Problems of Psychology in The 21st Century, Vol. 4, 2012

Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-8587
VOLUME 4, 2012
RECENT
ISSUES
IN
PSYCHOLOGY –
2012
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Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Dr., prof. Serhiy Boltivets, Grigory Kostyuk Psychological Institute of the Ukrainian National
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
Dr., assoc. prof. Irena Gailiene, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Irakli Imedadze, Dimitri Uznadze Georgian Psychological National Society, Georgia
Dr. Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., assoc. prof. Vadim N. Kolesnikov, Karelian State Pedagogical Academy, Republic of Karelia,
Russia
Dr., prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., assoc. prof. Jan Lašek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Dr., prof. Mary Anne Lauri, University of Malta, Malta
Dr., prof. Maria Ledzińska, University of Warsaw, Poland
Dr., prof. Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., assoc. prof. Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”,
Bulgaria
Dr., prof. Guna Svence, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
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ISSN 2029-8587
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Contents 3
Editorial
PSYCHO-HYGIENIC СOMPETENCE OF SPECIALISTS IN INTERNET- ENVIRONMENT USE . . . .4

Sergiy Boltivets
Articles
LOVE STYLES FROM A BILINGUAL

(HUNGARIAN-SERBIAN) AND A MONOLINGUAL (SERBIAN) PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Beata Grabovac
RATES OF INFORMATION AWARENESS ON AGGRESSIVE DRIVING AS THE INDICATORS

OF THE EXISTING PROBLEMS IN THE SECTOR OF SPECIAL EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . 16
Oksana Jenenkova
AN INVESTIGATION INTO FACTORS LEADING TO THE EXCLUSION OF

PART TIME STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Nontokozo Mashiya
SCHOOL MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION . . . 39

Francisco Manuel Morales Rodríguez
UNDERSTANDING SELF-HARM IN YOUNG PEOPLE: AN EMOTIONAL UNBALANCE

IN NEED FOR INTERVENTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Marta Reis, Margarida Gaspar de Matos, Lúcia Ramiro, Isa Figueira
THE EFFECTS OF A SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL LEARNING PROGRAM

ON THE THINKING PATTERN OF A GROUP OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Sebastian Raul Vaida
СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЯ СОВРЕМЕННЫХ РОССИЯН ОБ ОДИНОКОМ ЧЕЛОВЕКЕ . . 74

Марина В. Сафонова
ТРЕНИРОВКА ТОРМОЖЕНИЯ КАК ОДИН ИЗ ОСНОВНЫХ

ФАКТОРОВ ВОСПИТАНИЯ ЛИЧНОСТИ ЧЕЛОВЕКА . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Галина Шульгина
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

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PSYCHO-HYGIENIC СOMPETENCE
OF SPECIALISTS IN INTERNET-
ENVIRONMENT USE
Sergiy Boltivets
Grigory Kostyuk Psychological
Institute of the Ukrainian National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
E-mail: boltivetssergij@i.ua
The awareness by the “man-man” professions specialists of their own psycho-hygienic skills
and competence content, which are formed in the process of professionalization, is determined by
conceptual ideas. They are developed within a certain people-study profession and cover use, inter-
action and reflection of a personality in the Internet environment.
We have introduced into scientific use the category of mental health quality which represents
the individual property of personality to ensure his/her own procedural integrity, that is adequate to
internal nature, in cooperation with own selfness and environment. This category certainly includes
the continuingly improving means of both learning the world and self-implementation in it including
the Internet-environment.
The principal place among the psychological researches of Internet use effects in human life
was taken by the searches of harms in the form of addictions: dependence on the Internet, Internet-
addiction, pathological, patho-characterological or problem Internet use, etc.
At the same time, in our opinion, the personality formation, human personal development in
ontogeny (that is his/her lifelong development) is a process of forming a certain type of mental health
quality, since a product and a result of this process are the creation of a certain system of psychic
self-organization and the individual self-realization. We cannot imagine how the human civilization
development would be if this system of the personal psychic self-organization and self-realization
means did not include the total learning of writing, reading and other ways of culture reception
which is the world experience exchange between different generations and between people within
one generation. Therefore, alienation, fragmentation or non-development - let’s call it as a vacuum
of Internet competence - in the educational growth of personality change the structure of the personal
mental self-organization in a certain social formation. The mentioned discrepancy creates precon-
ditions for the mental trauma to a person for the following age periods of life. Immaturity of the
mentioned properties of the mental self-organization determines the structure of the mental health
quality that is characterized by lower activity, lowered self-esteem and confidence in abilities and
harassment level, and psychological security. Obviously, this is not the equivalent for the symptoms
of mental disorder or disease and their components; that allows recommending to compensate the
mentioned properties of personal mental self-organization by psychological (developmental, cor-
Sergiy BOLTIVETS. Psycho-hygienic Competence of Specialists in Internet-Environment Use ISSN 2029-8587
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rectional, rehabilitation) and pedagogical (teaching and upbringing) methods.

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Psycho-hygienic components of the competences of the “man-man” professions specialists in
this context should also include:
• Ways to use Internet-competences as means of establishing, expanding or restoring
person’s social relations in an imaginary (virtual) world that is perceived as a desirable
one,
• Ways of formation the ability to self-regulation which is based on the psycho-hygienic
principle of balance between imaginary and real in their relationship.
In our view, the problem of Internet-addiction as well as much less perceived problem of man’s
Internet-competences vacuum equally should have a professional representation of the content of
professional competence of the “man-man” professions specialists, and especially - medical and
educational psychologists, secondary school teachers and university professors, educators, medical
and social workers.
In this professional representation the developing self-control methods as a capacity for the
coordinated emotional and volitional function by the main indicators: integrity, rhythm, and plastic-
ity, has a particular importance. At the same time, the specialists of people-study professions should
be aware that of the greatest value is those universal forms and patterns of the personal mental self-
organization, which are not lost and transformed for the following age periods of human life, and
become the tools of learning the changing world. The learning tools belong to a constant process
of a person’s self-improvement based on the integrity of self-discovery in the world in order to
implement their own life meaning – own conscious predestination. Coming from that, the Internet-
competences are means of expanding person’s notions which are necessary for individual choice of
lifestyle, and therefore have a significant importance for the health and, in particular, mental health.
The researchers draw attention to the development of Internet-addiction which, in our opinion, should
be considered in procedural terms; as the period needed to compensate the lost or non-developed
person’s relations with the real world.
Maintenance of balance and coordination of the environmental influences, which include the
man-made Internet-environment, is an important task for the psycho-hygienic mission of the people-
oriented occupations specialists. These tasks provide integrity of personality sense-creation in the
world, an idea of which is becoming more and more significant as a part of our civilization.
Thus, the development of psycho-hygienic competences of the “man-man” type occupations
specialists creates the conditions for realization of the important principles of balance and coordina-
tion of the environmental impacts, ideal-realistic unity, and esteem approach in determination of the
Internet-influences on personality.
Received: July 25, 2012 Accepted: September 22, 2012
Sergiy Boltivets PhD, Professor, Deputy Director on Experimental and Administration Issues, Grigory
Kostyuk Psychological Institute of the Ukrainian National Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences, 2 Pankivska Street, Kyiv, 01033, Ukraine.
E-mail: boltivetssergij@i.ua
Website: http://www.psy-science.com.ua/osvita/barmy.php?what=stattia.html
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LOVE STYLES FROM A BILINGUAL

