Problems of Management in The 21st Century, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2017

Problems of Management in the 21st Century, Vol. 12, No.
2, 2017
ISSN 2029-6932 (Print) ISSN 2538-712X (Online)
PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT IN
THE 21ST CENTURY
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Dr. Luca Bussotti, International Studies Center of ISCTE, Portugal
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Contents 89
Editorial
MANAGING THE RISK OF VIOLATING HUMAN RIGHTS

UNDER INDUSTRIAL RESETTLEMENT PROGRAMS
Luca Bussotti, Rui da Maia ........................................................................................... 90
Articles
RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK COMMUNICATION IN MOZAMBIQUE:

THE CASE OF ARMS AND AMMUNITION DEPOTS OF MALHAZINE
Luca Bussotti ...........................................................................................................94
THE EVOLUTION OF RISK MANAGEMENT RESEARCH:

CHANGES IN KNOWLEDGE MAPS
Iwona Gorzeń-Mitka ..................................................................................................106
RECREATION OFFER AND COMPETENCES NEEDED FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT

IN ACCOMMODATION ENTERPRISES OF KURZEME REGION IN LATVIA
Diāna Līduma, Ilze Grospiņa, Zane Gusta ..........................................................................122
CONTRIBUTION OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE URBAN LAND REGISTER

TO LOCAL DEVELOPMENT: CASE OF THE TOWNSHIP OF COTONOU
Hortensia V. Acacha-Acakpo .........................................................................................136
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ..............................................................................142

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MANAGING THE RISK OF VIOLATING
HUMAN RIGHTS UNDER INDUSTRIAL
RESETTLEMENT PROGRAMS
Luca Bussotti, Rui da Maia
Technical University of Mozambique, Mozambique
E-mail: labronicus@gmail.com, damaia.rui59@gmail.com
The purpose of this reflection is understanding what approaches towards human rights
are applied in the case of industrial resettlement programs, and, to investigate what policy could
be employed to better protect rights of people who experienced un-voluntary relocation event
caused by industrial pressure in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa.
From the 1980s, international organizations as the World Bank and almost all the conti-
nental development banks (as the Asian, the Inter-American and African ones) have formally
established and implemented guidelines to effectively and efficiently manage resettlements.
Nevertheless, resettlement practices “have only been concerned with providing cash compensa-
tion or addressing the need for replacement housing, without giving adequate attention to all the
other dimensions of life that are affected by being resettled” (Vanclay, 2017: 3). For instance,
in a case of a successful resettlement in Mozambique (the case of a new water supply network
in Matola, Province of Maputo, carried out by the public FIPAG), the market value of each
tree was assessed only according to its age. This procedure formally respected human rights,
however it still ignored in great part, the cultural and subjective values that people could at-
tach to their trees. For example, it neglected that under a given tree, a family could have been
celebrating religious ceremonials, put his relatives to rest, drank traditional alcoholic drinks
during social gatherings, etc. (Taibo, 2017). In addition, even according to the best practices
standards, resettlement is still rarely considered as a complex and multi-factorial phenomenon.
This in turn, creates suffering for the locals who experienced, upon relocation, material and
moral impoverishment.
Worldwide, the number of projects that caused mass resettlements of local populations is
very high. According to the World Bank, from January 1, 1990 to June 30, 2012, 21% (i.e., 1423
projects) of all its investments had to involve relocations of some sort and this trend has been
increasing. In fact, from 2010 to 2012 projects to build new pipelines had, as their consequence,
the resettlement of local populations in 41% of the cases (World Bank, 2012). In the previous
period (1986-1993) a total of 2.5 million people was relocated due to project of public interests
funded by the World Bank: 80% of these populations were living in Sub-Saharan Africa or in
East Asia Pacific Region (World Bank, 1996). At the regional level, the countries with the most
number of resettlement projects are China (70), India (35), Vietnam (34) and Brazil (32). In the
African region: Tanzania, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Ghana are the countries with the most
number of resettlement projects (World Bank, 2012).
Projects involving resettlements or forced evictions of local communities for industrial
reasons can be of two types: a) the ones in which the state is directly involved and promotes
the intervention, as in the cases of the building of dams, power lines, energy or incinerator
plants, and b) the ones in which the Government endorses a multinational company to invest-
ment in some economic sectors such as commercial agriculture & biofuels, oil & gas, mining,
or to build a new industrial plant. As a concrete example, one might think about the building

Luca BUSSOTTI, Rui da MAIA. Managing the risk of violating human rights under industrial resettlement programs
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of new dams in countries that have substantially different legal systems, such as China (Three 91
Georges Dam) and Canada (James Bay Hydroelectric). They both created similar situations in
relationship to the affected population, namely peasants in China and Aboriginals in Canada.
Ethnic groups were affected heavily and negatively both in economic and emotional terms by
the relocation process (Liao, 2012). One might think also about the resettlement that occurred
in coal projects in Tete Region, Mozambique. The relocation was the result of a project carried
out by the Brazilian multinational Vale do Rio Doce, with the endorsement of the Mozambican
Government. This process was defined by the Human Rights Watch as unequal and not respect-
ful of basic human rights, such as the ability to access food and water supplies, and the lack of
job opportunities. The majority of the relocated population was forced to move and live 25-40
km away from their original sites, the district capital (Moatize), in very dry lands (HRW, 2013).
Also in Mozambique, in the case of a former BHP aluminium smelter (Mozal), the same pat-
tern of relevant violation of the right of being correctly informed, and compensated was found
(Bussotti, 2014). These violations happened because in developing countries as Mozambique
civil society and public opinion are yet weak, and “there is very little in the national legislation
concerning resettlements” (World Bank, 2012: 57). The lack of legislation makes violations of
human rights both possible and frequent.
In general, countries involved in projects that caused resettlements belong to the “Global
South” (Hollington et al., 2015). In these countries, governments generally ignore or do not
value as important, mechanisms of involvement and compensation for the locals affected by the
relocation process. The World Bank identified a series of platforms in order to minimize the risk
of violation of human rights. The most important ones are the RPF (Resettlement Policy Frame-
work), the RAP (Resettlement Action Plans) and, from the point of view of the management
of environment, the ESIA (Environmental and Social Impact Assessment), with its operative
plans, known as EMP (Environmental Management Plan). According to the World Bank, only
29% of the 747 projects active in 2012 had prepared a RAP, and only 5% had prepared both
RPF and PF by appraisal, meanwhile 7% of the projects did not make any plan ahead of the
resettlement of locals. In Africa, only 21% of the project prepared a RAP (World Bank, 2012).
A model of resettlement based on a human-rights approach (HRBA) has been codified in
the Stamford Agreement (2003), and various documents elaborated by the United Nations are
helpful in promoting human rights in all the phases of the relocation. Among them, the United
Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (1998) and the United Nations Basic Prin-
ciples and Guidelines on Development-Based Evictions and Displacement (2007) (Van der
Ploeg & Vanclay, 2017). The HRBA is applied especially in developing countries and needs to
be applied at all stages of a project of resettlement. In short, this approach privileges the need to
involve the communities affected by resettlement at every stage, informing them and respecting
their basic human rights. The main principles of this approach are: equality, inclusion and non-
discrimination (Idem), transparency and accountability. These principles need to be applied es-
pecially to categories that are considered “weak”: such as the children, youngsters, women, etc.
Nevertheless, especially if applied to Africa, HRBA has some limitations. The limita-
tions do not regard the principles, but their practical implementation. Principles as equality, in-
clusion, transparency and accountability are completely unknown to rural populations generally
affected by the resettlement. Therefore, they cannot be involved and consciously accept any of
the solutions proposed for their relocation. The case we mentioned above in regards to the suc-
cessful completion of a new water supply network in Matola, Province of Maputo, by FIPAG,
is a crystalline example of this situation. In fact, formally a local NGO, Kulima, was “hired”
to function as a mediator between FIPAG and the local communities that had to be relocated.
The whole process was implemented according to the international standards recommended by
the World Bank and the United Nations, and no conflict arose between stakeholders. Neverthe-
less, the final result was that the locals were relocated far away from their original residence,

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92 so that they found and find difficult after relocating, to reach their workplaces. Furthermore,
it was very difficult and it is still nowadays for their children to attend school. Finally, a very
close-knit community has been destroyed, and it will be difficult, if not impossible, given the
relocation, to recompose the links of solidarity and safety nets which characterized the rela-
tionships in their former neighbourhood. Mozambique had previously adopted new legislation
to increase humanization of industrial resettlement projects (Decree 31/2012 and Ministerial
Diploma156/2014). Nevertheless, in sub-Saharan Africa, very few people understand about
management of resettlement projects as management of continuous processes. More effort is
needed to train local human resources and investments are needed to improve livelihoods of the
affected communities to allow sub-Saharan countries under industrial pressures to reduce risks
of human rights abuse and enable countries to carry out these projects in a professional manner.
This approach should be able to decline Human Rights doctrine with cultural local features,
coming to terms with the actual situation of local people affected to programs of relocation.
References
Bussotti, L. (2014). Environmental risk management and communication in an African context: The case
of the Mozal bypass in Mozambique. Cadernos de Estudos Africanos, 28, 93-118. DOI: 10.4000/
cea.1692.
Hollington, et al. (2015). Concepts of the Global South. Voices from around the world. Global South
Studies Center Cologne, Cologne, Germany. Retrieved from: http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/6399/.
HRW (Human Rights Watch) (2013). “What is a House without Food?” Mozambique’s coal mining boom
and resettlement. Retrieved form: https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/05/23/what-house-without-
food/mozambiques-coal-mining-boom-and-resettlements.
Liao, Q. (2012). Involuntary resettlement in hydroelectric projects: A comparison of Chinese and Cana-
dian case studies and implications for best practice. MPA Major Research Paper. 109. Retrieved
from: http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1108&context=lgp-mrps.
Taibo, E. R. (2017). O Impacto dos Reassentamentos resultantes de projectos de desenvolvimento: Caso
da extensão da rede de abastecimento de água no Posto Administrativo de Infulene, Município da
Matola [The impact of resettlements provoked by development projects: The case of the extension
of the water supply network in the administrative post of Infulene, municipality of Matola]. Mas-
ter Thesis in Cooperation for Development. Maputo: Eduardo Mondlane University.
Vanclay, F. (2017). Project-induced displacement and resettlement: From impoverishment risks to an
opportunity for development? Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 35 (1), 3-21. Retrieved
from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2017.1278671.
Van der Ploeg, L., & Vanclay, F. (2017). Human rights based approach to project induced dis-
placement and resettlement. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 35 (1), 34-52. DOI:
10.1080/14615517.2016.1271538.
World Bank - Environmentally Sustainable Department (ESD) (1996). Resettlement and development,
the bank-wide review of projects involving involuntary resettlement 1986-1993. Environment De-
partment Papers No. 032. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved from: http://pubdocs.world-
bank.org/en/517941425483120301/involuntary-resettlement-portfolio-review-phase1.pdf.
World Bank – Social Development Department (2012). Involuntary resettlement portfolio review.
Phase I. Inventory of bank-financed project triggering the involuntary resettlement policy
(1990-2010). Washington DC: The World Bank. Retrieved from: http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/
en/517941425483120301/involuntary-resettlement-portfolio-review-phase1.pdf.

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Received: November 12, 2017 Accepted: December 20, 2017 93
Luca Bussotti Director of the Post-Graduated Program at the Technical University of Mozam-
bique, Researcher of the PeriPeriU Network in Mozambique (www.riskreductiona-
frica.org) and Integrated Researcher at the International Studies Centre of Lisbon
(CEI-ISCTE IUL), Portugal.
E-mail: Luca.Bussotti@iscte-iul.pt
Rui da Maia Professor of Environmental Engineering and Disaster Risk Management at the
Technical University of Mozambique, Maputo, Mozambique.
E-mail: damaia.rui59@gmail.com

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94
RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK
COMMUNICATION IN MOZAMBIQUE:
THE CASE OF ARMS AND AMMUNITION
DEPOTS OF MALHAZINE
Luca Bussotti
International Studies Centre of ISCTE-IUL, Portugal
Technical University of Mozambique, Mozambique
Abstract
Risk management and risk communication affect everybody’s daily life. Local authorities have the duty
to manage public structures, to inform civilians of the risks coming from these structures, to implement
prophylaxis procedures. Military storage sites are fully included in this category. This article presents –
through a qualitative methodology based on risk analysis – how risk management and communication
in weapons and ammunition warehouses is managed in a “partially free” country, using as a case-study,
the Malhazine depot in Mozambique, which resulted in more than 100 deaths. In 2007, an extraordinary
accident related to the management of obsolete conventional weapons occurred at the Malazhine
warehouse. In this circumstance, the Mozambican Government adopted a policy of classifying the
information “highly confidential”. This policy aimed at obscuring facts and responsibilities by hiding
the causes of such a huge tragedy. This article concludes with the consideration that a high level of
confidentiality in treating issues of public interest, such as the one kept in regard to Malhazine, does
not help public authorities to effectively manage and prevent similar risks from occurring again, with
resulting negative impacts on local populations.
Keywords: military storage, Malhazine, local authorities, confidentiality.

