that behavior strategies depend on the man’s individual
specificities. Behavioral (temperamental) level representing certain sequence of reactions developing
in time and space determines steady forms of the man’s behavior in standard conditions. The proper-
ties of the nervous system manifesting in the functional brain activity, its greater or less excitability,
the mobility of the nervous processes and speed of the formation of temporal associations mediate the
brain neuronal activity and psychological characteristics demonstrating the possible influence of the
genotypic specificities on the human behavior.
The third layer in the typological hierarchy is phenotypically personal. According to research
findings (Khokhlova, 2011) it is manifested in specific characteristics of a person’s activity and is
influenced by the brain functional peculiarities.
Important information was obtained while analyzing the correlation structure of the personal
characteristics determined by Kettel’s test and alpha-band amplitude in standard leads.
The left-hemisphere dominant students (85% of well advanced students and 37% of badly advanced
students) had a number of distinctive features. Such personality properties as increased self-control
level (factor Q3), courage (factor H) and self-sufficiency (factor Q2) had positive correlations with
the activity of the sensory areas of both hemispheres (Table 1). Parameters of the Q4 factor (tension)
correlated negatively with the activity of the sensory and association areas of the right hemisphere.
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Factor C (emotional stability) had positive correlations with the activity of the frontal integrative areas
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of the cortex. The prevalence of positive correlations is likely to indicate a sufficient level of the cortical
control in left-hemisphere dominant students. Evenly distributed loading between brain hemispheres
prevents the appearance of the failure of the central mechanisms of regulation. In this case it’s possible
to say about the effective adaptation strategies characteristic of such students.
Table 1. Correlation structure of Kettel’s test parameters with alpha-band

amplitude in standard leads.
Left-hemisphere dominance Right-hemisphere dominance
Parameter r Parameter r
Factor Q3 – F3 0.67 Factor Q3 – F3 -0.95
Factor Н – F4 0.72 Factor Q3 – F7 -0.97
Factor Q2 – O1 0.77 Factor Q3 – C4 0.93
Factor Q4 – T6 -0.68 Factor H – F3 -0.86
Factor Q4 – P4 -0.66 Factor Q4 – F8 0.71
Factor С – FP1 0.74 Factor Q1 – F4 0.69
Factor С – F7 0.82
Factor C-P3 0.87
The correlation structure observed in the right-hemisphere dominant students (15% of well
advanced students and 63% of badly advanced students) was characterized by the prevalence of
negative correlations with the scales reflecting both sthenic (impulsation - increased self-control
– factor Q3; shyness – factor H) and hyposthenic response type (tension – factor Q4; introversion-
extroversion – factor Q1). It is likely to point to the fact that behavior strategies of the right-
hemisphere dominant students are determined by a combination of two variables: the tendency to
self-actualization and tendency to the increased self-control to keep relations with people around.
The noted low background activity of the alpha-band in this case seems to be a compensatory
mechanism that prevents the transformation of the emotional intensity into a biological variant
of disadaptation (Sobchik, 1998).
The findings obtained emphasize the complexity of the cause-effect relationships between
the genotype and phenotype with respect to the characteristics reflecting the social personality
status, i.e. her or his social genesis. All these personal specificities have natural basis due to the
typological manifestation peculiarities of the properties of the nervous system. On the other hand
they are the result of the development “trajectory” following the interaction regularities of the
genotype and the environment.
Discussion
Typological properties of a person have a complex hierarchical structure with closely inter-
related levels. It’s a specific map of the psyche and human nature. Available typological systems
are based on research findings in the field of somatotypology as a part of constitutionology (Shel-
don, 1940; Conrad, 1963; Кrechmer, 1995), biochemistry (Buss, 1984), psychophysiology (Riley,
2002), genetics (Rushton, 1986; Plomin, 1989).
Our approach to the typological system is the one of modern psychology and psychophysiol-
ogy. The suggested three-coordinate system with genotypic, behavioral and personal levels seems
to be more appropriate to understand preconditions of cognitive abilities and human behavior
specificities. Such constitutional characteristic of a person as juvenility proved to have great
significance in the properties of the nervous system. Its effect is obvious in mental processes,
quantitative and qualitative parameters of the sensorimotor response.
Research findings indicate that adult girls with a high juvenility level lose their advantage in
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the speed and quality of the sensorimotor integration. They focus on highly probable signals and
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miss the ones with a low appearance frequency. It’s likely to indicate the decrease of the selective
attention switching. At the same time adult girls with a high juvenility level are characterized by
high speed and good accomplishment quality of the perceptual and cognitive tasks, i.e. tasks of
higher complexity degree in comparison with the tasks of stimulus detection and choice reaction
execution. Thus, at the level of highly organized functions the individuals with a high juvenility
level have advantage over those with a low juvenility level.
The results obtained are consistent with the experimental material related to the correlations
between different levels of juvenility and teenagers’ psychological features (Rudkevich, 2001).
It was shown that teenagers with a high juvenility level had high or average-to-high intelligence,
decreased aggressiveness and vague leadership. In the majority of cases they have introvertive
character. Teenagers with a low juvenility level are characterized by opposite features. They are
rather aggressive and predisposed to physical violence; the level of intelligence development is
lower as compared with their peers with a high juvenility level.
Typological characteristics are manifested in the interhemispheric relations, personal fea-
tures and decision-making mechanisms. The formation of the behavior vector is determined by
the functional (dominant) condition of the central mechanisms of the brain. Ukhtomsky (1966)
reached the conclusion that the dominant was based on three major factors: prevalent motivation,
last life experience and the assessment of the stochastic structure of the environment. According
to the research (Batuev, 1981) the first two factors are the internal behavior determinants creating
the mosaic of the functional conditions of the brain structures
Based on the above it seems possible to consider the genotypic level as a key aspect in a
person’s development. The investigation of the genotypic level determinants becomes a special
link binding the individual genome and individual specificities of the man’s psyche. It explains the
strategy of our researches, namely: the approach to the study of the determination of typological
peculiarities through the assessment of the genotype role in the variability of psychophysiological
and psychological features.
Conclusions
On the basis of research findings it’s possible to conclude that among otherwise healthy
people there is an internal biological heterogeneity determining the choice of behavior strategies.
In our investigations we’ve tried to develop a sufficiently valid individual typological approach
with respect to the prognosis of the person’s adaptive ability and his or her success.
The training process at a higher educational establishment is characterized by stochasticity
and unpredictability of the interaction of the regulatory functional systems. The properties of the
genotypic, temperamental and personal levels represent the invariant slowly changing parts of the
system of typological peculiarities of a person or the ones that remain constant for a long time.
Their complex analysis becomes a necessary condition of the prediction of dynamics and efficiency
of the behavioral reaction in changing environmental conditions as well as psychological support
of students during their university training.
The results achieved give us very positive feedback to proceed with the research of personal-
ity typology.
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Advised by Jūratė Armonienė, Vilnius University, Lithuania
Valentina Kamenskaya Ph.D. (senior doctorate) in Psychophysiology, Professor, Corresponding Member of the
Russian Academy of Education, Herzen State Pedagogical University, St. Petersburg,
Russia.
E-mail: kamenskaya-v@mail.ru
Larissa Khokhlova Ph.D. in Psychophysiology, Associate Professor, Northern State Medical University,
Arkhangelsk, Russia.
E-mail: lkhokhlova@rambler.ru
ISSN 2029-8587
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46
THE EFFECTS OF PARASITES

ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR: AN
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
Pavol Prokop
Trnava University, Trnava, Slovakia;
Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
E-mail: pavol.prokop@savba.sk
Peter Fedor
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
E-mail: fedor@fns.uniba.sk
Abstract
Parasites and predators possess serious threats to humans throughout our evolutionary history. Although the
impact of predators in modern world is lower than previously, parasites still influence morbidity and mortality
of contemporary humans. From the evolutionary perspective, selective pressures caused by parasites should
favour individuals that successfully avoid objects/subjects which transmit parasitic diseases and/or those
who are successful in combats with them. There is growing evidence for the existence of evolved anti-parasite
behaviours in animals, beginning with invertebrates and ending with primates. Avoidance of infected individu-
als, grooming and self-medication are most common behavioural strategies that are believed to reduce the
transmission of parasites. Here we review recent evidence suggesting that several behavioural and emotional
traits in humans evolved as a response to selective pressure caused by parasites. Disgust sensitivity and patho-
gen threat may be a mechanism that generates both a cross-cultural variation in preferences for certain facial
traits, as well as drivers of religious diversity, political stability of countries, parenting cognitive abilities and
prevalence of extraversion and openness to new ideas. Finally, we declare areas for a future research based
on questions guided by the evolutionary perspective.
Key words: evolution, human, parasites, psychology.
Introduction
Archaeological evidence had revealed that organisms in the world change over time. Although
this was known long ago, the causal mechanism that could explain how and why organisms change
was first formulated by Darwin (1859). Darwin’s fundamental theory of natural selection proposes that
individuals with their phenotypes (including psychological characteristics) better suited for survival
in a given environment in a given time over-reproduce individuals with inferior phenotypes. Alleles
of more successful individuals are therefore non-randomly distributed in the new generation and, as
a result, certain phenotypes are more frequent than others. This leads to a range of morphological
and behavioural adaptations designed to enhance the survival of their bearers. The process of natural
selection requires three components (Darwin, 1859; Michalski & Shackelford, 2010): (i) variation
of individuals in a population, (ii) heritability of this variation and (iii) differences in reproductive
success among individuals that are the subjects of natural selection. Parasites are excellent candi-
dates for studying natural selection, because they are widespread, they have a significant impact
on human morbidity and mortality and at least certain psychological mechanisms that enhance
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avoidance of parasites seem to be heritable (Carlson, Katsanis, Iacono, & McGue, 1997; Peleg et
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al., 2006; Anokhin, Golosheykin, & Heath, 2010). The human brain is also a result of evolutionary
processes. This paper is predominantly dedicated to psychological mechanisms that are thought to
be influenced by natural selection in our evolutionary past to protect humans against the burden of
parasites and enhance survival.
Parasites and Human Mortality
Some of the most striking weapons of natural selection are parasites causing infectious dis-
eases. Their detrimental effect on human morbidity and mortality can be demonstrated by certain
well-known examples that have been recently documented. Unfortunately, most of the parasites
that form our current disease burden have emerged over the last 11,000 years. This is due to a
shift to living in larger groups, which are able to sustain epidemic diseases, and because of close
contact with animals via agriculture (Wolfe, Dunavan, & Diamond, 2007). Thus, our knowledge
of parasites that favoured specific psychological adaptations enhancing survival is very limited,
and our present ideas are based on reconstructions from relatively recent events. Bacterial dis-
eases wiped out up to 90% of the native populations in the Americas (Guerra, 1993). In extant
hunter–gatherer groups, about 30–50% of the population dies before reaching reproductive age,
most from disease (Hill & Hurtado, 1996). Plague is caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Ye-
rsinia pestis (formerly Pasteurella pestis). Y. pestis was common in rats, but it reproduces in the
digestive tract of the oriental rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis, which feeds on the rat’s blood (for more
details see e.g. Morelli et al. 2010). Infected fleas consequently transmit the disease to humans
and/or to domesticated animals if hungry. Plague is usually fatal without antimicrobial treatment.
The Bubonic plague, the most dangerous form of plague, has the highest mortality rates – approx.
80%. Infected people most often die within eight days (Totaro, 2005). Looking at historical data,
Europe was devastated by Justinian‘s plague (541-767) and the Black Death (1346-18th century)
(Devignant, 1951; Pollitzer, 1951) which also ravaged China (Wu, 1936). Considering that just
within the 1300s the plague killed between 25% and 50% of the populations of Europe, Asia and
Africa (Gottfried, 1983), this dreaded disease is possibly the most dramatic historically (Morelli
et al., 2010). Smallpox, an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus
variants, Variola major (mortality rate approx. 30 – 35 %) and Variola minor (mortality rate ap-
prox. 1%), killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans per year during the closing years of the 18th
century (Hays 2005). Before the introduction of rotavirus vaccines, almost all children experienced
at least one episode of rotavirus gastroenteritis before the age of 5 (Valencia-Mendoza, Bertozzi,
Gutierrez, & Itzler, 2008). This was estimated to have caused 527,000 deaths and two million
hospitalisations per year worldwide (Parashar et al., 2009). The Spanish flu pandemic, caused by
the H1N1 influenza virus, which lasted only from 1918 to 1920, killed between 50 and 100 mil-
lion people (Johnson & Mueller, 2002) – at least 3% of the world’s population. Tuberculosis is
one that has existed for 15,000 – 20,000 years. Tubercle bacillus (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
is spread through the air by the coughing or sneezing of infected people. When left untreated, it
kills more than 50% of those infected. In the mid-nineteenth century, for example, over 300 per
100,000 people died from tuberculosis in England and Wales (Magill, 1955).
The Most Recent Parasite Threats
Although many diseases have now been eradicated, certain diseases still persist whilst others
emerge. For example, current estimates suggest that one to two million people die from malaria
annually (Crompton, 1999; Sachs & Malaney, 2002) and the same number of people died in 2008
due to diseases associated with AIDS (World Health Organization [WHO], 2010). Furthermore, the
aforementioned examples are based on lethal diseases, but many non-lethal infectious diseases are
harmful to humans and can negatively influence their reproductive success. Consider, for example,
lymphatic filariasis, a serious parasitic disease caused by roundworms (mainly Wuchereria bancrofti,
which accounts for 90% of infections, and to a lesser degree Brugia malayi and Brugia timori, which
account for the remaining 10% of infections) spread by mosquitoes – vectors of the disease. Melrose
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(2002) reported that about 120 million people, primarily in Africa, South America and certain other
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subtropical areas (see Michael, Bundy, & Grenfell, 1996), are infected are infected. Although not all
infected people suffer any obvious effects from these worms (Grove, 1983), if expressed, infected
individuals have enormously enlarged limbs, scrotum or other body parts. These people are shunned
and avoided by the wider community (Badaki, 2010). Note that filariasis cannot be transmitted from
human to human by physical contact like tuberculosis or influenza. Thus, it can be argued that although
certain parasites, including those that have a closer relationship with humans (also called “perfect
parasites”, cf. Kaplan, 2010), are not lethal, they could affect human reproductive success and, as
a result, they could also influence the human mind. Two additional pieces of evidence are valid in
this argument: firstly, it is suspected that those parasites now considered as “perfect parasites” (e.g.,
tapeworms Taenia saginata, Taenia solium) are relatively less harmful to humans, because killing
their final host is maladaptive due to the restriction of their own fitness (Kaplan, 2010). This, how-
ever, suggests that the initial contact of a particular parasite with our ancestors could have serious
health consequences that would perhaps account for the negative perception of relatively non-harmful
parasites such as tapeworms (Taenia spp.) or roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides) (Curtis, Aunger, &
Rabie, 2004; Prokop & Fančovičová, 2010; Prokop, Usak, & Fančovičová, 2010b). Secondly, “perfect
parasites” are considered less harmful to humans, particularly in our current environment, where
food availability is high, but the situation in industrialised countries with low resources is different.
For example, ascariasis, caused by the roundworm A. lumbricoides, is one of most common parasitic
diseases in the world. Overall, about 25% of the human population is infected (Berger & Marr, 2006),
but the rates of infection in poor areas of Africa are close to 100% (Berger & Marr, 2006; Kaplan,
2010). Although infected individuals could remain asymptomatic, heavy worm infestation, associated
with nutritional deficiency and obstruction of the bowels, is sometimes fatal (Kaplan, 2010; Baird,
Mistrey, Pimsler, & Connor, 1986). Given our knowledge based on archaeological evidence, this
scenario seems to be more realistic for our ancestors, who were obviously more limited in terms of
food (Garn & Leonard, 1989; Ungar & Teaford, 2002) than for the present Western culture, where
food availability and health care is high. Perhaps provocatively, the coiled bodies of parasitic worms
could attract our attention and influence our fear when seeing snakes. LoBue and DeLoache (2011) in
their current research, found that the speed of detection of coiled wires and coiled snakes in pictures
was not different, but coiled objects (either wires or snakes) were more rapidly detected than e.g.
flowers. What causes this increased sensitivity to coiled objects? Snakes or parasites?
The examples presented in this sub-chapter suggest that parasites account for a large part of
human mortality and morbidity and, from an evolutionary perspective, favoured adaptations that
enhance survival. We do not think that estimates of serious diseases fully correspond with those
that influenced the evolution of certain behaviours, emotions and cognition in our ancestors; this
is especially because certain diseases are relatively “young” and influenced human beings only re-
cently (Wolfe et al., 2007) and the estimation of the prevalence of others is not clear due to a poor
knowledge about most diseases. One must consider that sufficient diagnostic techniques have only
emerged in the last 100 – 150 years. However, these examples illustrate the fact that parasites are
ubiquitous and most probably had non-trivial effects on our evolutionary history.
Anti-parasite Behaviour in Animals
If parasites are selective agents influencing human survival and/or reproduction, natural selec-
tion should favour individuals that dispose with certain behavioural strategies that help the individual
to avoid infection (Hart, 1990; Loehle, 1995, Parker, Barribeau, Laughton, de Roode, & Gerardo,
2011). There are several published papers (Curtis, 2007; Parker et al., 2011) and books (Moore,
2002) discussing the anti-parasite behaviour of animals in deeper details. As shown by Moore (2002),
anti-parasite behaviours involve a large set of specific behaviours that are believed to reduce the
transmission of parasites. Specifically, Moore (2002) proposes that there are the following categories
of anti-parasite behaviours: moving away from infection, habitat shifting, adjusting posture, minimis-
ing visibility to parasites, grooming/swatting (including the use of tools) and food choice (including
self-medication). For a more detailed review of these anti-parasite strategies, I recommend Moore
(2002) and Parker et al. (2011). Here, we briefly show certain examples providing evidence for the
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existence of evolved anti-parasite behaviours in animals, beginning with invertebrates and ending
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with our close relatives – non-human primates.
Avoidance of Infected Individuals or Objects
Schulenburg and Muller (2004) found that the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is able to dis-
tinguish between innocuous and pathogenic strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and actively keep away
from the latter. Interestingly, this avoidance is based on chemical recognition of the bacterium (see
Pradel, Zhang, Pujol, Matsuyama, Bargmann, & Ewbank, 2007), because the bacterium produces
a deadly toxin only once it is in the worm’s digestive tract. Behringer et al. showed that gregarious
Caribbean spiny lobsters (Panulirus argus) avoid conspecifics that are infected with a lethal virus.
Interestingly, although lobsters inoculated with a lethal virus developed symptoms of the disease
after six weeks and became infectious after eight weeks, most healthy lobsters avoided these inocu-
lated individuals from as early as four weeks. Olfactory cues play a dominant role in the detection
of inoculated individuals. This early pathogen detection system confers a selective advantage for (as
yet) healthy lobsters in order to reduce their own risk of infection.
Bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana) avoid tadpoles with candidiasis Candida humicola, a
pathogen that reduces growth rates and can cause the death of tadpoles (Kiesecker, Skelly, Beard,
& Preisser, 1999). Similarly, Bufo americanus tadpoles exhibited avoidance and elevated activity in
response to cercariae Echinostoma trivolvis, a trematode that infects and can kill amphibians (Rohr,
Swan, Ravel, & Hudson, 2009). In both cases, parasite avoidance behaviour is stimulated by chemical
cues from infected individuals/environments and thus does not require direct contact between indi-
viduals. Another experiment performed by Daly and Johnson (2011) where larval Pacific chorus frogs
were either anaesthetised or not and exposed to pathogenic trematodes, showed that un-manipulated
larvae were significantly less likely to become infected than their anaesthetised counterparts. This
evidence collectively suggests that specific behavioural adaptations play an important role in the
avoidance of harmful parasites in amphibians.
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) actively avoid free-swimming larval trematodes that cause
cataracts, helping to decrease the rate of infection and severity of pathology (Karvonen, Seppala,
& Valtonen, 2004). Whitefish (Coregonus sp.) respond to the presence of a virulent egg parasite,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, by hatching earlier, and this early hatching is induced by water-borne cues
emitted from infected eggs (Wedekind, 2002). Certain evidence suggests (albeit not applicable to
the example of Coregonus sp.) that anti-parasite responses are not innate but learned. For example,
fathead minnows exposed to cercariae of the trematode Ornithodiplostomum sp. showed no evidence
of innate recognition or avoidance of cercariae. However, after a single exposure to the cues of the
parasite, the fish responded with a reduction in activity, which decreased the encounter rate with the
cercariae (James, Noyes, Stumbo, Wisenden, & Goater, 2008).
Ungulates avoid grazing on forage near their faeces in pastures to reduce infection by faecal–
oral transmitted parasites (e.g. Dohi, Yamada, & Entsu, 1991; Ezenwa, 2004). The workers of most
social insects exhibit elaborate waste management behaviours and carry their dead out of their
nests (Hart & Ratnieks, 2002; Cremer, Armitage, & Schmid-Hempel, 2007; Wilson-Rich Spivak,
& Fefferman, 2009).
Grooming
Both solitary and social organisms can groom themselves (self-grooming), and the rate of self-
grooming significantly increases when individuals are contaminated with pathogens (Reber, Purcell,
Buechel, Buri, & Chapuisat, 2011). Social species are able to groom each other (allo-grooming),
which is common in social insects such as ants, wasps, bees and termites (Hölldobler & Wilson,
1990; Rosengaus, Maxmen, Coates, & Traniello, 1998; Schmid-Hempel, 1998; Hughes & Boomsma,
2004; Walker & Hughes, 2009). In mammals, this is widespread particularly in primates (Goodall,
1986; Dunbar, 1991; Newton-Fisher & Lee, 2011) and other social mammals such as carnivores
(e.g. Stewart, 1997; Kutsukake & Clutton-Brock, 2006, 2010), rodents (e.g. Stopka & Macdonald,
1999; Stopka & Graciasova, 2001) and ungulates (e.g. Hart & Hart, 1992; Feh & Demazieres, 1993,
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Mooring & Hart, 1995). Certain birds use the chemicals in fresh vegetation as fumigants against
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parasites and pathogens (e.g. Clark & Mason, 1985, Lafuma, Lambrechts, & Raymond, 2001) or
avoid nests with parasites (Tomas, Merino, Moreno, & Morales, 2007).
Self-medication
Great apes are known to use self-medication, i.e. consuming plants with anti-parasite effects,
which improve the health of infected individuals (Huffman, 2001). These plants have in particular
antiprotozoal or antihelmintical properties (Huffman, 2001; Negre, Tarnaud, Roblot, Gantier, &
Guillot, 2006). Recent research, however, revealed that self-medication is not restricted to mammals
(or animals with advanced cognitive abilities in general), but it also works in invertebrates. Woolly
bear caterpillars (Grammia incorrupta; Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) ingest plant toxins (pyrrolizidine
alkaloids) that improve their survival by conferring resistance against their lethal endoparasites (ta-
chinid flies). Interestingly, excessive ingestion of these toxins reduced the survival rate of caterpillars
without parasites, and plant toxins were more likely ingested by caterpillars with parasites than by
those without (Singer, Mace, & Bernays, 2009). Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) infected
with the protozoan parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha exhibit an oviposition preference for certain
species of the milkweed host plant, potentially because of the anti-parasitic effect of secondary plant
chemicals (Lefèvre, Oliver, Hunter, & de Roode, 2010).
Costs of Anti-parasite Behaviour
One could challenge that if anti-parasite behaviour protects organisms against harmful para-
sites, then why does this behaviour show inter-individual variability, or why it is not more com-
mon? It appears that each strategy has both benefits and costs, although the costs of anti-parasite
behaviours are much less known than their benefits (Hughes & Cremer, 2007). For example, bats
spend a considerable amount of time grooming, which is accompanied by a significant increase
in oxygen consumption (Giorgi, Arlettaz, Christe, & Vogel, 2001). Similarly, the fly-swatting be-
haviour of howler monkeys accounts for 24% of their metabolic budget (Dudley & Milton, 1990).
Grooming may impose costs on the groomer, including decreased vigilance (Mooring & Hart, 1995),
decreased resting time (Dunbar & Sharman, 1984; Dunbar, 1992) and exposure to disease (Nunn
& Altizer, 2006). In certain cases, e.g. in the Carpodacus mexicanus house finches, healthy males
preferentially forage near same-sex diseased individuals expressing lethargy and lower aggression,
which provides feeding benefits on the one hand, but at the cost of transmission of disease on the
other (Bouwman & Hawley, 2010). With respect to self-medication, research showed that exces-
sive ingestion of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in protective plants reduced the survival rate of caterpillars
having no parasites (Singer et al., 2009). Consumption of protective plants by monarch butterfly in
the absence of a parasite resulted in reduced adult longevity compared with those that fed on a host
plant with reduced parasite protection (Lefèvre et al., 2010). In summary, anti-parasite behaviour is
both effective in reducing parasites and costly to use.
How Do Parasites Influence Human Behaviour? From Inter-individual to