(HUNGARIAN-SERBIAN) AND
A MONOLINGUAL (SERBIAN)
PERSPECTIVE
Beata Grabovac
Teacher Training Faculty in Hungarian in Subotica, Subotica, Serbia
Budapest Faculty of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
E-mail: beagrabovac@gmail.com
Abstract
Recently there has been a growing body of research interested in the concept of love and in the emotional life
of bilinguals. The aim of this research was twofold. One aim was to explore the love styles of young people in
Vojvodina, Serbia in the context of Hungarian and Serbian language. On the other hand, a monolingual Serbian
group and a bilingual group of Hungarian-Serbian young people were studied to see if there were significant
differences in their intimate relationships in Serbian, as the dominant language and in Hungarian, as a minority
language. The goal was to explore if there were different love styles connected to each language in a majority
and a minority group. Additionally, we wanted to see if there were detectable language dominance effects in
bilinguals, whether bilinguals had different romantic relationship constructs in their two languages.
In this research, Susan and Clyde Hendrick’s Love Attitude Scale-Short form was applied. The scale was
translated into Hungarian and Serbian. The equality of the meaning of the two scale versions was carefully
matched.
The results showed that comparing the monolingual group and the bilingual group in the first language there
were group differences in Eros and Agape. In the monolingual Hungarian and bilingual Serbian answers
we can find the same differences: Eros and Agape were found to be more powerfully expressed in the bilingual
group in both of their languages compared to the monolingual group. Considering bilinguals’ first and second
language results, two styles have been found to differ. These were Mania and Storge, which were present in
different amounts in the first and the second language.
The relevance of this study lies in the fact that there is a rising number of multiethnic and multicultural intimate
relationships. Many of the partners have to use a second language to express love and affection. Expression
and understanding of emotions may depend on the language which is used in communication and on cultural
variation in values and norms. This research has important implications for the study of ethnocultural diffe-
rences and first- and second language modulated affective functioning.
Keywords: bilingualism, monolingualism, love, Love Attitude Scale, Hungarian, Serbian.
Introduction
Love schemas affect the way people think, feel and behave in their intimate relationships (Choo,
Levine & Hatfield, 1996). It is thus not surprising that the interest for love is present in many fields
of psychology, with three branches emerging often: evolutionary psychology, personality psychology
and cultural psychology. The evolutionary perspective emphasizes that the feeling of love serves the
purpose of reproduction and is biologically determined. At the same time this phenomenon is seen
as a social construct, with differences in love styles found between various ethnic groups (Schmitt,
2006).
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Theoretical approaches to love often aspire to give a full taxonomy of kinds of love. According
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to John Alan Lee (in Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006) there are six basic love styles, which all produce
different relationship behavior and outcomes, and different expectations. Lee found six basic styles of
love: Eros, Ludus, Storge, Pragma, Mania and Agape. Today many researchers find this categorization
a useful tool for investigating the concept of love and for making cross-cultural comparisons.
Hatfield, Rapson, Martel (in press) point to the fact that although passionate love is a universal
feeling, it is nevertheless shaped by culture. The impact of the wider cultural environment and ex-
perience can be seen through the effects of ecological stress, which can change intimate behavior
and affect love styles. According to Belsky (in Schmitt, 2006), stress, inadequate parenting and bad
economic status all form a base for our later behavior in intimate relationships and generally do so
in a negative way.
The question is how to obtain a good quality relationship? Clyde Hendrick and Susan Hendrick
(Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006) claim that for a relationship to last, it is important for the partners
involved to have similar or the same love profiles. Regarding relationship prospects, they have found
that the love style Eros, which is the most romantic and passionate love style with high levels of in-
timacy, relates positively to relationship satisfaction. In contrast, two other styles, Mania and Ludus,
negatively affect relationship outcomes in the sense that it is very like that a relationship will end
with these styles dominating in it. Mania can be characterized as a very possessive and dependable
intimate behavior mixed with feelings of insecurity in the relationship. On the other hand, Ludus
is the most inconstant style with no stability and serious intention in it, thus this style is frequently
referred to as game-playing love.
Problem of Research
The aim of the research was to map and compare the love attitudes of two different ethnic groups
in Vojvodina. A Serbian monolingual group and a Hungarian-Serbian bilingual group participated
in the testing. The main aim was to explore if there are different love schemas attached to the two
languages: the majority language, Serbian and a minority language, Hungarian. Another aim was to
compare bilinguals’ two languages, to see whether the same or different love styles are expressed
through them.
One very broad initial hypothesis was that there will be some ethnic, majority-minority, group-
related differences between Hungarian and Serbian. We assume that minority and majority group
membership has an impact on personal and intimate attitudes through social power distribution,
different norms and values and it is thus an important sociostructural variable (Sachdev & Bourhis,
1991). These social effects presumably spread on individual personality traits through the feelings
of belonging to one or the other group.
The second hypothesis was that bilinguals will manifest different emotional-behavioral style
in their first and their second language. In the literature on bilingualism there is an ongoing debate
about the emotionality of the first and second language (Pavlenko, 2005) and current inquiries are
directed towards revealing the circumstances under which emotions and emotion-related words are
more likely to be expressed and experienced in the first or in the second language and how the emo-
tion lexicon is organized in bilingual people (Eilola, Havelka & Sharma, 2007).
The third hypothesis was derived from the language factor: we assume that the Serbian answers
in the monolingual group and the second language answers in the bilingual group will be very similar
due to the “same language effects”, which are assumed to have a role in transferring cultural norms
and values.
Research Focus
In the past decades there has been growing interest for a cross-cultural comparison of love styles.
Cultures differ in display rules and feeling rules, which furthermore regulate variation in spontaneity
and emotional expression (Mesquita & Frijda, 1992).
Searching for cultural differences, a line of studies was conducted to find out whether the indi-
vidualist-collectivist dimension affects love concepts and schemas in different countries. The main
ISSN 2029-8587 Beata GRABOVAC. Love Styles From a Bilingual (Hungarian-Serbian) and a Monolingual (Serbian) Perspective
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distinction between these cultures is that individualistic cultures emphasize personal preferences,
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whereas collectivistic ones highlight group or family demands. Stemming from these differences in
social requirements, there are variations in romantic behavior, too. In individualistic cultures, freedom
of choice and romantic love are the most important values in life. In collectivistic cultures, there are
some more traditional expectations and often the whole family has to give approval to a marriage
with a chosen partner. In an earlier study conducted by Neto (2007) stable cross-cultural differences
between British, Indian and Portuguese students were found in three love styles, Pragma, Mania
and Agape. In this study, the Indian culture is claimed to be a collectivist culture as it displays more
traditional values than the cultures of the participants from the two other countries.
The first aim of our study builds up on this line in an attempt to establish whether ethnic dif-
ferences are connected to different romantic styles.
Another area of research deals with personality. It is an intriguing question how main per-
sonality dimensions are connected to intimate interpersonal relationships (White, Hendrick &
Hendrick, 2004). A research oriented towards finding the answer was conducted by White, Hen-
drick and Hendrick: they found that Neuroticism was positively connected to bad relationship
quality, marital instability and generally, with negative relationship prospects. The love styles
Mania and Ludus are found to be in a positive correlation with Neuroticism, while Storge cor-
relates negatively with it. Storge is a love style which is characterized by stability and duration in
interpersonal intimate relationships. On the other hand, Mania and Ludus are elusive styles, full
of doubts, uncertainty and insecurity. Importantly, Mania completely mediates the relationship
between Neuroticism and relationship satisfaction for females. White and his colleagues (2004)
also found that Mania correlates positively with Neuroticism and impulsivity in females and that
Neuroticism also correlates positively with Agape. Extraversion is found to positively correlate
with Eros, the most romantic style.
Thus, on the individual level we can reveal a very complex picture of the relationship between
personality structure and love schemas. The studies mentioned above decompose the phenomenon
of love at different levels: culture-related studies on a more general level and personality related
research on the individual level.
Methodology of Research
General Background of Research
For conducting the research, the short form of Clyde and Susan Hendrick’s Love Attitudes Scale
(Hendrick, Hendrick & Dicke, 1998) was chosen, which features six subscales with four items in
each subscale. According to Hatfield, Bensman, and Rapson (2011), this scale is among the three
most popular scales nowadays that measure passionate love. For the purposes of the research, the
scale was translated into Hungarian and Serbian. The testing took place in two high schools in Novi
Sad and was done in groups of 15-20 young people. The bilingual group filled out first the Hungarian
version and after a two-week period, the Serbian version of the scale.
Sample of Research
In the study, there was eighty one participant. The aim was to explore high school students who
are in their adolescent period, intrigued by the theme of love. We assumed that first year university
students are still inexperienced in the field of interpersonal relationships. The number of respondents/
subjects was constrained by extralinguistic factors. Namely, in Novi Sad in every school there is
just one Hungarian class and several (e.g. 6-7) Serbian ones. In addition to this, Hungarian classes
have significantly fewer pupils than Serbian ones, supposedly because of the minority status of the
language and because there are Hungarian families/parents which/who choose to enroll their children
to school in the dominant language. There were 47 Serbian monolingual and 34 Hungarian-Serbian
bilingual participants. The monolingual group consisted of Serbian participants from the Grammar
school “Svetozar Marković“ in Novi Sad.
The mean age in the monolingual group was 16.531 (SD 0.504) with an age range between
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16-17 years. In the bilingual group the age range was between 16-19 years, with a mean age 17.03
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(SD 0.937).
The bilingual group was composed of Hungarian-Serbian bilinguals from Novi Sad, from
the Grammar school “Svetozar Marković“ and from the Vocational secondary school “Bogdan
Šuput“.
The bilingual groups’ bilingualism stems from social circumstances and this group fulfills
Grosjean’s criteria (Navracsics, 2007) for bilingualism: they can use both of their languages inter-
changeably in different situations in everyday life, with different people and talking about various
topics, corresponding to their needs.
Novi Sad, the place of their wider social background is a multiethnic city, with Serbian as a
dominant language and Hungarian as a minority language. In formal environments/situations people
use Serbian, but in the minority group families, parents oftentimes send their children to school in
Hungarian. These families often use Hungarian at home and in informal contexts. In a wider social
environment however, the minority group uses the majority language. In formal learning environments
this group learns Serbian as a second language. This way they frequently begin to learn a second
language and get accustomed to it at a very early age. The schools in Novi Sad have Serbian and
Hungarian classes in the same building, so the environment gives an opportunity to gain experience,
to mix and to learn both languages.
Instrument and Procedures
Clyde and Susan Hendrick’s (see Hendrick & Hendrick, 1986 for the longer version) Love
Attitudes Scale - Short Form was deemed a suitable instrument for the purposes of the research.
There are 24 items in this abbreviated form, but the scale has adequate psychometric characteristics.
There are six subscales with four items in each, covering the six love styles found by John Alan Lee
(in Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006): Eros, Ludus, Storge, Pragma, Mania and Agape. The translation
procedure was the following: two Hungarian native speakers and two Serbian native speakers and
one Hungarian-Serbian bilingual translated the English version of the scale into Hungarian and
Serbian, respectively.
The research was conducted in two different high schools in Novi Sad, Serbia. It took 20-25
minutes to fill in the scale. The testing was done in groups of approximately 15-20 people. The bi-
lingual group filled out the Hungarian version of the scale first. After a two week period, the Serbian
version was administered to the bilingual group.
The rating scale used for answers was the following: A meant strong agreement with the state-
ment, B meant moderate agreement, C was a neutral opinion, D meant moderate disagreement and
E strong disagreement with the statement.
All the participants were instructed to give their answers with their actual lover in mind. For
participants who were not in a relationship at the time of the research, the instruction was to think of
their most recent partner. The instructions given to participants who had never been in a relationship
was to give their answers imagining their ideal partner in a love relationship.
Data Analysis
The collected data were analyzed using SPSS 17. Independent sample t-tests were used to search
for majority-minority group and Hungarian-Serbian language condition differences.
Firstly, a Log10 transformation was applied to the raw data to satisfy the normality assumption
of the t-tests. Language was an independent variable, the dependent variable was the scores on the
six subscales of the Love Attitudes Scale-Short Form.
In the second analysis, a dependent sample t-test was used in order to see whether there were
differences expressed between the bilinguals’ first and second language emotionality and love sche-
mas.
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10 Results of the Research
Significant differences were found between the Hungarian group and the bilinguals’ first language
(Hungarian) answers. Eros and Agape were more intensively dominating the bilinguals’ answers than
the monolinguals’ answers, comparing the dominant languages – Hungarian and Serbian, respectively
(see Table 1. and Figure 1.).
Table 1. T-test for independent samples – monolingual Serbian group and

bilingual Hungarian answers – significant differences.
Independent Samples Test
LOVE Significance Standard

t-test df Mean
STYLE (2-tailed) deviation
Equal variances 0.5385 0.11969

-2.971 79 0.004
assumed
EROS (LOG)
-3.053 77.028 0.003
not assumed

-2.598 79 0.011
assumed
AGAPE
(LOG) Equal
0.5000 0.13676
variances not -2.737 78.999 0.008
assumed
Figure 1: Comparison of love styles in the monolingual Serbian group and the bilingual
Hungarian answers – significant differences.
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The second comparison concerned monolingual Serbian and bilingual Serbian answers. The
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bilingual respondents gave their answers in their second language in this part of the research. The
same love styles were recognized here as in the first comparison and the same differences were noted:
bilinguals were again more erotic and agapic than monolinguals (see Table 2 and Figure 2).
Table 2. T-test for independent samples – monolingual Serbian group and

bilingual Serbian answers – significant differences.
Independent Samples Test
LOVE Significance Standard

t-test df Mean
STYLE (2-tailed) deviation

-3.185 79 0.002
assumed
EROS (LOG)
-3.395 78.431 0.001
not assumed

-2.440 79 0.017
assumed
AGAPE
(LOG) Equal
0.4985 0.15998
variances not -2.510 77.165 0.014
assumed
Figure 2: Comparison of love styles in the monolingual Serbian group and the
bilingual Serbian answers – significant differences.
The third research aim was to see whether bilingual within subjects’ answers differed depending
on the language used when the first or the second language was evoked. A difference was found in
the significance of Storge and Mania (see Table 3.). These styles had higher scores in the dominant,
Hungarian language (see Figure 3.).
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Table 3. T-test for dependent samples – bilingual Hungarian answers and

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bilingual Serbian answers – tendency towards significance.
Paired Samples Test
LOVE STYLE t-test df Significance (2-tailed)
Pair 3 Storge Hungarian – Storge

1.718 33 0.095
STORGE Serbian (log)
Pair 5 Mania Hungarian – Mania
1.966 33 0.058
MANIA Serbian (log)
Table 4. Means and standard deviations of the bilingual group – tendency

towards significance.
Mean Standard deviation
STORGE HUNGARIAN 0.4353 0.16017

Pair 3
STORGE SERBIAN 0.3868 0.21507
MANIA HUNGARIAN 0.4897 0.13561

Pair 5
MANIA SERBIAN 0.4296 0.19020
Figure 3: Tendency towards significance between the two languages (Hungarian

and Serbian) in the bilingual group.
Discussion
This exploratory study dealt with ethnic differences and monolingual-bilingual majority-minority
group comparison. It was only the first step in mapping various language-social-cultural-love schema
connections in Vojvodina.
Love schemas have been argued to be strongly influenced by early childhood experiences and
are claimed to be shaped by later romantic experience (Choo, Levine & Hatfield, 1996), thus they
are dinamically changing over time. This research has shown that the language and culture factor
could also have an altering-moderating effect on love styles.
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Pairwise comparisons of group means showed that different love styles dominated in Hungarian-
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Serbian and Serbian young people from Vojvodina. Two starting hypotheses were supported by the
research and one was not. Namely, it was established that there are significant differences in love
attitudes between the monolingual Serbian group and the bilinguals’ first language. This is assumed
to be due to some ethnic and slight cultural differences. The second question was whether there
were differences between monolinguals and bilinguals in Serbian. Here, no definitive answers were
reached, i.e. no overlapping pattern was found to exist, so the use of the same language between the
minority and majority group did not yield the expected corresponding or overlapping answers.
Taking into consideration the bilingual subjects’ answers, there were moderate differences
in the answers in their first and their second language, implying that there might be distinctions in
language emotionality.
Thus, generally, ethnic differences had a stronger impact on love styles than linguistic variation.
Concretely, the results showed that bilinguals were more agapic and more erotic than monolinguals,
which means that the minority group is more passionate, romantic and self-sacrificing in an intimate
relationship. Eros is a good base for sincere and warm relationships. Taking into consideration a
previous finding stating that Agape is in a positive relationship with Neuroticism (White, Hendrick
& Hendrick, 2004), a cautious inference should be made. It seems that Agape has positive outcomes
in a relationship just in cases when it is not very intensively present in the love profile. In this sense,
the minority group has a rather idealistic view of love with a tendency to put their partner’s welfare
above theirs.
Another explanation here is that the romantic partnership is ruled by Agape, which means that
there is an imbalance between the two partners’ power relations: one side is giving up everything
for the other and is exploited and manipulated covertly in a physical, psychological, material or
emotional manner by the other. It may be that in times of harmony and satisfaction on both sides,
Eros rises and a passionate feeling takes control over the relationship.
Agape and Eros were found in bilinguals’ both first and second language as strongly protuberant
styles, when compared to monolinguals. So there is an overlapping, matching pattern in the minority
group’s dominant language and their second language regarding love styles when compared to the
majority group.
The results of the bilingual group comparing their first and second language showed a different
pattern of styles: at the level of a tendency towards significance they were more manic and strogic
in Hungarian, their dominant language than in their second language.
The Mania love style is often considered to be a symptom of love, but from another angle it is
seen as a possessive and thus harmful and dangerous style. Previous research (White, Hendrick &
Hendrick, 2004) found that therapists interpret this style of dependent, preoccupied intimate behavior
as pointing to neurotic tendencies in the person expressing it.
In contrast, Storge is a very stable style, based on friendship and it is a good ground for build-
ing lasting relationships. This style can be characterized by companionate behavior, understanding
of each other and commitment, with no intensive passion and fire in it.
It is very interesting that in the results these two styles emerged together, because in a way
they stand on the two extreme ends of an imagined passion line. It might be the case here that in this
sample Mania is taken to be the signal of true love, the token of deep affection. In addition to this,
it is probable that after a period of time, when the relationship stands the test of time, it alters in the
direction of a confidence-based relationship, so Storge takes over dominance.
On the other hand, another possibility is that these bilinguals start their relationships through
friendship or see friendship as a base for all relationships. The Mania style might be activated when
they perceive a threat to their relationship and an intensive fear of loss appears. In these cases they
might shift to manic occupations and intrusive thoughts about their loved one.
These two styles emerged in the bilinguals’ first language, showing that in this language they
express these attitudes more dominantly than in their second language. The results of the research
point towards the likelihood that in their first language these styles are present more strongly and
more intensively.
One conclusion from these results is that the bilingual group’s within-subjects are more emotional
in their first language. This seems to support the Emotional Contexts of Learning theory (Harris,
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Berko Gleason & Aycicegi, 2006) which says that the first language is acquired in a more emotional
14
setting, in the context of developing attachment with parents and caregivers, through very intensive
emotional experiences. As a result, it is emotionally charged at a deeper level. The fact that just
slight differences were found here may be due to the fact that the bilingual participants were raised
in a bilingual context, acquiring a minority language as a dominant one and learning the majority
language as a second language often from childhood.
Importantly, we must note that monolingual and bilingual group differences point to the same
styles in both languages. Eros and Agape were elected as dominant styles in both languages of the
bilingual minority group compared to monolingual majority group. The second conclusion drawn
from the results is that the bilingual group has uniform love styles across languages compared to
other ethnic groups.
Future research could investigate a wider range of complex emotions, e.g. negative emotions
and situations connected with two or more languages and make cultural comparisons within and
between languages.
Research on love styles combined with other personality dimensions and viewed through the
prism of bilingualism should be continued in Vojvodina. There is a lack of studies dealing with emo-
tions in Hungarian and Serbian, with comparing bilingual and monolingual groups in this respect. In
addition to this, there is a need for research oriented towards finding out how these two very different
languages map one onto the other in the minds of Vojvodinian bilinguals.
Conclusions
In conclusion, we can say that it seems that every language and every culture possesses a more
or less unique affective and emotional repertoire. If we take into consideration bilinguals’ minds, it
could be stated that they have an even more complex and somewhat different emotion lexicon than
monolinguals.
From the research outcomes obtained, it can be inferred that in this study language accounts for
less variance than culture, because when we varied culture – in the sense of ethnic group member-
ship – we found more significant differences between the groups compared. It is a very interesting
result that in the monolingual-bilingual condition the differences were found in bilinguals’ both
languages within just the same styles, so the language switch did not alter the love style in the mi-
nority group.
Additionally, in this work the first language is slightly more emotional and shows a different
pattern of love attitudes than the second one.
One new assumption from this pattern of results is that living in a multiethnic context with two
or more languages in everyday use can produce a very complex picture in emotional functioning:
it can affect language emotionality and the love styles expressed. This way, romantic behavior can
be altered in the way that at the end there are slight differences in the individuals’ first- and second
language emotional expression and behavior, but at the same time, when the same bilinguals are
compared to other groups, stability is found, expressed through the same dominant romantic attitudes
in both of their respective languages.
The findings have important implications for bilingual emotional functioning: in bilinguals there
might be the same general intimate behavioral pattern and expectation set present in both of their
languages, but additional tiny differences might turn up in their first- and second language emotional
repertoire, which can affect their behavior. Thus, being in their first- or second language mode can
change the prospects of a relationship.
This research supports the broad notion that in dealing with the psychology of love and emo-
tions it is important to take into account linguistic and cultural effects on intimate behavior.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the University of Novi Sad, Hungarian Teacher Training Fac-
ulty and the Ministry of Education and Science in Serbia, project number III 47013, with the title A
magyar nyelv a többnyelvű Vajdaságban, a korszerű európai régiómodellben.
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We would like to thank Susan Hendrick for providing us with the Love Attitudes Scale -Short
15
Form and giving the permission to translate the scale.
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Personal Relationships, 15, 147-159.
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New Psychology of Love, New Haven, London: Yale University Press.
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(2), 179-204.
Navracsics, J. (2007). A kétnyelvű mentális lexikon. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó.
Neto, F. (2007). Love Styles: A Cross-Cultural Study of British, Indian, and Portuguese College Students.
Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 38 (2), 239-254.
Pavlenko, A. (2005). Emotions and multilingualism. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sachdev, I. & Bourhis, R. Y. (1991). Power and Status Differentials in Minority and Majority Group Relations.
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Advised by Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova,