Introduction
Among the man-made risks, the risk originating by explosions of a weapon or ammunition
at their storage sites is one of the less understood and, therefore, one of the most dangerous.
The frequency of these accidents, in particular after the 1990s, has increased. Their
impact was terrifying due to high demographic density near many of these sites. In fact, from
1995 to 2010 218 accidents of this kind were registered, which caused 4.700 fatalities and about
5.700 people suffering injuries (U.S. Department of State, 2010).
The areas in which such events were more frequent are Eastern Europe and Africa and,
secondly, Latin America. In Eastern Europe, the most devastating incidents were the ones
occurring in Serbia (and Afghanistan) in 2006, Gërdec (Albania), Bulgaria and Uzbekistan in
2008, Ulyanovsk (Russia) and in Kazakhstan in 2009. In Africa, tremendous accidents occurred
in Nigeria in 2002, resulting in more than 1000 deaths, in the Congo Democratic Republic (300
deaths) in 2009, Sudan in 2007, Mozambique in Beira in 2003 and in Maputo (Malhazine) in
2005 and 2007, Tanzania in 2011 (26 deaths). Finally, the most serious accident of this kind
in Latin America occurred in 1995 in Brazil, where an explosion at an ammunition warehouse
took more than 100 lives (U.S. Department of State, 2010).
In order to decrease this risk, in 1993, the U.S. Department of State, funded a campaign
of about 2 billion dollars in nearly 50 countries. A great part of the money was used to discard
obsolete weapons. Nevertheless, these measures proved to be insufficient to eliminate explosions
and the consequent damages without accountability measures, which “will continue to become

Luca BUSSOTTI. Risk management and risk communication in Mozambique: The case of arms and ammunition depots of Malhazine
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more important” than the intervention of international community (Rutherford & Williams, 95
2015: 56).
The risk represented by such a great concentration of weapons and ammunition in
military storage units faces an evident contradiction between the management of these depots
and the principles of risk communication. This research aims at analysing how arms depots are
managed in one of these countries characterized by a limited level of democracy, Mozambique.
The main hypothesis is that specific reasons – namely the continuous political-military tension
- have induced the local government to adopt a “silence strategy” regarding the management of
the risk herein considered; and that this option has resulted in fatalities and in the impossibility
to improve the security of ammunition storages all over the country, as clearly demonstrated
by the fact that, after Malhazine’s explosion, other similar incidents occurred in Mozambique.
This research is embedded into the theory of risk management and risk communication,
using as its main framework political risk analysis (Bussotti, 2014; Bussotti, 2015). This
approach employs a qualitative methodology, based Mozambique as case study. In addition to
international documents, a limited number of local documents and comments in newspapers or
in blogs available are analysed as well. An attempt to incorporate some oral sources was been
carried out, but their level of confidentiality was so high that this material could not be used for
a scientific article.
Theoretical Framework: Risk Management and Risk Communication
“Risk” has assumed a pivotal importance in current social sciences, taking on with time
various formulations and interpretations. If its origins, in modern age, can be found in the
financial calculation of risk by Italian merchants starting from the 15th century, this process
brought, in the age of capitalism, to more and more sophisticated risk calculation (Purcell, 2016).
Following a Weberian tradition, many authors stated that a “rational state,” with professional
bureaucracy, where there is certainty of administrative procedures, and without corruption (e.g.
nepotism and conflict of interests by public servants), is necessary to allow the entrepreneur
to focus his/her attention on assessing the risk stemming from economic factors (Dahl, 1957;
Kalberg, 1980).
In these first conceptualizations of risk the economic and financial perspectives prevailed.
It was only in the United States, with the “Chicago School”, that other forms of risk, namely
linked to environmental issues, began to be included in sociological studies, pointing out the
necessity to join urban planning with social interventions.
Nevertheless, specific events after the end of the Second World War served to catalyse
the attention of public opinion regarding environmental and man-made risks. Very serious
accidents of great industrial plants all over the world helped to develop a different concept of
risk and risk communication: only to remember some of them, it is worth here mentioning the
Little Rock AFB (Arkansas) accident in 1965, which killed 65 workers, the Seveso disaster
in Italy in 1976, in which a very dangerous toxic cloud of dioxin released from the plant of
ICMESA of Meda, the Three Miles Island nuclear explosion in 1979, the Chernobyl disaster in
1986 caused by a problem at the nuclear power plant in Prypiat (Ukraine), the Bhopal disaster
in India in 1984, in which the Union Carbide Pesticide Plant began to leak toxic gases into the
atmosphere, with about 15.000 deaths, the collision of the Exxon Valdez with the Bligh Reef
in 1989, which created an oil spill which killed about a quarter million birds, the Fukuyama
nuclear disaster in 2011, only to name a few.
It was during the sixties that a new approach towards man-made risks was formulated,
starting from the analysis of nuclear and technological risks (Sowby, 1965; Starr, 1969). Such
concepts were understood outside the academic circles thanks to the formulations of sociologists
such as Luhmann, Beck, Giddens and Douglas (Luhmann, 1979; Beck, 1986; Giddens, 1990;
Douglas, 1992). These authors consider risk as the main component of a “second modernity” or
“reflexive modernity” (Beck, Giddens & Lash, 1994), whose main feature is the unpredictability
of this kind of risks (Lupton, 1999; Sousa Santos, 2004).

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96 Building on the analyses of the authors above mentioned and from studies on risk perception
(Slovic, 1993; Sjöberg, Moen & Rundmo, 2004), a consistent group of scholars developed the
idea that risk can be better managed through planned strategies of risk communication. In short,
risk communication is the comprehension of both scientific and technological risks within a
certain structure, which cannot neglect to transmit to the public this knowledge in a very simple
way. It also, includes, a political strategy to openly communicate the possible consequences of
this risk (Sinisi, 2004; Covello, 1983; Slovic, 1987), developing best practices to prevent, face
and manage risk.
In the nineties specific strategies of communication were conceived in order to face
situations of “crisis” (Fiorino, 1990; Covello, Sandman & Slovic, 1998; Sandman, 2001).
Awareness regarding these issues has been growing quickly in the last thirty years in
Western countries, also thanks to the role of mass-media which, in many cases, have adopted,
as their editorial lines, the social amplification of risk (Kasperson et al., 1988).
The scenario in countries with limited levels of democracy – as the great part of the
countries involved in explosions of weapons warehouses – and even more in a military context
is completely different: institutional accountability is modest if not null. Thus, the management
of these structures is left to be handled by economic, politic and military elites who often have
personal interests in hiding the nature of their activities. Therefore, risk communication rarely
is applied, maintaining a high level of discretion.
Risk Management and Risk Communication in Ammunition Depots
The risk deriving from ammunition depots and especially the explosions of arms within
them can be included in the vast category of the man-made risks. Its management has to respect
some basic principles which constitute a guarantee to reduce the risk of tragic events. Military
bodies should share with public opinion, especially local authorities and people living nearby
the arms depot, the essential information regarding the management of these warehouses and
the measures to reduce risks. Such approach has been defined as “stockpile management”: it
designates “a wide-ranging term that covers specific technical areas related to the safety and
security of ammunition and explosives in accounting, storage, transportation and handling”
(SAFERWORLD, 2012: 3). Today, of the about 200 million military firearms, 76 million are
surplus. As pointed out by the Safeworld report, “lax security makes theft easy”, with the
decisive help of corrupted officials, increasing considerably the risk of disasters, first of all
explosions (IDEM: 3).
As in the case of great plants, the concept of risk management in stockpiles includes the
principles of good practices, accountability and information to local communities.
At least four main international documents regulate the way in which conventional
ammunition should be registered and stored: 1) U. N. Resolution 60/74 2) U.N. Programme
of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons
in All Its Aspects (approved in 2001), according to which each State should implement a legal
system to establish adequate and detailed procedures to manage stockpiles; 3) the Document
produced by OSCE on the conventional ammunition stock, FSC.DOC, November, the 19th 2013,
and 3) the Document STANAG 2953 regarding the identification of ammunition (AOP-3(B).
Three basic practices are recommended: ammunition markings, registration and
register keeping (OSCE, 2008). Each practice aims at limiting a specific risk; the “ammunition
markings” practice – which means to have complete information regarding characteristics of
the ammunition, which span from the make to the date of production – aims at reducing the risk
stemming from the “manipulation” of specific weapons. For instance, ammunition containing
explosives or other dangerous substances (such as phosphor) need to be classified according
to their hazard level. Ammunition markings are also a useful tool in tracking down the source
of ammunitions during criminal investigations, such ownership and use of illicitly acquired
ammunition.

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All ammunition (including the obsolete ones), awaiting for destruction, should be 97
registered carefully. Each piece of ammunition should be identified, in order to know its legal
status and where it is stored. Register keeping deals with the registration of data collected through
registration; together with registration, register keeping should accompany an ammunition for
its entire “life”, from production to destruction (IDEM).
In addition to the ammunition marking and registration, the storage of conventional
ammunition entails a set of activities directed to reduce the risk of explosion or other serious
accidents. Inventory should be updated monthly or quarterly and each peripheral location
should inform the main centre, if possible, through an electronic system managed online. This
activity aims at knowing if, during the relevant period, some material was lost, due to theft,
accident, etc. At the end of each year, in order to verify the effective stocks of ammunition, a
physical inventory (i.e., a manual counting) should be produced.
Internal reports are very important so that an effective information updating about
ammunition stocks can be performed. Within 72 hours every kind of loss, including theft or
destruction of ammunition and explosives, should be communicated to the central command.
This, above-mentioned practice should be implemented to facilitate the recovering of any lost
material. All these activities make necessary to carry out a process of specific professional
development for employees, so that at the macro level there is an effective knowledge, at any
given time, of the stockpile of ammunition and explosives.
Risk management in military commands is not limited to the ammunition markings,
registration and record keeping of each single piece; it is very important to avoid a mixed
storage: in fact, due to the chemical properties of a substantial fraction of ammunition and
explosives, mixed storage can increase the risk of an explosion and compound its consequences.
The top priority in regard to the management of an ammunition storage site is protecting the
environment and the civilians living nearby. In this regard, some best practices can also be
implemented outside the storage site. It is in fact recommended to regularly trim of plants and
trees around such storage sites.
Each storage unit should be marked with a symbol, according to the risk classification of
United Nations labelling, which previews nine classes of risk. A Standard Operating Procedures
manual should contain all the operational procedures regarding the security and the reduction
of each single potential risk inside the storage unit. A very important indication deals with the
deterioration of ammunition and explosives. A constant activity of controlling the quality of this
material is fundamental to guarantee the minimization of risk related to an explosion. Groups
of compatibility of ammunition and explosives should be formed, so to improve the level of
security.
Another central requisite for the minimization of risk is the NEQ (i.e., Net Quantity
Explosive) for each set of ammunition. Through the NEQ, it is possible to calculate the direct
distance between the ammunition storage site and civilians’ dwellings. The NEQ is to be
divulged publicly by the competent organism to both the media and the civil population (IDEM).
At a regional level, at least two documents have to be mentioned, both approved in 2001:
the Nairobi Protocol for Prevention, Control and Reduction of Small Arms and Light Weapons
in the Great Lake Regions and the Horn of Africa, and the Protocol on the Control of Firearms,
Ammunition and Other Related Materials in the Southern Africa Development Community
(SADC) Region (the last one was ratified by Mozambique in 2002 and that came into effect in
2004). In this protocol, one of the most important requirements is the commitment to destroy
the entire stockpile of obsolete and redundant weapons.
Starting from these principles, information and involvement of local community
represents the best practice to guarantee accountability. In Africa, some experiences have been
realized. In Kenya, for example, a community-driven approach to small and light weapons has
been implemented with the help of the Britannic organization Saferworld. One of the central
points is the operationalization of a monitoring system in local police stations to improve arms
accountability, within a more general perspective directed to the building of confidence in the

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98 police. In South Sudan a process a global contention and control of arms and arms depots has
been implemented in partnership with local government, with community-level campaigns of
information in Warrap State (Safeworld, 2015). In Mauritania, a NATO program leaded by Italy
with a total amount of 2,25 million Euros has been implemented in 2014, in order to build two
new arms depots, according to international safety and security standards (Nato, 2014).
In Mozambique, as presented in the next point, the situation is completely different,
since local authorities continue to consider arms depots – as many other public goods - as
“their affair”, managing them with a very high level of confidentiality and a very low level of
information.
Risk Management in Mozambique: A General Overview
In Africa, with the partial exception of Tanzania, all the countries in which explosions of
ammunition storages occurred have been characterized by political and military instability. The
Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Sudan, Nigeria, confirm this pattern. Especially
after the end of the Cold War, when countries belonging to Warsaw Pact lost control of those
African arms depots they had supplied, significant amounts of arms went out these storages,
aiding local wars, terrorism and common delinquency. The low level of risk management inside
warehouses in Africa was due only in part to technical reasons. In fact, the low level of risk
management was due to an intentional choice by military (and political) bodies to have freedom
to trade in the market for these arms (Gramizzi, 2014).
This scenario usually led local authorities to refrain from publicly sharing any kind of
information or not engage in risk communication involving arms and arms depots activities.
This is especially true when one looks at explosions of warehouses, before, during, and after
the accident. Only in the most serious cases of explosions with a high number of fatalities
(such as at the Malhazine warehouse in Mozambique in 2007) government is forced to do
something. Generally, it means the adoption of measures to attribute individual responsibilities
(to representatives of political or military bodies), but these mechanisms rarely led to understand
the specific reasons and culprits for the occurrence of such tragic facts.
This mechanism not only hinders knowledge, but also makes it impossible to learn
“best practices” based on previous mistakes. In fact, the audit is usually considered top secret
information. In this way, the risk reduction is difficult, since the managing structure is generally
trying to make up formal justifications and avoiding deep analysis of the facts that occurred.
Mozambique is a very good example of this approach employed to manage military
risk. This kind of risk management should be considered as a more general idea of how risk
is managed in political contexts characterized by lack of communication, information and of
locals’ involvement.
Cultural and historical reasons are the explanations for such approach: after having
obtained its independence in 1975, Mozambique adopted a Marxist-Leninist system managed
by Frelimo, a one-State party. A culture of suspicious was vastly widespread all over the country
and dissent was eliminated, often in violent forms (Seibert, 2003; Meneses, 2015); a consistent
movement of opposition – called Renamo, supported by Rhodesia, South Africa and USA –
started a civil war which ended only in 1992, with a General Pace Agreement signed in Rome.
Mozambique has been considered for a long time as one of the best cases of peace process and
democratization in Africa.
Nonetheless, Mozambican democracy has never been inclusive, as its position in
international rankings regarding freedom shows, classifying this country as “partly free”
(Freedom House, 2017). Renamo never recognized electoral results, due to claims of
serious frauds in each general election that was held (Cip/Awepa, 2014). Despite explicit
recommendations as set in the General Peace Agreement, Renamo never completely dismissed
its military loyalist base, so that Renamo has always been considered not only as the main
political party of opposition in Mozambique, but also as a military force with an army parallel

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to the governmental one. This situation contributed to shape an “ambiguous democracy”, 99

constantly at crossroads between the implementation of a democratic model and a military
solution of this endless conflict.
Since the beginning of his government (2004), the idea supported by President Armando
Guebuza – in charge until 2014 - was a “final solution” for Renamo and his leader, Dhlakama
(Macamo, 2014). Therefore, the recurrence of the civil war in 2013 was the natural consequence
of Guebuza’s new strategy.
The state of emergency was never declared, but this new season of civil war, albeit
circumscribed in some areas, resulted in the treatment of all issues of political and military type
as highly confidential. The control by the government on public opinion was incremented, as the
management of various risks can easily demonstrate. Environmental risks have been managed
through an approach of strict confidentiality, as the case of Mozal bypass shows (Bussotti,
2014b), or ignoring the legitimate expectations of people forced to resettle as in the case of a
coal mine in the Tete Province (Brazil). (Andrade e Sousa, 2016); Traditionally, social risk has
been faced through a military response, provoking about 15 deaths during the demonstrations
that occurred in 2008 and 2010, and deciding to force the local telephone operators to register
all their customers in about three months, in order to have the state control the entire telephone
traffic (Brito et al., 2015); political risk, represented, in the general elections of 2009, by a new
party, the Democratic Movement of Mozambique (MDM), was managed excluding it in 9 out
of 13 constituencies, purporting formal reasons (UE, 2009).
The Management of Risk in Arms Depots in Mozambique: The Case of Malhazine’s