Cross-cultural Differences
The Persistence of Adaptations
There are several ways to respond to this question. For example, at least certain parasites directly
influence the behaviour of their intermediate hosts to increase the likelihood of being transmitted to
their final host (the “manipulation hypothesis”, see e.g. Zimmer, 2001; Lefèvre, Adamo, Biron, Misse,
Hughes, & Thomas, 2009). There is plenty of evidence revealing that the parasitic protozoan Toxo-
plasma gondii, transmitted to its intermediate hosts (rodents), increases activity, preferences for novel
areas and overall likelihood of being captured by a cat (for a review see Webster, 2007). Similarly,
humans infected by T. gondii appeared to lose their concentration more quickly and had a 2.65 times
higher risk of traffic accidents than Toxoplasma-free subjects (for a review see Flegr, 2007). A human
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is a dead-end for the parasite, because it is not a suitable final host for parasite reproduction; thus T.
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gondii seem to influence human behaviour in a similar manner as the behaviour of rodents. Finally,
the behavioural and personality differences in infected individuals would account for cross-cultural
differences in the prevalence of neuroticism and the avoidance of uncertainty (Lafferty, 2006). This
story is a classic example of the „manipulation hypothesis“ applied on humans. However, the aim
of this paper is not to show the direct physiological effects of parasites on human hosts, but rather
to show how parasites would influence human personality in terms of parasite avoidance.
First of all, we should explain whether or not it is meaningful to think that, in our current, of-
ten sterile environment (especially in well-developed countries), any antiparasite behaviour should
persist. In fact, the rates of some serious diseases have significantly dropped, which is suggested by
recent estimates. Dramatic differences can be observed, especially when including the last 30 years:
leprosy dropped from 5.2 million cases in 1985 to 213,036 cases in 2009, and the number of victims
of malaria dropped from 2 million annually to 863,000 in 2008 (WHO, 2010). There are no known
cases of plague in Europe, and only a few cases were reported in 2009 worldwide (WHO, 2010).
One could argue that decreasing the threat of parasites will no longer favour specific behavioural,
cognitive and emotional adaptations favouring the survival of our ancestors. Because examples
on the persistence of anti-parasite behaviour are relatively scarce, we will start with well-studied
examples of anti-predator adaptations. Evidence suggests that anti-predator adaptations shaped by
natural selection persisted for many thousands of generations after the sources of selection waned
or were no longer present (Schel & Zuberbuhler, 2009). It is suggested that the cost of maintaining
these traits is probably negligible. For example, tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii) isolated from
mammalian predators since the beginning of the Holocene, show evidence of retaining a general
ability to recognise the shapes of predators (Blumstein, Daniel, Griffin, & Evans, 2000). California
ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) retain the ability to recognise their former rattlesnake and
gopher snake predators despite living in habitats free or virtually free of these snakes for time frames
spanning 70,000 to 300,000 years (Coss, 1991; Coss & Biardi, 1997). With respect to the persis-
tence of anti-parasite adaptations, research has shown that ungulates, felids and rodents in artificial
environments where parasite pressure is low or absent still perform a grooming behaviour (Eckstein
& Hart, 2000a,b; Mooring, Blumstein, & Stoner, 2004) (there are, however, other explanations for
grooming behaviour that is not associated with ectoparasites, see e.g. Newton-Fisher & Lee, 2011 for
discussion). These examples imply that the persistence of anti-parasite behaviour should be expected
even in environments almost free of parasites.
Similarly to some animals, detection of perceptual cues of the presence of parasites (appearance,
smell, unusual behaviour, etc.) in humans may trigger aversive emotional and cognitive responses
that motivate behavioural avoidance.
The Adaptive Significance of Emotions
The behavioural immune system, which is defined as a set of mechanisms that allows indi-
viduals to detect the potential presence of parasites in objects (or individuals) and act to prevent
contact with those objects (or individuals), offers a first line of defence against health threatening
parasites (Schaller, 2006; Schaller & Duncan, 2007). The mobilisation of physiological processes
– the immunological defence – is costly in terms of energy (Ilmonen, Taarna, & Hasselquist, 2000)
and it is required only after pathogens are in physical contact with the individual’s body. Thus, the
behavioural immune system is believed to be a cheap but also very effective system that helps to
avoid parasite infection.
Pathogen-connoting cues activate centres of disgust in the human brain (Phillips et al., 1997;
Phillips, Senior, Fahy, & David, 1998; Stark et al., 2003) suggesting that the emotional experience
of disgust is a key component of the behavioural immune system (Oaten, Stevenson, & Case, 2009).
Disgust is an emotion that can be related to avoidance of certain animals, ill humans, faeces, vomit,
sexual substances and other harmful substances or events (Rozin, Haidt, & McCauley, 2000; Curtis
& Biran, 2001). Disgust may produce specific autonomic responses, such as reduced blood pressure,
heart rate deceleration and decreased skin conductance (Stark, Walter, Schienle, & Vaitl, 2005), as
well as the characteristic facial expression. People are obviously disgusted by things that pose a
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real risk of pathogen infection (e.g. faeces, vomit, spoiled food, Curtis & Biran, 2001), but this is
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not always true; people are also disgusted by things that do not pose a risk of disease transmission
but that simply bear certain superficial resemblance to real risks (e.g. chocolate fudge moulded into
the shape of dog faeces; Rozin, Millman, & Nemeroff, 1986). Social scientists with no evolution-
ary background would argue that this apparent non-specificity of disgust contradicts its proposed
evolutionary origin. The explanation is, however, easy – the behavioural immune system does not
react to specific cues triggered by parasites, because these may vary greatly. Instead, it responds in
a hypersensitive way to the perceived presence of parasites in the sensory environment (Schaller &
Duncan, 2007). It can be also compared to the ‘smoke detector principle’ (Nesse, 2005). A smoke
detector is usually calibrated to be supersensitive to anything that (albeit superficially) resembles
smoke in order to minimise the likelihood of failing to register the presence of real danger – a house
fire that would be an extremely costly false-negative error. On the other hand, a false-positive error,
e.g. detecting someone smoking in the toilet, is much cheaper that to neglect a dangerous fire.
Individual Differences in Parasite Avoidance
How does the behavioural immune system work in the real world? First, it can be predicted that
the behavioural immune system works superficially, which means that it does not need to always be
activated correctly, but particularly if perceptual stimuli resemble disease-connoting stimuli (e.g.
avoiding physically impaired people who do not transmit infectious diseases). Second, it can be
predicted that people who are more vulnerable to disease transmission (i.e. those who are immu-
nologically compromised) should have a more activated behavioural immune system than others,
because they must protect themselves against parasites more often than healthy people with a normal
immune system. Current research has shown support for both predictions. Indeed, women in the
first trimester of pregnancy, when they are immunologically compromised, are more ethnocentric
than during the second and third trimesters (Navarrete, Fessler, & Eng, 2007). People who think
themselves vulnerable to disease transmission show a relatively greater level of aversive response
to physically disabled individuals (Park, Faulkner, & Schaller, 2003), towards older adults (Duncan
& Schaller, 2009), immigrants (Faulkner, Schaller, Park, & Duncan, 2004), toward obese people
(Park, Schaller, & Crandall, 2007) or toward disease transmitting animals (Prokop, Fančovičová, &
Fedor, 2010a; Prokop, Usak, & Fančovičová, 2010b; Prokop, Usak, & Fančovičová, 2010c; Prokop
& Fančovičová, 2013). These people also engage more frequently in various anti-parasite behaviours
like avoiding physical contact with pets (Prokop & Fančovičová, 2010; Prokop et al., 2010a) or
disease-transmitting animals (Prokop & Fančovičová, 2011), and increasing the washing of hands
(Porzig-Drummond, Stevenson, Case, & Oaten, 2009). They also engage more in self-grooming be-
haviours and less frequently in allo-grooming behaviours, suggesting that the perceived risk of disease
stimulates grooming oneself more to maintain health and to reduce ectoparasitic load (Thompson,
2010). One recent, yet unpublished work (Prokop, Ozel, Usak, & Senay, submitted) showed that
the perceived vulnerability to diseases also acts as prevention of consumption of potentially risky
foods. Particularly, university students who perceived themselves to be more vulnerable to infection
by disease had more negative attitudes toward genetically modified foods, which are perceived to be
risky by many people. Stevenson, Case, & Oaten (2009) showed that participants who had heightened
contamination sensitivity and were also more disgust sensitive had significantly fewer recent infec-
tions, supporting an idea that the emotion of disgust has a protective effect against infectious diseases.
Interestingly, Prokop et al. failed to find any relationships between perceived health and disgust of
disease-relevant animals, but perceived danger or fear showed significant negative relationship with
perceived health. This suggests that the emotion of fear is additional important component of the
behavioural immune system. Furthermore, they found that participants rated disease-relevant animals
as more dangerous/disgusting than disease-irrelevant insects, supporting the adaptive significance
of our basic emotions (Fig. 1). However, harmless insect larvae or earthworms were rated similarly
to disease-relevant insects, supporting the hypersensitiveness of the behavioural immune system.
(Prokop & Fančovičová, 2010).
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53
Figure 1: Mean scores of perceived danger and disgust of disease-relevant and

disease-irrelevant groups of animals. Details about the sample sizes
and statistical differences between groups can be found in the work of
Prokop and Fančovičová (2010).
The link between the immune system and the behavioural immune system is still not well
understood. Prokop et al. (2010a), for example, found significant and positive associations between
perceived health and anti-parasite behaviour (measured by items related to avoidance of pets and
personal hygiene), suggesting that healthier people have more anti-parasite behaviours than their
less healthy counterparts. The proposed model, based on the results of Prokop et al. (2010a) is pre-
sented in Figure 2. People with poor health have a heightened disgust and/or fear of (predominantly)
disease-relevant insects, and activation of these emotions produces stronger anti-parasite behaviours.
Anti-parasite behaviour is, in turn, associated with better health.
Figure 2: Model of associations between perceived health, anti-parasite behaviour