South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bulgaria
Received: September 07, 2012 Accepted: October 16, 2012
Beata Grabovac Psychologist, Assistant Professor in the field of Psychology at the Teacher
Training Faculty in Subotica, Subotica, Serbia.
E-mail: beagrabovac@gmail.com
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16
RATES OF INFORMATION AWARENESS

ON AGGRESSIVE DRIVING AS THE
INDICATORS OF THE EXISTING
PROBLEMS IN THE SECTOR OF SPECIAL
EDUCATION
Oksana Jenenkova
Daugavpils University, Riga, Latvia
E-mail: oxana@latnet.lv
Abstract
In the road traffic field the biggest danger is caused by a phenomenon of „aggressive driving”. The topical-
ity of the problematic issue is noted by such organizations like the WHO and the UNO; as a result of this the
term “aggressive driving” was introduced in Latvia on the legislative level. In the territory of Latvia a multi-
stage study was performed; its aim was to study ideas of drivers on aggressive driving. During the study the
following methods were used: method of associations, method of unfinished sentence, structured, partially
structured and non-structured interview, personal differential method, socially demographic questionnaire
and Aggressive Driving Questionnaire (Jenenkova, 2009). In all, 2160 drivers representing all regions of
Latvia were questioned.
As a result of the study one of the components of ideas on aggressive driving was found out – information
awareness, which is considered in this article. Information awareness is represented by the following component
parts: self- evaluation of terminology knowledge (expected level), level of term understanding (expected level),
term knowledge (real level), level of term understanding (real level), level of agreement with the formulation,
information sources. During the comparative analysis of drivers’ group and inspectors’ group of the road traffic
not only their differences by these components were discovered, but also the current problems in relation to
the terminology knowledge and understanding were found out.
Key words: aggressive driving, dangerous driving, drivers and inspectors, information awareness, problems
in terminology, road traffic.
Introduction
Problem of Research
In the reports of the World Health Organization (WHO) it is noted that 20-50 million people
receive traumas in the road traffic accidents every year (Murray, Lopez, Mathers & Stein, 2001,
Peden, Scurfield, Sleet, Mohan, Hyder, Jarawan & Mathers, 2004). Moreover, approximately 1,3
million more people get traumas, which are life-incompatible and lead to death (World Health
Organization, 2008). Thus the nowadays situation proves that 3 thousand people die every day in
the road traffic accidents, and the statistics point to death case increase as a result of the road traffic
accidents during the recent years.
The age categories of economically active people suffer the most in the road traffic accidents,
and the accidents not only take lives, traumatize state of mind and health, but also worsen the eco-
Oksana JENENKOVA. Rates of Information Awareness on Aggressive Driving as the Indicators of the Existing Problems in the Sector of ISSN 2029-8587
Special Education PROBLEMS
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nomical condition of the victim families (Transport Research Laboratory, 2003; WHO, 2008). Thus, 17
equally to the crisis processes in the economical and the political sectors crisis is observed
also in the safety sector and, namely, in the road safety sector. So, the General Assembly of
the United Nations notified about the existence of the road safety global crisis (General Assembly
of the United Nations, 2009).
In relation to the European region it is stated in the WHO’s reports that in the Baltic States
(Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and in the countries of the South Europe the rate of mortality in
road traffic accidents is much higher than in the countries of the North Europe (Denmark, Iceland,
Norway, Finland and Sweden) (Sethi, Racioppi, Frerick & Frempong, 2008; European Road Safety
Observatory, 2008; Breuer, 2009).
To understand the general situation in Latvia it is important to analyze the data in the road
traffic sector. Thus, summarizing the statistical data, it can be said that it is the first time in 2011
when increase of number of motor transport registered in the Road Traffic Safety Directorate is seen;
besides, as of 01.01.12 there are total 786058 vehicles registered in Latvia, only 79% of them have
passed the official checkup (CSDD, 2012d). Only 821425 people have active driver’s licenses
as of 01.12.2011, besides, in numerical expression – prevalence belongs to men - 60%; as of
01.08.12 the age proportion remains (CSDD, 2012a). It must be noted that the composition of
students trained in driving schools has been leveled by the age feature. In 2011 22983 people
received driver’s licenses, 53% of them are women; besides, analogue tendency is observed during
recent years as well (CSDD, 2012c).
The number of road traffic accidents with dead persons has decreased in 2011, but increase
of accidents with victims and injured people has been stated, as well as increase of cases when
drivers use psychoactive drugs (CSDD, 2012b).
Thus, data of the countries within the European Union and, namely, Latvia, show that the
road traffic safety is an important issue, which requires solution.
Research Focus
The most dangerous behavior, as a result of which the road traffic accidents take place, is the
aggressive driving. So, for instance, according to the data obtained in the course of study by the AAA
Foundation for Traffic Safety - 56% of accidents with lethal outcome are connected with aggressive
driving, and about 80% of respondents believe that aggressive driving is a serious problem in the
road traffic safety sector (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 2008).
Aggressive driving is a problem in the road traffic safety sector and causes increased attention
in different countries of the world (UNECE, 2004). Studies performed by Gallup Europe show that
48% of respondents from the EU and 66% of respondents from the USA had become victims of
aggressive driving, which had admitted it (EOS Gallup Europe, 2003).
Aggressive driving can be singled out as the most dangerous behavior at the wheel, as a result
of which the road traffic accidents are caused. So, for instance, according to the Gallup Europe
data, during the study 48% of the EU’s respondents and 66% of the USA’s respondents admitted
that they had been victims of drivers’ aggressive driving style (EOS Gallup Europe, 2003). Aggres-
sive driving has been acknowledged on the UNO and the WHO level as one of the most important
reasons of road traffic accidents.
To fight against aggressive driving manner by cars, the European Economic Commission (EEC)
initiated the UNO to perform the road traffic safety measures on the continent of Eurasia, which
were supported by governments of different countries (UNECE, 2004).
At the EEC (European Economic Commission) seminar within the frames of the UNO, on
aggressive driving issue, Bernard Perisset noted that among all factors, which are in the middle of
the road transport accidents, the main role belongs to human behavior, and in this context particular
concern is caused by aggressive driving (UNECE, 2004).
Despite the importance and topicality of this issue, it should be noted that there are prob-
lems affecting the used terminology. So, attempts of various researchers to give the definition
of the phenomenon “aggressive driving”, have not led to united terminology.
Considering this issue, for instance, Hauber shows a tendency to define, and he emphasizes the
ISSN 2029-8587 Oksana JENENKOVA. Rates of Information Awareness on Aggressive Driving as the Indicators of the Existing Problems in the Sector of
PROBLEMS Special Education
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everyday knowledge more (Hauber, 1980). Mizell, studying aggressive driving, includes such behavior
18
in this definition, which is deliberate and has a purpose of harming (Mizell, 1997). Shinar, basing
on the frustration-aggressive model, performs categorization of aggressive driving into hostile and
instrumental, as well as separates the definition of aggressive driver and aggressive driving (Shinar,
1998). Elliott speaks about the necessity of singling out a special category of such behavior on the
road like the road rage. He suggests considering such behavior within the frames of the criminal
law (Elliott, 1999).
Evaluation of aggressive driving, in the judgment of Neuman and Tasca, must be implemented
taking into consideration not only the driver’s psychological condition, but also the environmental
factors (Neuman, Pfefer, Slack, Hardy, Raub, Lucke & Wark, 2003).
Difficulties, which exist when introducing terminology, can be demonstrated with an example of
term introduction in the territory of the USA. So, James and Nahl have executed study of definitions,
which were adopted in 14 states. Comparative analysis showed that only 11 speech expressions of 30
had a specific form of expression. Besides, if there is no full and precise formulation, subjectivism
was present in all formulations among all states (James & Nahl, 2000a).
As an example, one can mention the most volumetric parts of formulations, which were met in
the states of Arizona and New Jersey. Arizona. «Drivers could be charged with aggressive driving if
they are cited for a combination of any three of the following charges: committing two or more listed
offenses that include failing to obey a traffic control device; passing on the right or on the shoulder;
tailgating or following too closely; failing to signal lane changes or to change lane properly; failing
to yield the right-of-way; running a red light or stop sign; driving over the “core” area entering or
exiting a highway; passing a vehicle on the right by traveling off the pavement» (Aggressive Driv-
ing Laws USA, 2000, p. 1).
New Jersey. «The aggressive driver is identified through the following violations of traffic
regulations: Speeding (breaking the speed limit); Following Too Close (less than safe distance);
Driving While Intoxicated; Disregard Of Traffic Signs and Signals; Driving While Suspended»
(Aggressive Driving Laws USA, 2000, p. 1).
It is not the perfection of terminology that has led to modifications in formulations during this
period of time. So, for instance, formulations from the states studied before sound differently now.
Arizona. “Speeding and least two of the following: failure to obey traffic control device, passing
on the right out of regular lanes of traffic, unsafe lane change, following too closely, failure to yield
right of way; and is an immediate hazard to another person or vehicle” (Aggressive Driving Laws
USA, 2012, p. 1).
A term „aggressive driving” was removed from the legislation base in the state of New Jersey
and punishment for aggressive driving today is ensured within the frames of the existing laws (Ag-
gressive Driving Laws USA, 2012, p. 1).
According to the data of the Canadian National Police (RCMP), for instance, the term of ag-
gressive driving includes: “driving which creates undue risk or endangers the safety of another
person or vehicle; involves the operation of a motor vehicle in manner which endangers or is likely
to endanger person or property; aggressive driving may range from personal risk-taking behavior
to hostile action toward another person”. Besides, aggressive driving can be characterized by such
violations: “speeding and excessive speeding, follow too closely (tailgating), unsafe lane change –
weave in and out of traffic, rolling through stop signs, fail to stop for yellow and/or red light, blocking
intersections, fail to yield” (Canadian national police, 2012, p. 1).
The term „aggressive driving” was introduced in Latvia as well, which includes the following
content:
“1) Execution of several consecutive violations, which are connected with establishment of
situations that are dangerous to the road traffic or situations putting obstacles in the way of it.
2) Vehicle driving in such way that a violation of the road traffic rules is committed and the
hindrances for even flow of the vehicles are created; or interests of drivers of other vehicles are
ignored (repeated change of driving lanes with outstripping, lead of several vehicles, which are in
traffic jam or moving in a column on the wrong side, or the lane, which is meant for movement of
passenger vehicles of public use, on the roadside, pavement, footway, bikeway or other places not
meant for movement of vehicles” (MK noteikumi, 2004, 2006, 2009).
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Thus, lack of united terminology and differences in its interpretation, which are shown by the
19
analysis of studies among different world countries, shows that this issue is interesting for further
study activity. The multi-stage study performed in the territory of Latvia reflects various aspects
of the problematic issue of aggressive driving (ЕН). Drivers, driving motor transport, follow their
own ideas about aggressive driving; besides, the level of their information awareness may differ by
various indicators. In connection with this, this article analyzes such a block of issues connected
with information awareness of drivers regarding aggressive driving.
In the course of a multi-stage study different aspects of the phenomenon of “aggressive driv-
ing” were studied (Jenenkova, 2009a,b,c,d,e; Jenenkova, 2010a,b). In all, 2160 respondents took
part in the study. All Latvia was represented in the study, because the respondents from all regions
of Latvia were surveyed.
Sample of Research
The number of participants of this study was 300 people, 150 of them were drivers, and 150 –
road traffic inspectors. Drivers were represented by men at the age to 30 years, because, according
to the statistical data of road traffic accidents in Latvia, male drivers younger than 30 years are the
most dangerous for the road traffic participants. Besides, it was discovered during the previous stages
of the study that the respondents had described this group as the group of potentially dangerous
drivers or the risk group. Additionally, during the previous stages of the study, respondents singled
out the group of road traffic inspectors. On the one hand road inspectors participate in the traffic; on
the other hand they control and organize the process of traffic. The respondents indicated the fact
that the inspectors opinion about the phenomena of aggressive driving style is opposite the point
of view of young drivers. Besides, the inspectors can be the experts in this case. From the point of
view of the road traffic safety it was significant to learn and compare the information awareness of
both these groups.
The following methods were applied during the study: association method; incomplete sentence
method; structured, partially structured and non-structured interview; personal differential method;
Aggressive Driving Questionnaire (Jenenkova, 2009).
In this article the results are represented, which were obtained in the course of study with the
help of the ADQ. The ADQ is meant for research of representations about aggressive driving and
includes the following semantic blocks: phenomenon observability; tendencies of the phenomenon
under observation; thoughts of the respondents, connected with aggressive driving; characteristics
given by the respondents to the present drivers (sex-age, social, personality related); self-concept
of knowledge and understanding of normative terminology; manifestations, causes, provoking the
factors of the present phenomenon; feelings and reactions caused to the respondents in relation to the
present phenomenon; information awareness of the respondents; evaluation of the level of aggressive
driving in Latvia and neighboring countries; measures that are directed to decrease the phenomenon
under research in the society. As a result of the study a great amount of data were obtained, which
can be presented in various subject blocks.
Detailed analysis of each of the ascertained semantic blocks, including, with the respective
topically substantiated description of instruments, was set forth not only in multiple reports at the
international conferences, but also described in individual articles with the corresponding topics.
Presence of various semantic blocks in the Inquirer, which are included in the common topic con-
cerning the perception of aggressive driving by drivers, allows, if necessary, using of individual
thematic blocks of inquirer in studies. The article contains analysis of such blocks of inquirer,
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which allow discovering the topic of information awareness about aggressive driving. Because
20
the block of information awareness is considered in this article, only this block of meaning will be
represented here. Participation in the research was voluntary. Confidentiality was guaranteed to the
respondents.
Data Analysis
In the course of the whole multi-stage study the following methods of statistical data analysis
were applied: frequency analysis, central tendency statistical rates, determination of Cronbach’s
Alpha rates for control of results’ credibility and coherence, One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Test for determination of results’ normal distribution; Spearman’s rank correlation for analysis of
interconnections; χ2 criterion and Mann-Whitney test for analysis of results’ differences, factor
analysis (Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis; Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization), cluster analysis. To process the results the SPSS program was applied.
The following methods of statistical data analysis were applied in this article for analysis of the
issue of information awareness about aggressive driving: One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
for determination of results’ normal distribution, Pearson Chi-Square tests, Mann-Whitney test for
analysis of results’ differences, cluster analysis.
Results of Research
Information Awareness
Information awareness of respondents in relation to determination of aggressive driving was