Warehouse
In Mozambique, the management of military risk represented by arms depots followed

the same principles of political risk management seen above: confidentiality, a top secret
approach, reason of state and lack of information. This tendency has been accentuated once
Guebuza decided to undertake a new, aggressive strategy towards Renamo, whose response
was the recourse to arms.
Guebuza gave a considerable importance to Mozambican army: this element is visible
not only by analysing his general politics, but also by looking at the State budget, in which
military expenses constantly increased throughout the years, until the explosion of the worst
financial scandal in Africa in the last few years, with more than 2 billion dollars of public secret
debt contracted for strengthening the defence of Mozambican coasts and sea (Kroll, 2017).
This new atmosphere of tension and, in the end, of war, has been used as a formal reason
to cover under the “top secret” strategy every kind of information regarding the management of
arms depots all over the country. In addition, the poor understanding regarding the concept of
“public good” led to a sort of “informal privatization” of State-owned assets (houses, cars, other
kind of material , etc.) by the ruling classes, associated to a very poor request of accountability
by the public opinion and mass-media (Souza, 2013); this tendency is yet more accentuated
within military environments, so that no one is worried to share with the public, information
on what really happens inside arms depots, how these storages are managed and what kind of
damages they can provoke. And all this happens, despite the fact that many ammunition depots
in Mozambique are localized nearby very populated inhabited centres.
This incommunicability represents a sort of licence to manage arms storages as if they
were a private matter among military bodies. If no independent or international entity can
monitor what happens at those sites, that means that every kind of activities can be carried out.
Despite the assurances that Mozambique had formally adopted international standard
procedures to manage its stockpiles of obsolete ammunition and explosives, this country does
not have any kind of computerized recording system and the level of risk information towards
civilians living near a military command is very low, if not inexistent.
In the same fashion, the amount of information shared with the local population (i.e., the

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100 risk communication level) is very low. Between 1995 and 2007, Mozambique experienced five
explosions in ammunition warehouses, with more than 115 fatalities and more than 464 injured.
The most salient fact is that four out of the five explosions occurred at the same site: Malhazine,
which lies right at the outskirts of Maputo (Seesac, 2007). The other explosion took place
at the warehouse of Beira and, fortunately, no death occurred in that incident. Nevertheless,
explosions continue also after the terrible accident of Malhazine. On January 29, 2017, the
ammunition and weapon warehouse in Nacala (a city in Northern Mozambique) exploded.
Furthermore, in 2012 Tito Risco, a local, died while trying to open at home a war device he had
stolen from a military warehouse. Such device contained mercury and he was trying to extract
the material in order to re-sell it. (Redaction, 2012).
Before this situation, some paramount questions arise naturally. How did the Mozambican
Government manage these highly risky storage sites that contain war material? And what kind
of risk communication did the Government implement in order to prevent destruction hitting
innocent civilians?
The causes of accidents in military warehouse are generally the following: 1) Unknown
(33%). This is largely because military authorities consider the information relative to these
occurrences top secret. Therefore, rarely the public receives credible explanation whatsoever.
In order to avoid leaks, the information is also destroyed shortly after the occurrence, therefore
precious evidence is forever lost. 2) Among the known causes, specialists indicate fire (19.6%),
movements/handling (13.7%), security/sabotage (14.4%), auto-ignition of propellant (5.2%),
lightning strike (5.2%), electrical (3.3%), other (5.2%) (Seesac, 2007).
The strictly confidential approach that military and governmental authorities take
“can lead to a reluctance to allocate responsibility” (Wilkinson, 2008: 132). However, a clear
identification of the causes of these explosions could lead to a better management and reduction
of risk, saving human lives. In particular, the causes of fire are largely unknown. In the case
of explosion of a Nigerian military warehouse in 2002, the cause was external fires resulting
in explosion (Idem: 132). In many other cases it is impossible to establish the leading cause,
even if inappropriate activity related to storage and auto-ignition of propellant seem the main
reasons. Despite few information available, it is possible to conclude that risk of undesirable
explosions can be reduced by intensifying personnel training, by improving storage techniques,
and by correctly identifying which stockpile should be considered a priority for destruction
(Idem).
In Mozambique there are 17 weapons warehouses (now 16, since the Malhazine storage
site was closed and now it has been transforming in a natural park), whose security level is not
known, but whose management is probably below international and regional standards.
The case of explosions in Malhazine warehouse is not new. In 1985 the same military
storage site exploded, provoking 13 fatalities. In 2002 the arms depot in Beira also exploded,
and in March 2007 a tragedy struck again and was one of the most serious of the history of this
kind of events worldwide. Local authorities considered this case as a top-secret event. Thus,
information was scanty, unclear, and the tasks of attribution of responsibilities were not carried
out. As everybody needed a scapegoat, one was found in the Minister of Defence, Tomás
Dai. This General, the former President Guebuza’s father-in-law, resigned one year after the
explosion of the Malhazine depot, amid constant pressure by the local media.
Technically, the explosion at the Malhazine warehouse was due to about 20 tons
of obsolete military weapons, resulting in more than 100 deaths, about 500 injured and the
destruction of 12,000 homes. These precarious houses had been built nearby Malhazine depot,
without respecting international standards regarding security.
In order to assess the causes of the disaster, the Mozambican Government entrusted
three judges: António Pale, President of the Administrative Court and chief of the Commission,
Augusto Paulino, President of the Court of Maputo, and Maria Benvida Levi, Director of the
Centre of Juridical and Judiciary Formation, in order.

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As it usually happens, Mozambican authorities did not divulgate the report elaborated 101
by the three judges, but instead, they held a press conference to provide the public with the
conclusions. The Commission confirmed that the explosion at Malhazine arms depot was
due to high temperatures. However, Joseph Hanlon, quoting some conclusions of this report,
stated that the three experts had observed that “the munitions which exploded were stored in
a building with no roof, and so were exposed to sun, rain, heat and cold”. In addition, “the
military was failing to observe the appropriate procedures for storing munitions and that there
were “manifest irregularities” in the inspection of the shells”, but the commission excluded
actions of sabotage or attempts to extract mercury from the shells (Hanlon, 2007a).
Many observers and politicians belonging to Renamo contested this conclusion: in his
speech to the Mozambican Parliament, Eduardo Namburete expressed concerns regarding the
Government’s position, observing that Malhazine depot posed yet a very real risk for civilians
(Namburete, 2007). A Mozambican blogger, Komba Kanema, considered the justification
given by government as not credible, adding that the most surprisingly new – communicated by
the Minister of Defence, Tomás Dai - was that war device in Malhazine was stored outdoors,
without much concern or care (Komba Kanema, 2007).
As a report commissioned by the South-African Strategic Studies Institute after the
explosion of Malhazine depot pointed out, Mozambique did not respect its commitment to
eliminate obsolete arms, according to the above mentioned Protocol of SADC, ratified by
Mozambique in 2002. In addition, this report accused openly Mozambican authorities to be
directly responsible for the disaster: a series of questions and accusations were launched in
the South-African report. Why were civilian dwellings built nearby the arms depot? Why
Mozambique did not yet destroy all its obsolete arms? Why local authorities did not move the
depot far away from such a densely populated site? And, finally, the report refutes the official
version given by Mozambican Government, pointing out that high temperatures rarely can
cause the tragic events occurred at Malhazine, concluding that it was a human error that caused
the explosion (Stott, 2007).
As a matter of fact, thus far, nobody has been able to establish conclusively what caused
the explosion of Malhazine armour, due to the extremely confidential approach adopted by
local authorities, as Banjo also purports (Banjo, 2010).
SEESAC, together with UNDP, produced another independent report on the causes
of this tragedy. The author was Adrian Wilkinson and the conclusions were similar to those
reached by ISS. Once more, it is Joseph Hanlon who summarizes the results reached in the
SEESAC report, as following: “Deterioration of the Physical or Chemical Condition of the
Ammunition or Explosives”, in particular “Autocatalytic decomposition of propellant leading
to spontaneous ignition.” (Hanlon, 2007b).
Nevertheless, the most important element for the issue here approached – risk
management and risk communication – is the declaration of Hanlon about the SEESAC report
on Malhazine: “Adrian Wilkinson has requested that I remove that full report from the website
because “institutional relationships between UNDP and the Govt of Mozambique may be
negatively impacted if the whole document is left in the public forum”. I personally believe that
the report should remain public, to avoid errors and misquotations. Nonetheless, I have acceded
to Mr Wilkinson’s request” (Idem).
The Mozambican sociologist, Carlos Serra, which manages one of the best-known
websites in the Lusophone Africa, “Diário de um sociólogo” (oficinadesociologia.blogspot.
com) posted the whole report issued by SEESAC. However, the actual report is no longer
available. It means that the report has been removed as a form of censorship, as it already
happened in the case of Joseph Hanlon.
Without carrying out a serious inquiry aimed at understanding the real causes of the
tragedy and the people responsible for it, the Mozambican government preferred to constitute
a Cabinet for the Support of the Victims of the Warehouse of Malhazine, headed by Cristina
Matavel, whose main task was to rebuild the houses destroyed by the explosion. Carlos Tembe,

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102 at that time city councillor in Maputo for the independent list “Juntos pela Cidade” denounced
the very poor conditions of the new houses, built without following basic guidelines and in
an environment characterized by corruption. In addition, he pointed out that five months after
the tragic event, the Forum of citizens, which had been constituted to support the victims of
Malhazine and their families had not played any meaningful role (Casas das vítimas, 2007).
In addition to the enormous suffering stemming from the loss of their loved ones, many
families did not have the legal right to be supported financially or compensated for the damages.
The case of the couple composed by Rodrigues Mafuiane and Marcelina Langa is emblematic
on how Mozambican authorities dealt with this situation. The couple lost two children in the
explosion of the arms depot of Malhazine. Nonetheless, the local cabinet of Social Affairs
informed them that the help would be limited for the burial’s expenses of their two children.
Because, as minors, they received their subsistence by their parents, Mr. Rodrigues and his wife
did not receive any other kind of financial help or indemnity (MMT, 2011).
Final Remarks
Risk management and risk communication represent, today, basic instruments to prevent
and diminish tragedies caused by man-made activities, such as those originated by explosions
in military armour.
This study showed that it is possible to highlight some political and cultural characteristics
that induce local authorities to maintain their strict confidentiality in the management of arms
and ammunition depots. Mozambique is probably paradigmatic in this sense: as a “partially
free” country, it has experienced a prolonged civil war and the approach inspiring local
authorities regarding institutional issues, yet more when concerning with military issues,
continues to be characterized by “high confidentiality”. Thus, local authorities did not prevent
the accident and did not perform, in practice, any type of investigation, preferring instead to
constitute, one month after the explosion, a Cabinet of Social Support to sustain the victims of
the Malhazine accident, whose work left much to be desired. Scanty information circulated in
this regard as well, although Estêvão João is probably correct when he writes that there is not
much knowledge about a substantial number of people affected by the explosion filing claims
probably because these people were refused compensation by the Government (JOÂO, 2015).
On the other hand, the Mozambican Government moved all the obsolete arms and
ammunition that were still stored at the Malhazine depot far away the city of Maputo, while the
military storage site of Malhazine has been transformed (as set in a 2012 Decree) in a Natural
Park. Thus, the risk was physically removed, the area will be transformed in an ecological
statement, but at least three great questions continue to be unresolved.
Firstly, the lack of information by the Mozambican Government did not help local
authorities to learn new, “good practices”. Military structures will continue to manage obsolete
arms and ammunition depots countrywide as they have been used to do till now, with a high
risk of uncontrolled explosions. The last accident into the armoury of Nacala in 2012 confirms
it. Military risk stemming from unfit storage and handling did not decrease after the Malhazine
tragedy.
Secondly, to avoid other accidents, it is impossible to remove all other arms and
ammunitions depots present all over the country. Mozambican authorities never formulated
such hypothesis; nonetheless, a serious process of risk assessment of these military structures,
especially those nearby populated centres, should be carried out. And this assessment should
involve professionals, such as urbanists, architects and so on.
Finally, the strategy of avoiding inquiries which could be used against public and military
officials, in favour of very uncertain mechanisms of financial compensation for the victims
and their families, does not appear the best way to prevent episodes as those of Malhazine: if
nobody is responsible, thus it means that nobody should be held accountable for the death of
more than 100 people. A good risk management should contain also procedures directed to
identify tasks, responsibilities and, when necessary, culprits.

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The political and military tension which Mozambique is living has represented the main 103
justification to induce local authorities to maintain a strict confidentiality on issues related to
arms and ammunition depots. According to this logic, Renamo, the old enemy, cannot know the
potential of arms and ammunition stored in Mozambican warehouses: so, all this delicate issue
is managed as if it were a private question of political and military elite, leaving Mozambican
society to the dark.
So, historical, cultural and political reasons are converging because in Mozambique very
dangerous structures, like warehouses, continue to be managed according to principles contrary
to the current theories of risk and communication management and to the basic principle of
accountability of public structures.
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postmodern to the postcolonial. And apart from each other]. Retrieved from http://www.ces.uc.pt/
misc/Do_pos-moderno_ao_pos-colonial.pdf
Souza, J. G. de (2013). A Questão Indígena: Acumulação por Espoliação e Monopolização do Território
(A Economia Política do Agronegócio) [The indigenous question: Accumulation for spoliation
and monopolization of the territory (The political economy of agribusiness)]. Prima Facie, 12
(22), 1-42.
Sowby, F. D. (1965). Radiation and other risks. Health Physics, 11 (9), 879-887.
Starr, C. (1969). Social benefit versus technological risk. Science, 165 (3899), 1232-1238.
Stott, N. (2007). Mozambique Arms explosion exposes more than poor stockpile management. South
Africa: Institute for Security Studies. Retrieved from https://oldsite.issafrica.org/iss-today/
mozambique-arms-explosion-exposes-more-than-poor-stockpile-management.

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UE (União Europeia – Missão de Observação Eleitoral) (2009). Relatório final – Moçambique 2009. 105
Maputo: UE
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Received: October 02, 2017 Accepted: December 15, 2017
Luca Bussotti PhD, Researcher at the International Studies Center, ISCTE-IUL, Lisbon, Avenida
das Forças Armadas, Lisboa, Portugal.