and disgust/fear of disease-relevant invertebrates based on the results
of Prokop et al. (2010a). The thickness of arrows reflects the strength of
relationships. The signs reflect the direction of relationships.
An alternative to this model is that healthier people can invest to anti-parasite behaviour more,
but it seems unlikely that hand washing and/or avoiding physical contact with pets is very costly.
Certain personality traits, such as neuroticism, would account for some variance in the obtained cor-
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relation between perceived health and disgust sensitivity (Tybur, Lieberman, & Griskevicius, 2009).
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Note that this study was correlative, so it is not possible to confirm the causation or to exclude the
possibility of false results. A more rigorous investigation of the relations between the immune system
and anti-parasite strategies is therefore necessary.
Cultural Differences Caused by Parasite Avoidance
Parasites seem to influence mating preferences (Low, 1990; Gangestad & Buss, 1993; Gang-
estad, Haselton, & Buss, 2006). It has been determined that male masculine traits (large jaws and
cheekbones) and facial attractiveness (particularly symmetry) positively correlates with immunocom-
petence in humans (Thornhill & Gangestad, 1993, 2006; Rhodes, 2006; Lie, Rhodes, & Simmons,
2008). In line with this finding, females from areas with high parasite prevalence reveal a preference
for more masculine and more facially attractive males than females from parasite free environments
(Penton-Voak, Jacobson, & Trivers, 2004; Little, Jones, & Burriss, 2007; DeBruine, Jones, Craw-
ford, Welling, & Little, 2010a). Inter-individual variation in vulnerability to diseases also supports
this hypothesis: females who were concerned about pathogens/diseases tend to prefer males with
masculine faces more than their less pathogens/disease-vulnerable counterparts (DeBruine, Jones,
Tybur, Lieberman, & Griskevicius, 2010b). This preference is stronger during the ovulation phase
of the menstrual cycle, when the likelihood of conception is highest (see Jones, DeBruine, Perrett,
Little, Feinberg, & Law Smith, 2008 for review). Females in environments with a high pathogen
prevalence have a more restricted approach to sexual relations (Schaller & Murray, 2008) which
reduces parasite transmission.
Disgust sensitivity and pathogen threat may be a mechanism that generates both a cross-cultural
variation in preferences for certain facial traits (i.e. preference for masculine traits in pathogen rich
environments, see DeBruine et al., 2010a), as well as drivers of religious diversity (Fincher & Thorn-
hill, 2008), political stability of countries (Thornhill, Fincher, & Aran, 2009), parenting (Quinlan,
2007) and cognitive abilities (Eppig, Fincher, & Thornhill, 2010). In regions characterised by a
higher prevalence of parasites, people are less extraverted and less open to new ideas (Schaller &
Murray, 2008) and express greater concern about infection (Prokop et al., 2010c), especially from
foreigners (Hamamura & Park, 2010). Which psychological mechanisms are responsible for these
cross-cultural differences ultimately caused by parasites? Fincher, Thornhill, Murray and Schaller
(2008), for example, found a positive association between pathogen prevalence and the cultural value
of collectivism, arguing that collectivism evolved as effective anti-pathogen psychology. Collectivism
is associated with higher ethnocentrism (attraction and support of internal members) and xenophobia
(i.e. avoidance of and dislike toward external members) than individualism (Fincher et al., 2008;
Thornhill et al., 2009). Collectivism is thought to act as a mechanism for pathogen evasion, whereby
individuals avoid strangers who may host potentially infectious diseases to which the individual or
community (internal) intruded upon has no immunity. Collectivism and xenophobia are evolutionary
mechanisms that cause increased religious diversity in geographic areas with high pathogen stress
(Fincher & Thornhill, 2008). The association between intelligence and parasite threat (Eppig et al.,
2010) is explained by the high metabolic requirements of the human brain and the trade-off between
energy intake and immunological defence against parasites. Longitudinal exposure to energetically
costly infectious diseases during the time when the brain is developing negatively influences the
quality of the brain, leading to lower intelligence (Eppig et al., 2010). Extraversion and openness
to experience may confer specific kinds of benefits (higher number of social contacts, mating op-
portunities, etc.), but both are associated with specific costs, especially with greater exposure to
parasites. This is why areas with high pathogen prevalence are associated with lower extraversion
and openness to experience (Schaller & Murray, 2008). Experimental research by Mortensen, Vaughn
Becker, Ackerman Neuberg and Kenrick (2010) supported this idea: exposure to disease primarily
led university students to rate themselves as less extraverted.
Evolutionary biologists also found counterstrategies against parasites by comparing birth weight
and number of offspring between human populations differing in parasite threat. High parasite
prevalence is characterised by the increased weight (Thomas, Teriokhin, Budilova, Brown, Renaud,
& Guégan, 2004) and the number of human offspring (Guégan, Thomas, de Meeüs, Hochberg, &
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Renaud, 2001). This strategy is considered to be effective, because producing more offspring increases
55
the likelihood of successful survival and reproduction of at least certain children, and a higher birth
weight reduces the likelihood of being infected by parasitic diseases. In summary, evolved inter-
individual differences in parasite avoidance seem to be translated to cross-cultural differences that
are ultimately mediated by parasite threat.
A final and very intriguing area of research demonstrating how parasites account for some
cross-cultural differences is culinary practises. Certain researchers propose that eating spicy foods
might be an effective anti-pathogen strategy (Billing & Sherman, 1998; Ohtsubo, 2009). Most
spices contain secondary compounds that kill bacteria and fungi or inhibit their growth (Billing &
Sherman, 1998), thus, the use of spices, especially in meat-based recipes (Sherman & Hash, 2001;
Ohtsubo, 2009) would be adaptive. Spices could have nutritional and health benefits: e.g. they tend
to be antioxidants, which are thought to reduce oxidative damage to cells (Sengul, Ercisli, Yildiz,
Gungor, Kavaz, & Cetin, 2011). It has even been suggested that consumption of turmeric (cucur-
min) might contribute to the low prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease in India (Gomez Pinilla, 2008).
The use of spices might reduce foodborne diseases and food poisoning (Billing & Sherman, 1998;
Yossa, Patel, Miller, & Lo, 2010). To support this antimicrobial hypothesis, Billing and Sherman
(1998) found that recipes from hotter climates, where bacteria and fungi grow more rapidly, called
for more spices. Similarly, Ohtsubo (2009) found that unheated Japanese recipes called for more
spices and vinegar than heated recipes, which supports the antimicrobial hypothesis. Furthermore,
a comparison of traditional recipes from 107 countries showed that spices are used less in preparing
vegetables than in preparing meat dishes (Sherman & Hash, 2001). The authors claim this result is
evidence of the antimicrobial hypothesis: cells of dead plants are better protected against bacteria
and fungi than the cells of dead animals, so the use of spices makes meat safer for consumption. This
research also suggests that if consumption of spices is an adaptive anti-parasite strategy (see also
examples for self-medication in animals in this paper), then people more vulnerable to disease should
prefer spicy foods more than people less vulnerable to disease. Certain preliminary results support
this prediction. Prokop and Fančovičová (2011) found that the reported consumption of spices was
positively correlated with the total number of reported illnesses in the last year. This means that im-
munologically compromised people prefer spices more than their healthier counterparts, supporting
the antimicrobial hypothesis (Billing & Sherman, 1998).
Is Human Nakedness a Result of Parasite Avoidance?
Although the aim of this paper was to show how parasites influence predominantly human
emotion and behaviour, I will briefly review some evidence trying to explain how human nakedness
evolved from a view of parasite avoidance. The central idea is purely morphological (lack of body
hair), but if parasite avoidance accounts for the evolution of nakedness, then certain psychologi-
cal mechanisms influencing the preference for naked individuals should evolve, which returns our
debate back to anti-parasite behaviour, or, more generally, to the behavioural immune system. Is
human nakedness unique? Surely this must be true, because all of our closest relatives (192 species
of monkeys and apes) have bodies covered with fur. Recent analyses of DNA suggest that for at least
1.2 million years, humans have been relatively hairless (Rogers, Iltis, & Wooding, 2004) although
the density of their hair follicles is similar to that found in apes of the same body size (Schwartz &
Rosenblum, 1981). Why are we not absolutely naked? This is most probably due to the different
functions of head hair and hair in the pubic region. It has been proposed that the former are selected
by natural selection, because they protect the head against exposure to the sun, rain and cold, and the
latter are thought to be conductive for pheromone signalling between the sexes (Pagel & Bodmer,
2003). So, how did it appear that humans are almost naked?
Here I will introduce only some hypotheses on human nakedness. I recommend Rantala (2007)
for more detailed evaluation of all the existing hypotheses. It has been proposed that the loss of body
hair evolved as a response to change in habitat and foraging behaviour. By abandoning the shady
forest, our ancestors exposed themselves to higher temperatures, thus hairlessness served as a cool-
ing device (e.g., Morris, 1967). Wheeler (1984) has argued that the reduction of body hair was made
possible by the lowered direct solar radiation fluxes which our bipedal ancestors became more and
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more used to. However, the hypothesis does not stand close scrutiny, because although exposure of
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the naked skin to the air increases the chances of heat loss, it also at the same time increases heat
gain and risks damage from the sun’s rays. Furthermore, loss of body hair increases perspiration,
leading to dehydration; this in turn may be detrimental in a dry savannah environment. A haired
hominid in an open hot environment should actually increase its insulation rather than decrease it
(Rantala, 2007). Moreover, as males were predominantly hunters and female gatherers (Kaplan,
1996), it would be expected that males in particular should lose body hair if bare skin facilitates
hunting prey. However, females were the ones who became the most hairless (Morgan, 1990). Certain
authors argue that humans lost body hair as a response to the use of clothes (reviewed by Rantala,
2007). However, why would a hairy animal begin to use clothes in the first place if it already had
an insulating coat of body hair?
One of the most prominent explanations of human hairlessness is the “ectoparasite avoid-
ance hypothesis” originally proposed by Belt (1874) and recently rediscovered and elaborated by
Rantala (1999, 2007) and Pagel and Bodmer (2003). This hypothesis proposes that hairless skin
reduces the risk of being infested by ectoparasites, which are vectors of serious diseases some of
which have lethal consequences (see Parasites and human mortality subchapter). Females which
stays in the vicinity of camps were more vulnerable to parasites than males, because certain para-
sites (such as fleas) can only complete their life cycle if their host animal lives in a permanently
inhabited dwelling (Morris, 1994). Thus natural selection operates in particular against females
with dense hair. Hairless females were less vulnerable to parasites and infectious diseases, had
higher reproductive success and produced offspring with less hair (Rantala, 1999). They would
be consequently preferred more by males and would produce more hairless children and hairless
individuals who would tend to prefer hairless mates. Because hairlessness is heritable (Rogers et
al., 2004), the result of this “run-away” selection (Fisher 1915), would be the almost completely
hairless modern human (Pagel & Bodmer, 2003; Rantala 1999, 2007). The process is termed
“run-away” because over time, it would facilitate the development of a greater preference and
more pronounced traits, until the costs of producing the trait balance the reproductive benefit of
possessing it (Fisher, 1915).
Do we have any evidence supporting the “ectoparasite avoidance hypothesis”? Unfortunately,
palaeontological evidence is very scarce and probably not helpful in testing this hypothesis. How-
ever, parasite avoidance in this case is hypothesised to be strongly associated with the choice of
mate and sensitivity to pathogens. Thus, the “ectoparasite avoidance hypothesis” can be tested
from an evolutionary psychology perspective.
As far as I am aware, there are very few (mostly unpublished) papers on this topic. All these
papers are based on force-choice tests, where a female participant was asked to choose what male
in a black and white picture is more attractive. Each male was photographed two-times: before and
after chest hair removal. The males’ legs and faces were not shown in the pictures. Rantala, Polkki
and Rantala (2010) found that Finnish females prefer pictures of bare males, and this preference
was stronger when the risk of conception (i.e. during the ovulation phase of the menstrual cycle)
was higher. Older females, however, preferred males with dense chest hair more than younger
females. While the former result can be used as support for the ectoparasite avoidance hypothesis
mediated by choice of mate, the latter goes against this hypothesis, because older people that are
more vulnerable to diseases are expected to avoid cues associated with ectoparasite presence more
than younger ones. Interestingly, older people generally are less disgust sensitive, which does not
fit with evolutionary explanations of disgust as a protective mechanism against parasite transmis-
sion (Oaten et al., 2009). Perhaps we can use the argument of David Buss (2011) that natural
selection operates more strongly within young people (who are at the peak of their reproductive
activity), and its effect on older people (whose reproductive potential is close to zero or at least
very limited) is weaker.
Another set of evidence comes from two studies of Prokop, Rantala and Fančovičová (2012)
and Prokop, Rantala, Usak and Senay (in press). These authors suggested that people living in areas
with a high pathogen threat should be more sensitive to parasite connoting cues, and they compared
female preference for male chest hair in two countries differing in parasite threat (Prokop et al.,
in press). They did not find any difference between Slovak (low pathogen) and Turkish females in
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the preference of bare males, although there was a strong preference for bare males versus males
57
with chest hair. They also failed to find any correlations between any of the three components of
disgust (pathogen, sexual, moral) and preferences for bare bodies, providing no support for the
tested hypothesis. However, participants that were more vulnerable to disease-connoting cues
(Germ Aversion subscale, see Duncan, Schaller, & Park, 2009) preferred bare males, which sup-
ports the ectoparasite avoidance hypothesis more. After excluding females that reported the use of
hormonal contraceptives, Slovak females in the high conception risk phase preferred males with
chest hair less, which supports the ectoparasite avoidance hypothesis, but no similar patterns were
found for the sample of Turkish females.
In a second study, Prokop et al. (2012) examined whether or not exposure to the visual cues of
pathogens predicts the preferences for male chest hair in a sample of Slovak females. Again, they
found that the preference for male chest hair was low (Fig. 3), but they did not find any changes
in female preferences after exposure to visual pathogens. Moreover, they also measured disgust
sensitivity to pictures of invertebrates (among them were some ectoparasites), but the correlation
between disgust sensitivity and preference for male chest hair was not significant.
Figure 3: Differences in preference for naked bodies before (open bars) and after
exposure (grey bars) to high and low pathogen conditions. Error bars are
95% confidence intervals. NS = not statistically significant.
To summarise, evidence supporting the idea that our ancestors avoided individuals with dense
body hair to avoid ectoparasite transmission are very scarce, and, due to mixed results, any conclu-
sion is premature.
Conclusion and Future Directions
Evidence suggests that parasites play a much more important role in our lives than previously
thought, starting from psychological characteristics and inter-individual differences in parasite avoid-
ance at the cognitive, emotional and behavioural level and ending in cross-cultural differences in
cognitive abilities, choice of mate, political stability, parenting practises, religious diversity or culinary
practises. Some evidence suggests that human nakedness is also a result of ectoparasite avoidance.
Most of this evidence is correlative in nature; thus, only future research will show whether alternative
explanations are, or are not, more convincing in explanations of cross-cultural differences from the
view of parasite avoidance. Evolutionary psychology, however, provides an opportunity to test the
questions on human anti-parasite behaviour experimentally. More experimental research integrating
biology, ecology, evolutionary psychology and immunology is a promising way of how to uncover
the physiological mechanisms responsible for the activation of the behavioural immune system.
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58 Acknowledgement
David Livingstone improved the English of this paper. This study was funded by grant VEGA
no. 1/0137/11.
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Advised by Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Pavol Prokop PhD., Associate Professor, Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Trnava University,
Priemyselná 4, 918 43 Trnava, Slovakia.
Department of Animal Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 6, 845 06
Bratislava, Slovakia.
E-mail: pavol.prokop@savba.sk
Website: http://www.zoo.sav.sk/prokop/
Peter Fedor PhD., Professor, Department of Ecosozology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius
University, SK-84215 Slovakia.
E-mail: fedor@fns.uniba.sk
Website: http://www.fns.uniba.sk/index.php?id=3479
ISSN 2029-8587
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66
SEXUAL HEALTH AMONG PORTUGUESE

ADOLESCENTS: CHANGES IN A 8 YEAR
PERIOD (2002-2010)
Lúcia Ramiro, Margarida Gaspar de Matos, Marta Reis
Technical University of Lisbon (UTL),
CMDT & Aventura Social Project, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal
E-mail: lisramiro@sapo.pt, mmatos@fmh.utl.pt, reispsmarta@gmail.com
Abstract
Recently HIV is falling in a significant number of countries, partly due to the adoption of preventive behaviors,
which demonstrates that decreasing sexual transmission of HIV is possible. The aim of this research was to
analyze preventive sexual behavior in Portuguese adolescents, including information and attitudes about HIV/
AIDS, and assessing whether they changed from 2002 to 2010. Data were collected through a self-administered
questionnaire from the Portuguese sample of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC), a collabo-
rative WHO study. The study provided national representative data of 10587 Portuguese adolescents, randomly
chosen from those attending 8th and 10th grades and the opportunity to examine trends in sexual behaviour on
a national level. In terms of preventive behaviours, results showed an increasing trend regarding the percent-
age reporting first sexual intercourse at 14 years old or more and condom use at last sexual intercourse and a
stabilized trend concerning having had sexual intercourse and contraceptive pill use. Nevertheless, in terms
of information and attitudes about HIV/AIDS, results showed a systematic decreasing trend.
Key words: adolescents, attitudes, information, preventive behaviours, sex education.
Introduction
According to UNAIDS (2011), at the end of 2010 there were about 34 million people living
with HIV infection in the world and 42% of the newly HIV/AIDS infected occur in young people
aged between 15 and 24 years old.
In Portugal, according to the latest available report from the national monitoring center of
sexually transmitted diseases (CVEDT, 2011), there was a proportional increase in the number of
cases of heterosexual transmission among the 20-49 year old cohort (which means that some were
infected during adolescence), confirming the epidemiological pattern recorded annually since 2000
(CVEDT, 2011).
Recently HIV is falling in a significant number of countries, partly due to the adoption of
preventive behaviors, which demonstrates that decreasing sexual transmission of HIV is possible.
In fact, literature claims that prevention is the best way to control STIs and condom use is gener-
ally accepted as the best preventive behavior regarding STIs among sexually active individuals.
Nevertheless, young people still are a major concern as their risk for infections is higher than in
adults (UNAIDS, 2010), mainly because of their physical, emotional and cognitive immaturity. In
addition, young people are particularly vulnerable to STIs and subsequent health problems because
they don’t have the necessary information regarding STIs prevention, are more reluctant to search
for information and are more frequently involved in risky sexual behaviors, such as engaging in sex
Lúcia RAMIRO, Margarida GASPAR DE MATOS, Marta REIS. Sexual Health among Portuguese Adolescents: Changes in a 8 Year Period ISSN 2029-8587
(2002-2010) PROBLEMS
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without condom and having multiple sequential partners (UNAIDS, 2008). For those reasons, early
67
sexual initiation has been identified as a crucial indicator for sexual health (CDC, 2010; UNAIDS,
2010; WHO, 2010).
Though there are several HIV prevention interventions currently being put into practice, the
majority aren’t theory-based and instead focus (almost) completely on information and do not invest
in training motivation and behavioral skills (Currie, Hurrelmann, Settertobulte, Smith, & Todd, 2000).
As a consequence, these interventions do not have a relevant impact on young people’s behaviors.
Therefore, it is critically important to implement interventions based on theories that have empiri-
cally demonstrated to decrease sexual risk behaviors (Currie, Hurrelmann, Settertobulte, Smith, &
Todd, 2000).
According to literature, if young people have information and motivation on preventive sexual
behaviors, they may change their attitudes and their behaviors (Belo, & Silva, 2004; Synovitz, Her-
bert, Kelley, & Carlson, 2002).
The information-motivation behavioral skills (IMB) model (Bandura, 1989) has been validated
over the years with several populations. According to this model, HIV prevention information, mo-
tivation, and behavioral skills are fundamental determinants of HIV preventive behaviors. As for
information, it contemplates information regarding HIV transmission and prevention; as for motiva-
tion, it refers to the engagement in HIV preventive behaviors, as well as personal motivation (positive
attitudes towards the performance of HIV preventive actions) and social motivation (perceived social
support for engaging in these actions); and as for behavioral skills, it refers to the specific skills one
needs so as to perform HIV preventive actions, which includes the sense of self-efficacy for doing
them (Bandura, 1989;1994; Fisher, & Fisher, 1992; 1993). Hence, according to the IMB model there
are three prerequisites to have HIV preventive behaviors: information, motivation and behavioral
skills. The three of them together determine individuals’ ability to have preventive behaviors.
According to WHO’s recommendations (2008), in the absence of an effective cure for HIV/
AIDS, and taking into account the particular epidemiology of the disease, the prevention of AIDS
depends largely on the adoption and maintenance of safe behaviors, therefore the educational strate-
gies that modify or eliminate risk behaviors are central to prevent the spread of this pandemic.
Since adolescence is the stage of transition between childhood and adulthood, and this stage
is characterized by a plasticity and vulnerability of the personality, adolescents are naturally more
prone to understand the concepts that will lead them to a healthier physical, psychological and sexual
maturity. It is crucial that they realize that their sexuality can be experienced in a healthy and happy
way, and that to protect from STIs, including HIV/AIDS, they have to use condoms always (for it
is the only way of protection against HIV/AIDS and other STIs among sexually active individuals)
(Matos, 2008).
As such, it is crucial to educate young people before they engage in sexual behaviors as it is
easier to adopt than change behaviors. To be successful, the prevention must involve not only work-
ing on information but also motivation and behavioral skills (Eurostat, 2012; UNFPA, 2005).
In order for a IMB–based model HIV intervention to be effective for Portuguese adolescents,
their specific information, motivation and behavior skills deficits must be addressed, which requires
identifying them previously to intervention. As a result, this article aims to analyze preventive sexual
behavior in Portuguese adolescents, including information and attitudes about HIV/AIDS, and as-
sessing whether they have changed and how they have changed from 2002 to 2010.
This analysis is important in terms of surveillance and epidemiological trends of risky sexual
behaviors. Further, study findings provide insights into the relations between adolescents’ sexual
behaviors and sex education, which is likely to moderate the effects of individual risk factors on
sexual behaviors.
Data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire from the Portuguese sample of the
Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) study of 2002, 2006 and 2010 (Currie et al., 2000;
ISSN 2029-8587 Lúcia RAMIRO, Margarida GASPAR DE MATOS, Marta REIS. Sexual Health among Portuguese Adolescents: Changes in a 8 Year Period
PROBLEMS (2002-2010)
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Matos et al., 2003; 2006). The HBSC study has been conducted every four years in 43 countries in
68
collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO) with the aim to describe young people’s
health and health behaviors as well as understand how they relate to different social contexts.
Sample of Research
The sampling unit used in this survey was the class. The 139 schools in the sample were randomly
selected from the official national list of public schools (Ministério da Educação, 2013), stratified
by region. In each school, classes were randomly selected in order to meet the required number of
students for each grade, according to the international research protocol (Currie et al., 2000).
The study provided national representative data of 10587 Portuguese adolescents, randomly
chosen from those attending 8th and 10th grade of high school and the opportunity to examine trends
in sexual behavior on a national level. The sample included 52.7% girls and 47.3% males, whose
mean age was 15.04 years (standard deviation 1.33). The majority of adolescents were of Portuguese
nationality (93.8%), 52.1% attended the 8th grade and 47.9% attended the 10th grade and were dis-
tributed proportionally by all the educational Portuguese regions (North, Center, Lisbon and Tagus
Valley, Alentejo and the Algarve) in the mainland (see table 1).
Table 1. Socio demographic characteristics for the total sample.
2002 2006 2010 Total1

(N=3762) (N=3331) (N=3494) (N=10587)
N % N % N % N %
Gender
Male 1806 48.0 1579 47.4 1622 46.4 5007 47.3
Female 1956 52.0 1752 52.6 1872 53.6 5580 52.7
Grade
8th grade 2181 58.0 1740 52.2 1594 45.6 5515 52.1
10th grade 1581 42.0 1591 47.8 1900 54.4 5072 47.9
Nationality
Portuguese 3382 93.3 3101 94.1 3145 94.2 9628 93.9
African + Brazilian 116 3.2 111 3.4 94 2.8 321 3.1
Other 127 3.5 82 2.5 101 3.0 310 3.0
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Age 15.12 1.35 15.07 1.34 14.94 1.30 15.04 1.33
1
The total numbers differ considering that some subjects have not replied to some variables.
In the questionnaire, which covered a wide range of questions about behaviors and lifestyles in
adolescence, it was selected issues that relate to socio-demographic characteristics, sexual behavior,
information regarding HIV/AIDS transmission / prevention and attitudes towards people living with
HIV/AIDS. Further information about the survey procedures can be found elsewhere (Currie et al.,
2012; Roberts et al., 2009).
Sexual behaviour. Sexual behaviors were measured through the following behaviors - ever had
sexual intercourse (Yes/No), age of first sexual intercourse (11 years or less/12-13 years/14 years or
more), male condom use at last sexual intercourse (Yes/No), and contraceptive pill use at last sexual
intercourse (Yes/No).
Information regarding HIV/AIDS transmission/prevention. Participants were asked to respond
to nine statements about HIV/AIDS transmission/prevention (Currie, Samdal, Boyce & Smith,
2001). The Portuguese version of the scale was used (Matos, et al., 2011). Young people were asked
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to respond to nine statements about HIV/AIDS transmission/prevention: 1.“it is possible to become

69
infected with HIV/AIDS by sharing needles”; 2.“it is possible to become infected with HIV/Aids
from coughing and sneezing”; 3.“an HIV-infected pregnant woman may pass the virus to her baby”;
4.“it is possible to become infected with HIV/AIDS by hugging someone infected”; 5.“the oral con-
traceptive can protect against HIV/AIDS infection”; 6.“it is possible to become infected with HIV/
AIDS by engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse with someone just once”; 7.“someone who
looks healthy can be HIV infected”; 8.“it is possible to become infected with HIV/AIDS by sharing
a glass, fork/spoon”; 9.“it is possible to become infected with HIV/AIDS by blood transfusion in a
Portuguese hospital”. Items were rated on a three response options (1=Yes, 2= No and 3= I do not
know). Only responses that showed correct information scored and so final scores ranged from 0
to 9, with high scores suggesting more information. These items were shown to have adequate reli-
ability (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.81).
Attitudes towards HIV/AIDS - infected people. Young people were asked to respond to five
statements about attitudes towards HIV-infected people (Currie, Samdal, Boyce & Smith, 2001). The
Portuguese version of the scale was used (Matos, et al., 2011). Participants were asked to respond
to: 1. “I wouldn’t be a friend of someone if he had AIDS”, 2. “Adolescents with AIDS should be
allowed to go to school”, 3. “I would sit near an infected student in classroom”, 4. “I would visit a
friend if he or she had AIDS” and 5. “HIV infected people should live apart of the rest of people”.
Items were rated on a 3-point rating scale (1= disagree to 3= agree). After recoding items 1 and 5,
final scores ranged from 5 to 15, with high scores suggesting more tolerant attitudes. These items
were shown to have adequate reliability (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.76).
This study had the approval of a scientific committee, an ethical national committee and the
national commission for data protection and followed strictly all the guidelines for human rights
protection.
Data Analysis
Analyses and statistical procedures were carried out in the Statistical Package for Social Sci-
ences program (SPSS, version 20.0 for Windows). Overall, structured self-reported questionnaires
were responded by 10587 participants. The total numbers differed considering that some participants
have not replied to some questions. Means, standard deviations, frequencies and other descriptive
statistics were performed to characterize the sample. The level of statistical significance was set at
p < 0.001 due to the size of the sample.
Chi-square tests were used to examine sexual behaviors, information regarding HIV/AIDS
transmission/prevention and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS - infected people, according to base year.
Upward or downward trends were determined through the comparison of the module that corresponded
to an adjusted residual ≥│1.9│. ANOVA tests were used to examine final scores according to base
year and upward or downward trends were determined through Scheffe post hoc tests. Analyses were
controlled for gender, age and school grade.
Results of Research
Table 2 shows trends in sexual behaviour between 2002 and 2010.