defined by such factors as self-evaluation of terminology knowledge (expected level), level of term
understanding (expected level), term knowledge (real level), level of term understanding (real level),
level of agreement with the formulation, information sources.
Self-evaluation of Terminology Knowledge
In the course of study respondents of both groups evaluated their knowledge of terminology
(without having the officially adopted formulation. This evaluation’s indicator – “Self-evaluation
of terminology knowledge” (I_1).
Distribution of factor for the group of drivers differs considerably from the standard one (Kolm-
ogorov-Smirnov Z=2.459, p<0.05). Distribution of this factor for the group of road traffic inspectors
differs considerably from the standard one (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z=3.099, p<0.05). Self-evaluation
of terminology knowledge by the road traffic inspectors is higher than it is for the drivers; and these
differences are statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U=9166, Z=-2.928, p<0.05).
Level of Term Understanding (expected level)
Respondents evaluated the level of intelligibility of the adopted terminology from their point of
view. This evaluation was performed without providing them with the officially adopted formulation
and refers to the supposed level of intelligibility. This evaluation’s indicator – “Level of term under-
standing (expected level)” (I_2). Distribution of factor for the group of drivers differs considerably
from the standard one (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z=2.378, p<0.01). Distribution of this factor for the
group of road traffic inspectors differs considerably from the standard one as well (Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Z=2.886, p<0.01). The term (expected level) for the road traffic inspectors is clearer than
for the drivers; these differences are statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U=8796.5, Z=-3.412,
p<0.05).
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Term Knowledge (real level)

21
Evaluation of real knowledge of respondents was performed considering their answers to the
question about the sum of penalty sanctions for this type of violation. Besides, the fact was taken
into consideration relating to their knowledge about calculation of penalty points for aggressive driv-
ing, as well as the correctness of the answer relating to the calculated penalty points was analyzed.
Evaluation of real knowledge instead of knowledge declared by respondents was performed. This
evaluation’s indicator – “Term knowledge (real level)” (I_3).
Thus, the factor “real term knowledge” contains the following components: knowledge about
applicable penalty provisions, knowledge about calculation of penalty points, knowledge about the
correct sum of the calculated penalty points.
1. The correct answer regarding the sum of penalty provisions was given only by 58.7%
of respondents. In the group of road traffic inspectors 92.7% of respondents gave the
correct answer about the penalty provisions, whereas among drivers the correct answer
was given only by 24.7%. The differences are statistically significant (χ2 =143.017, df=1,
p<0.01).
2. Calculation of penalty points was marked only by 2.3% of respondents. Among drivers the
answer was given by 2% of respondents, among inspectors of road traffic – 2.7%. There
are no statistical differences in the answers of two groups (χ2 =1.143, df=2, p=0.565).
3. Knowledge about the correct sum of calculated penalty points is observed for 2% of
respondents. The correct sum of penalty points among drivers was written by 1.3% of
respondents, in the group of road traffic inspectors – 2.7%. In both groups a very low
level of correct answers to this question is observed; there are no statistically significant
differences (χ2 =0.680, df=1, p=0.409).
Aggregated rate for the factor I_3 is calculated as the sum of correct answers by all three com-
ponents: knowledge about the applicable penalty provisions, knowledge about calculation of penalty
points, knowledge about the correct sum of calculated penalty points. Inspectors demonstrate much
higher level of terminology level and these diferences are statistically significant (Mann-Whitney
U=3880, Z=-11.384, p<0.05).
Level of Term Understanding (real level)
To answer the question on the level of intelligibility of legislatively adopted terminology specific
formulations from the road traffic rules, intelligibility of which was evaluated by respondents, were
given. This evaluation’s indicator – “Level of term understanding (real level)” (I_4). Thus, in rela-
tion to the level of term understanding (real level) two parts of formulation of the term „aggressive
driving” were mentioned from the road traffic rules, which the respondents evaluated separately by
the criterion of understanding. The factor was evaluated by understanding of such a formulation (1)
“Performing several violations following each other and connected with causing of dangerous situ-
ations for oneself and other car drivers”.
The first part of the formulation of aggressive driving fro the RTR (road traffic rules) is more
understandable for inspectors than for drivers; these differences are statistically significant (Mann-
Whitney U=9416.5, Z=-2.590, p<0.05). Figure 1 represents the level of understanding of the first part
of the official formulation of aggressive driving. When trying to understand the first part we observe
significant statistical differences regarding drivers and inspectors (χ2 =13.471, df=4, p=0.009). The
first part is completely clear only for 20% of drivers, whereas among inspectors we have 39%. In
this part of formulation 80% of drivers and 61% of inspectors need explanations and supplements.
Among respondents, in each questioned group, there are 7% of respondents, which do not understand
this formulation at all.
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22
1. Completely unclear; 2. Unclear, explanations are needed, with examples; 3. Slightly unclear, explanations are needed, with exam-
ples; 4. In general clear, but explanations and additions are needed; 5. Completely clear
Figure 1: Level of understanding of formulation of aggressive driving (Part 1) by

drivers and inspectors.
The factor is evaluated by understanding of formulation (2) like “About aggressive driving,
causing obstacles to other road traffic participants, which is expressed in multiple change of driving
lanes overtaking vehicles from different sides and exceeding the allowed driving speed, or overtak-
ing of several standing or slowly moving vehicles along the opposite driving lane or driving on the
public transport lane, wayside, pavement, footway, bicycle lane or other places, which are not meant
for vehicle driving, or tram overtaking on the opposite direction rail bed”.
The distribution of the factor for the group of drivers differs significantly from the standard one
(Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z=2. 960, p<0.01). Distribution of the factor for the inspector group differs
significantly from the standard one as well (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z=3.289, p<0.01). There are no
statistically significant differences regarding understanding of the second formulation among groups
(Mann-Whitney Z=-0.984, p=0.325).
Figure 2 shows the level of understanding of the second part of the official formulation of
aggressive driving. No significant differences are seen in the understanding of the second part (χ2
=5.440, df=4, p=0.245). The second part is completely clear to 39% of drivers; among inspectors
we have 40%. In this part of formulation 61% of drivers and 60% of inspectors need explanations
and supplements. There are 7% of drivers and 4% of inspectors among the respondents, which do
not understand this formulation at all.
1. Completely unclear; 2. Unclear, explanations are needed, with examples; 3. Slightly unclear, explanations are needed, with exam-
ples; 4. In general clear, but explanations and additions are needed; 5. Completely clear
Figure 2: Level of understanding of formulation of aggressive driving (Part 2) by

drivers and inspectors.
Value of factor I_4 is calculated as a sum of points collected during evaluation of understanding
of both parts of formulation. Inspectors demonstrante much higher level of understanding than drivers;
and these differences are statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U=9416, Z=-2.220, p=0.026).
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Level of Agreement with the Formulation

23
After evaluation of understanding of the given formulations from the RTR the respondents
marked the level of their agreement with these formulations. Individually, for each formulation, the
respondents evaluated the level of their agreement with it. This evaluation’s indicator – “Level of
agreement with the formulation” (I_5).
In all 51.7% of respondents agree with the first formulation, 7.3% do not agree, 41% partially
agree. 48% of drivers and 55% of inspectors expressed their agreement with the first formulation.
6% of drivers and 8.7% of inspectors do not agree with this formulation at all (Figure 3). There are
no statistically significant differences among groups in relation to the level of agreement with the
first formulation (χ2 =3.337, df=2, p=0.189).
1. Agree 2. Partially agree 3. Do not agree
Figure 3: Level of agreement with the formulation of aggressive driving (Part 1)

for drivers and inspectors.
In all 58.7% of respondents agree with the second formulation, 5.3% do not agree, 36% partially
agree. 58% of drivers and 58.7% expressed their agreement with the second formulation. 5.3% of
drivers and 5.3% of inspectors do not agree with this formulation at all (Figure 4). There are no sta-
tistically significant differences among groups in relation to the level of agreement with the second
formulation (χ2 =0.060, df=2, p=0.971).
1. Agree 2. Partially agree 3. Do not agree
Figure 4: Level of agreement with the formulation of aggressive driving (Part 2)

for drivers and inspectors.
Aggregated value of factor I_5 is calculated as a sum of points collected during the analysis of
both parts of formulation. The level of agreement with the offered formulation does not significantly
differ for inspectors and drivers (Mann-Whitney U=10469.5, Z=-1.114, p=0.265).
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Information Sources
24
The respondents name the following information sources most frequently: personal experience
60% (55% of drivers and 65% of inspectors, (χ2 =2.722, df=1, p=0.099); acquaintances, friends 42%
(61% of drivers and 23% of inspectors, (χ2 =11.521, df=1, p<0.001); television 39% (56% of drivers
and 21% of inspectors, significant differences - Pearson Chi-Square Tests, p<.001). Drivers have
marked the following sources as the information sources most often - acquaintances, friends 61%,
television 56%, and personal experience 55%. Inspectors have marked the following sources as the
information sources most often - personal experience 65%.
Radio, as the information source, was marked by drivers more often - 33%, than by inspec-
tors - 17% (χ2 =44.588, df=1, p<0.001); newspapers – drivers marked them more often - 28%, than
inspectors - 6% (significant differences - χ2 =10.150, df=1, p<0.001, magazines - drivers marked
them more often - 8%, than inspectors 3% (χ2 =1.418, df=1, p=0.234).
It is important to note data for the following important sources: Road traffic rules and other
documents -16% (χ2 =2.480, df=1, p=0.115); Road Traffic Safety Directorate - 9% (χ2 =2.722,
df=1,p=0.099); car drivers’ training courses – 7% (12% of drivers and 2% of inspectors; there are
differences between groups (χ2 = 38.006, df=1, p<0.001).
Interconnection between Factors of Information Awareness
There is statistically significant direct correlation between such factors of information aware-
ness like self-evaluation of terminology knowledge (I_1) and the expected term understanding (I_2),
besides, this correlation is much closer for the inspectors (r=0.615), than it is for the drivers (r=0.437).
For the inspectors the self-evaluation of terminology knowledge and the expected term understan-
ding are connected with the real term and formulation understanding as well (r(I_1,I_4)=0.248,
r(I_2,I_4)=0.378); for the drivers these correlations are not statistically significant. Besides, drivers
show rather weak, but significant, correlation between the real term knowledge and its understanding
(r(I_3, I_4)=0.199).
Cluster Analysis of Rates of Information Awareness
Two-stage cluster analysis in the space of factors I_1, I_2, I_3, I_4, I_5 allowed dividing all
respondents into more informed CL1_I and less informed CL2_I (Figure 5). 55% of respondents
enter in the cluster of more informed CL1_I, 45% - in the cluster of less informed CL2_I.
Figure 5: Average value of standardized factors of information awareness in the