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106
THE EVOLUTION OF RISK MANAGEMENT
RESEARCH: CHANGES IN
KNOWLEDGE MAPS
Iwona Gorzeń-Mitka
Czestochowa University of Technology, Poland
E-mail: iwona.mitka@zim.pcz.pl
Abstract
One of the leading trends in modern academic research is risk management. Over the years, the ap-
proach to risk management has changed and affected many different areas. This study aims to investigate
changes in risk management and trends of risk management in the past 20 years. Risk management re-
lated publications from 1990 to 2016 were retrieved from the Web of Science and Scopus databases. VOS
viewer software was used to analyse the research trend. Literature growth related to risk management
is expanding rapidly. Significantly more publications related to risk management aspects were collected
in Scopus, compared to the Web of Science. Since 2005 is to be noted a significantly increasing interest
in risk management problems (nearly 5300 publications by year in Scopus database). Risk management
problems mainly appearing in publications related to the fields of Medicine and Engineering, Business,
Management and Accounting, Economics, Econometrics and Finance, Computer Science and Environ-
mental Science. In Business, Management and Accounting a significant jump in the interest in the issues
of risk management was noted in 2011. Recent studies focus on the enterprise risk management, environ-
mental and industry management innovation in strong connection with risk assessment. The enterprise
risk management associated with environmental and sustainable perspective may be the newest topics
that should be closely followed in risk management research.
Keywords: risk management, knowledge maps, network analysis.
Introduction
The knowledge accumulated over time in the risk management field became more and
more complex and multidisciplinary. Problems of risk management are studied from the many
variety of research perspective (e.g. social sciences, medicine, computer science). Multidimen-
sional risk management issues cause difficulties in identifying leading trends in research. For
example, only in the science of management we can find many different approaches, methods
and analysis techniques for the decision making process within risk. The issue of risk manage-
ment in organizations, although extensively discussed on the international level (Gorzeń-Mitka
2007, 2016; Kim&Vonortas 2014; Liebenberg&Hoyt 2003; Seamer, Choi & Doowon 2012)
particularly in business practice. Risk management, especially enterprise risk management
(ERM), is an important business trend aimed at ensuring an organized and disciplined approach
of an organization to the evaluation and management of risks it encounters (Labarge, 2003).
World practice shows that risk management has now become an integral part of business activi-
ties undertaken by the company, builds value to the organization, shaping the effectiveness of
undertaken actions (Hopkin 2010, Mikes & Kaplan 2013; Wieczorek-Kosmala 2017). Interest
of risk management was largely motivated by the indicated importance of this problem for the
creation and subsequent performance of firms (Haviernikova, 2016; Kuběnka & Slavíček 201;
Mesjasz-Lech 2012). Nowadays, some researchers suggest that risk management, especially in
ERM context, is the key factor to create competitive advantages (Bertinetti, Cavezzali & Gar-
denal 2013; Christiansen 2013; Gorzeń-Mitka 2016; Kraus & Lehner 2012).

Iwona GORZEŃ-MITKA. The evolution of risk management research: Changes in knowledge maps
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In recent years, we can observe very intensive development in this area. Assessment of 107
this area, identifying of new trends is possible to realise with the help of bibliometrics. Bib-
liometrics is defined as the application of statistics and mathematics for the analysis of written
publications such as books and journal articles (Dabi, Darrigues, Katsahian, Azoulay, De An-
tonio & Lazzati 2016). As indicate Khalil and Gotway Crawford (2015) bibliometrics uses the
literature system and literature metrology characteristics as research objects and analyzes the
literatures quantitatively and qualitatively. Bibliometrics is a good choice to evaluate the trend
in research activity over time.
The aims of this study were to examine the trends of risk management research at the
global level using the Web of Science and Scopus since 1990. The temporal distribution of
publications related to risk management were measured (in specific intervals of the years),
together with the most used keywords, and the areas most commonly chosen. Additionally, it
was the use of bibliometric mapping tool to create maps of knowledge developments within
risk management research. The result of research was presented in reflecting to coexistence.
Results were analysed to better understand the change of trends or identify current directions of
developments in risk management research.

Theoretical Background
The evolution of changes in the perception of risk and approach to risk, that have taken
place in our consciousness, is interestingly presented by P.L.Bernstein (1997) in his work en-
titled “Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk”. He points out, among others, that
the modern conception of risk has its source in Indo-Arabic numerical system, with the first
significant study of risk conducted in the Renaissance. However, the revolutionary idea that was
a dividing line between the modern time and earlier historic periods is the idea of risk control.
As P.L.Bernstein (1997) stresses, ability to control risk along with a tendency to take risky
undertakings and make far-sighted decisions are the basic elements of the driving force of the
economic system.
However, the greatest achievements in risk measurement and control were made in the
20th century. The most significant of them include: the publication of the doctoral thesis by F.
Knight in 1921 entitled „ Risk, Uncertainty and Profit” and the research by J. M. Keynes en-
titled “A Treatise on Probability”. At the basis of the analysis of the first of these works is the
fundamental distinction between risk and uncertainty. The latter work stresses the importance
of perception and the introduction of issues connected with the Law of large numbers.
Another work that influenced the perception of the problem of risk was the theory of
strategic games presented by J. von Neumann in 1926. In this theory he points out, among other
things, that some loss results from each strategy aimed at winning, rather than avoiding loss
(Bernstein 1997). This statement is revolutionary in the sense that for the first time the prob-
ability of loss was recognized and connected with risk management as an integral element. The
research by J. von Neumann, conducted in cooperation with O. Morgenstern and published
in 1953 in the work entitled „Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour”, included, among
others, theses on the nature of risk aversion – an attitude that allows to determine how far an
organization is able to go in its decisions that can cause others to make decisions that may have
undesirable effects on it.
In the same period (that is in 1952) H. Markowitz published his work entitled „Portfolio
Selection” in „Journal of Finance”. The key element of his conception is the strategic role of
portfolio diversification and selections of the so called effective portfolios with uncertainty and
risk as variances taken into account (Bernstein 1997). The approach to control rate of return
and risk presented by H. Markowitz is commonly referred to as optimization in the sense of the
mean and variances.
Risk management has been a widely debated topic since the 1950s. The first important
study in this area by Modigliani and Miller (1958) indicated that the presence of market imper-

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108 fections affects firm value. All these imperfections generate real costs on firms, which must be
minimized. A market imperfection such as underinvestment, asymmetric information or under
diversified stakeholders are the reasons why risk management exists. Further crucial observa-
tions in the field of risk and uncertainty were made by K. Arrow. He proved that we prefer
games where there is almost 100% probability of sustaining a small loss and minimal chances
of obtaining a big benefit rather than those which guarantee a small profit and little chances of
sustaining huge losses (Bernstein 1997). According to K.Arrow, a condition of the economic
growth is providing the possibility of insurance against the consequences of most events, which
would encourage risk-taking in the economic activity conducted.
Among other studies that had a significant influence on perceiving risk and uncertainty it
should be named the work of D. Kahneman and A. Tversky (1979) on the so called “theory of
perspective” from 1979, which explains how people make decisions in the situation of risk. In
the conclusions from their research they stated that people are more afraid of losses than they
value profits.
First mentions of risk management can be found in the article published in 1956 in the
Harvard Business Review article by R. Gallagher entitled “Risk Management: A New Phase of
Cost Control". At the same time, Dr. W. Snider from the University of Pennsylvania suggested
that „the professional insurance managers should be risk managers”.
At the beginning, the notion of risk management referred to insurance management (the
1960s in the North America). In Europe, first theories about risk management unrelated to
insurance appeared in mid-1970s. In 1980s Swiss bankers started to use the term risk manage-
ment with reference to market and credit risk. In 1990s Professional calculation of risk started to
be related with interest rate and currency swaps. In 1996 risk advisors appeared in Swiss banks.
In 1997 the first risk officers, risk managers and risk controllers were appointed (Gorzeń-Mitka
2010).
As indicate Bertinetti, Cavezzali and Gardenal (2013), despite the attention given to risk
management in the last seventy years, the financial crisis started in 2007 revealed that the tradi-
tional tools used by companies to face risks (like hedging and insuring) and traditional frame-
work to risk management, where individual risk categories are managed separately in risk “si-
los”, have revealed themselves to be inefficient in tackling the increasing economic complexity.
For this reason, academics and practitioners were dedicating efforts in defining and de-
veloping new approaches to manage risk, one of them is Enterprise Risk Management (ERM),
which allows firms to manage a wide array of risks in an integrated and holistic perspective
in a systematically and consistently way. Now among the many approaches to risk, enterprise
risk management is the leading concept (Bertinetti, Cavezzali & Gardenal 2013; Lindberg &
Hoyt 2010; Seamer, Choi & Doowon 2012). Nowadays research in this area conclude that the
process should be anchored in the main strategy of the organization as well as in the strategies
of its individual units (Bertinetti, Cavezzali & Gardenal 2013; Gorzeń-Mitka 2017; Wieczorek-
Kosmala 2017). The effectiveness of risk management process in an integrated approach de-
pends on its clear definition and communication to all levels of an organisation and corporate
risk taking (Armstrong & Vashishtha 2012; Sipa, Skibnski & Gorzeń-Mitka 2016; Verbano &
Venturini 2013). As indicates Faccio (2016), the concept of risk taking is a quality that is repeat-
edly used to describe entrepreneurship. Its principal factor that separated entrepreneurs from
hired employees was the uncertainty and riskiness of self-employment (Gorzeń-Mitka 2017;
Sipa 201; Skibiński 2017). Additionally, as argued Paligorova (2010), risk taking in an orga-
nization and its impact on economic performance are critical issues in strategic management.
Risk management has changed substantially over the past ten years, especially in finan-
cial sector (i.e. more detailed and demanding capital, higher standards for risk reporting). The
management of nonfinancial risks became more important as the standards for compliance and
conduct tightened. Stress testing emerged as a major supervisory tool. Organizations also in-
vested in strengthening their risk cultures.

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Methodology of Research 109
The research method used was literature review and quantitative method (the bibliomet-
ric analysis). A literature review was made based on a survey of theoretical references in risk
management area. Bibliometric analysis identifying the areas of research within the concept
of risk management took place in selected stages of research (Figure 1). This analysis focuses
on the use of the bibliometric analysis to examine the knowledge structure in risk management
area and development of research in this field based in past 20 years by analysis of related
publications.
Figure 1: Knowledge maps of risk management - stages of research.

Source: own elaboration based on Ziegler (2009)
In the first stages of research two databases were used: Web of Science and Scopus to
identify research activity on the risk management concept by the number and structure of pub-
lications in the period 1990-2016.
To identify the source of changes in the number of publications in Scopus database re-
lated to risk management, the investigation of the fields that used the term risk management was
made in the 4th stage of research. The analysis was concluded in relation to this criterion which
involved number of publications in top 5 subject areas. Most frequently areas (top-5), have been
analysed for changes in the number of publications in 1990-2016.
In the 5th stage of research, publications related to risk management in Business, Man-
agement and Accounting and Economics, Econometrics and Finance fields, i.e. those, have been
analysed for changes in the chain-type indexes in the following years. The goal of this analysis
was to show a rate of change and trend line of publication in the subject of risk management.
To identify changes in risk management research, knowledge maps were made, rep-
resenting the co-existence of issues covered together with risk management over the last 20
years (in 5time interval). The resulting dataset was reduced by choosing only those terms that
appeared for at least 20 times and by eliminating expressions characteristic for every publica-
tion, such as purpose, trends, theory, and scope. The resulting records database selected from
keywords has been ordered and partially aggregated (6th stage of research). Based on them,
the VOSviewer tool (VOSviewer software (Visualizing Scientific Landscapes). Version 1.6.5.
Developed by the Leiden University Centre for Science base and Technology Studies in the
Netherlands) was used to prepare a graphical presentation of frequency and co-occurrence with
the rest of the analysed group. Data selection and research procedure using the application

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110 VOSviewer was adapted from study by van Eck and Waltman (2016), Gudanowska (2017) and
Olszewska (2017). The analysis of the co-occurrence of keywords was performed with the use
of the VOSviewer software van Eck and Waltman (2016).
The 1995-2017 analysis period has been accepted. In order to present changes in the risk
management approaches, the selected research period was divided into 5time intervals. Au-
thors’ keywords and their co-occurrence were the elements representing the content mentioned
in the articles. To present a clear visualization, this paper focuses on those expressions that ap-
peared at least twenty times in a group of selected publications. The analysis disregarded the
terms "risk management" and other general interest. The data from selected time intervals was
analysed and presented with the use of VOSviewer program. Five maps were created, which
visualized changes in trends in risk management studies. For each item, the size of the item’s
label and the size of the item’s circle depend on the weight of the item (in this case – authors’
keywords). The distance between items in the visualization approximately indicates the relat-
edness of them in the co-occurrence network. In general, the closer two items are located to
each other, the stronger their relatedness in terms of occurrence links in an analysed group of
publications (van Eck and Waltman, 2016).
Results of Research
Publications in Risk Management Area in 1990-2016
Research activity on the risk management concept was assessed by the number of pub-
lications in two databases: Web of Science and Scopus. The research was focused on publica-
tions indexed in selected databases in the period 1990-2016. The breakdown of the number of
publications is presented in Figure 2. The number of publications related to the notion “risk
management” is different in both databases. Significantly more publications were collected in
Scopus, compared to the Web of Science. Looking at Figure 2, it is noticeable that in the Web of
Science database for a long period (1990–2005) the number of publications mostly maintained
stable at less than about 1000 publications per year. In the same period in the Scopus database
the number of publications increased almost threefold. Since 2005 in the Web of Science da-
tabase, a significantly increasing interest in the aspect is to be noted. Since 2005 in the Scopus
database, a significantly increasing interest in the aspect is to be noted, stopping in 2009, at
the level of nearly 5300 publications in that year. It was followed by a clear decrease in inter-
est over the year. However, after a few years, in 2013, the number of publications started to
increase again, with its peak in the year 2014. The year 2015 came with another minor decrease
in the interest in the problem of risk management.

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111
Figure 2: Number of academic literature in risk management area (authors’

keyword "risk management" in the Scopus and Web of Science
databases in 1990-2016). Source: own processing, data extracted from Scopus
and Web of Science databases
That is also why the Author mostly focused on the further considerations, on the data
from a more comprehensive database, i.e. Scopus.

Main Research Areas by Risk Management Subject in 1990 - 2016
In the next step it was analysed a number of publications in top 5 subject areas. Most
frequently areas (top-5), have been analysed for changes in the number of publications in 1990-
2016 (Figure 3). Analysing Figure 3, it can be concluded that the term has been mainly ap-
pearing in publications related to the fields of Medicine and Engineering. The second areas, in
which issues connected with risk management have been described were Business, Manage-
ment and Accounting, Economics, Econometrics and Finance, Computer Science and Environ-
mental Science. While analysing Figure 3, it is noticeable, that issues related to risk manage-
ment, described in publications from the fields of Medicine and Engineering indicate the clear
upward trend appearing in 1990–2009, which significantly increased in 2009 (Medicine) and
2012 (Engineering). From 2015, the number of publications connected with the described term
from the areas of Medicine and Engineering has slightly decreased. The situation looks similar
when it comes to the field of Environmental Science. When it comes to the fields of Business,
Management and Accounting, Economics, Econometrics and Finance, and Computer Science,
a significant jump in the interest in the issues of risk management was noted in 2011.