There was no statistically significant difference for the percentage of young people reporting
ever having had sexual intercourse (23.7% in 2002, 22.7% in 2006 and 21.8% in 2010) (χ2(2) =
3.84; p = 0.147).
Among those who were sexually active, an overall increase was observed in age of first sexual
intercourse (χ2(4) = 57.46; p < 0.001) peaking in 2006 (56.8% in 2002 versus 71.1% in 2006, and
68.9% in 2010 at 14 years or more). From 2002 to 2006 a decreasing trend was observed among
those who initiated at 11 years or less as well as among those who initiated between 12 and 13. In
both cases it stabilized from 2006 onwards.
Among those who were sexually active, 82.5% reported that they or their partner used a condom
the last time they had engaged in sexual intercourse, which means that about 18% are currently at
high risk. Considering the three cycles of the study, an increase was observed (χ2(2) = 31.36; p <
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0.001), which was especially strong between 2002 and 2006 (71.8% in 2002, 81.1% in 2006 and
70
82.5% in 2010).
There was no statistical significant difference neither for the percentage of young people report-
ing having used the contraceptive pill at last sexual intercourse (40.0% in 2002, 47.1% in 2006 and
53.5% in 2010) (χ2(2) = 11.60; p = 0.003).
Table 2. Differences between 2002, 2006 and 2010 for questions about sexual
behaviour.
2002 2006 2010 Total1

χ² p
N % N % N % N %
Sexual intercourse 3.835 0.147

Yes 862 23.7 723 22.7 748 21.8 2333 22.7
No 2772 76.3 2464 77.3 2688 78.2 7924 77.3
Young people who have had sexual intercourse
2002 2006 2010 Total1

χ² p
N % N % N % N %
Age of 1st sexual

57.456 0.000
intercourse
11 years or less 143 17.2 68 9.7 54 7.4 265 11.7
12 – 13 years 217 26.1 134 19.2 173 23.7 524 23.2
14 or more 473 56.8 497 71.1 504 68.9 1474 65.1
Condom use at last
31.364 0.000
sexual intercourse
Yes 595 71.8 555 81.1 591 82.5 1741 78.1
No 234 28.2 129 18.9 125 17.5 488 21.9
Pill use at last sexual
11.599 0.003
intercourse
Yes 118 40.0 156 47.1 183 53.5 457 47.2
No 177 60.0 146 52.9 159 46.5 511 52.8
1
The total numbers differ considering that some subjects have not replied to some variables.
In bold – values that correspond to an adjusted residual ≥ |1.9|
Table 3 shows trends in information regarding HIV/AIDS transmission / prevention between

2002 and 2010 for the total sample.
According to results, from 2002 to 2010, young people more often said that coughing, sneez-
ing and hugging someone infected with HIV/AIDS could be a means of transmission and that the
contraceptive pill could protect a woman from being infected. In 2010, young people less often
claimed that a person could become infected with HIV/AIDS if he/she used a needle and / or a syringe
already used by an infected person, that an infected pregnant woman could infect her baby and that
one could become infected by engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse with someone just once.
Results showed a decreasing trend in five out of nine statements concerning information regarding
HIV/AIDS transmission/prevention.
A slight increase in information was observed peaking in 2006 but decreasing substantially in
2010 in two of the remaining statements: respondents disagreed that the oral contraceptive could
protect against HIV/AIDS infection (χ2(4) = 102.058; p < 0.001) and agreed that someone who
looked healthy could be HIV infected (χ2(4) = 151.145; p < 0.001) (9.8% in 2002, 11.3% in 2006
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and 13.5% in 2010; and 76.0% in 2002, 78.2% in 2006 and 67.0% in 2010, respectively).
71
The only statement with which young people presented more accurate information was about
the impossibility of becoming infected with HIV/AIDS by blood transfusion in Portugal.
Overall, from 2002 to 2010 there was a systematic decrease in information regarding HIV/
AIDS transmission/prevention. The Post-hoc comparisons by the Scheffe method indicated that
young people reported having more information regarding HIV/AIDS transmission/prevention in
2002 than in 2006 and in 2010.
Table 3. Differences between 2002, 2006 and 2010 for information regarding HIV/
AIDS transmission/prevention for the total sample.
2002 2006 2010 Total1
χ² p
N % N % N % N %
It is possible to become
infected with HIV/AIDS 360.893 0.000
by sharing needles
Yes 3500 94.1 2831 89.8 2558 79.9 8889 88.2
I do not know 128 3.4 249 7.9 484 15.1 861 8.6
No 93 2.5 74 2.3 159 5.0 326 3.2
infected with HIV/Aids
137.908 0.000
from coughing and
sneezing
Yes 454 12.2 445 13.9 464 14.6 1363 13.5
I do not know 732 19.7 753 23.5 972 30.5 2457 24.3
No 2525 68.0 2002 62.6 1751 54.9 6278 62.2
An HIV-infected pregnant
woman may pass the
438.626 0.000
virus to her baby
Yes 3298 89.0 2564 80.2 2194 68.8 8056 79.8
I do not know 302 8.1 485 15.2 792 24.9 1579 15.7
No 106 2.9 150 4.7 201 6.3 457 4.5
infected with HIV/AIDS
464.847 0.000
by hugging someone
infected
Yes 114 3.1 175 5.5 254 8.0 543 5.4
I do not know 234 6.3 349 10.9 671 21.1 1254 12.4
No 3352 90.6 2673 83.6 2262 71.0 8287 82.2
The oral contraceptive
can protect against HIV/ 102.058 0.000
AIDS infection
Yes 361 9.8 361 11.3 429 13.5 1151 11.4
I do not know 905 24.5 694 21.7 957 30.1 2556 25.4
No 2432 65.8 2145 67.0 1792 56.4 6369 63.2
infected with HIV/
AIDS by engaging in
258.596 0.000
unprotected sexual
intercourse with
someone just once
Yes 3251 87.9 2766 86.7 2414 76.1 8431 83.8
I do not know 260 7.0 273 8.6 581 18.3 1114 11.1
No 187 5.1 150 4.7 177 5.6 514 5.1
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72 2002 2006 2010 Total1

χ² p
N % N % N % N %
Someone who looks
healthy can be HIV 151.145 0.000
infected
Yes 2800 76.0 2485 78.2 2124 67.0 7409 73.8
I do not know 572 15.5 517 16.3 796 25.1 1885 18.8
No 313 8.5 177 5.6 251 7.9 741 7.4
119.840 0.000
by sharing a glass, fork/
spoon
Yes 798 21.5 726 22.8 701 22.1 2225 22.1
I do not know 922 24.9 931 29.2 1139 35.9 2992 29.7
No 1986 53.6 1534 48.1 1330 42.0 4850 48.2
by blood transfusion in a 748.894 0.000
Portuguese hospital
Yes 3138 84.7 2060 64.6 1747 55.0 6945 69.0
I do not know 415 11.2 788 24.7 1043 32.8 2246 22.3
No 153 4.1 339 10.6 387 12.2 879 8.7
Scheffe
2002 2006 2010 Total
post
M SD M SD M SD M SD F p hocs2
Total scale 6.30 1.70 6.16 2.08 5.32 2.60 5.95 2.18 196.117 0 .000 a<b<c
1
The total numbers differ considering that some participants have not replied to some variables.
2
The a, b, c and < > signs – represent statistically significant differences within groups for p<0.050 by the Scheffe POSTHOC method.
In bold – values that correspond to an adjusted residual ≥ |1.9 |
Table 4 shows trends in attitudes towards HIV/AIDS infected people between 2002 and 2010
for the total sample.
It was found that in 2002 young people agreed more often that adolescents with AIDS should
be allowed to go to school, that they would be able to attend a class next to a colleague infected with
HIV/AIDS, and that they would visit a friend that was infected, and more adolescents disagreed that
HIV infected people should live apart of the rest of the people.
Overall, from 2002 to 2010, results showed a decreasing trend in four out of five statements
concerning positive attitudes towards people with HIV/AIDS: adolescents with AIDS should be al-
lowed to go to school (χ2(4) = 72.083; p < 0.001); I would sit near an infected student in classroom
(χ2(4) = 117.797; p < 0.001); I would visit a friend if he or she had AIDS (χ2(4) = 201.713; p < 0.001);
and HIV infected people should live apart of the rest of the people (χ2(4) = 144.506; p < 0.001).
The Post-hoc comparisons by the Scheffe method indicated that young people reported having more
positive attitudes towards people with HIV/AIDS in 2002 than in 2006 and in 2010.
Separate analyses for control variables (gender, age and school grade) were conducted regarding
all variables under study. The same patterns were found in each of the three survey years concerning
a) information regarding HIV/AIDS transmission / prevention, b) attitudes towards HIV infected
people, and c) pill use at last sexual intercourse. Nevertheless, regarding sexual intercourse, age of
first sexual intercourse and condom use results were confounded by the control variables. Due to
space reasons the results of these analyses weren’t presented here.
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Table 4. Differences between 2002, 2006 and 2010 for attitudes towards HIV-
73
infected people for the total sample.
2002 2006 2010 Total1

χ² p
N % N % N % N %
I wouldn’t be
a friend of
13.461 0.009
someone if he
had AIDS
Agree 226 6.1 222 7.0 235 7.5 683 6.8
I’m not sure 629 17.0 588 18.5 608 19.3 1825 18.2
Disagree 2852 76.9 2366 74.5 2308 73.2 7526 75.0
Adolescents
with AIDS
should be 72.083
allowed to go to 0.000
school
Agree 2586 70.1 2188 69.3 1928 61.3 6702 67.1
I’m not sure 644 17.5 550 17.4 727 23.1 1921 19.2
Disagree 457 12.4 418 13.2 489 15.6 1364 13.7
I would sit near
an infected
117.797 0.000
student in the
classroom
Agree 2615 70.8 2106 66.6 1835 58.4 6556 65.6
I’m not sure 775 21.0 749 23.7 927 29.5 2451 24.5
Disagree 305 8.3 309 9.8 381 12.1 995 10.0
I would visit a
friend if he or 201.713 0.000
she had AIDS
Agree 3104 83.9 2540 80.6 2206 70.1 7850 78.5
I’m not sure 425 11.5 444 14.1 667 21.2 1536 15.4
Disagree 172 4.6 169 5.4 272 8.6 613 6.1
HIV infected
people should
144.506 0.000
live apart of the
rest of people
Agree 294 8.0 293 9.3 330 10.5 917 9.2
I’m not sure 300 8.1 314 9.9 509 16.3 1123 11.2
Disagree 3103 83.9 2551 80.8 2293 73.2 7947 79.6
2002 2006 2010 Total1
Scheffe
M SD M SD M SD M SD F p post hocs2
Total scale 13.47 2.02 13.28 2.13 12.84 2.24 13.21 2.14 76.815 0.000 a<b<c
1
The total numbers differ considering that some participants have not replied to some variables.
In bold – values that correspond to an adjusted residual ≥ |1.9 |
2
The a, b, c and < > signs – represent statistically significant differences within groups for p<0.050 by the Scheffe POSTHOC method.
Discussion
The goal of this study was to document recent trends in preventive sexual behaviors in Portu-
guese adolescents, including information and attitudes about HIV/AIDS, and assessing whether they
have changed and how they have changed from 2002 to 2010.
In terms of preventive behaviors, results showed that in 2010, on average 78.2% (n=7924) of
8th and 10th grade adolescents have not had sexual intercourse. Comparing the data from the 2002,
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2006 and 2010 HBSC surveys, results showed an increasing trend regarding the percentage reporting
74
first sexual intercourse at 14 years old or more and condom use at last sexual intercourse (even though
the explanation may rely partially on gender, age or school grade) and a stabilized trend regarding
having had sexual intercourse and contraceptive pill use at last sexual intercourse.
In terms of information and attitudes about HIV/AIDS, results showed that in 2010 on aver-
age 8th and 10th grade adolescents are well information and have moderately tolerant attitudes
towards people with HIV/AIDS. Comparing the data from the 2002, 2006 and 2010 HBSC surveys
results showed a systematic decreasing trend.
Therefore, on the one hand, there’s an improvement on sexual reproductive health because
in 2010 preventive behaviors have either increased or stabilized, which means that there was a
bigger chance adolescents could be better informed and motivated, and have better behavioral
skills than in 2002 and 2006. Moreover, since age of first sexual intercourse is stabilizing at 14 or
more, it seems that adolescents are not anticipating their sexual debut, probably because of all the
HIV/AIDS campaigns and structured sex education being implemented in Portugal.
On the other hand, some aspects of sexual reproductive health caused some concern: the
systematic reduction of information regarding HIV/AIDS transmission / prevention, and decrease
in tolerant attitudes towards people with HIV/AIDS. Though in general, adolescents were well
informed about the main HIV/AIDS transmission routes and how to protect themselves from be-
coming infected, their information decreased and a minority still lacked information about main
issues. This conclusion reinforced findings from other studies in this area (Currie, Hurrelmann,
Settertobulte, Smith, & Todd, 2000; Eurostat, 2012). In 2010, 13.5% believed the oral contracep-
tive could protect against HIV/AIDS infection. This may be the reason why some of them haven´t
used a condom during last sexual intercourse and, unfortunately, why the incidence of HIV/AIDS
continues to be so significant in this age group.
And 18.3% (in 2010 compared to 8.6% in 2006 and 7.0% in 2002) didn’t know it is possible
to become infected with HIV/AIDS by engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse with someone
just once. Though most adolescents admitted knowing that it is possible for a person to have
intercourse without a condom once and get infected with HIV/AIDS, it seems that quite a few
students may be underestimating the risk in the sense that their risk perception is not consistent
with their reports of involvement in potentially risky behaviors such as not having used condom
during the last sexual intercourse.
In relation to the percentage reporting condom use during last sexual intercourse, it is important
to refer that still about 18% are not using it and thus continue engaging in sex risk behaviors.
There is a residual group of adolescents who engage in unprotected or poorly protected sexual
activity. It is imperative to find out why the message doesn’t get through to these adolescents and
what their particular characteristics are, so that prevention interventions become more successful
with this group.
As for the decrease in tolerant attitudes towards people with HIV/AIDS, it is important to say
that, in general, respondents did show positive attitudes, they were tolerant and inclusive. None-
theless, there was a general decrease in their tolerant attitudes, which must be analyzed, mainly
because it was not the only area they have shown a setback.
Some authors (Matos, 2008) believe that a few adolescents are no longer concerned about be-
ing well informed on prevention and transmission of HIV/AIDS, as long as they use a condom. In
this sense they may not be so concerned either about being tolerant towards HIV infected people,
they may see it as the consequence of their own irresponsibility, lacking the capacity to consider
that condoms aren’t 100% effective, so even using a condom at every sexual intercourse there’s
a chance of becoming infected for condoms can break, tare and slip off.
The results showed a gap between what young people knew about HIV/AIDS and what
they expressed in sexual behavior. Thus, we can say that is not information per se, although
it is a major prerequisite, which will implement the behavioral changes. Several studies have
emphasized the relativization of the amount of information about HIV/AIDS, both regarding
preventive behavioral strategies and decision making about personal risk of infection (Matos,
2008; UNAIDS, 2009).
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Conclusions 75
Overall, young people have more preventive sexual behaviors (have their first sexual inter-
course older and use condom and contraceptive pill at their last sexual intercourse) than before.
Nevertheless, there is still a residual group of about 18% of adolescents among those sexually
active who engage in unprotected or poorly protected sexual activity. Also, a reduction of infor-
mation regarding HIV/AIDS transmission/prevention and of positive attitudes towards people
with HIV/AIDS was observed.
With what the perception of vulnerability is concerned, young people continue to underesti-
mate the risk mainly because of the sense of invulnerability among heterosexuals in general and
the social representation of the illness onset (DiClemente, Forrest, & Mickler, 1990). Moreover,
adolescents’ typical egocentrism also translates into difficulties in realizing their vulnerability
(Boruchovitch, 1992).
The analyses suggested that formal sex education in school context promotes protective
sexual behaviors, but there is still a lot to be done since not all adolescents refer having protec-
tive behaviors and that can bring major negative outcomes in terms of public health (Ramiro,
Reis, Matos, Diniz, & Simões, 2011). Besides, though adolescents seemed to have focused on
preventive behaviors, they seemed to have disregarded information and attitudes in general. This
suggested that sex education programs implemented in Portugal are still too limited to teaching
sessions, strongly homogenized in their content and consequently inadequate to enhance the
level of information and attitudes regarding HIV, let alone personal and social skills of different
target groups.
HIV prevention school-based programs have been suggested (Basen-Engquist, et al., 1997;
Thurman, 2000) as a means of effective universal access when targeting adolescents. Schools
present a valuable setting because that’s where nearly all adolescents spend a significant part of
their time; it possesses educational structures and resources that will favor the integration of the
HIV theme in the context of sexual health education programs (Diclemente et al., 2000). However,
research emphasizes that few programs achieve positive results. This is probably due to the lack
of a theory at the base of the intervention program (Fisher, & Fisher, 2000).
Since 1986, sex education in Portugal has been compulsory in elementary and middle school
and from 2010 onwards in high school too. Moreover, a group of specialists (GTES, 2007) hired
by the Portuguese Ministry of Education produced specific legislation and established support
measures for the implementation of sex education in school context. Though the government
has done a great effort to regulate all necessary aspects and published a conceptual framework
for sex education, not all schools comply with the Portuguese Ministry of Education guidelines
just yet.
Moreover, there isn’t a program of intervention based on a specific theory as studies show
it should (Kirby, Laris, & Rolleri, 2007). National guidelines indicate teachers should improve
adolescents’ information, not only regarding HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention but also
to clarify myths and misconceptions, work on their attitudes, and motivation to condom use, as
well as develop their personal and social skills, which are somehow similar to the IMB model
(Information, Motivation and Behavior model). But it is necessary that the IMB model, which
has demonstrated intervention efficacy, is clearly adopted, i.e., identified, explained and then
applied and evaluated in Portuguese schools.
The findings of this study must be considered in light of the study’s strengths and limita-
tions. The HBSC provides the ability to assess trends through repeated measurements at several
frequently spaced points in time, thereby providing a unique opportunity to examine trends.
Nevertheless, it relies on self-reported measures and recall bias. Also, the questionnaire doesn´t
contemplate measures about adolescents’ motivation and behavioral skills that are part of the IBM
model (Fisher, & Fisher, 1992; 1993), so not all variables of the IBM model were assessed.
The authors of this research do not intend to advocate abstinence-only programs. Evidence
does not indicate that abstinence-only interventions effectively decrease risk among adolescents
(Kohler, Manhart, & Lafferty, 2008; Underhill, Operario, & Montgomery, 2011).
Future research should investigate the prevalence of evidence-based programs used in formal
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settings as well as determine their effectiveness when implemented on a large scale. There is
76
also a need to better understand the process of scaling up the implementation of evidence-based
programs (Ramiro, Reis, Matos, Diniz, & Simões, 2011).
As a final note, it’s important to emphasize adolescents’ increasing ability to adopt preven-
tive behaviors, therefore findings are promising.
Acknowledgements
The first author has a scholarship from the Foundation of Science and Technology with the
reference: SFRH/BD/43388/2008.
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Advised by Guna Svence,

Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Lúcia Ramiro PhD Student, Teacher, Technical University of Lisbon, CMDT & Aventura Social Project,
Estrada da Costa - Cruz Quebrada, Portugal.
E-mail: lisramiro@sapo.pt
Website: www.aventurasocial.com
Margarida Gaspar de Matos PhD, Full Professor, Clinical and Health Psychologist, Technical University of Lisbon (UTL),
CMDT & Aventura Social Project, Estrada da Costa - Cruz Quebrada, Portugal.
E-mail: mmatos@fmh.utl.pt
Marta Reis PhD, Clinical and Health Psychologist, Technical University of Lisbon (UTL), CMDT &
Aventura Social Project, Estrada da Costa - Cruz Quebrada, Portugal.
E-mail: reispsmarta@gmail.com
ISSN 2029-8587
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79
THE PERSON-ORIENTED APPROACH

IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Diana Raufelder, Danilo Jagenow, Frances Hoferichter

Free University of Berlin, Germany
E-mail: diana.raufelder@fu-berlin.de, danilo.jagenow@fu-berlin.de,
frances.hoferichter@fu-berlin.de
Kate Mills Drury

Concordia University, Montréal, Canada
E-mail: katemillsdrury@gmail.com
Abstract
Individual differences are a fundamental component of psychology, but these differences are often treated as
“noise” or “errors” in variable-oriented statistical analyses. Currently, there is a small but emerging body of
research using the person-oriented approach. In this paper a brief theoretical and methodological overview of
the person-oriented approach is given. A person-oriented approach is often preferable where the main theoreti-
cal and analytical unit is a pattern of operating factors, rather than individual variables. In order to illustrate
the relevance of this approach to research in educational psychology several representative statistical methods
are outlined, two of which employ a person-oriented approach (latent class analysis/ latent profile analysis,
configural frequency analysis/ prediction configural frequency analysis) and one that combines person and
variable-oriented approaches. Examples of data analyses are used to demonstrate that variable and person-
oriented approaches provide the researcher with different information that can be complementary.
Key words: configural frequency analysis, educational psychology, individual differences, latent class analysis,
person-oriented approach.
Introduction
Psychology as a discipline strives to balance idiographic information and nomothetic obser-

vation, however as we will see, one side of this dialectic is often emphasized at the expense of the
other. During the last century the idiographic goal of describing the individual as a unique agent
with a unique life history with properties setting one apart from other individuals, was widely sub-
stituted for the nomothetic perspective, which largely entails the search for laws that explain the
generalities of objective phenomena. At least since the cognitive revolution and the emergence of the
dimension-mathematics-experiment paradigm in the last century, research in psychology has been
dominated by the variable-oriented approach, which focuses on measurement, quantification, and
objective statistical methods. One reason for the pendulum swing was that the former idiographic
perspective was fraught with critiques of subjectivity, weak data and measurement, and difficulties
in theory testing (Bergman, & Andersson, 2010). The paradigm shift brought with it vitalization and
an explosion of knowledge within the field (Bergman & Andersson, 2010) and has led to a broader
acceptance of psychology as a serious discipline within the scientific community (Ittel & Raufelder,
2008). However, the transformation of the field was not without its disadvantages: adopting a no-
ISSN 2029-8587 Diana RAUFELDER, Danilo JAGENOW, Frances HOFERICHTER, Kate MILLS DRURY. The Person-Oriented Approach in the Field of
PROBLEMS Educational Psychology
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mothetic approach does not alter the fact that individual differences are a fundamental component of
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psychology, however, within the framework of variable-oriented statistical analyses these differences
are often treated as “noise” or “errors” (Hampson & Coleman, 1995). Consequently, inter-individual
differences are often considered random and thus negligible (von Eye, Bogat, & Rhodes, 2006) and
intra-individual differences, based on a whole-system perspective (Bergman & Andersson, 2010),
in which the individual is seen as an organized whole (Bergman & Magnusson, 1997), have been
neglected to a surprising extent. Hampson and Coleman (1995) remind us that:
“One of the most important ways in which psychology differs from the natural sciences arises from the exist-
ence of individual differences. Two liters of hydrogen that are treated identically respond identically, but any
two human beings, even identical twins, may respond quite differently to the same stimulus. This is because
people differ from one another not only in appearance (that is, physically) but also in their behavior (that is,
psychologically). Consequently, the study of individual differences, which encompasses personality, has been
a significant part of psychology since ancient times” (p. X).
In 2004 Molenaar implored researchers to consider inter-individual differences and as such

re-introduce the individual into psychological research. Today, there is a small but emerging body
of research using the person-oriented approach in developmental psychology, signaling a pendulum
swing back towards the idiographic perspective, in which the individual is regarded as a dynamic
system of interwoven components (Bergman & Andersson, 2010) and as an organized whole (Mag-
nusson, 1990), functioning and developing as a totality (Bergman & Magnusson, 1997) different
from other individuals. This article is in response to Molenaar’s (2004) appeal and gives a brief
theoretical and methodological overview of the person-oriented approach and its implications for
research in educational psychology.
Individual Differences and the Person-Oriented Approach
Individual differences are essential to psychology and especially to the field of educational
psychology wherein the basic assumption that each individual learns in the same way under the same
conditions can never be true. The earliest philosophers and humanists emphasized the need to identify
student interests and adapt instruction to individual needs and differences, and the advantages of
using self-comparisons rather than competitive social comparisons in evaluations of student’s work
and progress (Woolfolk, 2001). Crow and Crow (1973) remind us that: “educational psychology
describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual from birth through old age” (p. 7).
Furthermore, each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that
result from learning and their unique developmental history. These manifest as individual differ-
ences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation, and the capacity to process information,
communicate, and relate to others (Woolfolk, Winne, & Perry, 2006). However, as a consequence of
the dominance of variable-oriented statistical analyses, which assume equality between individuals,
and a seeming reluctance to employ person-oriented methods (Rosato & Bear, 2012), our knowledge
about individual differences in educational psychology is limited.
One could argue that individual differences are considered in the discipline of differential
psychology, which aims to identify the formal laws of variability (von Eye, 2010), but a basic as-
sumption of research in differential psychology is that everybody can be assigned a location on the
scales used for comparison (von Eye & Spiel, 2010). In contrast, person-oriented research goes a step
beyond this approach by acknowledging that particular concepts exist in or only apply to particular
populations or even individuals. This basic tenet of the approach allows for the use of terms that are
specific to populations, age groups, locations or historical times in the formulation of person-oriented
theories. Furthermore, methodologically speaking, this tenet allows for the comparison of individu-
als based on the possibly changing structure of behavior domains, as well as based on the existence
of behavioral domains (see von Eye & Spiel, 2010), as opposed to comparing individuals solely on
their location on particular scales. In other words, person-oriented research does not proceed from
the assumption that the validity of concepts and variables is universal (see von Eye, 2009, 2010).
Instead, one of the fundamental tenets underlying the person-oriented approach (Bergman & Mag-
Diana RAUFELDER, Danilo JAGENOW, Frances HOFERICHTER, Kate MILLS DRURY. The Person-Oriented Approach in the Field of ISSN 2029-8587
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nusson, 1997; Bergman, von Eye, & Magnusson, 2006; von Eye & Bergman, 2003) and idiographic
81
psychology (Molenaar, 2004; Molenaar & Campbell, 2009; von Eye, 2004) states that premature
aggregation of data can result in conclusions that fail to do justice to the variability in populations
(von Eye & Spiel, 2010). Despite this principle, theoretical and methodological discussions within
the person-oriented approach continue to proceed with the implicit assumption that the scales and
measures used to describe individuals are universally valid (see von Eye & Spiel, 2010). In order
to better understand these persistent assumptions, the next paragraph gives a short overview of the
constituent characteristics of the person-oriented approach.
Characteristics of the Person-Oriented Approach
Before describing the constituent characteristics of the person-oriented approach, it should

be noted that over the years the term “person-oriented” (often used interchangeably with the terms
“person-centered” and “pattern-oriented”) has acquired many different meanings (Bergman & Ander-
sson, 2010). Additionally, some researchers do not distinguish between person-oriented theory and
person-oriented methodology (Sterba & Bauer, 2010) and label their approach as “person-oriented”
or “person-centered” if some kind of pattern analysis has been made, even within a variable-oriented
framework (Bergman & Andersson, 2010). However, not every statistical analysis, which focuses
the individual, is automatically person-oriented. Bergman and Andersson (2010) underline: “To a
reasonable extent, the integrity of the system under study must also be retained” (p. 162). Due to the
fact that to date there is no agreed upon single definition of a person-centered approach, this article
summarizes the most common current perspectives on theory as well as methodology developed
over the past thirty years and influenced heavily by the works of Bergman and Magnusson (Mag-
nusson, 1988; Magnusson & Törestad, 1993; Bergman & Magnusson, 1997; Bergman, von Eye, &
Magnusson, 2006).
The original six tenets (theoretical elements) of the person-oriented approach (Bergman, 2001;
Bergman & Magnusson, 1997; von Eye & Bergman, 2003) were adapted by Sterba and Bauer (2010)
as the following person-oriented principles: (1) The individual-specificity principle holds that structure
and dynamics of behavior are at least partly specific to the individual. (2) The complex-interactions
principle implies the consideration of many factors and their interrelations to embrace the complexity
of behavior. (3) The interindividual-differences/intraindividual-change principle assumes a lawful-
ness and structure to intraindividual constancy and change as well as inter-individual differences in
constancy and change. (4) The pattern-summary principle follows the idea that processes develop
in a lawful way and can be described as patterns of involved factors. (5) The holism-principle states
that the meaning of the involved factors results from the interactions between these factors. (6) Fi-
nally, the pattern-parsimony principle asserts that the number of different patterns is infinite, but that
some patterns occur more frequently than others. Von Eye (2010) postulates a reformulation of this
last principle into expectancies, such as expected numbers of patterns should be specified, based on
a number of arguments or model assumptions. The advantage of this approach is to test hypotheses
concerning the observed frequencies of these events, which at the same time lightens the emphasis
on predominantly descriptive statements (see Bergman, Magnusson, & El-Khouri, 2003). In order
to develop the environmental components of person-oriented research Bogat (2009) proposes two
additional tenets: (a) “the structure and dynamics of individual behavior are, at least in part, specific
to the environment in which the individual lives and work” as well as (b) “validity is specific to
individuals and environments” (Bogat, 2009, p. 32).
The central question, which arises from these theoretical principles and approaches, is how to
transform them into analytical methods. Sterba and Bauer (2010) discussed which of these person-
oriented principles could be tested via four types of latent variable analyses for longitudinal data
in developmental psychology: (1) Less-restrictive variable-oriented methods (e.g., latent growth
curve model), (2) classification methods (e.g., latent class growth analysis; latent Markov model),
(3) hybrid classifications methods (growth mixture models), and (4) single-subject methods (e.g.,
dynamic factor analysis) (for details see Sterba & Bauer, 2010). Despite this classification system,
there remains a degree of arbitrariness in determining whether a given principle can be tested within
each analytic approach (Mun, Bates, & Vaschillo, 2010). Although Mun, Bates and Vaschillo assert
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that there is currently an effort to better match theoretical concepts with analytical tools (Mun, Bates,
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& Vaschillo, 2010), there is still much disagreement about the appropriate use of person-oriented
research methods.
The next section discusses three statistical analyses that are often used in person-oriented
research, that adhere to the precept of reintroducing the individual into psychological research (Mo-
lenaar, 2004) and that are also helpful in answering research questions in educational psychology.
The discussion aims to shed light on some of the difficulties inherent in integrating person oriented
theory and methodology.
Methods of Analysis of Person-Oriented Research
In general, person-oriented methods enable the researcher to identify important intra-individual

and inter-individual differences and thus model distinct configurations of heterogeneity within a
given sample (Rosato & Baer, 2012). That means that individuals will be studied on the basis of their
patterns of individual characteristics specific to the research question. It should be noted that such
patterns can occur at different levels (from the molecular to the global) and that a single study can
only address a few patterns. Bergman and Magnusson (1997) address the role of variables within
this pattern-orientation: “It is sometimes objected that even the person-oriented approach is variable
oriented because, for instance, in many of its applications, variables are used to construct profiles
of individuals’ scores which are then used in the statistical analysis. However, variables included
in such an analysis have no meaning in themselves. They are considered only as components of the
pattern under analysis and interpreted in relation to all the other variables considered simultaneously;
the relevant aspect is the profile of scores” (Bergman & Magnusson, 1997, p. 293).
The basic goal in person-oriented research is to group individuals into categories, with each
one containing individuals who are similar to each other and different from individuals in other
categories (Muthén & Muthén, 2000). Von Eye and Bogat (2006) defined three criteria for person-
oriented research: (1) a sample is analyzed under the assumption that it was drawn from more than
one population, (2) attempts be made to establish external validity of subpopulations, and (3) groups
be interpreted based on theory. These general criteria, as well as the methodological issues raised
by Sterba and Bauer (2010), Molenaar (2010), and Mun, Bates and Vaschillo (2010) presuppose
that the scales, instruments, and measures used to identify differences in individual profiles and
patterns are equally meaningful in all subpopulations and for all individuals, although the person-
oriented approach is generally “open to the assumption that particular concepts exist in or apply to
particular populations or even individuals only” (von Eye & Spiel, 2010, p. 153). These seemingly
ambiguous assumptions can be better illustrated through an example: the statement that car drivers
often feel pressured by other car drivers only makes sense for car drivers, and not for non car driv-
ers (latter assumption). In contrast, if researchers want to compare Canadian and German students
on motivation, they must be sure that Canadian and German students understand motivation in the
same way (presupposition of equal meaning). Von Eye explicates this presupposition in his concept
of dimensional identity (for detail see von Eye, 2010) and its implicit condition of commensurability
(for detail see von Eye & Spiel, 2010).
One popular analysis, which is often used in person-oriented research and is becoming more
and more common in educational psychology, is latent class analysis (LCA) or latent profile analysis
(LPA). However, as we shall see, both follow the assumption that the scales, instruments, and mea-
sures used for building the classes/profiles are equally meaningful for all possible subpopulations
and all individuals.
Latent Class Analysis (LCA) & Latent Profile Analysis (LPA)
Latent class analysis (LCA) and latent profile analysis (LPA) (Lazarsfeld & Henry, 1968) are
non-parametric statistical techniques based on the assumption that patterns among a set of observed
variables are explained by an unmeasured latent variable with discrete classes (Collins & Lanza, 2010;
Lazarsfeld & Henry, 1968; McCutcheon, 1987). They are multivariate methods used to identify latent
subpopulations of individuals based on multiple observed measures (Lubke & Muthén, 2005). The
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two forms of analysis use maximum likelihood estimation for the analysis of different types of indica-
83
tors, LCA uses binary and LPA uses continuous indicators, and assume that the association between
items can be explained by the existence of several latent classes/profiles. LCA and LPA examine
individuals as a whole based on their patterns of observed characteristics (Bergman & Magnusson,
1997). Within one class, individuals are assumed to have identical patterns of solution probabilities.
Participants can be assigned to a class for which his or her assignment probability is the highest. LCA
and LPA are conceptually related to cluster analysis. The advantages of these approaches over cluster
analysis are that they are model based and as such generate probabilities for group membership. In
other words, these models can be tested and their goodness of fit can be analyzed. The following
example illustrates the relevance of LCA to the field of educational psychology.
Using LCA in educational psychology research: Variable-oriented research in educational
psychology typically produces results framed in the following way: for most adolescent students,
positive social relationships in school are supportive of academic achievement and scholastic mo-
tivation (Wentzel et al. 2010; Wentzel, 1998). Indeed it is important to understand the experiences
of most students, but what about the other students? Although much is known about the respective
roles of teacher and peer support in motivational outcomes, much less is known about students with
relatively constant levels of academic achievement and motivation independent of teachers and/or
classmates. Therefore, using a person-oriented approach, we tested the following research question
with LCA: Are social relationships important for scholastic motivation for all students, or are there
different motivation types, including a type which does not need any or only limited social support
from teachers and/or classmates in order to be motivated? A LCA using self-report data from 1088
7th and 8th grade students identified four different motivation types (MTs): (1) teacher-dependent
MT, (2) peer-dependent MT, (3) teacher- and peer-dependent MT, (4) teacher- and peer-independent
MT. The results underscore inter-individual differences in the ways students rely on teachers and
peers as sources of motivation. In contrast, many schools still expect students to learn and behave
in uniform ways and students who do not fit this pattern are often viewed as maladjusted instead
of, as the results of this person-oriented research have shown, having different motivational needs.
The proposed typology can be used to improve students’ learning by furthering understanding of
and building on their individual motivational needs (for details see Raufelder, Jagenow, Drury, &
Hoferichter, 2013).
For longitudinal or developmental data in which hypotheses focus on heterogeneity in devel-
opmental trajectories and differential impact of covariates, growth mixture modeling (GMM) can
be used, which combines the strengths of growth curve modeling (a variable-oriented method) with
those of latent class analysis (a person-oriented method) (Muthén & Muthén, 2000). Another com-
mon statistical analysis in person-oriented research, configural frequency analysis (CFA), is often
used for longitudinal analyses and is the subject of the next section.
Configural Frequency Analysis (CFA) and Prediction Configural Frequency Analysis (P-CFA)
One of the principle goals of person-oriented research is to make statements about individu-
als or homogenous groups of individuals (so-called cells) (von Eye, 1990, 2010). This goal can be
achieved through CFA (Lienert & Krauth, 1975; von Eye, 2002; von Eye & Gutiérrez Peña, 2004).
While methods such as log-linear modeling or logistic regression center around variables, CFA al-
lows hypotheses about individual cells or groups of cells of cross-classifications (von Eye, 2010) to
be tested. In general, configural frequency analysis is a multivariate statistical method that identi-
fies individuals (configurations) that are unique in a statistically significant way. CFA aims to detect
patterns in data that occur significantly more (such patterns are called type) or significantly less
often (such patterns are called antitypes) than expected by chance. Whereas types are interpreted
as concepts that are constituted by a pattern of variable values, antitypes are interpreted as patterns
of variables that do not, in general, occur together (Lienert, 1969). The results of CFA are lists of
type- or antitype-constituting configurations, which reflect local relationships in the data (local
relationships refers to patterns of variable categories, but not necessarily to entire variables with
all their categories) (von Eye & Mun, 2012; Havránek & Lienert, 1984). Whereas in CFA models
are constructed with variables of the same status, Prediction CFA (P-CFA) distinguishes between
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predictor and criterion variables (von Eye & Rovine, 1994): “Types and antitypes are identified as
84
criterion attribute patterns that, given a certain predictor pattern, occur more (or less) often than
estimated by some chance model” (von Eye & Rovine, 1994, p. 2).
There are two underlying main approaches in CFA: (1) Identifying relationships among
variables, which include coefficients of association that can be interpreted in a manner analogous
to correlations and (2) identifying patterns of characteristics, which focus on groups of subjects.
These groups contain subjects who differ from all other subjects in that they display a unique pat-
tern of characteristics (configuration). In contrast to cluster analysis, CFA does not lead to solely
descriptive statements; it goes a step beyond in providing descriptive (labels for a configuration) and
inferential results (probability of the frequency of a given configuration relative to some expected
frequency). Like LCA or LPA, CFA allows for the creation of groups that differ in size, which is
essential from the perspective of person-oriented research (von Eye, Bogat, & Rhodes, 2006). The
following paragraphs underline the use of CFA/P-CFA for longitudinal data. In general, longitu-
dinal CFA/P-CFA focuses on the characteristics of transitions. The following example illustrates
the suitability of longitudinal P-CFA for research in the field of educational psychology.
Using CFA in educational psychology research: The work of Stemmler and Lösel (2012)
aims to identify approaches for preventing externalizing behaviors (such as aggression, delin-
quency, hyperactivity etc.) in educational settings. Therefore, understanding the persistence and
aggravation of externalizing problems over time is essential to their research. Based on previous
person-oriented analyses (Stemmler et al., 2005, 2008; Stemmler & Lösel, 2010), in which two
types (Type1: ‘externalizing only’, Type 2:‘externalizing plus internalizing’) of externalizing
problems in boys were identified, the researchers investigated whether the groups remained stable
over time and whether the two types of antisociality were related to offending in adolescence by
using prediction-configural frequency analysis (P-CFA). The sample consisted of 295 boys from
the Erlangen-Nuremberg Development and Prevention Study (Lösel, Stemmler, Jarusch, & Beel-
mann, 2009). Social behavior was rated by mothers, kindergarten educators, and schoolteachers;
offending was self-reported by the adolescents. The time lag between the first and last data as-
sessment was more than eight years. In the P-CFA the ‘externalizing only’ pattern was replicated
and suggested high stability over time. Moreover, this pattern was clearly related to self-reported
delinquent behavior. In addition, the results of the P-CFA showed a three-way interaction between
externalizing and internalizing variables, which could not have been found using a variable-oriented
approach (Stemmler et al., 2005). Interestingly, the ‘externalizing plus internalizing’ pattern did
not appear as a type, in contrast to Stemmler and Lösel’s previous studies (for more details see
Stemmler & Lösel, 2012).
The growing knowledge of different developmental subtypes of problem behavior underlines
once more the need for person-oriented research in educational psychology, which could lead to
the development of individualized prevention and intervention initiatives. Alongside the above-
mentioned ‘pure’ person-oriented methods of analysis, we now find a trend towards integrating
person-oriented and variable-oriented analyses in order to close the gap between the person- and
the variable-oriented approaches. This integration is the next topic of discussion.
Integrating Person-Oriented and Variable-Oriented Analyses
By integrating person-oriented and variable-oriented analyses researchers attempt to mini-