clusters of more and less informed respondents.
Figure 5 represents standardized values of rates of information awareness that were considered
earlier: “Self-evaluation of terminology knowledge” (ZI_1); “Level of term understanding (expected
level)” (ZI_2); “Term knowledge (real level)” (ZI_3); “Level of term understanding (real level)”
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(ZI_4); “Level of agreement with the formulation” (ZI_5), which have been represented in the clus-
25
ter of more informed respondents (CL1_I) and less informed respondents (CL2_I). More informed
respondents in the cluster (CL1_I) evaluate all factors of information awareness: ZI_1, ZI_2, ZI_3,
ZI_4, ZI_5, higher than on the average in total, whereas the respondents with less level of informa-
tion awareness in the cluster (CL2_I) evaluate all the above listed factors of information awareness
lower than on the average in total.
The singled out clusters significantly differ by all rates of information awareness (Mann-Whit-
ney U=7666(I_1), U=7862(I_2), U=1326(I_3), U=7437(I_4), p<0.001), except I_5 (Mann-Whitney
U=10501, Z=-1.114, p=0.528). Besides, the factor I_3 has the most differentiating action, which is
reflecting the real knowledge of terminology.
There is statistically significant dependence between the information awareness of respondents
and their belonging to drivers or inspectors (χ2 = 87.74, df=1, p=0.078). The cluster of more informed
respondents has only 25% of drivers, which constitutes 27% of all drivers participating in the survey.
81% of inspectors belong to the more informed respondents.
Discussion
Information Awareness about Aggressive Driving
Respondents of both groups tend to evaluate their knowledge on a high level. Inspectors not
only evaluate their knowledge higher than drivers, but they demonstrate much higher real knowledge
level, but the drivers have increased self-evaluation in these issues and they tend to overestimate their
knowledge. Although it must be noted that in both groups there are lacks of knowledge in relation
to the calculated penalty points, it proves specific difference of knowledge in this field. This might
point to the peculiarities of application of this clause of road traffic rules in the territory of Latvia.
On the one hand, this might point to its infrequent use; on the other hand, it can be explained by not
that considerable sum both in money terms and in calculated penalty points. It can be confirmed
by the analysis of similar data in other countries (James & Nahl, 2000b; Aggressive Driving Laws
USA, 2012; Canadian national police, 2012).
There are differences evaluating the valid normative formulation, so, the first part of formulation
was clearer for inspectors than for drivers, although more than a half of respondents – both drivers
and inspectors – noted necessity to correct it. Then second part of aggressive driving formulation
was clearer than the first one – both for drivers and inspectors. Yet the second part of formulation
needs addition and clarification as well, because its full understanding was noted by less than a half
of respondents - both drivers and inspectors. One must note that before mentioning of the norma-
tive term sample the respondents evaluated term understanding higher than average, probably, they
thought that the term was clearer to them than it proved to be in reality. The level of agreement with
the suggested formulations by the aggregated factor for inspectors and drivers does not materially
differ.
The formulation itself may influence the level of understanding and agreement with the officially
adopted terminology on aggressive driving. So, presence of subjectivism and inaccuracy is seen in
the formulations of aggressive driving, to one or another extent. It is proved by studies performed
by James and Nahl (James & Nahl, 2000b).
Drivers, within the meaning of information awareness, more often than inspectors, orient
themselves to acquaintances, friends and television. For inspectors the leading position among
information sources is taken by personal experience; and they mentioned it more often than drivers
did. One must note that among drivers personal experience took the third place as the information
source; and more than a half of respondents mentioned it. Besides, inspectors, unlike drivers, do not
perceive newspapers and radio stations as information sources in this issue. Respondents of both
groups do not tend to refer to the RTR and other documents, RTSD and car driving training courses
as to the information sources.
Between the two groups there are differences in the structure and power of information cor-
relations. Inspectors have more integrated picture of correlations than drivers, besides, correlations
between are higher for them.
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Sector of education and mass communication media influences the process of formation of ideas
26
of drivers, including, about aggressive driving. In case of deficiencies in the work of educational
institutions, including, driving schools, the missing knowledge may be filled in from other sources,
namely, from the mass communication media. This procedure not only influences the distortion of
the actual (real) information, but also may facilitate formation of imaginary knowledge and false
perception, which is extremely dangerous for the road traffic safety. Importance of the modern, full
and precise acquisition of knowledge in the sector of special education, which concerns the road traffic
safety training, is determined by some more points. So, in connection with the objective difficulties,
which exist while formulating the definition of aggressive driving, special meaning is attributed not
only to knowledge of specific information, but also its clear understanding. So, the analysis of works
of such researchers like: Hauber, Shinar, Elliott, Tasca, Neuman, Pfefer, Slack, Hardy, Raub, Lucke,
Wark, points to these difficulties (Hauber, 1980; Shinar, 1998; Elliott, 1999; Tasca, 2000; Neuman,
Pfefer, Slack, Hardy, Raub, Lucke & Wark, 2003; EOS Gallup Europe, 2003; AAA Foundation for
Traffic Safety, 2008). Thus, the quality of training in driving schools impacts not only formation of
theoretical knowledge basis in the sector of road safety and practical skills of motor transport driv-
ing, but also the perception of road situation and further behavior of drivers.
Considering and analyzing various studies in the sector of transport psychology, analogue stud-
ies were not discovered. Study of information awareness among different groups of drivers, as well
as among students of driving schools could be the next line of studies. One of the variants of the
future direction for studies could be the study of correlation of the committed road traffic violations
and the information awareness level.
Conclusions
Thus, summarizing the obtained results in relation to information awareness of respondents,

it can be stated that drivers, having low level of knowledge about aggressive driving, are tended to
overestimate the level of their knowledge. Respondents from both groups are not tended to mention
the calculated penalty points for this type of violation.
The first part of the official formulation was less clear for drivers than for inspectors, whereas
understanding of the second part does not between drivers and inspectors. Only slightly more than a
half of respondents – both drivers and inspectors – have noted their full agreement with the adopted
terminology. There are no statistical differences between the groups regarding this issue.
Insufficient term’s understanding could have affected the choice of information sources, in
relation to aggressive driving, which are mainly followed by the drivers.
Drivers tend to use more different information sources. Besides, they do it more often than
inspectors. Information sources used by them are doubtful, from the point of view of normatives
information’s acquisition.
Drivers have a less integral picture of interconnections in the field of information awareness than
inspectors have. Inspectors show closer relations between components of information awareness as
well. Thus, the information fields of drivers and inspectors have differences not only in quantitative
sense but also in qualitative meaning.
In relation to the obtained results it should be noted that the discovered issues require solution
on different levels. For instance, accumulation of precise theoretical knowledge of the road traffic
rules (RTR) of the future driver cannot be the final target of theoretical training in driving schools.
The semantic understanding of normative requirements is important, as well as their direct and
constant application in practice. Besides, direction of attention in the field of car drivers’ training
must be oriented not only to the current and adopted documents (normative standards), but also to
the future permanent self-educating in this sector. It becomes possible only having drivers’ informa-
tion orientation to the primary normative sources, and not to the subjective interpretations, which
are expressed through mass media. On the one hand, level of understanding and agreement of the
respondents with the official term may indicate the existing problems in terminology itself. So, level
of term understanding and level of agreement with the term show the necessity of further correction
of this formulation.
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Acknowledgements 27
Acknowledgements for financial support by the study’s results ESF No.2009/0140/1DP/1.1.2.1.2/09/
IPIA/VIAA/015.
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Advised by Aleksejs Ruza,

Daugavpils University, Latvia
Oksana Jenenkova PhD Student, Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, Latvia.

E-mail: oxana@latnet.lv
ISSN 2029-8587
PROBLEMS
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Volume 4, 2012
AN INVESTIGATION INTO FACTORS 29
LEADING TO THE EXCLUSION OF