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112
Figure 3: Top 5 research areas by risk management subject (in the Scopus
database in the period 1990-2016 [number of publication]). Source:
own processing, data extracted from Scopus database
After that, the number of publications decreased sharply (especially in the first field). It
should also be noted that the subject of risk management was still increased, despite temporary
decreases in areas of Business, Management and Accounting, and Economics, Econometrics
and Finance. The medium-term rate of change in 1990-2016 is 24 percent. Changes in n the
chain-type indexes were presented in the graph in Figure 4.
Figure 4: A chain-type indexes and trendline of risk management publication

in Business, Management, Accounting and Economics, Econometrics,
Finance areas (the Scopus database in the period 1990-2016 [%]).
Source: own processing, data extracted from Scopus database

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A Knowledge Map of Research in Risk Management Area 113
To identify changes in risk management research, knowledge maps were made, rep-
resenting the co-existence of issues covered together with risk management over the last 20
years. In order to present changes in the risk management approaches, the selected research
period was divided into 5time intervals. The data from selected time intervals was analysed and
presented with the use of VOSviewer program. Maps were created, which visualized changes
in trends in risk management studies. For each item, the size of the item’s label and the size of
the item’s circle depend on the weight of the item (in this case – authors’ keywords). The dis-
tance between items in the visualization approximately indicates the relatedness of them in the
co-occurrence network. In general, the closer two items are located to each other, the stronger
their relatedness in terms of occurrence links in an analysed group of publications (van Eck and
Waltman, 2016). Figures 5-9 present the resulting maps.
Initial map presented in Figure 5 (interval 1995-1999) highlights three primary groups of
keywords, which have appeared in publications related to risk management. The map consists
of three loosely connected map areas including the most frequently occurring terms. In the cen-
tral part of the map, which includes most frequently occurring keywords, we can find the terms
related to decision theory, strategic planning and industrial economics related to the research
and development management. Details on the main keywords and their characteristics by co-
occurrences and total links strength related to this map are presented in table 1, in appendix.
Figure 5: Map of research trends in publications referring to risk management

in the period 1995-1999 (based on co-occurrence of the keywords).
Source: own processing via VOSviewer program, data extracted from Scopus database.
The first cluster contains terms related to the strategic planning, including, for example,
quality assurance, process engineering and industrial management. The second cluster is con-
nected with decision making, decision theory connected to the risk assessment and project
management. They are analysed basically with the use of mathematical models and statistical
methods. The last third group of publications contains mainly the terms related to the market-
ing, cost and industrial economics (especially in pulp and paper industry).
Knowledge map presented in Figure 6 (interval 2000-2004) highlights also three pri-
mary groups of keywords, which have appeared in publications related to risk management.
The map consists of three loosely connected area maps including the most frequently occurring

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114 terms. In the central part of the map, which includes most frequently occurring keywords, we
can also find the term related to costs, strategic planning, project management related to the
decision making and marketing. Details on the main keywords and their characteristics by co-
The first cluster contains terms related to the decision making analysis basically with the use
of mathematical models and statistical methods especially in marketing and finance. Thus, we
observe the continuation of the trend recorded in the previous time interval. The second cluster
is connected to the project management with strong relation to the risk assessment mostly in
public policy context. The last third group of publications contains mainly the terms related to
the cost, strategic planning and investment.

Knowledge map presented in Figure 7 (interval 2005-2009) highlights five primary

groups of keywords, which have appeared in publications related to risk management. The map
consists of five strongly connected area maps including the most frequently occurring terms. In
the central part of the map, which includes most frequently occurring keywords, we can also
find the term related to decision making, risk assessment, strategic planning, disasters and in-
dustrial management. Details on the mainly keywords and its characteristics by co-occurrences
and total links strength related to this map presented in table 1 in appendix. The first cluster
contains terms related to the project management associated with decision making and risk
analysis. In this cluster we can find for the first time the term "enterprise risk management".
Thus, we observe the continuation and development of the trend recorded in the previous time
interval. The second cluster is connected to the separate publications on risk assessment in rela-
tion to decision support system, disasters and safety factors. The large third cluster relates to
different areas of management like information, knowledge, supply chain in relation to innova-
tion. The next, fourth cluster is connected with different areas of costs perspective in relation
to a variety of methods for the analysis. The last fifth group of publications contains mainly the
terms related to the strategic planning in public policy context.

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115

Knowledge map presented in Figure 8 (interval 2010-2014) highlights six primary

groups of keywords, which have appeared in publications related to risk management. The
map consists of six even more strongly connected areas maps including the most frequently
occurring terms. In the central part of the map we can find new terms related to innovation,
security of data, artificial intelligence in connection with industry perspective. Details on the
main keywords and their characteristics by co-occurrences and total links strength related to
this map are presented in table 1, in appendix. The first large cluster contains terms related to
the risk assessment in connection with strong position of enterprise risk management. Thus,
we observe the continuation and strong development of the trend recorded in the previous time
interval. The second large cluster is connected to the project management in relation to decision
making and several aspects of uncertainly. The third cluster is connected with different areas of
management like disasters, civil defence in relation to artificial intelligence. The next, fourth
cluster is connected with different areas of supply chain management. The last groups of publi-
cations contain mainly the terms related to the general context of economics (clusters 5 and 6).
Last knowledge map presented in Figure 9 (interval 2015-2017) highlights five primary
groups of keywords. The map consists of five strongly connected areas maps including the
most frequently occurring terms. In the central part of the map we can find new terms related
to enterprise risk management, environmental and industry management innovation in strong
connection with risk assessment. Details on the main keywords and their characteristics by co-
The first large cluster contains terms related to the enterprise risk management in connection
with environmental and sustainable perspective. Thus, we observe the strong development and
specialization of the trend recorded in the previous time interval.

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116
Figure 8. Map of research trends in publications referring to risk management

The second large cluster is connected generally to the commerce aspects. The third clus-
ter contains terms related to the risk assessment, risk analysis and risk perception in connection
with project management perspective. Thus, we also observe the strong development and spe-
cialization of the trend recorded in the previous time interval. The next, fourth cluster is related
to different areas of decision making and emergency management. The last group of publica-
tions contains mainly the terms related to the supply chain perspective.


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Limitations of the Study 117
While this study contributes to both literature, some limitations open up avenues for
further research. First, risk management is undoubtedly a multidimensional concept (not only
in management science), and in this study, are investigated only leading trends in this area.
There are many other areas of challenges in risk management and future research should inves-
tigate the relationships between other dimensions of this concept. Second, this research aimed
to identify selected challenges only over past 20 years in an exploratory way. Future research
could extend this research concept here identified complementing it with dedicated areas such
as business aspects. Finally, based on this study, future research could use these findings in
management practice.
Conclusion
By summarizing, it seems apparent from the review of knowledge maps in the increas-
ing research literature and growing body of knowledge within risk management, that research
on the impact of risk management is a multidisciplinary research area. Based on the method of
network analysis, which has been used to review a change of risk management concepts over
last 20 years, it can be concluded that this concept is still strongly developed.
This area undoubtedly constitutes still great challenges to modern entities. The com-
plexity and multidimensionality of the variables that determine contemporary decision-making
processes require the decision-makers to take a look at the role of risk management in company
processes from different perspectives (i.e. “soft” behaviours). In the author’s opinion, the re-
sults of research presented in this study may provide a basis for further work in this area.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments
and suggestions to improve the quality of the article.
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Appendix. Table 1. Risk management - analysis results by selected intervals of years.
Interval
Number of clusters
Number of keywords
(min. co-occurrence
- 20fold)
Keyword
(max. co-occurrence)
Max. number of co-occur-
rence for main keyword
Keyword
(max. total link strength)
Max. total link strength
for main keyword
Number of keywords
(co-occurrence larger
than 100)
Keywords
(co-occurrence larger
than 100)
Total link strength
Co-occurrences
Main keywords in clus-
ters (by co-occurrence
and total link strength)
Co-occurrences
Total link strength
risk assessment 1015 331 commerce (C1) 91 341

decision making 516 144 risk assessment (C2) 331 1015
information management 523 116 decision making (C3) 144 516
5 63 331 1015 7 project management 298 112 information management (C4) 116 523
risk perception 373 108 supply chain (C5) 100 385
economics 476 107
2015-1017
risk assessment
risk assessment
supply chains 385 100
risk assessment 2173 521 project management (C1) 219 969
management science 1730 394 risk assessment (C2) 521 2173
disasters 1446 350 risk analysis (C3) 330 1569
risk analysis 1569 330 supply chain management (C4) 178 761
civil defence 1292 305 disasters (C5) 350 1446
project management 969 219 Economics (C6) 141 597
Industry 911 192
supply chain management 761 178
6 147 521 2173 17 information management 803 171

decision making 723 165
supply chains 827 156
electronic commerce 670 141
Economics 597 141
risk perception 553 135
Commerce 559 119
emergency management 467 113
2010-1014
risk assessment
risk assessment
construction industry 569 102
119
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Interval
Number of clusters
Number of keywords (min.
co-occurrence
- 20fold)
Keyword
Max. number of co-occur-
rence for main keyword
Keyword
(max. total link strength)
Max. total link strength for
main keyword
Number of keywords
(co-occurrence larger than
100)
Keywords
(co-occurrence larger than
100)
Total link strength
Co-occurrences
Main keywords in clusters
(by co-occurrence and
total link strength)
Co-occurrences
Total link strength
resource management 53 318 finance (C1) 84 429

risk analysis 1608 311 project management (C2) 205 1031
Profitability 146 205 risk analysis (C3) 318 1608
6 169 318 1608 3
contracts (C4) 57 291
industrial management (C5) 82 420
2005-2009
resource management (max. co-occurrence)
risk analysis
supply chain management (C6) 81 274
project management 337 107 decision making (C1) 75 297
risk assessment (C2) 91 226
5 74 107 337 1 strategic planning (C3) 73 291
industrial economics (C4) 38 148
2000-2004
project manage-
ment
project manage-
ment
project management (C5) 107 337
strategic planning 375 106 mathematical models (C1) 79 280
strategic planning (C2) 106 375
3 22 106 375 1
marketing (C3) 47 158
1995-1999
strategic plan-
ning
strategic plan-
ning

Source: own processing via VOSviewer program, data extracted from Scopus database

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Received: October 08, 2017 Accepted: December 12, 2017 121
Iwona Gorzeń-Mitka PhD., Assistant Professor, Faculty of Management, Czestochowa University of

Technology, Al. Armii Krajowej 19B, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland.
Email: iwona.mitka@zim.pcz.pl
Website: http://www.zim.pcz.pl/profile/295,iwona-gorzen-mitka

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122
RECREATION OFFER AND COMPETENCES
NEEDED FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT IN
ACCOMMODATION ENTERPRISES OF
KURZEME REGION IN LATVIA
Diāna Līduma, Ilze Grospiņa
Liepaja University, Latvia
E-mail: diana_liduma@inbox.lv, ilzegrospina@inbox.lv
Zane Gusta
Zoovilla, Ltd., Grobina, Latvia
E-mail: z.timbra@googlemail.com
Abstract
Due to changes in tourism habits when planning development of tourism industry both on national and
regional scale, the significance of recreation is highlighted. As a result, in tourism products made by guest
accommodation enterprises the recreation offer is included more and more often.
Within the research it has been found out that in guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme, in addi-
tion to accommodation opportunities, the offer of catering dominates, but regarding recreation activities-
walking and relaxation in nature. The offer of bath-house treatment and cycling are more popular than
SPA procedure and water attractions. The tendency of relaxation and entertainment event organization
also increases in the companies. One realized imperfection of the offer is the tendency that in half of the
regional accommodation enterprises the arrangement of relaxation activities has to be provided by the
clients themselves.
The aim of the research is to find out the offer of the current recreation in guest accommodation enter-
prises in Kurzeme Region and the necessary employees’ competences for its further development. Within
the research a survey of 32 managers of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme Region was car-
ried out. The outcomes of the research reveal that additional services to accommodation are offered by
55% guest accommodation enterprises of Kurzeme. However, in 53.1% cases the clients, staying at a
guest accommodation enterprise in Kurzeme Region, have to provide arrangement of relaxation activi-
ties themselves. Only one fifth (21.9%) of the companies provide it involving a specialist working for the
company. Complex recreation programmes are offered by 9.7%, but separate recreation activities by
29% guest accommodation enterprises. Managers of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme are
aware of the potential in sports recreation events and relaxation activity organization. The outcomes of
the research showed that the main competences necessary for the employees of guest accommodation
enterprises, according to the managers of the companies, are language skills and the ability to make deci-
sions and solve problem-situations. In 15.6% of the enterprises a manager for relaxation arrangements
would be needed right now.
Keywords: recreation offer, recreation activities, guest accommodation, specialists of recreation, com-
petences, survey.
Introduction
The modern rapid pace of time has affected inhabitants’, including tourists, habits of lei-
sure time spending. In the social and work environment, encountering various negative chemi-
cals, biological and physical factors, people have health problems and the work efficiency de-
creases. The impact of these factors has promoted both development of recreation services in

Diāna LĪDUMA, Ilze GROSPIŅA, Zane GUSTA. Recreation offer and competences needed for its development in accommodation
enterprises of Kurzeme region in Latvia
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general and application of tourists’ attraction. As a result, tourism services and recreation activi- 123
ties are created in the tourism products’ mutual correlation. This fact entails a demand for new
competences in tourism enterprises. Recreation management becomes topical. Development of
the recreation offer is included in a range of tourism industry’s planning documents both on a
national, regional and urban scale. The significance of recreation tourism on a national scale of
Latvia is confirmed by the Latvian Association of Resort Cities founded on April 28, 2008 and
Latvian Health Tourism Cluster founded in March, 2012 with the goal to “promote a sustain-
able collaboration with companies and education and knowledge dissemination organizations
working in health tourism of Latvia, thus increasing their competitiveness in health care and
health tourism, and promoting the increase of the foreign travellers’ total expenses in Latvia and
development of products with the high added value” (Latvijas kūrortpilsētu asociācija, 2013).
Already historically in Latvia the status of kurortology belonged to such cities of Vidzeme as
Jūrmala, Baldone, Ogre, Saulkrasti, but in Kurzeme Region - to Liepaja. Also from the future
perspective the increase of recreation role in the region of Courland can be seen. It is confirmed
by both Decision No 64 of Liepāja City Council on February 19, 2015 “About Development
Concept of Liepāja’s Resort for 2015-2020” with the goal to obtain the status of the resort zone
for a part of Liepāja City municipal territory (Liepājas pilsētas dome, 2015), and “Sustainable
Development Strategy of Ventspils Region until 2030,” where tourism and recreation have
been marked as the specialization direction of Ventspils Region (Dadzis, 2017). Also, in the
development programme of Kuldīga Region for 2014-2020 tourism has been mentioned as the
economic specialization direction, highlighting that “the region has got diverse tourism offers
– different natural, cultural, culture-historical, recreational tourism, as well as medical and SPA
tourism services and products are available” (Kuldīgas novada dome, 2013, 16). The mentioned
facts in the planning documents of the regional cities and districts confirm the potential of the
industry in Kurzeme Region. This motivates the tourism entrepreneurs to develop the offer in
the recreation field and requires provision of professional workforce in tourism enterprises.
Annually a positive tendency of the increase of hotels and other tourism accommodation can
be noticed – according to the CSB (Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia Republic) data in 2016
they are 120 in total in Kurzeme (compared to 2015 when there were 89 hotels and other tour-
ism accommodation, but in 2014 – 81) (CSP, Viesnīcas un citas tūristu mītnes…, 2017). The
number of serviced people also increases in Kurzeme – 239,716 people which is by 41,017
more than in 2015 (198,699 people) (CSP, Viesnīcas un citas tūristu mītnes…, 2017), and ac-
cording to the CSB data the purpose of 47.5% foreign travellers has been just relaxation (CSP,
Ārvalstu vairākdienu ceļotāju…, 2017). The complex tourism services in Latvia have been
received by 34,774foreign tourists and 38,823 domestic travellers (CSP, Tūrisma komersantu
darbības raksturojošie rādītāji, 2017). However, to assess precisely development of recreation
tourism, a common awareness of the term application is missing in the country in order to
record the statistics of both tourism business and industry. Currently the term of recreation en-
terprise has not been defined precisely in Latvia. Recreation services as additional services are
mostly provided by the enterprises dealing with guest accommodation. Taking into account the
increase of the term’s topicality, the explanation of the term “recreation” and understanding of
“recreation tourism” cause a theoretical discussion in the context of different paradigms.
Science of etymology has discovered that the word recreation dates back to 1400 and has
originated from the Latin word “recreation,” which possesses several meanings such as health
recovery, create again, rebirth and encouragement (Online Etimology Dictionary, 2017). Taking
into account the historical origin of the word recreation and its long-term application, the mod-
ern understanding of recreation is varied. It has been confirmed by the verities of such research-
ers as John Tribe, Daniel D. McLean, Amy R. Hurd, Marion Clawson and Jack L. Knetsch.
Collating the definitions on recreation provided by the professor Daniel McLean from
Nevada University and the professor Amy Hurd from Illinois University it can be concluded
that recreation are activities of different kind together with the physical and mental involvement
in order to improve the health condition, integrate into the society, obtain a new experience and