mize the weaknesses of each approach and maximize their strengths by combining disparate but
complementary assumptions (variable-oriented vs. person-oriented statements). In such cases
Bergman (1998) proposes the following sequence of analyses (see also von Eye, 2010): (1) Iden-
tifying operating factors by using exploratory, variable-oriented analyses (Feyerabend, 1975;
von Eye & Bogat, 2006); (2) Identifying possibly existing subpopulations by using exploratory,
person-oriented analyses (von Eye & Bogat, 2006); (3) Testing theoretical assumptions by using
confirmatory person-oriented analyses of data from independent samples and; (4) Linking theories
and results from the different research strategies by using variable-oriented analyses (Feyerabend,
1975; Molenaar & Campbell, 2009). The advantage of these combined analyses is self-evident:
While the person-oriented approach is useful in its ability to describe different experiences for
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different profiles of youth, it does not reveal associations between variables that are common to
85
all youth. Therefore, by combining the methods researchers gain information about profiles of
distinct groups as well as generalities across entire samples.
Using a combination of the variable-oriented and person-oriented approach in educational
psychology research: Davidson, Gest and Welsh (2010) conducted a longitudinal study with 383
youth to examine relatedness with teachers and peers during early adolescence. In detail, they
(a) identified patterns of early transition relatedness in the fall of the first year of middle school
(6th grade); (b) examined how pre-transition behavior (fall of 5th grade) was associated with
early transition relatedness; and (c) integrated variable- oriented and person-oriented approaches
to study how indicators and patterns of early transition relatedness were associated with school
adjustment (i.e., academic skills, academic self-concept, school bonding, loneliness, and self-
worth), concurrently and one and a half year later (spring of 7th grade). Using LPA, three patterns
of early transition teacher-peer relatedness were identified: “Profile 1 (n=168) was characterized
by low teacher-student closeness, low peer social preference, and low perceived peer competence
(Low Relatedness). Profile 2 (n=93) was characterized by average teacher-student closeness and
high peer social preference and perceived peer competence (peer-oriented). Profile 3 (n=122) was
characterized by high teacher-student closeness, high peer social preference, and high perceived
peer competence” (Davidson, Gest, & welsh, 2010, p. 495). Following these analyses two more
methodological steps were taken: (1) multinominal logistic regression analysis was used to assess
prediction of membership in one of the three early transition relatedness profiles based on adoles-
cents’ pre-transition behavior in fall of 5th grade and (2) a series of hierarchical linear regression
models were conducted to examine the unique and additive contribution of (a) the continuous
indicators of early transition relatedness with teachers and peers and (b) the early transition re-
latedness profiles on youths’ adjustment in the fall of 6th grade and the spring of 7th grade (for
details see Davidson, Gest, & Welsh, 2010). Findings indicated that behavioral characteristics in
elementary school might contribute to early transition patterns of relatedness with teachers and
peers in middle school. Furthermore, findings showed that a pattern of poor relationships with
primary social partners in the school context indicated youth at risk for maladjustment.
In line with the other above-mentioned examples of person-oriented research, the use of
LPA allowed for the identification of unique patterns of teacher-peer relatedness. Additionally,
the combination of variable-oriented with person-oriented methods enabled the researchers to
also identify patterns of association with earlier behavioral characteristics and concurrent adjust-
ment above and beyond the independent indicators of relatedness. These results underline how
experiences with teachers and peers are meaningful in different ways for different youth and we
believe that this rich and nuanced information better serves teachers and educators dedicated to
ameliorating educational experiences for adolescents.
There are other methods of analysis, which can be used in person-oriented research; some
of them have yet to find a concrete application such as comparative methods (Caramani, 2009)
or symbolic data analysis (Billard & Diday, 2006) but others have been used extensively in the
field of developmental psychology such as latent growth curve model (LGM), latent class growth
analysis (LCGA), and latent Markov model (e.g., Sterba & Bauer, 2010; Bergman & Magnusson,
1997). An interesting area for future discussion would be the degree to which multilevel analyses
in educational psychology can be understood as person-oriented analyses within variable-oriented
research, seeing as school level, class level and individual student level analyses can be conducted
simultaneously.
In sum, as the three outlined analysis techniques have shown, person-oriented research is es-
sential to the field of educational psychology. The fact that individuals differ in abilities, capacities
and personality characteristics as well as in their personal development necessitates the adoption
of individual-centered perspectives in educational settings. It seems as though Crow and Crow’s
assertion from 1973 is still germane to current education policy: “Since we supposedly are teaching
individuals, not groups of individuals, it is the function of the school within its budgetary personnel and
curricular limitations to provide adequate schooling for every learner no matter how much he differs from
every other learner” (p. 215).
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86 Conclusions
Inter-individual and intra-individual differences are at the heart of educational psychology, which
as a discipline concerns itself primarily with individual learning processes. Nevertheless, research
in educational psychology (as in psychology general) has been dominated by variable-oriented re-
search for decades. Results of variable-oriented research often provide information about students,
children and adolescents on average, which does not allow for the implementation of learning support
on an individual level. In contrast, the person-oriented approach, which has been developed in the
field of developmental psychology, explicitly addresses inter-individual as well as intra-individual
differences. By outlining the theoretical and methodological characteristics of the person-oriented
approach, the problems associated with matching the theoretical tenets of the approach with ap-
propriate methods of analysis, as well as the implications of the approach for educational psychol-
ogy, this paper highlights the urgent need to integrate person-oriented theory and methodology into
educational psychology research.
Acknowledgements
This article was supported by a grant from the Volkswagen Foundation.
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ISSN 2029-8587
PROBLEMS
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89
PSYCHOLOGICAL RECURRENCES
AND INTERVENTION PROPOSAL FOR
PATIENTS FOLLOWING BARIATRIC
SURGERY
Aída M. Reséndiz Barragán, Mariana A. Sierra Murguía

“Dr. Manuel Gea González” General Hospital, Mexico City, Mexico
E-mail: aidaresendiz@hotmail.com, mariana.sierra.m@gmail.com
Abstract
Obesity has been declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) as an epidemic, due to a growth trend
in obesity rates over the past 60 years and it is estimated that by 2015 there will be approximately 2.3 billion
overweighed adults and 700 million obese adults worldwide. Bariatric surgery has shown to be the most ef-
fective intervention for the treatment of severe obesity with better long-term results. While most post-operative
patients of bariatric surgery show improvement in psychopathology and quality of life, psychological recur-
rences have been identified thereafter. It has been reported that for people who have not been able to implement
changes in their lifestyle, the result of the operation may not be optimal and may even be counterproductive
with undesirable outcomes, such as recovery of lost weight, malnutrition, depression and anxiety, as well as
using food as a soothing agent to stressful stimuli, present failures in following the diet, as well as dissatisfac-
tion with the staff of the clinic
In recent years the number of bariatric surgeries performed annually has tripled showing a tendency to con-
tinue increasing, psychosocial and behavioral factors play a fundamental role in the long- term effects of the
surgery; for this reason, the objective of this study is to describe the main psychological recurrences after
bariatric surgery as well as a proposal for post-surgical cognitive behavioral group psychological support.
Key words: bariatric surgery, obesity, post bariatric surgery, psychological intervention.
Introduction
Obesity has been declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) as an epidemic, due
to a growth trend in obesity rates over the past 60 years and it is estimated that by 2015 there
will be approximately 2.3 billion overweighed adults and 700 million obese adults worldwide
(WHO, 2006).
Obesity is a risk factor for several diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia,
among others, for which it represents an important problem in public health matters worldwide,
and a growing financial burden on national resources; for this reason, it is a primary task of the
public health agencies to design and implement strategies for prevention and treatment.
The psychological consequences of severe obesity include: anxiety, depression and negative
body image, discrimination, social isolation and stigmatization (Wadden & Sarwer, 2006) and
they can in turn contribute to the development of eating behavior disorders, body image dis-
satisfaction and depression; women are considered to be more vulnerable to these recurrences
(Puhl et. al., 2007).
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Grade IV obesity, also called severe obesity, is significantly associated with an increased
90
prevalence of comorbidities and with twice the prevalence of premature mortality compared to
people with lesser degrees of obesity underlying the importance of prevention and treatment of
this condition (Martins et al., 2010).
Bariatric surgery has shown to be the most effective intervention for the treatment of severe
obesity with better long-term results (Sjostrom et al., 2004). Despite of the anatomic changes
made by surgery, weight loss and long term maintenance are not guaranteed, the success of the
procedure depends largely on behavioral changes made by patients and their ability to implement
permanent changes in their lifestyle, such as adherence to diet and physical activity, as well as
learning new ways of coping to avoid seeking for food in times of stress or distress (Bauchowitz
et al., 2005).
Some reports show that not all patients benefit from surgery; there are significant differences
in variations of weight in the short and long term after surgery (Kinzl et al., 2006); an example
of this is that 20% of patients who undergo weight loss surgery, don’t lose a significant amount
of weight or recover it in the short term (Greenberg, Sogg & Perna, 2009). The failure of this
surgery in 20% of patients who do not achieve a significant weight loss is generally attributed to
psychological or behavioral reasons (Busetto et al., 2005).
While most post-operative patients of bariatric surgery show improvement in psychopathol-
ogy and quality of life, psychological recurrences have been identified thereafter. It has been re-
ported that for people who have not been able to implement changes in their lifestyle, the result of
the operation may not be optimal and may even be counterproductive with undesirable outcomes,
such as recovery of lost weight, malnutrition, depression and anxiety, as well as using food as a
soothing agent to stressful stimuli, present failures in following the diet, as well as dissatisfaction
with the staff of the clinic (Bauchowitz et al., 2005; Bull et al., 1983; Orth et al., 2008).
Another line of research associated with patients who follow bariatric surgery is the eating
behavior, identifying that many of them have disordered eating. After surgery a third part of the
patients present binge eating episodes (Larsen et al., 2004) and vomiting after surgery (Kinzl et
al., 2002) which adversely affect the results of the surgery. The presence of binge eating disor-
der has been associated with greater weight gain after surgery, especially between 2 and 7 years
after surgery (Kalarchian et al., 2002) and vomiting conditions favor the development of eating
behavior such as bulimia (Kinzl et al., 2002).
Some patients undergoing bariatric surgery experience body image dissatisfaction because
of the aesthetic consequences of rapid weight loss, even after going through plastic surgery to
reduce sagging (Kinzl et al., 2003). In turn, a higher incidence in social phobia and avoidant
personality disorder has been reported in patients who don’t agree to participate in counseling
groups (Lier et al., 2011).
It is worth to highlight the importance of multidisciplinary work, especially the psychologi-
cal aspect for which the treatment of obesity and the bariatric patient has been considered of
great interest for psychology since severe obesity is associated with an increased prevalence of
psychopathology, quality of life in patients with morbid obesity is greatly affected, their func-
tionality is limited and, for patients to benefit from bariatric surgery and maintain these benefits,
a change of lifestyle and good therapeutic adherence to the indications of a multidisciplinary
team is necessary (Greenberg et al., 2004).
In recent years the number of bariatric surgeries performed annually has tripled showing a
tendency to continue increasing (Buchwald, 2005), psychosocial and behavioral factors play a
fundamental role in the long-term effects of the surgery (Van Hout, et al., 2006); for this reason,
the objective of this study is to describe the main psychological recurrences after bariatric surgery
as well as a proposal for post-surgical group psychological support.
Characteristics of the Research
We conducted a narrative literature research which primary objective was to identify the
main psychiatric comorbilities presented after a bariatric surgery, in order to understand the
psychiatric functioning of these patients. After the study we considered necessary to develop a
Aída M. RESÉNDIZ BARRAGÁN, Mariana A. SIERRA MURGUÍA. Psychological Recurrences and Intervention Proposal for Patients Following ISSN 2029-8587
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program of psychological counseling for specific care of patients following bariatric surgery to
91
provide them tools to handle such comorbilities.
Follow- up Proposal
In a meta-analysis in which the most popular psychological therapies for obesity treatment
are reviewed, the results show that the most efficient and wide-spread used psychological ap-
proach for treating obesity is the behavioral-cognitive therapy, which being used as a part of a
multidisciplinary treatment shows better results on weight loss and lifestyle changes; different
kinds of psychotherapy are difficult to evaluate due to lack of methodology and the difficulty
that represents to replicate the treatment (Shaw et. al., 2005).
Taking this information in consideration, we propose a scheme for follow-up that includes
aspects to identify in patients following bariatric surgery (Table 1), the frequency of the interven-
tions is every three months and a cognitive behavioral approach is recommended. If any of the
aspects described is identified, individual psychological intervention is needed in order to aboard
these issues specifically; the techniques suggested for this procedure are described as follows.
Table 1. Psychological follow-up scheme for patients following bariatric

surgery.
Time Subject Description of the stage
0-3 months Adaptation The patient must adapt to eat minor quantities compared to the
Therapeutic adherence quantities he was used to consume and to experiment with different
Anxiety kinds of food to discover gastric capacity and food tolerance. The
Psychosocial Functioning patient has to follow a strict food plan and has to take dietary
supplements. The patient might present “dumping”; must deal with
comments on their alimentation and appearance.
3-6 months Body Image Rapid weight loss is more evident at this stage; the patient changes
Anxiety the perception of his own body and gets comments and reactions of
Psychosocial Functioning the people with whom he lives.
6-12 months Body Image Weight loss can cause imbalances in the perception of the patient’s
Psychosocial Functioning body image and psychosocial adjustment difficulties.
Depression At this stage the patient’s food tolerance is better and he knows
Anxiety which types of food can cause him discomfort, so it is possible
Eating Disturbances to consume them in order to intentionally induce vomiting, in an
attempt to eat more.
12 months and more Anxiety Weight reaches a stabilization point and a proportion or the totality
(Every 6 months) Therapeutic Adherence of the lost weight may be regained. The patient may not be able
Body Image to make long-term changes so the improvements in psychological
Depression functioning and eating habits presented at this point may be lost.
Eating Disorders The patient may abandon medical consultation or present fear of
Plastic Surgery gaining weight. Skin flaps are observed due to rapid weight loss.
The patient has to face the actual result of the surgery, which may
not match his expectations.
Skills suggested for specific intervention:

The psychologist should select the techniques according to the patient´s specific needs, some
of the most used cognitive behavioral interventions for the psychological follow- up on obesity
and bariatric surgery are described as follows.
Self- recording: It has been described that this technique is effective on promoting weight
loss and weight maintenance. It has been used to promote the development of self-control and
to monitor the target behavior (eating patterns, consumed calories, exercising, steps, heart beat
per minute during exercise, sabotaging thoughts, etc.) in order to modify it so the desired results
can maintain. Self-recording has proven to be an effective strategy on promoting weight control
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(Wing et al., 2006). Also, it allows to identify the basal frequency of a target behavior, it in-
92
creases patient´s attention towards that behavior and provides feedback about progress during the
treatment (Butryn et al., 2007). It consists of making a daily register of the target behavior, it is
important that these records could be made at the moment of occurrence or as close as possible.
We suggest using this technique in all of the stages to promote adherence to meal and exercise
plans, to medical indications and to identify automatic thoughts (in treatment of depression,
anxiety and eating disorders).
Stimuli Control: Cognitive Behavioral treatment for obesity postulates that eating behavior
is influenced by internal and external stimuli that are associated with the intake of certain food;
Stimuli Control consists of identifying the stimuli that triggers food intake and modifying it in
order to prevent a future episode of intake. The psychologist working with these patients should
modify the stimuli that triggers overeating (less availability of junk food, avoid buffets, etc.)
and sedentary behaviors (to limit “screen hours”, the use of motor vehicles, etc.) and should
promote physical activation (using altern transportation, subscribing to a gym, involving friends
or family in exercising), and healthy eating (higher availability of fruits and vegetables, chang-
ing supermarket lists, etc.) (Van Dorsten, 2008). Family and social support are part of patient´s
environment, reason for involving them in lifestyle change. We suggest using this technique to
promote therapeutic adherence.
Cognitive Therapy: The premise of cognitive therapy is that the interpretation or what a
person thinks about themself or certain event has a direct impact on emotions and behavior.
Patients with obesity sometimes present desadaptative cognitive schemes, dysfunctional beliefs
related with body image, depressed mood, unrealistic weight goals, and food control. If these
dysfunctional schemes get to be modified, healthy lifestyle can be promoted and weight regain
prevented (Werrij et al., 2009). We suggest to implement this technique if the patient has depres-
sion, anxiety and eating disorders after the surgery.
Motivational Interview: It is a clinical interview centered on the patient, it helps to explore
and resolve ambivalence about certain behavior or inappropriate habit in order to promote behavior
change (Miller & Rollnik, 2002), this could help patients make decisions about changing.
Problem Solving: When applied to obesity, this procedure teaches individuals to identify
barriers for changing their lifestyle and to set possible solutions for them. It consists of five
steps: 1. Identifying the problem, 2. Proposing different solutions, 3. Analyzing benefits and
disadvantages of each of the solutions proposed, 4. Carry on the solution chosen, 5. Evaluate
if the solution was useful or not. This technique can be used also for involving social support,
eliminating some types of food, planning social eating, etc.
Social Skills Training: This technique is focused on incrementing the skills of reacting in
difficult situations (Goldsmith & McFall, 1975); such are the changes and difficulties in personal
relations caused by weight loss. In practice, social skills training consists of 4 stages: 1. The de-
velopment of a belief system that shows respect to other peoples thoughts as well as proper ones.
2. The development of the skills to carry on assertive behavior. 3. Cognitive Reestructuration
focused on changing automatic thoughts in specific situations. 4. Behavior rehearsal in order to
practice assertive responses. These stages can be developed in a no consecutive way and can be
adapted and modified according to patient´s needs (Lange, 1981).
Exposition: The focus on this technique should be the ability of the patient to expose to the
feared situation or stimuli that has been negatively reinforced by avoidance (Marks, 1987). A
brief and low intensity exposition produces slow and poor results, whereas a long and intense
exposition produces fast and satisfactory results (Stern & Marks, 1973), nevertheless, it is im-
portant to explain to the patient the nature of this treatment and to agree with him the objectives
and stages of this exposition, coming up to an agreement respecting to each session’s intensity.
By using this method, the patient is supposed to realize that the real barrier is the fear itself and
not any physical characteristic (Newell & Dryden, 1991), reason why it is useful to decrement
body image issues.
Relaxation Techniques: Stress inoculation, used to improve the way in which patients copy
different situations, is divided in three stages: cognitive preparation, skill acquisition and apply-
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ing what learned. During the training, the patient is induced to relaxation exercises, cognitive
93
restructuring, guided imaginery, modeling and roleplaying with the objective of providing him with
skills to help him copy more efficiently with problematic situations (Meichenbaum, 1975).
Psychoeducation: The difference between psychoeducation and traditional educative inter-
ventions is that the first, focuses on improving patient’s life whereas the second focuses only on
providing information. According to diverse authors, psychoeducation should be an essential part
of the integral treatment of chronic diseases (Wagner, Austin & Von Korff, 1996) and the informa-
tion provided to the patients should be part of dialy practice in order to promote independence and
quality of life of those who suffer a chronic disease like obesity (Rankin & Stallings, 2001).
Conclusions
Obesity has been considered a world epidemic because of the fast increment of growing rates.
Bariatric surgery is the gold standard for people with severe obesity because of the effects on
weight loss and the improvement of comorbidities. It has also been observed that psychological
functioning can improve after bariatric surgery, whereas, there are psychological comorbidities
that can affect the outcome of the surgery as well as individual’s functionality and short and long
term quality of life. The present paper presented a suggestion of group cognitive behavioral therapy
for post bariatric surgical patients, which included the most common psychological comorbidi-
ties referred on research, as well as techniques suggested for their treatment. The need to offer a
psychological follow up for these patients after their surgery is convincing by knowing that it is
a non-reversible procedure that demands considerable lifestyle modification. Nevertheless, there
are not much follow up programs available for these patients that offer structured guidelines,
reason for which the importance of designing these interventions is pointed out in order to benefit
the patients and the multidisciplinary team that works with them.
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Advised by Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova,