PART TIME STUDENTS IN HIGHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Nontokozo Mashiya
University of Zululand, South Africa
E-mail: jnmashiya@pan.uzulu.ac.za
Abstract
This article reports on Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) students’ experiences of learning as
part time students in one South African Higher Education Institution. The aim of the study was to find out
if part time students are fully included in the life of the university. This has been necessitated by the coun-
tries call for full inclusion of learners in teaching and learning. This study reveals the experiences and the
feelings of students regarding the way they perceive teaching and learning as part time students. This is a
qualitative study located within an interpretive paradigm. Two focus group interviews were conducted with
PGCE students. These students were randomly selected from a pool of part time students. Each focus group
consisted of six students. Data were transcribed and later were analyzed using phenomenological steps. The
results suggest that in most cases part time students do not get the attention full time students get. There are
some activities full time students are exposed to which cannot be done with full time students. This includes
inadequate teaching and learning contact sessions and communication breakdown. Lecturers offered by guest
lecturers who are experts in different fields are also one of the ways in which part time students are excluded.
This study highlights the importance of equating services given to these students as stakeholders in higher
education institutions (HEI). Without consideration of full inclusion of students into the full life of the entire
institution, the aim of producing more and better teachers is unlikely to materialize. The study concludes by
making necessary recommendations to remedy the situation.
Key words: exclusion, experiences, foundation phase students, full time students, higher education institution,
part time students, services.
Introduction
In one South African University, PGCE qualification is offered to full-time students for one year
and two years to part-time students. Students who enroll for this qualification already possess three
year degrees from different fields. This qualification is multi-sited, offered in satellite centre and other
students are fortunate enough to be based at the main campus. The lecturing of all specialization module
lectures starts at 15h00 for 90 minutes each week and both part time and full-time students are com-
bined. Other modules are offered as block sessions during the holidays. Both full-time and part-time
students attend together and activities given to them are the same in all respects. They sit for the same
examination together on the same day even and those who are in satellite venues write their exam in
their respective venues.
The country is very particular about inclusion of all learners in every academic institution and this
is the legacy of the democratic government that came into existence in 1994. South African democracy
gave rise to a new education system which is responsive to the needs of all learners. The South Afri-
can constitution provides a good framework which underpins the education system. This constitution
emphasizes equality and respect for human rights. Before democracy, the education system excluded
many learners in terms of race and disabilities, socio-economic background, religion, language to
mention a few. Therefore, the current education system strives to redress the inequities of the past. It is
against this background that the Education White Paper Six came into existence. This policy is about
acknowledging that:
ISSN 2029-8587 Nontokozo MASHIYA. An Investigation into Factors Leading to the Exclusion of Part Time Students in Higher Education Institutions
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 4, 2012
“…all children (learners, including university students) can learn and that all children need support. It further
30 states that people or teachers should accept and respect the fact that all learners are different in some way and
have different learning needs which are equally valued. The whole idea of inclusive education is about enabling
education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the needs of all learners. This means that
teachers should give learners labeled as disabled additional support so that they can fit in or be integrated into
the normal classroom routine” (Department of Education, 2001, p. 21).
According to the South African Constitution, every child (learner) has the right to descent education,
higher education students are no exception, UNESCO (2000) affirms the right of all children to relevant
and good quality education. Education must be designed in such a way that enhances the potential of
learners, be it young or adult learners to respect themselves and others, participate in decision making
in the society, live in peace and dignity and earn a living, (UNESCO, 2000). This is only possible if
the teacher in charge of the classroom has a potential to design lessons which cater for all learners in
the classroom, therefore the issue of teacher (lecturer) agency plays an important role.
Research Problem
The researcher, as a lecturer in one South African university, noticed that some students miss lec-
tures because of a number of reasons. They would state that they were battling to find lecture venues;
others are always late because they work far. They miss deadlines for the submission of assignments
and so on. During the teaching practice session some get frustrated because time does not allow them
to leave their jobs for Work Integrated Learning (WIL). I therefore wanted to further investigate if these
students are fully integrated into the entire life of the university or there is something the institution is
not doing well to meet the needs of these students.
Research Focus
This is a case study of one South African University. The focus of the study is on part time students
who are specializing in the foundation phase. The main focus is to find out the extent to which part
time students are included in one South African university. This study seeks to answer the following
questions:
• To what extent are part-time PGCE students included into the entire life of an institu-
tion?
• If there is exclusion going on, what form of exclusion are these students exposed to?
To shed light to the inclusion or exclusion of part time students, two concepts inclusive education
and exclusion are used to provide a framework for this study. According to Department of Education
(DoE)
“Inclusive education ‘recognizes and respects the differences among all learners and building on the similarities.
It is about supporting all learners, educators and the system as a whole so that the full range of learning needs
can be met. The focus is on teaching and learning actors, with the emphasis on the development of good teaching
strategies that will be of benefit to all learners,’ (Department of Education, 2001, p. 17).
On the other side it is stated that exclusion of learners in learning is a serious offence and the
violation of learner’s rights. UNESCO states that:
‘Exclusion of a learner is part of an intricate web of human right violations’, (UNESCO, 2000, p.36).
This means that in the teaching and learning process the teacher has an obligation to acknowledge
and respect differences in learners whether due to age, gender, ethnicity, language, class, disability or
HIV status as DoE (2001) maintains. All learners should benefit from each learning experience. The
concepts of inclusion and exclusion were therefore used to structure the research instruments. The
research instruments incorporated all aspects in which inclusion is expected and different aspects in
which exclusion could take place in the university under study.
Nontokozo MASHIYA. An Investigation into Factors Leading to the Exclusion of Part Time Students in Higher Education Institutions ISSN 2029-8587
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In some cases learners needs are not met because of the disabilities of students but because the
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system fails students to meet their needs. In that way students are denied their right to proper education,
and that act is referred to as an exclusion. UNESCO further states that:
‘Exclusion from education is understood as the complex of conditions and factors with together act to keep a child
from participating in effective relevant and well–organized learning experiences’, (UNESCO, 2000, p. 41).
Exclusion in education is in the form of being denied the opportunity to acquire the knowledge,
capacities and self-confidence necessary, (UNESCO, 2000). Exclusion occurs in different forms, there
is academic exclusion, social exclusion, socio-economic exclusion to mention a few. This study is an
exploratory study which wishes to explore if there is any form of exclusion in this particular institution.
Varying literature has been studied to gauge the level of inclusion and exclusion in different higher
education institutions across the globe, and the findings will then point to the exact kind of exclusion
that is taking place in this institution if there is any.
Many studies bear testimony to the exclusion of learners, be it a Higher Education Institution (HEI)
or an institution for basic education. Studies reveal that students are excluded from different aspects in
the life of institutions. Some are excluded through curriculum policies, the language of learning and
teaching, some are excluded in extra mural activities (sports), in other institutions it is the factors related
to transport and in others, tuition fees are the cause of exclusion (Kenyon, 2012; Cerdeira, Cabrito &
Patrocinio, 2011; Lumadi, 2008; H’elot & Young, 2005).
Exclusion happens in different ways in higher education institutions. Kenyon (2012) reports on
the student experience of transport, within the context of two hitherto distinct discourses. Firstly, the
transport and social exclusion discourse, which highlights the role that low mobility plays in the experi-
ence of exclusion. Secondly, the widening participation discourses, which emphasize inequitable access
to and achievement in higher education by non-traditional students as a component of social exclusion.
The results of Kenyon (2012) study suggest that inadequate access to transport is a substantial barrier to
access and achievement in HEI, for these students. This highlights the influence of transport upon the
successful implementation of social policy. Kenyon claims that without consideration of transport and
the physical accessibility of HEI, the aim of increasing and widening participation in HEI is unlikely
to be realized.
In the study conducted by Cerdeira, Cabrito & Patrocinio (2011) on the exclusion in Portuguese
higher education in the framework of the global financing crisis, the results reveal that for many stu-
dents it is becoming difficult to face the costs of higher education as well as living cost. Students were
concerned about their inability to pay for their studies.
Education is a fundamental human right and therefore access to all levels, including higher educa-
tion, should be equally available to all as the Parliamentary Assembly (1998) states. The curriculum in
most cases is to blame. Some learners are excluded in the education process because of the curriculum
that does not accommodate diversity that does not empower learners from diverse backgrounds (Lumadi,
2008). Teachers that are envisaged are those that are able to break down ideological barriers by using
the linguistic and cultural diversity of learners as a resource for learning (H’elot & Young (2006). As
mentioned above, exclusion in the teaching and learning context occurs in different forms. This study
highlights exclusion of learners in sports, through the language of learning and teaching and due to
their academic performance or abilities.
The Global Report (2009) defines inclusive education as the education where learners enjoy learn-
ing and they are dynamic active participants in the process of learning. Children are denied education
and to participate as a result of conditions not of their own choice. These could be disabilities (mental
and physical), language, socio economic factors, gender, race etc. UNESCO (2000) states that schools
exacerbate or mitigate exclusion by how it interact with the children, families and communities it serves
and education policies are influenced by the overall national political regime of the country. Some of
these policies injure children in many ways. The Language in Education Policy of 1997 is one good
example of these policies. This policy has a good intention but is not implementable where learners
are diverse in terms of race and language background. This is worsened by the fact that there are many
children who have taken refuge in South Africa no one knows their mother tongue, this makes the
policy even harder to implement.
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The Global Report (2009) states that millions of children are excluded from education because
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they are excluded from developmental benefits and this results to them being poorly served and treated
wherever they are. Children who are excluded in most cases are children from poverty stricken back-
grounds, children living with burden of diseases, disability, sexual exploitation, indentured and injurious
labour or forced involvement in civil and military conflict as the Global Report states. Studies report
that inclusion still exists in school despite the policies stressing equal treatment of all learners. To some
extent, exclusion is based on attitude and prejudices people have against people with disabilities as
the Global Report (2009) states. Exclusion has different patterns. The exclusion could be as a result
of the system, the bureaucracy, the school itself and the teachers. Schools exclude when they are not
learner friendly, do not support their teachers as professionals and do not welcome families as partners,
(UNESCO, 2000). They exclude when they apply narrow paradigms of what children are and how
they learn. They exclude when they are unable to deal with diversity. They fail to recognize and to ac-
commodate each child. School exclude when they fail to provide their teachers with the learning and
professional status they need to be effectively competent, responsible and motivated.
Language of learning and teaching is one of the most important aspects through which learn-
ers experience exclusion. Most studies indicate that if learners are taught in the language they do not
understand they are being excluded from the learning experience. Hay (2009) in her study conducted
on indigenous communities and mother tongue teaching in Namibia states that most San communi-
ties have very limited and unsatisfactory experiences with formal education. She states that even the
drop-out rate is extremely high with very few learners obtaining or progressing to the next level, the
reason behind this is that they did not have access to education in their own language. Skutnabb-Kangas
(2009), agrees with Hay (2009) in his study on linguistic diversity, linguistic human rights and mother
tongue based multilingual education. He states that in schools where children are addressed in a foreign
language there is less progress followed by high drop-out rates because learning is not interesting. The
Global Report (2009) characterizes education as the enjoyable and dynamic experience where chil-
dren are active participants. Studies bear testimony to the benefits of mother tongue teaching as Hay
(2009) and Biseth (2006) confirm. Skutnabb-Kangas claims that ‘even when children have a year or
two of mother tongue medium education before being transitioned to education through the medium
of dominant language, the results are disastrous educationally, even if the child may psychologically
feel a bit better initially’( Skutnabb-Kangas, 2009, p.23).
This means that learners are to be taught in the language they best know, which they use as an
instrument of thought (mother tongue) according to Alexander (2009). Studies maintain that mother
tongue should be retained until the learner is ready to learn through the First Additional Language
(FAL), however parents have the right to choose the language they want their children to be taught
through, the Department of Education (1997). However teachers who deal with classroom which are
diverse in terms of languages have a challenge of implementing the Language in Education Policy as
a result some learners are excluded.
Exclusion in sports is one of the issues that affect children the most. Most studies Tsai & Fung
(2009), Pedersen & Greer (2008), Soumi & Soumi (2000), Nixon & Howard (2007), Morley, Bailey,
Tan & Cooke (2005) and Rizzo, Faison-Hodge, Woodard & Sayers (2003) report that some learners
are excluded in physical education and sports due to their disabling condition. Tsai and Fung (2009)
in their study highlights the experiences of parents of learners with mental handicaps as they sought
inclusion of these learners in sports (full participation during rehearsals and should form school teams
and compete as well. This study maintains parents of learners gave up their effort due to rejection by
staff and other stakeholders. It is recommended in the study that in order for the inclusion of learners
with disabilities to be successful, attitudes of teachers need to change.
Pedersen & Greer (2008) state that disabled learners should be included in sports so that they
become exposed to a wide range of culture of global sport participation. They add that this could also
empower students’ leadership skills and can help foster physical activity to all children whether disabled
or not. Soumi & Soumi (2000), discovered that there are barriers encountered in creating and main-
taining an inclusive physical activity and sport. It is a mere fact that learners with disabilities cannot
participate in all sorts of sports available in the school, but they must be given a chance to participate
if they want to. Nixon & Howard (2007) suggest the restructuring of sports and sports settings to ac-
commodate the participation of people with disabilities as serious competitors. Morley, Bailey, Tan &
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Cooke (2005) suggest that teachers need professional development and teacher trainers are required to
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develop teachers on how to involve learners in sports and the kind of activities that are accommodative
of their capabilities.
This study is significant in a sense that it is going to raise awareness to academics involved in