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124 knowledge outside the permanent place of residence (McLean, Hurd, 2011, 63). Taking into
account that, a link can be created with the tourism field, even though in the authors’ opinion
it cannot be directly noticed. Also the economist from the USA agriculture, governmental per-
son, expert on sustainable natural resource consumption Marion Clawson and the specialist
of the environmental economics Jack L. Knetsch in the book “Economics of Outdoor Recre-
ation” explain that recreation is closely related to relaxation including all kinds of activities or
planned idleness including housework, cooking, embroidery and other daily activities (Claw-
son, Knetsch, 2011, 6-7), without showing a direct relation between recreation and tourism.
It can be only noticed when analysing more profoundly the three recreation paradigms
by the authors Marion Clawson and Jack L. Knetsch: the paradigm of outdoor recreation, the
paradigm of natural resources and the paradigm of recreation activities. The outdoor recreation
is relaxation in nature, for example, walking in a forest without natural resource application,
unlike the paradigm of natural resources which is based on application of natural healing re-
sources for people’s health improvement. The paradigm of recreation activities is different or-
ganized activities in the urbanized environment such as group activities, games, orienteering,
fishing and hiking (Clawson, Knetsch, 2011, 6-7). The above mentioned authors’ opinions differ
from explanation of the three recreation paradigms provided by the English tourism professor
John Tribe, likewise dividing the paradigms between the home-based recreation and recreation
away from home, but dividing separately the paradigm of travel and tourism recreation, thus
showing us a possibility of close connection between tourism and recreation. J. Tribe describes
the home-based paradigm, similarly to the above mentioned researchers, as relaxation in the
permanent place of residence, listening to music, watching TV and reading books. The recre-
ation away from home is described as activities of different kind outside the permanent place
of residence, for example, sports activities, attending events, hobbies, going to restaurants and
gambling. In its turn, the paradigm of travel and tourism is described as activities of travelling,
accommodation and recreation at a particularly chosen destination (Tribe, 2012, 4).
The division of recreation types in the Tourism and Hospitality Explanatory Dictionary
(Bērziņa, 2008) issued by the Ministry of Economics of Latvia Republic is similar to Marion
Clawson and Jack L. Knetsch authors’ work, but the “English-Latvian Tourism Explanatory
Dictionary” by Ronalds Pētersons and Enārs Plinta explain the meaning of the “recreation tour-
ism” as a synonym to the world relaxation, including in it the traveller’s physical and mental
health recovery, applying natural and artificial convalescence resources and dividing them into
two sub-groups: the healing tourism paradigm and relaxation tourism paradigm. The relaxation
tourism paradigm includes different kinds of trips with a goal to relax, renew the physical and
mental powers, relax from the daily routine, applying the charm of forests, waters, relief and
landscape, as a result the human health is strengthened in general. But the healing tourism
paradigm is defined as travelling with a goal to improve health, applying the natural healing
resources (Pētersons, Plinta, 2002, 185).
Similar interpretations of the term also exist in the Tourism Law in force in Latvia, ap-
plying the terms: “recreation tourism” – “a type of tourism whose goal is to renew the human
physical and mental potential, applying rationally the natural and artificial relaxation and con-
valescence resources” (Latvijas Republikas Saeima, 1999); “health tourism”- a kind of tourism
whose goal is improvement, prophylaxis, treatment and rehabilitation of the body’s general
condition and wellbeing, applying also the natural healing resources” (Latvijas Republikas
Saeima, 1999).
The theoretical analysis proves there is not a single universal recreation and recreation
tourism paradigm on which all specialists, professors, scientists and practitioners in the area
would rely on. The lack of a common universally applicable theoretical platform encumbers
essentially not only the development of the recreation area, but also the practical work, includ-
ing the assessment possibilities of the situation. The theoretical analysis also confirms different
points of view about the division of recreation activities. The types of recreation are divided
into groups depending on their characteristics: functions, recreational action character, venue

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and time, necessary gear, number of recreants and other features. From the Latvian author K. 125
Bērziņa’s (2008) point of view in the division of recreation types there can be distinguished:
active recreations, passive recreations, healing recreations, indoor recreations, outdoor recre-
ations, sports recreations and groups of leisure time activities. Also, the selection of the venue
has got an essential meaning for action implementation. The recreation venue includes home,
public institutions, parks, relaxation zones, any place in wildlife that is used for human relax-
ation. If the recreation place attracts tourists, then simultaneously they are also used as tourism
places or objects (Bērziņa, 2008).
Studying understanding of recreation and recreation tourism in the context of different
paradigms according to both different authors’ work and the Tourism Law in force in Latvia
and dictionaries on tourism, the diversity of recreation essence and characteristic features are
revealed. In conclusion, in the practice of tourism enterprises in regions of Latvia the divisional
amalgamation of recreation types by Marion Clawson, Jack L. Knetsch and the Tourism and
Hospitality Explanatory Dictionary by the Ministry of Economics of Latvia Republic is ap-
plied, which envisages the development and introduction of the active, passive, healing, natural,
sports and leisure recreation kind activities in the tourism product appropriate for both indoors
and outdoors, applying the natural healing and artificially made resources in order to renew the
human being’s physical and mental condition. In the recreation tourism context, the most topi-
cal is the fact that the tourist decides to implement it in the chosen destination, combining the
trip with accommodation and recreation activities in one place. Taking into consideration that in
tourism different industrial segments are related, also the recreation opportunities are provided
not only by tourism, but also e.g. relaxation organizations, health and sports enterprises. On the
basis of the fact that the tourist’s stay at the destination is mostly provided by the enterprises
dealing with the guest accommodation, the goal of the empiric research is to find out the cur-
rent recreation offer in guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme Region and the necessary
employees’ competences for further development.
Methodology of Research
General Background of Research
According to the theoretical aspect about the variety of recreation offer, it can be con-
cluded there are no distinctly divided recreation activities just in tourism field. Basically, the
recreation offer (active, passive, healing, natural, sports or leisure type activities) included in
the tourism product has to be guaranteed to the guest just at the chosen tourism destination. It
creates differences of the recreation offer available in tourism in various regions. Due to the
tourism industry development planning that promotes the significance of recreation in the tour-
ism offer both on the answers to the questions: what kind of recreation activities dominate in
the recreation offer of the guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme Region? What kind of
tourism offer do the managers of guest accommodation enterprises see the potential to in the
future? What kind of specialists’ competences are necessary for guest accommodation in enter-
prises, for the development of the recreation offer?
For data acquisition on the offer of the existing recreation services in guest accommoda-
tion enterprises in Kurzeme Region and for the employees’ competences necessary for its devel-
opment a survey of the managers of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme Region was
carried out within the research. The survey was carried out from September 10 to November
7, 2017. The questionnaire of the survey was made online on docs.google.com/forms, sending
out the link of the questionnaire to the respondents’ email addresses. In total, the questionnaire
was sent to 65 guest accommodation enterprises with recreation trend of Kurzeme Region. 7
email addresses were returned as non-existent, which means the questionnaire has reached 54
regional guest accommodation enterprises.

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126 Thirty-two managers of the guest accommodation enterprises have replied. By the type
of the accommodation enterprise just the “holiday homes” (40.6%), “guest homes” (28.1%) and
“hotels” (18.8%) make the biggest proportion out of all surveyed enterprises, which also actu-
ally structure the offer of recreation services in guest accommodation in enterprises in the re-
gion. Replies have also been sent by the managers of camping (15.6%), country house (12.5%),
as well as other companies of accommodation type (e.g. hostels, apartments and tent places).
56.3% of the surveyed enterprises have already worked in the guest accommodation business
for a long time (28.1% have been engaged in guest accommodation from 6-10 years, 18.8%
from 11-15 years and 9.4% more than 15 years. Thus, it can be assumed that the obtained data
confirm the outcomes of the long-term experience in this field. By the respondents’ division
34.4% of guest accommodation companies have worked from 1-5 years and 9.4% have started
their business during the last year, which still confirms the attraction of the business in Kurzeme
Region. Most probably the issue of professional specialists’ attraction in the industry could be
topical just to these 43.8% new enterprises.
Sample of Research

Taking into account that according to the SCB data in Kurzeme Region in early 2017
there have worked 120 hotels and other tourism dwellings (CSP, Viesnīcas un citas tūristu
mītnes…, 2017), in the research selection in compliance with the set goal – characterization of
recreations offer’s tendencies in accommodation of Kurzeme Region, excluding the offers in
medical tourism – in medical and rehabilitation service provision, according to the data pro-
vided by the Kurzeme Region Tourism Information Centre 65 guest accommodation enterprises
have been selected and included, or 54% of all accommodation enterprises in the region.
Instrument and Procedures
Within the research a questionnaire with 12 questions has been developed (including
demographic issues of 3 companies), with whose help both the information on the types of
relaxation activity organization, the current and planned offer in the guest accommodation com-
panies, and managers’ perspective opinion on development of individual tourism types and at-
titude to specialists’ training for recreation and relaxation organizations in tourism in Kurzeme
Region was found out. It should be noted that the necessary competences for professional work
implementation in both the “Recreation Specialist,” and “Manager of Tourism and Relaxation
Organization” professions in Latvia Republic are determined by the “Regulations about Pro-
fession Classification, appropriate principle tasks and basic requirements for the qualification”
(Ministru kabinets, 2017). The mentioned document has been used in order to offer the manag-
ers of guest accommodation enterprises in the survey precise specialists’ competencies cur-
rently stated within the law, comparing them with the ones mentioned by the managers for the
current needs in the enterprises.
The chosen time for survey from September 2017 coincides with the period of the tour-
ism closing season in Latvia, so that for the respondents, when answering the questions, it
would be easier to assess both the provided offer within the last season and employees’ compe-
tence in its performance.
Data Analysis

Statistical data processing methods (descriptive statistics) and Microsoft Excel application
were used to process the quantitative data of research. The obtained data is displayed in the
tables and graphs by means of diagrams.

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Results of Research 127
Carrying out an empiric research on the current recreation offer in guest accommodation
dwellings in Kurzeme Region and surveying 32 managers of guest accommodation enterprises
in Kurzeme Region, an opinion about the current tendencies, potential development and the
necessary employees’ competences for its management have been obtained.
Analysis of Kurzeme Guest Accommodation Enterprises’ Offer
In terms of the accommodation offer in Kurzeme 41.9% of the surveyed enterprises offer
catering services, but 45.2% of the companies provide only accommodation possibilities. In
29% of guest accommodation enterprises separate recreation activities are also available, but
complex recreation programmes are offered only by 9.7%. Arrangement of entertainment and
relaxation events is offered by 32.3%, but relaxation infrastructure that clients can use by their
own discretion - 38.7% of guest accommodation enterprises (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Accommodation offer in Kurzeme (n=32), %.
Regarding recreation activities: 89.7% of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme

offer walks and relaxation in nature (on the seaside, in parks and along natural trails), 62.1%
-cycling and bath-house treatment. There are options for Nordic walking (41.4%) and boating
(31%), as well as organized creative activities (master-classes, self-development, etc.) – 31%
and for sports activities (curative exercise, yoga etc.) -24.1%. Water attractions are offered by
only 13.8% enterprises, but SPA treatment (mostly massages, aroma therapy and beauty care) is
offered by only 10.3% of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme (Figure 2).

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128
Figure 2: Available recreation activities in Kurzeme accommodation (n=32), %.
In 53.1% cases, while staying at a guest accommodation enterprise in Kurzeme, clients

provide arrangement of relaxation activities themselves, but in 21.9% it is provided by a spe-
cialist employed by the company. In 15.6% cases a partner/outsourcing provider is hired for
relaxation and recreation activity provision in a guest accommodation enterprise (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Available recreation activities in Kurzeme accommodation (n=32), %.
During a year up to three-year time 65.6% of guest accommodation enterprises in

Kurzeme Region are planning to develop new recreation offers, but 68.8% invest into the ex-
isting service development. 18.8% of the surveyed business managers are planning to attract
new specialists for relaxation and recreation management. 12.5% are planning to introduce
new healing and health improvement services. 15.6% of guest accommodation enterprises in
Kurzeme Region are not planning any changes in the current offer (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: Planned development for accommodation offer during 1-3 year time
(n=32), %.
Pointing at the areas for tourism development in Kurzeme Region in future, the manag-
ers of accommodation enterprises have noticed more perspectives in sports recreation events
and relaxation activity organization than SPA treatments (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Areas in which future perspectives are seen in tourism development in

Kurzeme Region (n=32), number.
Need for Specialists’ Training in Recreation and Relaxation Organization
The outcomes of the research confirm that just the training of tourism and relaxation
managers are necessary on both the higher professional (43.8%) and secondary professional
(25%) education level. The business managers’ opinion shows that training of recreation man-
agement specialists with higher professional and recreation specialists with secondary profes-
sional education are less needed (respectively 12.5%). 6.3% have replied that training of the
mentioned specialists is not needed (Figure 6).