South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bulgaria
Received: January 31, 2013 Accepted: February 17, 2013
Aída M. Reséndiz Barragán Bachelor in Psychology, Researcher, “Dr. Manuel Gea González” General Hospital,
Calzada de Tlalpan 4800, Col. Sección XVI, CP14080
Mexico City, Mexico.
E-mail: aidaresendiz@hotmail.com
Mariana A. Sierra Murguía Master in Psychology, Researcher, “Dr. Manuel Gea González” General Hospital, Calzada
de Tlalpan 4800, Col. Sección XVI, CP14080
Mexico City, Mexico.
E-mail: mariana.sierra.m@gmail.com
ISSN 2029-8587
PROBLEMS
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96
FACTORS OF RESILIENCE, WISDOM

AND SELF-EFFICACY AS POSITIVE
RESOURCES OF LEADERS IN SAMPLE
OF LATVIAN BUSSINESS MANAGERS
Guna Svence
Riga Teacher Training and Education Management Academy, Riga, Latvia
E-mail: gunasvence@rpiva.lv
Vineta Greaves
VCG SIA (”VCG”), Riga, Latvia
E-mail: vineta.grivza@vcg.lv
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate relationships between positive psychology resources – resilience, general
self-efficacy and wisdom dimensions – cognitive, reflective and affective in different level business leaders and
to investigate differences between two groups of leaders – with higher general self-efficacy and lower general
self-efficacy. The study was carried out based on theories of psychological resources. Resources not only buffer
against the potentially harmful stress effects of the demands of working life, but may promote development
and optimal performance, which is necessary for leaders to be able to meet increasing demands of their role.
83 respondents (57 women, 26 men) different level business leaders participated in the study.
Results showed that in sample of leaders group there are statistically significant relationships between resilience
and self-efficacy, resilience and reflective wisdom dimension, self-efficacy and wisdom reflective and cognitive
dimensions. Results of difference analysis showed that there are differences in levels of psychological resources
between high general self-efficacy leaders and low general self-efficacy leaders. High general self-efficacy
leaders showed higher results in all tested psychological resources and statistically significant differences
between two groups were reported in resilience. Results suggest that low self-efficacy leaders would be less
able to adapt to uncertainty, and/ or bounce back or recover from stress. Research results suggest that higher
level of general self-efficacy is related to higher levels of resources – resilience and wisdom.
Key words: psychological resources, resilience, self-efficacy, wisdom.
Introduction
The study of leadership in organizations has been prevalent since the beginning of the 19th
century and thousands of research studies have focused on leadership phenomenon (Yukl, 1989) in
part to enhance our ability to predict leadership effectiveness (Hendricks & Payne, 2007).
Today’s leaders face unprecedented challenges as organizations struggle to adapt to ever-
accelerating rates of change both internally and with the external environment (Hannah, Avolio,
Luthans, &Harms, 2008). Hannah et al (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, &Harms, 2008) emphasizes that
many authors in their works (Avolio and Luthans, 2006; Hooijberg et al., 1997; Lord and Hall, 2005;)
stress that such change challenges not only the knowledge, skills and abilities of leaders, but also
the self-conceptualizations of their leadership capabilities and psychological resources to meet the
ever increasing demands of their roles.
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While there are no quick fixes to these complex and challenging problems, positive psychology
97
suggests that the potential for a more hopeful, productive, and satisfying future can emerge for people
who are struggling to find their way through these tough times (Froman, 2010). In accordance with
Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory, those individuals who have more positive psychological
resources are expected to grow more effectively or to broaden themselves and build out additional
personal resources to perform (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009).
Luthans, Norman, Avolio, & Avey (2008) in their work state that to date, the positive psychologi-
cal constructs that have been determined to best meet the Positive organizational behaviour (POB)
and its derivative concept of psychological capital or PsyCap are hope, resilience, optimism, and
self-efficacy (Luthans, 2002a; Luthans et al., 2004; Luthans& Youssef, 2004; Luthans & Youssef,
2007; Luthans, Youssef et al., 2007) and emphasize that other positive psychological constructs
such as work engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007), psychological
well-being (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000, 2004), psychological ownership (Avey, Avolio, Crossley,
& Luthans, in press), wisdom, courage, and forgiveness (e.g., see Luthans, Youssef et al., 2007,
Chapters 6 and 7) could and likely will be included in the future.
There are scientific studies that examine relationships of resilience and specific self-efficacy.
Luthans, Norman, Avolio, & Avey (2008) in their work examine the following positive psychological
constructs or resources: hope, resilience, optimism and efficacy and note that psychological capital
(PsyCap) has been specifically defined as ‘‘an individual’s positive psychological state of develop-
ment that is characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary
effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding
now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals
(hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing
back and even beyond (resiliency) to attain success’’ (Luthans, Youssef et al., 2007, p. 3).
However studies that examine relations of resilience, general self-efficacy and wisdom dimen-
sions we did not find. Therefore in contrast to the psychological capital (PsyCap) theory, we were
interested to examine relationships between general self-efficacy, resilience and wisdom dimen-
sions.
Resilience gives the leader an ability to create a vision, challenge the process, and allow potential
to unfold (Baldwin, Maldonado, Lacey, & Efinger, 2004).
In circumstances where leaders are constantly overloaded with information, wisdom becomes
a crucial characteristic for leaders to survive the fierce competition, i.e., leadership wisdom is the
ability to put into action the most appropriate behaviour, a choice based on the realization of what
is valuable in life, for oneself and others (Wei & Yip, 2008).
The purpose of this study was to answer the question - whether there are relationships between
the leaders’ positive psychological resource factors - general self-efficacy, resilience and wisdom,
and to investigate the differences in self-efficacy, resilience and wisdom between two groups of
leaders – 1) with lower general self-efficacy and 2) higher general self-efficacy.
Problem of Research
Gorgievski, Halbesleben and Bakker in their work (2011) state that key resource theories gener-
ally focus on single or multiple individual difference variables (resources) that are considered key
for effective adaptation and management of the demands of life, such as theories on self-referent
beliefs like self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), dispositional optimism (Carver & Scheier, 1998), and
psychological capital, a composite of optimism, hope, self-esteem, and self-efficacy (Luthans &
Youssef, 2004). Key resource theories in occupational and organizational psychology have been
used extensively to explain individual differences in resilience to job stress. Authors highlight that
resources not only act as a buffer against the potentially harmful stress effects of the demands of
working life, resources have intrinsic value, and the active search for gaining and increasing resources
has a motivating effect, as such, resources form an excellent basis for flourishing in the workplace
and optimal performance (Gorgievski, Halbesleben, Bakker, 2011).
According to Wood & Bandura (1989) “self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to
mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to meet given situational
ISSN 2029-8587 Guna SVENCE, Vineta GREAVES. Factors of Resilience, Wisdom and Self-Efficacy as Positive Resources of Leaders in Sample of Latvian
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demands” (Wood & Bandura, 1989, p. 408). Chen, Gully & Eden (2009) in their work state, that re-
98
strictive words “given situational demands” in Wood’s & Bandura’s definition have given self-efficacy
a narrow focus, therefore there are researchers, who have become interested in the more generality
dimension of self-efficacy (general self-efficacy). According to Chen, Gully & Eden (2009) general
self-efficacy „captures differences among individuals in their tendency to view themselves as capable
of meeting task demands in a broad array of contexts” (Chen, Gully & Eden ,2009, p.63).
Chen and colleagues (Chen, Gully, Eden, 2009) observe in their study that majority of self-
efficacy researchers continue to focus on specific self-efficacy and ignore the general dimension
of self-efficacy. Taking into account that jobs and roles in organizations are becoming increasingly
broad, complex, and demanding, high general self-efficacy is a valuable resource for organizations
because it can maintain employees’ work motivation throughout rapidly changing and stressful job
demands and circumstances and act as a buffer for them against the potentially demotivating impact
of failure (Chen, Gully, Eden, 2009).
Hannah et al (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, &Harms, 2008) notes, that research has shown that
leaders with higher levels of self-efficacy (Krueger & Dickson, 1993) and general efficacy (Betz
and Hacket, 1986; Lent and Hackett, 1987) focus on opportunities to pursue challenges, while those
with lower efficacy focus on risks to be avoided.
Hannah et al. (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms, 2008) propose that future research should
investigate leader’s efficacy development as a cycle of positive development. Authors propose that
leaders with higher efficacy will increase their exposure to developmental events and experience a
continuous widening (generalization) of their domain of leader efficacy over time via adaptive self-
reflection factors. Hannah et al (2008) emphasizes, that leaders’ efficacy beliefs are perceptions of
and can thus be distinct from their actual capabilities. They also suggest that the efficacy beliefs of
highly self-aware leaders will be based on realistic assessments of their actual capabilities (Hannah,
Avolio, Luthans, &Harms, 2008).
Küpers & Statler (2008) note, that organizational theorists have started to use the concept of
practical wisdom to describe how strategists and leaders deal ethically and effectively with uncertainty.
By example, Clegg and Ross Smith (2003) notes, that wisdom may be the essential management
virtue, as management is limited by great depths of uncertainty and ignorance within which it is
constituted (Küpers & Statler, 2008).
Monika Ardelt (2004) suggests, that wise individuals can face the most difficult situations with
equanimity, because they are aware and can accept the reality of the present moment and proposes,
that the simultaneous presence of cognitive, reflective, and affective personality characteristics is
necessary but also sufficient for a person to be considered wise (Ardelt, 2004). According Ardelt
(2003), the cognitive dimension of wisdom refers to a person’s ability to understand life, to com-
prehend the significance and deeper meaning of phenomena and events, including inherent limits of
knowledge, and of life’s unpredictability and uncertainties. In order to have a deeper understanding
of life, one needs to engage in reflective thinking by looking at phenomena and events from many
different perspectives to develop self-awareness and self-insight, thereby gradually reducing one’s
self-centeredness, subjectivity, projections, and increase one’s insight into the true nature of things
(Ardelt, 2003).
It is the apparent contrast between the attributes attendant on leaders with high levels of self-
efficacy and those with lower levels that aroused authors interest and caused to search more deeply
into the concepts that accompany this contrast including, but not limited, the essence of wisdom,
resilience.
Research Focus
The main idea was to investigate leader’s psychological resources – resilience, general self-
efficacy and wisdom dimensions – cognitive, reflective and affective dimension.
Research questions:
1. Is there statistically significant relationship between leader positive resources factors -
self-efficacy, resilience and wisdom?
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2. Which additional variables (age, gender, work experience, education, responsibility level)
99
correlate the most with the leader’s positive psychological resource factors – general
self-efficacy, resilience, wisdom?
3. Are there statistically significant differences between two groups of leaders – with high
general self-efficacy and low general self-efficacy in wisdom, resilience and self-efficacy
scores?
Figure 1: Research theoretical framework. Relations between Leader’s positive

resource factors.
Schwarzer and Hallum (2008) note that a general sense of self-efficacy refers to global confidence
in one’s coping ability across a wide range of demanding or novel situations (Schwarzer and Hallum,
2008). Luszczynska and colleagues (Luszczynska, Gutiérrez-Doña, Schwarzer, 2005) in their study
of general self-efficacy in various domains of human functioning emphasise that self-efficacy is not
only of a task-specific nature, but is also the belief in one’s competence to tackle novel tasks and to
cope with adversity in a broad range of stressful or challenging encounters, as opposed to specific
self-efficacy. Across the five countries (Costa Rica, Germany, Poland, Turkey, and the USA) high-
est positive relations of general self-efficacy with optimism, self-regulation, and self-esteem were
found, whereas the highest negative associations emerged with depression and anxiety (Luszczynska,
Gutiérrez-Doña, Schwarzer, 2005).
Monika Ardelt (2004) believes that a deeper understanding of life is only possible if you can
perceive reality as it is, without significant distortions and proposes that the simultaneous presence
of cognitive, reflective, and affective personality characteristics is necessary but also sufficient for a
person to be considered wise. Cognitive dimension of wisdom refers to the desire to know the truth
and attain a deeper understanding of life, which includes knowledge and acceptance of the positive and
negative aspects of human nature, of the inherent limits of knowledge, and of life’s unpredictability
and uncertainties. The reflective component of wisdom represents self-examination, self-awareness,
self-insight and the ability to look at phenomena and events from different perspectives, and affective
component consists of a person’s sympathetic and compassionate love for others (Ardelt, 2004).
Luthans et al. (Luthans, Norman, Avolio, & Avey, 2008) state that resilience as adapted to the
workplace has been defined as the ‘‘positive psychological capacity to rebound, to ‘bounce back’
from adversity, uncertainty, conflict, failure, or even positive change, progress and increased respon-
sibility’’ (Luthans, 2002a, p. 702). The definition of POB resilience also takes into account the need
to bounce back even from positive but potentially overwhelming events such as greatly increased
responsibility and accountability, as these challenges may be viewed as threats by those who lack
resilience but as challenging opportunities by those who possess considerable resilience (Youssef
& Luthans, 2007). Resilience cannot be limited to just a reactive capacity that is expressed in times
of adversity. Resilience permits adversities and setbacks to be viewed as opportunities for learning,
growth, and development, engages creative and flexible adaptive mechanisms, guided by ethical values
and strong belief systems, toward the achievement of personally and organizationally meaningful
goals (Youssef & Luthans, 2007). Authors also note that resilience has also been found to be related
to work attitudes of satisfaction, happiness, and commitment (Youssef & Luthans, 2007).
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The study data were analyzed in response to the research questions and identify correlations
between positive resource factors - resilience, general self-efficacy and wisdom cognitive, reflective
and affective dimensions, identify relations between positive resource factors and additional vari-
ables (age, gender, work experience, education, responsibility level) and identify positive resource
factors differences between two groups of leaders – with higher general self-efficacy and lower
general self-efficacy.
The main idea of the study is to examine if there is correlation between general self-efficacy,
resilience and wisdom, and to investigate the differences in two factors: resilience and wisdom between
two groups of leaders – 1) with lower general self-efficacy and 2) higher general self-efficacy.
The aim of the study: theoretically and empirically investigate leader’s positive psychological
resource factors and find out relations between them, and to study the differences between the two
groups of leaders – with higher general self-efficacy and lower general self-efficacy.
Object of the study: interrelations between the leader positive psychological resource factors -
resilience, general self-efficacy and wisdom dimensions, and differences of positive psychological
resource factors.
Sample of Research
83 respondents (M=39.63; SD=7.70) participated in the study: 57 female (M = 39.49; SD=8.05)

and 26 male (M = 39.92; SD=7.01). The study took place in Latvia, the survey was posted on the in-
ternet site www.visidati.lv and invitations to participate and complete the survey were sent to different
level leaders of different business companies with request to pass on this invitation to their friends or
business contacts. Respondents were informed that this is survey to test a leader’s positive resource
factors and they did not know which exact resources are examined in this survey. Respondents were
offered a reward for participating - the opportunity to receive analysis of their results in comparison
with the other study participants. Respondents are business leaders of different levels from various
industries: banking, finance, accounting, information technology, telecommunications, marketing,
advertising and media, law, manufacturing, construction, logistics, hotel business, tourism, customer
service, etc. 80% of respondents live in Riga, others – mainly in close surroundings of Riga.
The methodology of the study is based on quantitative methods. Three-dimensional Wisdom
Scale (3D-WS, Ardelt, 2003), The Brief Resilience Scale (Smith, Dalen, Wiggins, Tooley, Christopher,
& Bernard, 2008) and The General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) was used in
research. Spearman correlation analysis and univariate analysis of variance with Scheffe post-hoc
test was used to test relationships, while differences were tested by Mann-Whitney test.
Empirical methods - survey methods:

1. The Brief Resilience Scale – BRS (Smith, Dalen, Wiggins, Tooley, Christopher, & Ber-
nard, 2008). BRS was created to assess the ability to bounce back or recover from stress.
BRS represents one factor, is related to resilience resources and health-related outcomes,
and BRS was consistently negatively correlated with perceived stress, anxiety, depres-
sion, negative affect, and physical symptoms.
2. Three-dimensional Wisdom Scale – 3D-WS (Ardelt, 2003). Wisdom is treated as a latent
variable with cognitive, reflective, and affective effect indicators. The cognitive compo-
nent is assessed by items that measure an understanding of life or the desire to know the
truth, what includes knowledge of the positive and negative aspects of human nature,
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tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty, and the ability to make important decisions despite
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life’s unpredictability and uncertainties. The reflective component measures the ability
to look at phenomena and events from different perspectives and to avoid subjectivity
and projections, i.e., to avoid blaming other people or circumstances for one’s own situ-
ation or feelings. The affective element captures the presence of positive emotions and
behaviour toward other beings, such as feelings and acts of sympathy and compassion,
and the absence of indifferent or negative emotions and behaviours toward others.
3. The General Self-Efficacy Scale - GSE (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). This scale was
created to asses a general sense of perceived self-efficacy with the aim to predict cop-
ing with daily hassles as well as adaptation after experiencing all kinds of stressful life
events. The scale measures optimistic self-belief, i.e., belief that one can perform novel
or difficult tasks, or cope with adversity in various domains of functioning. It can be
regarded as positive resistance resource factor, facilitates goal-setting, effort investment,
persistence in the face of barriers and recovery from setbacks.
In this study in all scales a five–point Likert-type measures were used to obtain consistency of
scales across this research, ranging either from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) or from 1
(definitely true of myself) to 5 (not true of myself).
Data Analysis
Spearman correlation analysis and univariate analysis of variance with Scheffe post-hoc test
was used to test relationships, while differences were tested by Mann-Whitney test.
Results of the Research
Cronbach’s alphas, descriptive statistics, and intercorrelations among the variables are presented
in Table 1.
Table 1. Cronbach’s Alphas, Descriptive Statistics and Spearman correlations

Among Variables.
Descriptive Spearman correlations of Positive resource factors

statistic Three dimension wisdom scale
Cronbach’s α
General self-
Resilience
Variables
efficacy
dimension
dimension
dimension
Reflective
Cognitive
Affective
wisdom
Total
M SD
General self-efficacy 0.71 36.43 3.84 1

Resilience 0.74 3.60 0.54 0.49** 1
Cognitive dimension 0.71 3.36 0.43 0.22* 0.13 1
Reflective dimension 0.71 3.59 0.38 0.30* 0.31* 0.52** 1
Affective dimension 0.61 3.16 0.45 0.17 0.15 0.31** 0.35** 1
Total wisdom score 0.82 3.37 0.33 0.25* 0.19 0.78** 0.77** 0.73** 1
Responsibility level - - - 0.24* 0.13 0.01 0.17 0.14 0.12
Age - 39.6 7.70 -0.04 -0.15 -0.18 -0.06 0.01 -0.09
Work experience - 18.22 8.16 -0.09 -0.23* -0.21 -0.13 -0.03 -0.15
Education - - - -0.09 -0.03 0.24* 0.20 -0.03 0.16
Note. N=83. *p<0.05, **p<0.01. Notations: M – Mean, SD – Standard Deviation.
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First, we computed Spearman correlations to examine relations between positive resource

102
factors: general self-efficacy, resilience, wisdom dimensions – cognitive, reflective and affective
dimension, and other additional variables (age, gender, work experience – number of years, educa-
tion, responsibility level). Correlation coefficients are displayed in Table 1.
The closest statistically significant correlation between positive resource factors was shown
between self-efficacy and resilience (r=0.49; p<0.01). General self-efficacy have statistically
significant correlation between cognitive wisdom dimension (r=0.22; p<0.05), reflective wisdom
dimension (r=0.30; p<0.05) and total wisdom score (r=0.25; p<0.05). However resilience have
statistically significant correlation only between reflective wisdom dimension (r=0.31; p<0.05).
In order to analyse statistically significant correlations shown in Table 1 between positive
resources further, sample was divided into 3 quartiles yielding groups of low, medium and high
self-efficacy based on general self-efficacy results. Univariate analysis of variance with Scheffe
Post –hoc test and Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was performed. Levene test
showed that the variances are homogeneous (p>0.05). Results of univariate analysis of variance
are shown in Table 2.
Results of univariate analysis of variance (see Table 2) show that all three self-efficacy level
leader groups have significantly different resilience average scores (F=9.38; p < 0.01; partial η2
=0.190), what is clearly visible in Figure 1. Self-efficacy effect size on resilience results can be
assessed as large, because η2>0.14 (see Cohen, 1988, p287). Low level self-efficacy leader group
(<25%) and high level self-efficacy leader group have significant differences is reflective wisdom
dimension average scores (F=4.48; p < 0.05; partial η2 =0.101). Self-efficacy effect size on reflective
dimension results can be assessed as medium, because η2>0.06 (see Cohen, 1988, p. 287). Results
show that different level self-efficacy leader groups do not have significantly different average
scores in cognitive wisdom dimension, affective wisdom dimension and total wisdom scores.
Table 2. The differences in mean and standard deviations between different self-
efficacy leader groups – low level, medium level and high level.
Self-efficacy quartile groups
1. Group - 2. Group – medium 3. Group –

low level <25% level high level
Variable (n=17) 25% - 75 % > 75% F η2
(n=53) (n=13)
M SD M SD M SD
Resilience 3.27a 0.45 3.60b 0.53 4.05c 0.37 9.38** 0.190
Wisdom (total) 3.24a 0.32 3.38a 0.34 3.48a 0.25 2.16 0.051
Cognitive dimension 3.26a 0.51 3.36a 0.41 3.45a 0.43 0.74 0.018
Affective dimension 3.05a 0.38 3.19a 0.50 3.18a 0.35 0.61 0.015
Reflective dimension 3.41a 0.36 3.59a, b 0.38 3.81b 0.28 4.48* 0.101
Note. N=83. In accordance with Scheffe Post-hoc test results, in every row the means, which have the same subscript numeral, do
not statistically significantly differ (p > 0.05). * p < 0.05; **p<0.01.
Results in Figure 1 suggest, that different level self-efficacy level leaders have significant dif-
ferences in resilience results.
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Resilience average 4,20 103

means (M) 4,00 4,05
3,80
3,60 3,60
3,40
3,27
3,20
Low level (< 25%) Medium level(25% - 75%) High level (>75%)
Self-efficacy groups
Figure 1: Resilience average scores in self-efficacy quartile groups.

Regarding correlation between leaders positive psychological resource factors and additional
variables (age, gender, work experience – number of years, education, level of responsibility) Table
1 show positive statistically significant correlation between general self-efficacy and level of re-
sponsibility (number of subordinate staff) (r=0.24; p<0.05), and positive statistically significant
correlation between education level and wisdom cognitive dimension (r=0.24; p<0.05). In contrast,
negative statistically significant correlation appears between work experience and resilience (r=-
0.23; p<0.05).
There were no correlations between positive resource factors and gender, and between positive
resource factors and age.
In order to analyse statistically significant correlations between leaders positive psychological
resource factors and additional variables (age, gender, work experience – number of years, educa-
tion, level of responsibility) shown in Table 1 further, we divided the sample into gradation classes
based on work experience, responsibility level and education (see Appendix 1 Table 1) and performed
univariate analysis of variance with Scheffe Post –hoc test (see Appendix 1 Table 2).
Univariate analysis of variance results suggests that cognitive wisdom dimension results have
significant relations with education level (F=3.21; p=0.046) and education effect on wisdom cognitive
dimension can be evaluated as medium η2=0.07, because η2>0.06. However Scheffe Post-hoc test
results did not show significant differences in wisdom cognitive dimension average scores between
education gradation classes.
In turn, work experience has significant relations (F=3.91; p=0.02) with resilience results and
work experience effect on resilience can be valued as medium η2=0.09 (η2>0.06). Scheffe Post-hoc
test results show that there are significant differences (p=0.034) in resilience results between group
of work experience up to 10 years (n=16) and group of work experience more than 20 years (n=22)
(see Appendix 1 Table 3 and Figure 2).
Figure 2 shows different work experience level effect on resilience results. It is interesting to
note that increasing work experience results in decreasing resilience results.
4,00
average scores
3,81
Resilience
3,80
3,65
(M)
3,60
3,40 3,36
3,20
up to 10 years 11 - 20 years > 20 years
Work experience level
Figure 2: Resilience results in leaders sample (N=83) based on work experience

level.
In order to investigate if there are statistically significant differences between two groups of
leaders – female (n=57) and male (n=26), Mann-Whitney test was performed (see Table 3).
Mann-Whitney test results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in both
groups – female and male leader groups.
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Table 3. Descriptive Statistics and Mann-Whitney test results of female and male
104
leader groups.
Gender
Female leader group Male leader group

Variable U value p value
(n=57) (n=26)
M SD M SD
Resilience 3.53 0.55 3.75 0.50 557.50 0.07
General self-efficacy 36.02 3.56 37.35 4.33 604.00 0.18
Cognitive dimension 3.38 0.41 3.30 0.48 692.50 0.63
Reflective dimension 3.56 0.40 3.65 0.34 626.00 0.26
Affective dimension 3.18 0.45 3.11 0.47 693.50 0.64
Total wisdom score 3.37 0.33 3.35 0.33 711.00 0.77

Note. Notations: M – Mean, SD – Standard Deviation. U - Mann- Whitney U critical value.
In order to investigate if there are statistically significant differences between two groups of
leaders with high general self-efficacy and low general self-efficacy in wisdom, resilience and self-
efficacy scores, the sample was divided into two groups based on self-efficacy median (Me=37.00)
results: lower self-efficacy leader group (self-efficacy scores <37) and higher self-efficacy leader
group (self-efficacy scores >37). Differences were tested with Mann-Whitney test (see T able 4).
Results in Table 4 show that the higher self-efficacy leader group have higher results in all
variables compared with the lower self-efficacy leader group. However, Mann-Whitney test results
indicate that statistically significant differences in both groups are only in resilience scores and that
wisdom reflective dimension differences are on statistical significance border (p =0.05).
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics and Mann-Whitney test results for lower self-
efficacy leader group (n=36) and higher self-efficacy leader group
(n=47).
Lower self-efficacy Higher self-efficacy

Variable leader group (n=36) leader group (n=47)
U value p value
M SD M SD
Resilience 3.31 0.48 3.83 0.47 375.00 0.00
Cognitive dimension 3.28 0.46 3.41 0.40 700.00 0.18
Reflective dimension 3.49 0.38 3.66 0.36 633.50 0.05
Affective dimension 3.10 0.38 3.21 0.46 707.00 0.20
Total wisdom score 3.29 0.34 3.43 0.31 677.00 0.12
General self-efficacy 33.03 2.65 39.04 2.23 -- 0.00

Note. Notations: M – Mean, SD – Standard Deviation. U - Mann- Whitney U critical value.
Further analysing two leader groups – lower self-efficacy leader group and higher self-efficacy
leader group we performed Spearman correlation. Correlation results are displayed in Table 5.
Table 5 shows that lower self-efficacy leader group does not have statistically significant rela-
tions between resilience, self-efficacy and wisdom dimensions.
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In contrast the higher self-efficacy leader group have statistically significant relations between
105
resilience and wisdom reflective dimension and at trends level have relations between resilience and
wisdom total score (p=0.054), and total wisdom score and general self-efficacy (p=0.086).
Table 5. Spearman correlations between resilience, general self-efficacy and

wisdom dimensions in lower self-efficacy leader group (n=36) and
higher self-efficacy leader group (n=47).
Variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
1. Resilience -- 0.19 0.20 0.35* 0.20 0.28
2. General self-efficacy 0.12 -- 0.23 0.09 0.24 0.25
3. Cognitive dimension -0.13 0.12 -- 0.51** 0.26 0.74**
4. Reflective dimension 0.03 0.11 0.54** -- 0.39** 0.80**
5. Affective dimension -0.08 0.20 0.34* 0.23 -- 0.73**
6. Total wisdom score -0.12 0.14 0.82** 0.71** 0.71** --
Note. * p < 0.05; **p<0.01. The top of the table represents higher self-efficacy leader group results, the lower part of the table – lower
self-efficacy leader group results.
Conclusions
The main purpose of this study was to examine relationship between positive psychology
resources – resilience, general self-efficacy and wisdom dimensions – cognitive, reflective and af-
fective dimension and to examine differences in positive psychology resources between two groups
of leaders – with higher general self-efficacy and lower general self-efficacy. We also investigated
whether there are correlations between leader’s positive psychological resource factors and additional
variables (age, gender, work experience – number of years, education, level of responsibility)
The research results show that:
1. There is a statistically significant relationship between general self-efficacy and resilience.
This result supports study results (Edward, Welch, & Chater, 2009) about resilience,
which confirm that self-efficacy and self-reliance are important factors that contribute
to a sense of resilience.
2. There are statistically significant relationships between general self-efficacy and total
wisdom scale, cognitive wisdom dimension and reflective wisdom dimension. We found
no direct studies that confirm or deny the results, but it is possible that the following data
indicate subordinate relationship, i.e., Hannah et al. (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms,
2008) notes that it is known that self-efficacy influences both the extent and manner in
which leaders employ cognitive abilities (Wood & Bandura, 1989a).
3. There is statistically a significant relationship between resilience and wisdom reflective
dimension and at trends level have relationship between resilience and wisdom total
score. This result coincides with the theory that resilience is an important component of
wisdom (Jeste, Ardelt, Blazer, Kraemer, Vaillant, & Meeks, 2010).
4. Between leader groups of different work experience levels (<10 years and >20 years)
exist significant differences in how they affect resilience scale indicators, i.e., resilience
scores are lower for the leaders with work experience >20 years. Possibly this effect can
be explained with resilience studies (Rutter, 2006), which suggest that stress negative
impact on neural processes can impact resilience, assuming that leaders with work ex-
perience >20 years have had more stressful experience compared to leaders with work
experience <10 years.
5. There is statistically a significant relationship between education level and wisdom cogni-
tive dimension, which agrees to previous research results (Ardelt, 2010 as mentioned in
Bergsma, Ardelt, 2012), which confirm positive association between higher vocational
or university education and the cognitive wisdom dimension (Bergsma, Ardelt, 2012).
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6. There were no statistically significant differences in levels of psychological resources

106
– general self-efficacy, resilience and wisdom dimensions between female leader group
and male leader group. Results re: wisdom dimensions and gender agree with three
dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS) author’s (Ardelt, 2003) results, which show that
3D-WS is not related to gender.
7. There are differences in levels of psychological resources between higher general self-
efficacy leaders group and lower general self-efficacy leaders group. Higher general
self-efficacy leaders showed higher results in all tested psychological resources and
statistically significant differences between two groups were reported in resilience, while
difference in reflective wisdom dimension is located on the border of statistical signifi-
cance (p=0,05). Results suggest that lower self-efficacy leaders would be less able to
adapt to uncertainty, and/ or bounce back or recover from stress and might be less able
to have positive change and progress, compared to high general self-efficacy leaders.
Research results suggest that high level general self-efficacy is related to higher levels
of resources – resilience and wisdom.
References
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and its relation to effective leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 595-608.
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275-324.
Ardelt, M. (2004). Wisdom as Expert Knowledge System: A Critical review of a Contemporary Operationali-
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tions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 421-449.
Baldwin, J., Maldonado, N. L., Lacey, C. H., Efinger, J. (2004). Resilient Women Leaders: A Qualitative
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Educational Research Association (AERA) (85th, San Diego, CA, Apr 12-16, 2004).
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Research Methods, 4 (1), 62-83.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences. Second Edition. Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers. Hillsdale, New Jersey.
Edward, K., Welch, A., & Chater, K. (2009). The phenomenon of resilience as described by adults who have
experienced mental illness. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65 (3), 587-595.
Froman, L. (2010). Positive psychology in the workplace. Journal of Adult Development, 17 (2), 59-69.
Gorgievski, M. J., Halbesleben, J. R. B., Bakker, A. B. (2011). Expanding the boundaries of psychological
resource theories. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 1–7.
Hannah, S. T., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., Harms, P. D. (2008). Leadership efficacy: Review and future direc-
tions. The Leadership Quarterly. DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska – Lincoln. Management
Department Faculty Publications, Paper 5.
Hendricks, J. W., Payne, S. C. (2007). Beyond the Big Five: Leader Goal Orientation as a Predictor of Leader-
ship Effectiveness. Human Performance, 20 (4), 317-343.
Jeste, D. V., Ardelt, M., Blazer, D., Kraemer, H. C., Vaillant, G., Meeks, T. W. (2010). Expert Consensus on
Characteristics of Wisdom: A Delphi Method Study. The Gerontologist, 50 (5), 668-680.
Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement
and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60, 541–572.
Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2007). Emerging positive organizational behavior. Journal of Management,
33, 321–349.
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the supportive organizational climate-employee performance relationship. Journal of Organizational
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Luszczynska, A., Gutiérrez-Doña, B., Schwarzer, R. (2005). General self-efficacy in various domains of human
functioning: Evidence from five countries. International Journal of Psychology, 40 (2), 80–89.
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Küpers, W., Statler, M. (2008). Practically wise leadership: toward an integral understanding. Culture and
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(3), 242-251.
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Appendix 1
Table 1. Gradation classes based on work experience, responsibility level and

education.
Factor Gradation classes Number of Respondents
0-10 years 16
11- 20 years 45
Work experience
>21 years 22
Total 83
Up to 5 employees 37
Responsibility level 6 – 20 employees 25
(number of subordinate staff) >20 employees 21
Total 83
Secondary professional /uncompleted higher education 4
Bachelors degree / higher professional 31
Education
Master 48
Total 83
Table 2. Univariate analysis results and effect of education, work experience

and responsibility level on resilience, general self-efficacy and wisdom
dimensions.
Independent
Dependent variable df F p-value η2
variable
Resilience 2 0.13 0.88 0.003
General self-efficacy 2 0.24 0.79 0.006
Cognitive dimension 2 3.21 0.05 0.074
Education
Reflective dimension 2 2.86 0.06 0.067
Affective dimension 2 0.52 0.60 0.013
Total wisdom score 2 1.70 0.19 0.041
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108 Independent
Dependent variable df F p-value η2
variable
Resilience 2 3.91 0.02 0.089
Work experience
Resilience 2 0.71 0.49 0.018
Responsibility level
Note. N=83.
Table 3. Scheffes Post Hoc test multiple comparisons of resilience means

between work experience levels.
(I) Work experience level (J) Work experience level Mean difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
11-20 0.1644 .01521 0.560
Up to10
>20 0.4564 *
0.1717 0.034
up to 10 -0.1644 0.1521 0.560
11-20
>20 0.2921 0.1360 0.106
>20 Up to10 -0.4564 *
0.1717 0.034
11-20 -0.2921 0.1360 0.106
* p< 0.05
Advised by Vadim N. Kolesnikov,

Karelian State Pedagogical Academy, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Received: February 26, 2013 Accepted: March 26, 2013
Guna Svence PhD in Psychology, Professor, Riga Teacher Training and Education Management Academy,
Latvia.
E-mail: guna.svence@rpiva.lv
Website: http://www.rpiva.lv/index.php?mh=izgl_soc_psih
Vineta Greaves Board Member, VCG SIA (”VCG”), Baznīcas iela 13/4, Riga, Latvia.
E-mail: vineta.grivza@vcg.lv
Website: http://www.vcg.lv/lv/cv-vineta.html
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ISSN 2029-8587
PROBLEMS
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IN THE 21st CENTURY
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Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-8587

Scientia Socialis in Cooperation with Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia

Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

ISSN 2029-8587 © Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2013

WORK IN MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ON CASE OF

EXPERIENTIAL GROUPS IN GROUP COUNSELORS TRAINING:

EXPERIENCE OF THE FINALITY OF LIFE: STRIVING TO LIVE MORE VALUABLY . . . . . . . . 23

HIERARCHICAL PRINCIPLE IN THE PROBLEM OF A TYPOLOGICAL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT . . . 35

THE EFFECTS OF PARASITES ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR: AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE . . . 46

SEXUAL HEALTH AMONG PORTUGUESE ADOLESCENTS:

THE PERSON-ORIENTED APPROACH IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY . . . . . 79

PSYCHOLOGICAL RECURRENCES AND INTERVENTION PROPOSAL

FACTORS OF RESILIENCE, WISDOM AND SELF-EFFICACY AS POSITIVE RESOURCES

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Received: January 31, 2013 Accepted: February 27, 2013

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SECOND

Theoretical Framework of the Research

Instrument and Procedures

Advised by Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University,

Received: January 28, 2013 Accepted: March 08, 2013

Ia Aptarashvili PhD., Assistant Professor, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

EXPERIENTIAL GROUPS IN GROUP

Group is a distinctive form of psychological help different from individual psychological

Background of the Problem

The Researcher’s Role

General Background of Research

Conclusions and Implication

Advised by Paulius Skruibis, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania.

Received: January 28, 2013 Accepted: March 18, 2013

EXPERIENCE OF THE FINALITY OF LIFE:

Agnė Jurgaitytė-Avižinienė, Rimantas A. Kočiūnas

Striving to Live More Valuably: Reviews and Features of the Theory

Figure 1: Theoretical structure of “striving to live more valuably” revealing the

Finding a Lively Life: A Sub-core Category

Striving for Subjective Value of Life: A Sub-core Category

Satisfaction with Life

Frankl, V. E. (1998). Žmogus ieško prasmės. Vilnius: Katalikų pasaulis.

Advised by Agnė Matulaitė, Vilnius University, Lithuania

Received: February 11, 2013 Accepted: March 14, 2013

HIERARCHICAL PRINCIPLE IN THE

Being an important aspect of differential psychophysiology and psychology the investigations

General Background of Research

The research was conducted at the Department of Psychology and Psychophysiology of a

Instrument and Procedures

Figure 1: Speed parameters of the performance of the complex choice task.

session 1 208,35 189,3 182,5

Figure 2: Mean time spent for test implementation.

Table 1. Correlation structure of Kettel’s test parameters with alpha-band

Ananiev, B. G. (2001). A man as a subject of cognition. St. Petersburg: Peter

Advised by Jūratė Armonienė, Vilnius University, Lithuania

Received: January 30, 2013 Accepted: March 14, 2013

THE EFFECTS OF PARASITES

Parasites and Human Mortality

The Most Recent Parasite Threats

Anti-parasite Behaviour in Animals

Avoidance of Infected Individuals or Objects

Costs of Anti-parasite Behaviour

How Do Parasites Influence Human Behaviour? From Inter-individual to

The Persistence of Adaptations

The Adaptive Significance of Emotions

Individual Differences in Parasite Avoidance

Figure 1: Mean scores of perceived danger and disgust of disease-relevant and

Figure 2: Model of associations between perceived health, anti-parasite behaviour

Cultural Differences Caused by Parasite Avoidance