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Figure 6: Opinion about specialists’ training in recreation and relaxation

organization in tourism in Kurzeme Region (n=32), %.
Assessment of Knowledge and Competences Needed for Business Employees from the Busi-
ness Managers’ Point of View in Kurzeme Region Guest Accommodation Enterprises
Regarding the competences, today the employees of guest accommodation enterprises

really need the knowledge of the state language and foreign languages, ability to solve prob-
lem-situations and make decisions within their competence taking responsibility for the conse-
quences (Table 1).
Table 1. Assessment of communication and collaboration skills needed for the

business employees from the business managers’ point of view in
Kurzeme Region accommodation enterprises (n=32), number.
Not needed Not Partly Really

Needed
at all needed needed needed
Ability to apply information for the sake of own work
3 4 9 10 6
improvement.
Ability to maintain the link and cooperate with national
and municipal institutions in recreation event organiza- 3 4 9 12 4
tion.
Ability to work in team, delegate and coordinate respon-
3 8 5 10 6
sibilities.
Ability to solve problem-situations. 3 7 4 7 11
Ability to make decisions within own competence and be
3 8 2 9 10
responsible for the consequences.
Ability to apply and act in compliance with the require-
5 7 6 7 7
ments of regulations and principles of work ethics.
Ability to communicate in the state language and at least
2 4 5 9 9
two foreign languages.
The managers of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme appreciate the employ-

ees’ “ability to apply information for their work improvement” and “ability to maintain the
link and cooperate with the national/ municipal institutions in recreation activity organization.”
Mixed opinions are about such employees’ competence as the “ability to apply and act in com-
pliance with the requirements of regulations and work ethics principles.” The significance of

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knowledge in marketing, public relations and project management is appreciated. The employ- 131
ees’ knowledge in international relations is less topical. There are different opinions about the
need of knowledge in finance, quality and strategic management field (Table 2).
Table 2. Assessment of the knowledge in management area needed for the

business employees from the managers’ point of view in Kurzeme
Region accommodation enterprises (n=32), number.
Not needed Not

Partly needed Needed Really needed
at all needed
Ability to orientate in international relations 4 10 5 8 5
Knowledge in marketing and public relations 3 4 9 10 6
Knowledge in finance management 3 9 6 9 5
Knowledge in strategic planning 3 7 8 8 6
Knowledge in project management 3 4 9 10 6
Knowledge in quality management 3 7 9 10 3
Comparing the managers’ opinion of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme Re-

gion with the principle tasks and qualification requirements stated for the recreation specialist’s
profession in Latvia (Ministru kabinets, 2017), the obtained outcomes of the research confirm
that the managers of the guest accommodation enterprises do not see the need for such employ-
ees’ competences as the “ability to motivate people to get involved in recreation activities,”
“ability to provide advice on a healthy lifestyle implementation” and “ability to provide advice
and practical help in recreation tools, gear and necessary equipment selection.” (Table 3).
Table 3. Assessment of the special skills needed for the business employees in
recreation area from the managers’ point of view in Kurzeme Region
accommodation enterprises (n=32), number.
Not needed Partly Really

Not needed Needed
at all needed needed
Ability to orientate in recreation resources and apply
4 10 10 6 2
them.
Development and management of recreation routes and
infrastructure projects, events and programmes 2 10 7 10 3
( appropriate for the target group)
Ability to motivate people to get involved in recreation
3 11 9 6 3
activities.
Ability to provide advice and practical help in recreation
3 11 7 9 2
tools, gear and necessary equipment selection.
Ability to provide advice on a healthy lifestyle implemen-
2 12 6 8 4
tation.
Ability to treat people, natural resources and the envi-
1 12 4 10 5
ronment in a gentle way, applying recreation activities.
Ability to approbate innovative technologies applying
2 8 11 9 2
means of recreation.
The employees’ ability “to orientate in recreation resources and apply them,” develop-
ment and management of recreation routes and infrastructure projects, events and programmes
have been assessed as partly needed. The opinions regarding the significance of the compe-

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132 tences are mixed in relation to the employees’ “ability to treat people, natural resources and the
environment in a gentle way applying recreation activities,” saying that “it is not necessary”
and the same, assessing it as both “not needed,” and “really needed.”
Discussion
The offer of recreation services in Kurzeme Region is basically formed by guest houses,
holiday homes and separate hotels that have been working in the tourism business for more than
6 years. 45.2% of the enterprises provide only accommodation opportunities. The most popular
additional offer to accommodation possibilities in guest accommodation dwelling in Kurzeme
is catering provision (41.9%). Regarding recreation activities, the enterprises of Kurzeme Re-
gion mostly offer walking and relaxation in nature (89.7%), cycling and bath-house treatment
(62.1%). Taking into account that Nordic walking (41.4%), boating (31%), organized creative
activities and sports activities (24.1%) are possible, and referring to the theoretically analysed
recreation paradigms by the authors Marion Clawson and Jack L. Knetsch (Clawson, Knetsch,
2011, 6-7), it can be concluded that the paradigm recreation away from home dominates in
Kurzeme Region, but according to Ronalds Pētersons and Enārs Plits’ given explanation on the
division of recreation tourism in the recreation tourism offer of Kurzeme Region, the emphasis
can be noticed just on the relaxation tourism paradigm. The widest range of offers is available in
the companies working for 11-15 years. Individual recreation activities are available in 29% of
the enterprises, but complex recreation programmes are offered only by 9.7%. SPA treatments
are available in 10.3% of guest accommodation companies in Kurzeme, and these companies
have worked no longer than for 6 years. A diverse SPA treatment – massages, homeopathy,
aroma therapy, Ayurveda and beauty care services are provided only by the companies that have
already worked for 11-15 years. In its turn, bath-house treatments are available in both newly
created companies and in companies that have been working in guest accommodation for a long
time in Kurzeme.
About 10% of guest accommodation companies (basically holiday homes) have started
their work recently, which still confirms the attraction of the business in Kurzeme Region. The
offer of the newly established guest accommodation enterprises is diverse, as both accommoda-
tion opportunities and separated recreation activities and complex recreation programmes are
offered, as well as arrangement of relaxation and entertainment events, catering services and
relaxation infrastructure that the clients can use according to their own discretion. In the sur-
veyed guest accommodation enterprises, which have started their work during the last year, SPA
treatments are not offered. A partner/ outsourcing provider is invited for the offered relaxation
and recreation activity provision, but catering and entertainment organization is provided by a
specialist working for the company.
The research confirms a common tendency that in most (38.7%) of the guest accom-
modation enterprises in Kurzeme the relaxation infrastructure is available that can be used
according to the clients’ own discretion. One fifth (21.9%) of the guest accommodation dwell-
ings in Kurzeme Region provide relaxation organization in their company by the specialists’
help working for their company, 15.6% use partners’ attraction. This shows that for about 40%
of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme Region the application of recreation and re-
laxation organization specialists is topical, including also the cases when the recreation and
relaxation organization specialists can prove themselves as outsourcing providers for guest
accommodation enterprises. However, 53.1% of cases the clients have to provide themselves
the arrangement of relaxation while staying at a guest accommodation enterprise in Kurzeme.
It means the client is free to choose the type of relaxation, but at the same time the specialists’
advice on the most suitable recreation types in compliance with the resources available at the
tourism destination is not received. Taking into account the variety of recreation activities,
just a competent specialist can be the one who can recommend the most suitable choice to the
holidaymakers.

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Positive is the fact that 65.5% of guest accommodation enterprises in Kurzeme Region 133
in their development, regardless the years worked in the industry, are planning to develop new
relaxation offers during one to three year time and 68.8% are planning to invest in the develop-
ment of the current services. This can determine the demand for specialists’ competences in
the industry in future. The business managers’ opinions confirm that sports recreation events
and relaxation activity organization have prospects. The research has found out that 12.5% are
planning to offer new healing and health improvement services. Basically, they are the guest
accommodation enterprises that have been working for 6 years or more. 15.6% are not planning
any changes in the current offer.
Nearly fifth of the surveyed managers (18.8%) of the guest accommodation enterprises
are planning to attract new specialists for relaxation and recreation management. They are both
the companies that have already been working for 6-10 years and are planning development
of new offers, and 1-5 year-old accommodation companies which are planning to invest in the
development of the current offer. Regarding the education level, managers’ training for tourism
and relaxation organizations is necessary with both higher professional and secondary profes-
sional education. Assessing the specialists’ attraction in their companies right now - 15.6% have
marked the need for a manager organizing relaxation, but 6.3% for a recreation specialist and
3.1% for a manager of recreation events and programmes. The business managers who are not
planning any changes in their current offer mention they do not need a specialist in the above
mentioned fields. Talking about the specialists’ insufficiency in the guest accommodation enter-
prise, the business managers have mentioned: guides, maids, bath-house masters, waiters and
chefs, as well as lack of responsible maintenance workers. Regarding competences, right now
the employees of accommodation enterprises really need knowledge of languages, ability to
solve problem-situations and make decisions. Business managers mention the employees’ abil-
ity to maintain the link and cooperate with governmental/municipal institutions during activity
organization as necessary, as well as knowledge in marketing, public relations and project man-
agement. Mostly, the necessity for such knowledge, also the employees’ ability to solve prob-
lem-situation has been marked by the managers of guest accommodation enterprises whose
companies have already been working for 1-5 years. The newly established business managers,
in addition to the problem-situation solving, appreciate the employees’ ability to make deci-
sions. Employees’ ability to orientate in the recreation resources and apply them, development
and management of recreation routes and infrastructure projects, events and programmes have
been assessed as partly necessary. 75% of business managers do not see any need for the staff
changes in their enterprise right now. It means that, when planning development of their com-
pany’s offer, the managers of guest accommodation enterprises do not consider the attraction of
new specialists as the main precondition and primary issue to be solved.
Conclusions
The outcomes of the research confirm that basically the offer of recreation services in
Kurzeme Region is provided by guest houses and holiday homes with 6 and more years of ex-
perience. Also, establishing new guest accommodation enterprises, mostly holiday homes are
created, which still confirms the attraction of the business field in Kurzeme Region.
Regarding the recreation activities, in the offer of guest accommodation enterprises the
clients are provided with walks and relaxation in nature. The offer of bath-house treatments and
cycling to clients is more popular than SPA treatments and water attractions, as well as Nordic
walking, boating and sports activities available in the companies regardless their length of ex-
perience in the field. It can be concluded that in Kurzeme Region the recreation offer complies
with the away from home and relaxation tourism paradigms. The widest range of recreation
offers and diverse SPA treatments is available in the guest accommodation enterprises that have
been working for 11-15 years. Also, the companies started their guest accommodation business
in the region during the last year, are trying to provide a variety in their recreation offer.

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134 The outcomes of the research confirm that the managers of guest accommodation en-
terprises in Kurzeme see the potential in the sports recreation events and relaxation activity
organization.
As an insufficiency of the recreation offer in Kurzeme Region is seen the tendency nowa-
days that in half of the regional accommodation enterprises the organization of relaxation ac-
tivities has to be provided by clients themselves. On the one hand, the client is free to choose the
type of relaxation, but on the other hand – a professional opinion on the most suitable recreation
types is not received, in compliance with the resources available at the tourism destination. A
positive thing is the fact that 43.8% of the managers in Kurzeme Region accommodation dwell-
ings do see the demand for management specialists in relaxation organization in future. 15.6%
of companies would need a manager for relaxation organization right now. The outcomes of
the research show that the main competences necessary for employees of guest accommodation
enterprises from the business managers’ point of view are knowledge of languages, ability to
make decisions and solve problem-situations. Knowledge in marketing, public relations and
project management field is topical.
In the research it has been found out that 65.6% of the surveyed business managers
are planning development of a new relaxation offer, but 68.8% of managers in guest accom-
modation business are planning to invest in development of the current services. Taking into
account that 75% of the business managers do not see a necessity for changes in the staff, it can
be concluded that from the guest accommodation business managers’ point of view attraction
of new specialists for recreation and relaxation organization cannot be considered as the main
precondition for the recreation offer’s development in Kurzeme Region.
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planatory dictionary]. Rīga: LR EM.
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novados [Hotels and other tourist accommodation in the statistical regions of Latvia, republican
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turisms/ TU0080.px/?rxid=cdcb978c-22b0-416a-aacc-aa650d3e2ce0.
Dadzis, M. (2017). Pašvaldības loma tūrisma uzņēmējdarbības veicināšanā Ventspils novadā. [Munici-
pality’s role in tourism business promotion in Ventspils region]. Retrieved from: http://www.vis-
itventspils.com/files/2017_04_2017_novads_dadzis.pdf.
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ties.]. Retrieved from: http://www.healthtravellatvia.lv/lv/projekta-nr-321116a010-latvijas-vesel-
ibas-turisma-klasteris-aktivitates.
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doc.php?id=50026.
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gadam”. [Decision No 64 “About Development Concept of Liepāja’s Resort for 2015–2020.”]
Retrieved from: http://www.liepaja.lv/upload/kurorts/liepajas_domes_lemums_19_02_2015.pdf.
McLean, D., Hurd, A. (2011). Recreation and leisure in Modern era. London: Jones and Bartlett.

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Ministru kabinets. (2017). MK noteikumi Nr. 264 “Noteikumi par Profesiju klasifikatoru, profesijai 135
atbilstošiem pamatuzdevumiem un kvalifikācijas pamatprasībām”. [Regulations No 264 by the
Cabinet of Ministers “Regulations about Profession Classification, appropriate principle tasks and
basic requirements for the qualification”]. Retrieved from: https://likumi.lv/ta/id/291004-notei-
kumi-par-profesiju-klasifikatoru-profesijai-atbilstosiem-pamatuzdevumiem-un-kvalifikacijas-
pamatprasibam.
Online Etimology Dictionary. (2017). Recreation. Retrieved from: https://www.etymonline.com/
search?q=recreation
Pētersons, R., Plinta, E. (2002). Angļu-latviešu tūrisma terminu skaidrojošā vārdnīca. [English-Latvian
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Received: November 14, 2017 Accepted: December 25, 2017
Diāna Līduma Mg.oec., lecturer, Liepaja University, Liepaja, LV-3401, Liela iela 14, Latvia.
E-mail: diana_liduma@inbox.lv
Ilze Grospiņa Mg.paed., Lecturer, Liepaja University, Liepaja, LV-3401, Liela iela 14, Latvia.
E-mail: diana_liduma@inbox.lv
Zane Gusta Bac.oec., Ovner, Zoovilla, Ltd., Grobina, LV-3430, “Mārsili”, Latvia.
E-mail: z.timbra@googlemail.com

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136
CONTRIBUTION OF THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE URBAN LAND
REGISTER TO LOCAL DEVELOPMENT:
CASE OF THE TOWNSHIP OF COTONOU
Hortensia V. Acacha-Acakpo
University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin
E-mail: horcacha@yahoo.fr
Abstract
The Urban Land Registry ULR is a land information system set up in Cotonou since 1992. It was designed
to enable this municipality to control its land tenure and to strengthen its tax revenue mobilization
capacities. The central idea of this research was to show the relevance of the ULR in local development
as a resource mobilization tool. An analytical method used: a descriptive analysis, which consists of using
comparative curve to understand the behavior of our variables, which are emissions and recoveries of
tax mobilized over time using ULR. The descriptive analysis showed out that the implementation of the
ULR multiplied the tax base by 7 and the tax revenues by 9 over the period from 1992 to 2015. So, this
showed out that the implementation of the ULR participated in a better urban management thanks to its
urban and land applications. Nevertheless, tax revenue collection is too low and synergy of the municipal
services in charge of the various urban management headings in Cotonou is not strong.
Keywords: Urban Land Register, local development, urban emission and recoveries tax.
Introduction
The development and spatial development tools are numerous and diverse. Some are
more effective than others, but it all depends on the purpose. The ULR belongs to one of
those tools, the use of whose contributes to better take ownership of space management. Since
1990, Benin experiences a new area in its territory management through decentralization in
2002. The creation of seventy-seven local communities, which now have the responsibility
to autonomously manage the new delimited areas (Articles 151 and 153 of the constitution of
11th December 1990 of the Benin). The local communities are run by elected representatives of
the population and operate under the supervision of the department through the decentralized
services whose objective is to apply the programs of the central government within the
communes. In this context, the challenge of resources mobilization is of paramount importance.
Indeed, this proximity of the administration of the citizens reveals many difficulties, including
the tax evasion, the high presence of the informal sector which escapes to the state and to all
forms of control.
The various municipalities have taken initiatives by diversifying the sources of taxation
and by strengthening forms of mobilization, but there is still the challenge of empowerment,
which depends above all on own resources of local community and therefore on the territory
capacity to mobilize the resources.
According to Delville and Durand-Lasserve, 2009, land ownership is to be understood
as a key to development because land is one of the factors in the development of a nation. In
Benin specifically, the land situation is relatively complex, characterized by a multiplicity of

Hortensia V. ACACHA-ACAKPO. Contribution of the implementation of the urban land register to local development: Case of the
township of Cotonou
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land statutes. Access to land is by purchase, loan, pledge, sharecropping, inheritance and others 137
to determine landowner status. This situation generates different kinds of conflicts and nuances
the notion of ownership in the land as well as the respect of the legal framework and control of
the territories (Simonneau, 2015).
This situation is also identified as a source of problems for the management of urban
territories and for the generation of local tax revenues. After the colonial period, the system of
local taxation is modeled on the French system of "four old" local taxes (Almeida-Topor, 1995).
It is thus composed of the contribution of the built land, of the unbuilt land, of the patent applied
to the economic activities, and of the license applied to the gaming houses. Recovery of these
four local taxes accounted for 80% of municipal revenues in the early 1990s, but the finding
is that the tax system is not profitable and does not necessarily correspond to the land system
(Hountondji & Guerra, 1993). This was a new trigger for urban management reform projects.
The Urban Land Register (ULR) was set up only in the three municipalities with special status
such as Cotonou, Porto-Novo and Parakou (Simonneau, 2015). This land information system,
based on an addressed parcel map, is a recognized tool for helping to develop territories and
above all, to the urban land management (Global Land Tool Network, 2010). The various plots
and thematic maps developed have been used in planning operations.
What is the impact of the implementation of the ULR on the evolution of Cotonou's
tax revenues? What are the implications of the implementation of the ULR on the urban
management of the commune of Cotonou?
The research hypothesis is that the ULR contributes to explain the local development
in the commune of Cotonou. In other words, the use of the ULR increases the issuance and
collection of local taxes within the commune of Cotonou.
Research Methodology
This research is transversal. Quantitative economic data of the commune of Cotonou

were used to apprehend the effect of ULR on the local development of this commune.
Data Collection

The data used in this research come from the collection database of the commune of
Cotonou. These data were collected over the period from 1990 to 2015 in relation to two
variables: issuance and recovery.
Data Processing Techniques and Validation of Assumptions
After collection, the data were grouped according to the dimensions of the theme:
rate and collection level, urban management in order to compile statistics. The results of the
treatment are presented in tables and graphs, followed by comments.
The results of the comparative analysis of tax revenues and recoveries before and after
the implementation of the ULR and then the collected information on urban management were
used as basis to verify the work hypothesis.
Results of Research
Presentation of the ULR Tool
The ULR is a tool that facilitates the mobilization of resources within the communes.
Indeed, it allows addressing which makes it easier to identify the objects to be taxed. It allows

township of Cotonou
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138 a convenient and quick identification of the taxable matter and hence the taxpayers. Thus, the
information of the land and fiscal data constitute major data. The ULR also needs a continuous
follow-up of all the actors but especially the appropriation of the local authority which is the
project owner. Then taking into account the geographical indicators of all the companies makes
it easy to evaluate the tax portfolio, a good forecast of the revenues of the good project for the
execution of the communal development plan. In total the ULR allows a more accurate annual
budget from a good forecast of revenue.
Local taxation is understood as all the taxes levied for the benefit of the municipal
and regional budget. It breaks down into taxes levied by the deconcentrated services of the
State in favor of local budgets and in fiscal resources collected by the technical services of the
municipality. This last category of resources falls under the exclusive competence of the local
communities that institute them and fix the amounts by deliberation of the municipal council.
Evolution of emissions of tax notices from 1990 to 2015.
The emission curve shows an increasing trend (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Evolution of emissions from tax notices from 1990 to 2015. Source:
Realized by the authors, 2016
Before the introduction of the ULR, the emissions were below FCFA 2 billion. They
were relatively low in those years because the tax data were not locatable, and the distribution
of the opinions was based on the knowledge of the land by the receivers, collectors and not on
an addressing of the municipality. Since the installation of the ULR in 1992, emissions have
increased with a growth rate of 20.83% compared with 1990 and 1991 for which the recovery
amount is less than one billion CFA francs. They have increased from FCFA 1,735,207,877
in 1992 to 6,103,423 325 FCFA in 2002. This growth is due to the ULR which is a tool of
geographic localization, tax assessment of taxable units and thus allows a high tax collection.
The enrollment of all the taxpayers of Cotonou for the four local taxes. From 2002 to 2006,
the curve has remained upward but with some variations. Emissions decreased from FCFA
6,103,423,325 in 2002 to FCFA 5,360,039,923 in 2003 and increased from FCFA 6,439,601,797
in 2005 to FCFA 8,178,516,524 in 2006. The reduction is explained by the updating default of
the first database which generated many problems making the use of the tool very difficult
(misallocations or quality of material inadequacy of the ULR to certain technical applications
for fiscal purposes etc.).
From 2007 to 2012, the ULR's property and tax database was periodically updated and
so, emissions increased from CFA 8,445,546,068 to FCFA 11,822,295,223 over the period of
2007-2015, despite a fall registered in 2012 (CFAF 8,816,210,842).

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Changes in the Collection of Tax Revenues in Cotonou from 1990 to 2015 139
This figure shows the Trends in local tax revenue recoveries from 1990 to 2015.
Figure 2: Trends in local tax revenue recoveries from 1990 to 2015. Source:
Realized by the authors, 2016

The trend is increasing, reflecting a change in tax revenues (Figure 2). From 1990 to 1991,
recoveries were below FCFA 1 billion (FCFA 758,600,000 in 1990 and FCFA 917,850,794 in
1991). On the other hand, revenues increased in subsequent years from FCFA 1,401,086,960
in 1993 to FCFA 5,086,338,218 in 2002. But with the problems caused by the non-updating of
the ULR database, revenue fluctuation was from FCFA 4 812 412 179 in 2003 to FCFA 6 387
054 930 in 2008. Between 2008 and 2012, recoveries decreased from 6 387 054 930 to 5 879
711 150 FCFA, although the database ULR has been updated. But from 2013, they increased
slightly reaching 7 665 771 911 FCFA in 2015.
Comparative Analysis Emission / Recovery between 1990 to 2015
The evolution of emissions and recoveries from 1990 to 2015 is shown by the following
Figure.

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140
Figure 3: Emissions and recoveries from 1990 to 2015. Source: Realized by the
authors, 2016
Both curves show an increasing trend. It can be seen that since the introduction of the
ULR, the emissions and recoveries of the tax revenues of Cotonou have increased. This implies
that the implementation of the ULR contributes to a better knowledge of the fiscal potential and
to a better mobilization of tax revenues.
Compared to the 1990s and 1991s, the implementation of the ULR has made significant
progress in tax revenue mobilization. Thus, the ULR has multiply the tax base by seven (11 822
295 223/1 735 207 877 = 6.817) and the ULR tax revenues by 9 (7 665 771 911/868 971 976 =
8.82 9) between 1992 and 2015.
However, recoveries have not changed significantly compared to emissions. This is
justified by the fact that the ULR does not oblige taxpayers to pay their taxes even if they have
received the tax notices. The multiplier effect of the ULR on tax revenues would have been
greater if these mechanisms were strengthened.
Discussion
The analyzed URL is a tool that has an impact on the mobilization of local resources,
the management of the urban space and infrastructures of the municipality of Cotonou. The
management of urban space and infrastructure represents a challenge for the municipalities
because it consists of managing the space well to avoid certain difficulties such as insalubrity,
traffic jams and the anarchic establishment of social and community infrastructures in certain
areas, territory to the detriment of others. The ULR is also a decision support tool in land-use
planning operations and contributes to the control of the tax base (Lawadoun, 2011).
Before 1992, when the URL was introduced, the low mobilization of resources is due
to the inefficiency of the mobilization strategy, the delays in the emissions, the bad evaluation
of the taxable objects and the weak capacity of the actors to pay the fees (Adda, 2010). The
results show that during this period the emission is low as well as the recovery. There is still
a gap between the two showing that the recovery rate is not total. After the introduction of
the ULR, the tools used increased (very fast ascending curve) emissions and recoveries with
a very small difference suggesting that recovery is total over twelve years. But from 2002
the two curves are always ascending but the gap between the two increases denoting either

township of Cotonou
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a tax evasion, a weakness recovery or resource mobilization circuits. However, the ULR has 141
positively influenced the rate of tax issue and the rate of coverage despite these difficulties.
Conclusion
Local and regional authorities with decision-making power and financial autonomy must
work for the harmonious development of their territories. It is in order to manage the territory
and to mobilize more resources for autonomy that the ULR has been in place since 1992. It
takes into account the tax component, the land inventory component and the urban management
component. The study tried to analyze the contribution of the implementation of this tool to
local development through a descriptive analysis, the results of which show a positive net effect
of the ULR as a tool on tax mobilization. However, the impact is lower with recovery than with
emission. The deficiencies linked to the poor coordination of the actors during the activities
could explain this difference between emission and recovery. Efforts still need to be made
in the area of synergy between departments in charge of the different sections of the urban
management of this municipality for a centralization of information and for a more practical
updating. The level of the recovery strategy of tax revenues can be reviewed later.
References
Adda, E. (2010). Stratégie et outil pour une mobilisation optimale des resources locale, expérience de la
ville de Cotonou [Strategy and tool for an optimal mobilization of the local resources, experience
of the city of Cotonou]. Cotonou. Retrieved from http://www.cifal-ouaga.org/For_CIFAL_ANCB/
strategies.pdf.
Delville, P., Durand-Lasserve, A. (2009). Land governance and securing rights in the countries of the
South. AFD / Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs, 121 p.
Djebou, T., Djidjoho, M. (2002). Taxation in the face of the challenges of local development: Case of
the commune of Sèmè-Podji. Master's thesis in management sciences. Abomey-Calavi university.
Hountondji, V., Guerra, B. (1993). Evolution of collection work, land information systems and local
taxation. Parakou, PDM, CEDA.
M'bassi, J. P. (2001). Urban challenges and the impact of globalization in the African context. Urban and
Municipal Management in Africa, Dakar, Senegal, 15-26 October 2001.
Perier, R. (1993a). The ULR: Design, implementation and results. In PDM (dir.), Land information
systems and local taxation (Proceedings of the Parakou Colloquium, 15-19 November 1993).
PDM, CEDA. Series PDM Seminars III.
Lawadoun, A. (2011). Les effets de l'incivisme fiscal sur la mobilisation des ressources fiscales locales:
cas de la commune de Ouagadougou [The effects of tax incivism on the mobilization of local tax
resources: The case of Ouagadougou]. Mémoire de master. Institut international de management
de Ouagadougou Burkina Faso.
René, P., David, H. (2012). Report 3 on the mobilization of local financial resources. Victoria Quinlan
edition, Stefanie Freccia.
SERHAU-SEM (1995). Understanding the Urban Land Registry: The RFU manual (Volume 1) 32p PGU
/ MFCAC RFU.
SERHAU-SEM (1996). How to develop the Urban Land Registry: The manual of the tax component of
the RFU (Volume 2) 101p PGU / MFCAC RFU.
Simonneau, C. (2015). Managing the city in Benin. The implementation of the Urban Land Register
in Cotonou, Porto-Novo and Bohicon. Thesis. University of Montreal. Retrieved from https://
papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/13501.
Received: October 10, 2017 Accepted: December 26, 2017
Hortensia V. Acacha-Acakpo Senior Researcher, University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin.

E-mail: horcacha@yahoo.fr

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Scientia Socialis & SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Prof., Dr. Constantin Bratianu, Academy of Economic Studies, Romania

Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd.

ISSN 2029-6932 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2017

MANAGING THE RISK OF VIOLATING HUMAN RIGHTS

RISK MANAGEMENT AND RISK COMMUNICATION IN MOZAMBIQUE:

THE EVOLUTION OF RISK MANAGEMENT RESEARCH:

RECREATION OFFER AND COMPETENCES NEEDED FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT

CONTRIBUTION OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE URBAN LAND REGISTER

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ..............................................................................142

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Received: November 12, 2017 Accepted: December 20, 2017 93

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Theoretical Framework: Risk Management and Risk Communication

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Risk Management and Risk Communication in Ammunition Depots

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Risk Management in Mozambique: A General Overview

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to the governmental one. This situation contributed to shape an “ambiguous democracy”, 99

The Management of Risk in Arms Depots in Mozambique: The Case of Malhazine’s

In Mozambique, the management of military risk represented by arms depots followed

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Andrade e Sousa, M. E. de (2016). A exploração mineira e o reassentamento forçado em Moçambique:

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Received: October 02, 2017 Accepted: December 15, 2017

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Methodology of Research 109

Figure 1: Knowledge maps of risk management - stages of research.

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Publications in Risk Management Area in 1990-2016

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Figure 2: Number of academic literature in risk management area (authors’

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Figure 4: A chain-type indexes and trendline of risk management publication

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A Knowledge Map of Research in Risk Management Area 113

Figure 5: Map of research trends in publications referring to risk management

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Figure 6: Map of research trends in publications referring to risk management

Knowledge map presented in Figure 7 (interval 2005-2009) highlights five primary

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Figure 7: Map of research trends in publications referring to risk management

Knowledge map presented in Figure 8 (interval 2010-2014) highlights six primary

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Figure 8. Map of research trends in publications referring to risk management

Figure 9: Map of research trends in publications referring to risk management

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Limitations of the Study 117

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ..............................................................................142