the education of part time students. This study could help academics to ponder on the way part time
students are handled. It is therefore believed that institutions will embark on inclusive strategies to
better the situation. Given the fact that in most cases full time students perform better than part time
students, it is taken for granted that the cause of underperformance by part time students is the fact that
they are working and are therefore over loaded with work. This study is going to make a clear stance
between what is anticipated as being the cause of underperformance and what is the actual cause of
the problem.
General background of research
This is a qualitative study located within the interpretive paradigm. This paradigm is deemed
relevant to this study because it is associated with human sciences where people’s behaviours, beliefs,
perceptions and attitudes are investigated as Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007) state. The aim of the
research was to get an in-depth knowledge about how students experience learning as part time students.
McMillan & Schumacher (1993) regard qualitative research as any kind of research that produces find-
ings that are delinked from statistical quantifications or other means of quantification.
Sample of Research
In order to obtain research participants random sampling which falls under the non-probability
design was used. This form is the most common type of educational research tool as McMillan &
Schummacher (1993) state. This sampling design was chosen because it allowed for flexibility in the
choice of respondents as a result every informant has equal opportunity of being chosen for the study.
According to Welman & Kruger (2001) in this method, researchers rely on their experience and inge-
nuity to deliberately obtain units of analysis in such a manner that it can be seen as being representa-
tive of the relevant population. This method allowed the researcher to pick up any Foundation Phase
part-time student available. Participants included both former and current cohort of students. Eighteen
students turned up for the study.
Research instruments and procedures
Semi-structured interviews were used to generate data. This instrument was found to be important
in this study because it allows the respondents to speak without limits and it also allows the interviewer
to do follow up on the answers given by the respondent which Henning (2004) calls a two way com-
munication. It also allows the interviewer to deviate if need be. This instrument is believed to be the
best in exploring the lived experiences of part-time students. Three focus group interviews were used.
Each focus group consisted of six students.
Data Analysis
There are three steps that were followed in the analysis of data. These steps are data reduction, data
display and conclusion drawing and verification according to Miles & Huberman (1994). Within the
data reduction phase there are also four steps that were followed as suggested by McMillan & Schum-
macher (1993). Step one was about reading the data set as a whole to get the sense of it. Secondly,
topics which emerged from the data were identified. Thirdly, the list of topics that have emerged from
the data sets were checked if there is no duplication. After checking they were then categorized into
themes. Finally the provisional classification system on all the data sets was applied, after which cod-
ing next to the appropriate piece of data took place. After classifying data, the relationship or patterns
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between categories was checked in order to understand the complex links between various aspects of
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students’ experiences of attending part time classes.
Ethical issues
Permission was obtained from students and consent letters were signed, and they were informed
that participation is voluntary; they may withdraw at anytime should they feel like doing so. Students
were also informed that confidentiality will be maintained and their names will be withheld to protect
their identity.
Results of Research
Findings reveal that students are concerned about how information is dispersed to them about
spontaneous changes that take place in the lectures. They mention that sometimes they don’t get infor-
mation on the change of some activities as a result they come to campus and be surprised to discover
that a lecture has been shifted. One informant said:
‘We do not get information on time and sometimes not at all. When classes are cancelled we do not know. We
travel from where we work only to find out that there are no classes’
‘Sometimes we get frustrated by the change of venues and some lecturers do not bother writing a notice for
our information. We move up and down looking for lectures venues until the end of the period’.
When changing venues, lecturers sometimes forget to write notices, students who come after the
lecture has commenced find themselves wandering about for the duration of the period, trying to locate
their counterparts. On days where there is student demonstrations (strike action) by full time students,
part time are not part of it, they are not informed of the action. They live their jobs early only to find that
there are no lectures. This creates inconvenient to those who have to beg their employers for early leave
in order to attend lectures. If the protest continues for the whole week, students will be travelling
I have also observed that visiting lecturers are a good idea however they become a problem if
they are not going to see all students in different sites where the programme is offered. This is a good
practice where students get quality information from experts however it cannot be applied to all students
because of distance as mentioned earlier that PGCE is a multi-sited programme. This marks a total
exclusion of part-time students in some opportunities presented to full time students. Some students
get a privilege of being visited by specialist is some field while part time students are being deprived
of such an opportunity. If students are to be exposed to the same examination they should be given the
same opportunities in every activity given to them.
Time constraints are also the cause for concern. As students are combined (full-time and part-
time) the starting time is not convenient for part-time students. Specialization module classes start at
15h00 and students who are teaching in schools as contract teachers finish at 14h30. They only have
30 minutes to travel and get to the lecture venue no matter how far they are coming from. This interval
is very limited. It is even worse with students who work in places afar and who finish later than this.
Most of the time they get to the campus late and it is even worse with those who do not have their own
transport who rely on the public transport. Regarding this issue one student responded:
‘Classes start at 15h00, I feel this time is too early for people who are working, it does not accommodate us part
timers. In most cases I come late for lectures’.
My observation as a lecturer supports what the student above is stating. I bear evidence to students
who always come at the middle of the lesson. This proves how less accommodative the system is.
They way assessment activities are administered is somewhat problematic to part-time students.
They are given group assignments as a class. They battle to get work done. This kind of assessment
activity suits full-time students well because of proximity. It does not work well with part-time students.
One student commented thus:
‘Group activities do not suit us as we work in different places. It is very difficult to find someone to work with’.
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The number of assignments given to students matters a lot. They end up not producing quality
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work because of the divided effort. The dates on which these activities are due coincides most of the
time. Full time students are employed people some of them are parents (responsible for the upbringing
of children). They sometimes do not cope with pressure. They said:
‘Many assignment activities are due on the same date. We work during the day, in the afternoon we study, we
get home late, sometimes there are classes we attend during weekends, there is very little time we have and it
becomes impossible to meet the deadlines’.
As a lecturer I have observed that most part-time students ask for the extension of dates for the
submission of assignments. Some of them produce work of poor quality compared to work done by
full-time students.
Discussions
Many issues emerged from the data and they are highlighted below:
Information Dissemination
Most of the time information and special announcements do not reach part time students on time
or at all. They made an example where lecturers sometimes attend workshops. They give a short no-
tice and that notices reaches full time students only. Lecturers put such notices in the morning when
students are already at work. When afternoon comes, they rush to attend their lectures only to find that
there is no lecture. They maintained that they find the situation very discouraging and not fair as they
travel long distances to get to the venues sometimes leaving their learners unattended to and paying a
lot of many for transport. Students need to be informed about the spontaneous changes that take place
in their absence at the campus. In their discussions they mentioned that when special arrangements are
made about the change of lecturing times, they do not get information, they also do not get information
about the cancellation of lectures. This becomes unfair to them since they travel all the way for nothing
and travelling is expensive. This includes the writing of notices to inform part time students about the
change of venues so that they do not miss out while they are already in the campus.
Overwhelming Activities
Students maintained that they are given too many activities. They pleaded that the number of
activities be revised since each lecturer gives too many long activities and it makes it difficult for them
to meet the deadline for the submission of these tasks. The number of activities is also something to
be taken into consideration. Some students mentioned that they are not coping with activities given to
them. Many activities compromise the quality of work students are expected to produce. Students are
overloaded with activities to be submitted. Giving students too much work may sometimes compromise
the quality of their education. Skutnabb-Kangas (2009) and Hay (2009) in their study discovered that
there is less progress followed by high drop-out rates in institutions where learners are excluded. This
finding is therefore in support of their study.
Mismatching Activities
Some activities require students to work in groups. Students reveal that these kinds of activities
make things worse for them since they are working and only come together during lecture times. They
also maintained that the factor of proximity should be taken into consideration when their activities
are designed. Students also raised an issue of assessment activities like group work where they have to
cooperate. Students find this activity difficult. They feel that group activities should not be given since
getting the work done in groups becomes a challenge. As a result full-time students team up together and
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they have all the time to do their work together and they do not include part-time students. As a result
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part-time students feel isolated. It is difficult for them to team up with other part-time students because
of the contexts under which they work. They end up being unable to submit on the stipulated time.
Communication Breakdown among Lecturers
Lectures do not sit together to plan the activities to be given to students. There is a repetition and
overlapping of activities, where lecturers give the same activities to students. Lecturers do not commu-
nicate about when these activities should be submitted. They maintained that sometimes three activities
by different lecturers would be due and on the same date there is a test that will be written alongside
the submission of these tasks. They then tend to study for the test and compromise the submission of
tasks; as a result they end up failing to meet the deadlines.
Lack of Uniformity in Lectures
Students highlighted that full time students attending their lectures at the main campus have a
privilege of being taught by the guest lectures. This service is not made available to part time students
those that are attending on main campus and satellite venues. Regarding guest lecturers who come to
deliver information to some students, there is a feeling that students do not get equal treatment; they
are being deprived of the benefit of getting information from other experts in different fields. Offering
this service to all students in all satellite centres could impact on the budget. It is therefore impossible
to implement it equally.
Commencement of Lectures
Students are concerned about time lectures commence, stating that since they come from afar,
they need commencement time to be revised. As mentioned above that most part-time students ar-
rive when lectures have already commenced, most students have a feeling that the commencement of
lecturing times is too early for them since they travel from afar. They urge for the shifting of time for
their full integration.
Distribution of Materials
Student raised the issue of materials such as study guides. They stated that material is always not
enough, if there are people who will not get the materials, its part time students. They have to beg, try
to locate lecturers concerned, and two months would pass having not been able to locate lecturers who
coordinate the printing of materials. Cerdeira, Cabrito & Patrocinio (2011) in their study revealed that
students were excluded because of unpaid university fees but in this case students were disadvantaged
not because they failed to settle their debts but because they are not there when the materials are dis-
tributed and only given to those who are available at the time
The objectives of this study were to find out the extent to which part-time PGCE students are
included in the entire life of an institution and to establish if there is exclusion going on and the form
of exclusion are these students exposed to thereof. The results above reveal that students are included
to a lesser extent since there are issues they are not content about. The study shows that exclusion hap-
pens in different forms. This study suggests that there are avenues for future research. A nature of this
study in a broader sense, involving all higher education institutions in South Africa is necessary to find
out the degree of inclusion and factors that lead to exclusion.
Literature reviewed (Tsai & Fung, 2009, Pedersen & Greer, 2008, Soumi & Soumi, 2000, Nixon
& Howard, 2007, Morley, Bailey, Tan & Cooke, 2005 and Rizzo, Faison-Hodge, Woodard & Say-
ers, 2003) maintain that exclusion takes place in different forms in different institutions. This study
supports findings from the previous studies that part time students are the victims of exclusion. The
kind of exclusion that takes place in this case study is unintentional, and is just a mere oversight on
the side of academics working with these students. However most findings revealed in this study are
not mentioned in the studies revealed. This proves that students do not experience the same kind of
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exclusion, but factors of exclusion take different forms depending on the kind of institutions they find
37
themselves in.
Conclusions
The study revealed that part-time students are not fully integrated into the entire life of the institu-
tion. The issues they have raised may result to them underperforming and failing the course dismally.
This could impact on the functioning of the university, resulting in many students being on a pipeline,
causing a backlog. This also affects students emotionally and psychologically. Not only does it affect
the university and the students concerned but the entire education sector since the programme was
introduced to speed up the process of addressing the shortage of teachers in the country. To ensure
that the country produces more and better teachers, issues raised by students need to be taken into
consideration. Taking the above issues into consideration would be a way of including students who
feel they are left out while the policy stresses they total inclusion in all aspects of education. On-time
dissemination of information to accommodate part time students could eliminate possible problems of
travelling to campus unnecessarily. To give students equal treatment, there should be accommodation
of part time students in planning to secure space for lectures by guests or elimination of guest lecturers
if impossible to organize them for part time students. Commencement of lectures should be shifted to
accommodate part time students and flexibility of group activities to accommodate all students so that
those who are in close proximity work together and even the total elimination if they do not suit part
time students is a necessity.
Lecturers concerned in specialization modules should draw up submission timetables so that
students do not submit more than two assignments on the same day. This calls for communication
among academic staff where they discuss important dates so that students are not baffled with high
numbers of assignments. Reducing the number of activities students are given may increase quality
of work they produce.
There should be extension of time (duration of study) from two years to three years to reduce a
burden these students have. Students may register few modules which they can cope with. As a result
they would be able to produce quality work. Lecturers should ascertain that materials printed are suf-
ficient for all students.
After all this higher education institutions can therefore claim that all students are fully included
and that they support the notion of inclusive education which is the initiative of the country.
Acknowledgements
This is part of a bigger study which is the project funded by the European Union and the Depart-
ment of Higher Education and Training of South Africa, aiming at strengthening foundation phase
teacher education programmes. Therefore the success of this study is owed to the opportunity that was
provided by both organizations.
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Advised by Julia Lakhvich,

Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Received: September 25, 2012 Accepted: November 15, 2012
Nontokozo Mashiya PhD, Programme Coordinator, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa,

Empangeni , South Africa.
E-mail: jnmashiya@pan.uzulu.ac.za
Website: http://www.uzulu.ac.za
ISSN 2029-8587
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SCHOOL MOTIVATION AND 39
ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS
IN SECONDARY EDUCATION
Francisco Manuel Morales Rodríguez
University of Malaga, Spain
E-mail: framorrod@uma.es
Abstract
This paper aims to analyse the importance of intrinsic motivation factors as determinants of academic achieve-
ment in English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The general aim of the present study has been to analyse the
existing relationship between students’ academic motivation and performance. This paper explores the impor-
tance of motivational variables for school achievement. In particular, the present study suggests that students
with a higher intrinsic motivation to learn English will achieve better grades in this subject. Participants were
542 students (male and female) of Secondary Education. Results show that there is a correlation between
academic goals and academic results; in particular an association exists between learning goals (intrinsic
motivation) and a high academic achievement. With regards to the importance of intrinsic motivational fac-
tors, this study concludes that these factors are determinants of academic achievement in English as a Foreign
Language (EFL). Therefore, results are useful in view of improving the process of teaching/learning EFL.
The relevant conclusion reached here point to the academic goals as being indicator of and decisive factor
for academic achievement.
Key words: academic achievement, academic goals, academic motivation, English as a foreign language.
Introduction
From a constructivist approach (Shunk, 2000; Wolters, 2004), school learning cannot exclusively
be reduced to students’ cognitive level. We must also take into account motivational aspects such as
learners’ intentions, goals, perceptions and beliefs, as we understand that these aspects are mental
representations showing associations between cognitive aspects and affective-motivational aspects
in school learning. In fact, a number of research studies have found that academic learning has deep
repercussions on a student’s inner world, that is to say, that students’ expectations, attributions, mo-
tives and interests determine their school success or failure (Ames, 1992; Ames and Archer, 1988,
De la Fuente, 2012). The area of school motivation is a complex one; there are a number of defini-
tions and theories that attempt to explain the processes and outcomes of school learning, especially
in relation to the study of academic subjects. The present study focuses on the field of English as a
Foreign Language (EFL). It has often been said that any learning model involves, either explicitly
or implicitly, a theory of motivation. An established definition of motivation is the “set of processes
involved in the activation, direction and persistence of behaviour” (Pekrun, 1992). This definition
somehow emphasizes the cognitive component and dynamic nature of the motivation construct. In
this vein, some authors believe that academic motivation explains the stimulation, direction and
persistence of a particular behaviour towards a specific academic goal which is focused on learning,
performance, the Self, social approval and/or avoidance of challenging tasks (Dweck and Leggett,
1988). It is known that there are many factors guiding student behaviour in the academic context.
Such factors include: a) Situational factors (which refer to the teaching-learning process, teacher,
ISSN 2029-8587 Francisco Manuel MORALES RODRÍGUEZ. School Motivation and Achievement of Students in Secondary Education
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subject content, type of interaction, assessment method, etc.); and b) Student-centred factors (which
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refer to mental representations, goals, beliefs, attributions, theories; attitudes, interests, expectations,
self-perceptions, social and developmental factors, as well as factors resulting from individual dif-
ferences).
Theories
With the purpose of using an integrative approach, different theories are here examined, not
individually and without connection, but rather explaining their role in relation to the processes of
academic motivation. Thus, Pintrich and DeGroot (1990) identified three relevant dimensions in the
area of motivation in educational contexts: a) expectancy components, b) value components and c)
affective components. Expectancy components refer to students’ expectations about their success in
performing a task; while value components concern students’ goals and beliefs about the importance
of performing the task. Different types of goal orientation have been described in this area. Among
them, learning goals have been widely studied. According to the representative authors of the goals
approach (Ames, 1992; Elliot and Dweck, 1988; Nicholls, 1984; Pintrich, 2000b), students with learn-
ing goals seek to perform a task in order to acquire new knowledge and improve their competence. In
this light, they are likely to believe that their effort leads to their success/failure and that intelligence
is a modifiable variable. They are also more likely to see difficult tasks as a challenge, and use deep
processing strategies. On the other hand, students with performance goals seek to demonstrate their
competence in order to receive favourable judgments and avoid negative judgments. They are less
concerned with learning per se but as a means to demonstrate their competence. They see intelligence
as a fixed and constant concept and difficult problems as potential failure situations. Also, they are
likely to use low-complexity strategies. Pintrich and DeGroot (1990) suggest three types of goals:
self-oriented goals, socially oriented goals and work-avoidance goals. They also talk about the sub-
jective value of the task: importance, usefulness, interests; and an affective component concerning
students’ emotional reactions to the task and to task results. It is worth stressing that recent views
have suggested that self-concept plays an important role in motivation and school learning. In fact,
the most recent theories on motivation contemplate self-concept as a first order element to be taken
into account (González-Pienda, González-Cabanach, Núñez and Valle, 2002).
Types of Goals
The present research study identifies the following four types of goals (see Table 1), which have
been used in established studies on motivation and were introduced by Núñez, González-Pineda,
González-Pumariega, García and Roces (1997):
1. Learning goals involve achievement motivation, curiosity, perception of the task as a
challenge and interest to learn (intrinsic motivation). Students with learning motivation
are willing to persist in the face of difficulty because they are interested in acquiring new
knowledge, and they assume the risk of making mistakes.
2. Performance goals are oriented to the achievement of external goals, such as quest re-
wards, favourable judgments, teachers’ approval and avoidance of negative judgments
(extrinsic motivation). Students with performance motivation prefer to receive a positive
assessment on an easy task, rather than assuming the risk of receiving a negative assess-
ment, on a more challenging and meaningful task (Dweck and Leggett, 1988). While
learning goals involve a mastery-oriented pattern, performance goals involve a higher
risk of showing what is called a helpless pattern (Elliott and Dweck, 1988). Performance
goals lead students to try and defend themselves to others and to question their ability,
thus avoiding challenging tasks, albeit reducing their chances of acquiring knowledge
and improving their abilities.
3. Socially oriented goals aim to achieve good results in order to reinforce social image.
These Students become frustrated with poor results.
4. Lack of goals (reward-oriented goals). There are also students with no academic goals
Francisco Manuel MORALES RODRÍGUEZ. School Motivation and Achievement of Students in Secondary Education ISSN 2029-8587
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who seek to avoid the task. These are often students conditioned by generalized failures
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who feel only motivated by the reward.
Table 1. Types of Goal (Núñez et al., 1997; González-Pineda et al., 2002).
Students are motivated to acquire competences (motivation = effort and persistence to
tackle academic tasks).
Students are intrinsically motivated (motivation = effort and persistence to tackle
Learning Goals
academic tasks).
Students are motivated to acquire personal control (motivation = effort and persistence
to tackle academic tasks).
Students are motivated by self-aggrandizement (motivation = effort and persistence to
Self-Oriented Goals
Students are motivated by the defense of the Self (motivation = effort and persistence
to tackle academic tasks).
Students are motivated by acquisition-acceptance and social approval (motivation =
Socially Oriented Goals
effort and persistence to tackle academic tasks).
Students are motivated to achieve rewards (motivation = effort and persistence to
Reward-Oriented Goals
Students are motivated to achieve a good job in the future (motivation = effort and
persistence to tackle academic tasks).
As observed in Table 1, some research studies (González-Pineda et al., 2002; Wolters, 2004),
found that there is one particular type of student whose primary objective is to maintain or increase
their self-esteem in comparison to others, hence opting for self-assessment goals or self-oriented
goals or self-focused goals. These students usually tackle their academic tasks by asking themselves
whether or not they are able to perform them correctly. If they think they have a good chance of
successfully performing the task, they commit to it with enthusiasm and without anxiety. However,
if they think that they will struggle to perform the task successfully, regardless of the reason, they
struggle to find the appropriate strategies and to implement them. Furthermore, they feel tense and
irritable as soon as an obstacle appears. This occurs because these students anticipate that, in the
event of failure, their lack of capacity will show, which may have an effect on their self-esteem. As
a consequence, students in this case tend to use a number of strategies leading to the defense of “the
Self” (García and Pintrich, 1994) and misconduct, such as cheating.
Problem of Research
Currently there are a number of research studies stressing the role of intrinsic motivation in
academic learning in general, and in foreign language learning in particular. This is because the ad-
justment and optimal development of the foreign language learning/teaching process require effort,
persistence and self-perceived competences. The present study analyses the importance of intrinsic
motivational factors as determinants of academic performance in EFL. The general aim of the pres-
ent study has been to analyse the existing relationship between “students’ academic motivation” and
“students’ academic performance” variables.
In particular, this study tested the hypothesis that students with a higher intrinsic motivation
to learn EFL would achieve better grades in this subject. In other words, students with self-oriented
goals or learning goals would achieve a high academic performance (i.e. good results) in EFL, as
both these goals involve task control satisfaction and performing the task with high levels of efficacy,
interest, positive affection, persistence, learning strategies and a good performance.
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Sample of Research
Participants were 542 students of Secondary Education (3rd and 4th grade, i.e. 14 to 16 year-olds)
from three high schools in the city of Malaga. Two different groups were administered the question-
naire and assessed in relation to their performance. The groups selected came from two different
socio-cultural levels (medium-high and medium-low), with the purpose of obtaining a sample as
representative as possible. It is worth mentioning that the sample was gender-balanced, as 307 of
the respondents were girls (56.64%) and 235 boys (43.35%). Most participants were aged between
14 and 16 years old.
There are different tests to assess the “learning goals” variable. The present study has used the
Questionnaire to Assess Academic Goals in Secondary Education Students (CEMA-2 in Spanish)
(Núñez, González-Pienda, González-Pumariega, García and Roces, 1997). The questionnaire identifies
the types of goals mentioned earlier (see Table 1), i.e. learning goals, reward-oriented goals, self-
oriented goals and socially oriented goals. The above authors believe that it is important to distinguish
the nature of the rewards that motivate the individual. Thus, the category “performance goals” must
be considered in two separate dimensions: performance goals related to social value (e.g. “I study
because I want to be valued by my parents and teachers”) and performance goals related to obtaining
tangible rewards (e.g. “I study because I want to get a good job in the future). The questionnaire is
composed of 42 items with a Likert-type scale for responses, where students assess their motivation
to study hard, based on a 0 to 5 scale (1=Never; 5=Always). The scale allows for the extraction of
the type of motivation that leads students to tackle their tasks in the EFL subject. What follows is,
an example of an item from each category of the questionnaire:
1. An item assessing the goal of studying to acquire competence and control is: “I study
hard because the new knowledge allows me to be more competent.”
2. An item assessing the goal of studying to defend the Self (performance-avoidance goals)
is: “I study hard because I do not want my classmates to make fun of me.”
3. An item assessing the goal of studying because of an individual interest in the subject
matter is: “I study hard because I find what I study very interesting.”
4. An item assessing the work-avoidance goal to defend the Self is: “I avoid working in
class if I think that I will do worse than everyone else.”
5. An item assessing the goal of studying to seek self-aggrandizement (performance-
approach goals) is: “I study hard because I want to get one of the best student grades in
my class.”
6. An item assessing the goal of studying to acquire social value is: “I study hard because
I want the people I care for to be proud of me.”
7. An item assessing the goal of studying to get a good job in the future is: “I study hard
because I want to get a good job in the future.”
8. An item assessing the goal of studying to avoid punishment is: “I study hard because I
want to avoid the punishment that I would receive if I do not get good results.”
This instrument presents appropriate psychometric properties. The reliability indices (Cronbach’s
alpha coefficients) for each factor/strategy assessed in the sample ranged from 0.75 to 0.82.
To assess academic performance, students’ grades in the subject of EFL were considered. The
performance assessment scale ranged from 1 to 10 (average performance in EFL according to of-
ficial records). This study analysed the afore-mentioned variables by comparing the following three
groups:
(1) The average of grades in EFL ranging from 0 to 5.
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In sum, the present study used, on the one hand, questionnaires as the instrument to assess mo-
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tivation; and on the other, students’ grades in EFL to assess academic performance. Consequently,
the two variables evaluated were (1) motivation and (2) academic performance.
The two Secondary Education High Schools were contacted and informed in writing of the ob-
jectives of the project. Likewise, parents were asked for their permission and consent, and were given
the corresponding instructions and information. Questionnaires were conducted by two researchers
trained to explain the objectives to teachers and give instructions to students. Questionnaires were
completed in a collective application in the different Secondary Education classrooms. Before hand-
ing out the questionnaires, students were informed that the data they provided would be confidential
and that their full name was only required in order to compare their questionnaire results with their
academic record. Additionally, they were given unlimited time to complete the questionnaires.
Data Analysis
Data coding and analysis were conducted by using the SPSS 15.0 statistical package. The study
has conducted descriptive analyses to reflect percentages, means and standard deviations. Addition-
ally, the Student’s t-test was applied on independent samples to find out if there were statistically
significant differences in goals based on academic performance.
Results of Research
The average score in the “academic goals” variable was extracted from the 542 secondary
school students in the sample, as observed in Table 2:
Table 2. Average and Typical Deviations in the “Goals” Variable in the Sample.
SAMPLE AVERAGE
LEARNING GOALS
1. Acquiring competence and control. 3.59 (.93)
2. Interest in the subject (intrinsic motivation). 2.33 (1.07)
SELF-ORIENTED GOALS
3. Defense of the Self by personal involvement (promoting motivation). 2.93 (1.12)
4. Defense of the Self by lack of involvement (motivational inhibition). 2.32 (1.09)
5. Self-aggrandizement (by involvement). 2.66 (.37)
SOCIALLY ORIENTED GOALS 2.47 (1.21)
6. Acquiring social value by getting approval or by avoiding rejection
ACHIEVEMENT GOALS OR REWARD-ORIENTED GOALS
7. Getting a good job in the future. 4.52 (.41)
8. Avoiding punishment (or loss of privileges). 2.53 (1.46)
The profile of the studied sample is characterized by the predominance of learning goals as well
as reward-oriented goals (see Table 2). In other words, participating secondary education students
study EFL either, because they like the subject per se (hence they seek to improve their competence,
i.e. they are intrinsically motivated), or because they seek to get a good job in the future (hence they
seek a reward-oriented goal, i.e. they are extrinsically motivated). Therefore, participating students
would study EFL not only because they are interested in the subject (intrinsic motivation) and their
subsequent satisfaction, but also because of the reward that they would get (to find a good job).
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Assessment of the Motivational Components (Goals) and Academic Performance

44
The present study analysed the correlation between secondary education students’ motivation
and their academic achievement. In order to assess performance, the study has used all students’
grades in the common subject of English as a Foreign Language. The overall average performance
was set according to a scale of 1 to 10 (from poor to outstanding). While the former variable (mo-
tivation) has been examined by means of questionnaires; the latter (performance) was examined by
means of students’ grades in EFL. Grades were classified into the following three groups in view of
the motivation-performance comparison: [0 to 5], [5 to 7] and [7 to 10]. The average was extracted
from each group, as observed in the following tables:
Table 3. Mean Scores on Learning Goals Based on the Grade (0-10) Obtained in
EFL.
GRADE-GOAL COMPARISON (Performance-Motivation)
ACADEMIC GRADE
ACADEMIC GOALS
Less than Between 5 Between
5 and 7 7 and 10
LEARNING GOALS Average Average Average

1. Acquiring competence and control. 2.72 3.22 4.68
2. Interest in the subject (intrinsic motivation). 1.40 1.66 3.62
SELF-ORIENTED GOALS
3. Defense of the Self by personal involvement (promoting motivation). 1.82 2.54 4.24
4. Defense of the Self by lack of involvement (motivational inhibition). 3.55 2.13 1.18
5. Self-aggrandizement (by involvement). 2.33 2.56 3.05
SOCIALLY ORIENTED GOALS
6. Acquiring social value by getting approval or by avoiding rejection
3.85 2.25 1.22
(involvement).
ACHIEVEMENT GOALS OR REWARD-ORIENTED GOALS
7. Getting a good job in the future. 4.81 3.78 4.64
8. Avoiding punishment (or loss of privileges). 4.23 2.14 1.04
Table 4. Mean Difference in the Motivation Variable (Learning Goals) Based on the Performance
Variable (Grades 0 to 5).
gl= 540
Average Grades Averages Grades

Goals t
Less than 5* (SD) Between 5 and 7** (SD)
Learning Goals
1. Acquiring competence and control. 2.72 (.91) 3.22 (.72) -3.56*
2. Interest in the subject (intrinsic motivation). 1.40 (.19) 1.66 (.23) -2.55**
Self-Oriented Goals
3. Defense of the Self by personal
1.82 (.81) 2.54 (.80) -13.56*
involvement (promoting motivation).
4. Defense of the Self by lack of involvement
3.55 (.85) 2.13 (.82) 19.37*
(motivational inhibition).
5. Self-aggrandizement (by involvement). 2.33 (.48) 2.56 (.19) -4.04*
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gl= 540 45
Average Grades Averages Grades
Goals t
Less than 5* (SD) Between 5 and 7** (SD)
Socially-Oriented Goals
6. Acquiring social value by getting approval
3.85 (.63) 2.25 (.69) 21.58*
or by avoiding rejection (involvement).
Achievement Goals or Reward-Oriented
Goals
7. Getting a good job in the future. 4.81 (.67) 3.78 (.70) 17.97*
8. Avoiding punishment (or loss of
4.23 (.52) 2.14 (.41) 20.4*
privileges).
Statistical Significance. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.0
Table 5. Mean Difference in the Motivation Variable (Learning Goals) Based on

the Performance Variable (Grades 5 to 7).
gl= 540
Average Grades Average Grades Between

Goals t
Less than 5* (SD) 7 and 10** (SD)
Learning Goals
1. Acquiring competence
2.72 (.91) 4.68 (.81) -17.80*
and control.
2. Interest in the subject
1.40 (.19) 3.62 (.44) -26.66*
(intrinsic motivation).
Self-Oriented Goals
3. Defense of the Self
by personal involvement 1.82 (.81) 4.24 (.91) -29.46*
(promoting motivation).
by lack of involvement 3.55 (.85) 1.18 (.89) 31.61*
5. Self-aggrandizement (by
2.33 (.48) 3.05 (.61) -8.60*
involvement).
6. Acquiring social value
by getting approval or by 3.85 (.63) 1.22 (.71) 34.42*
avoiding rejection.
Achievement Goals or
7. Getting a good job in the
4.81 (.67) 4.64 (.78) 4.84*
future.
8. Avoiding punishment (or
4.23 (.52) 1.04 (.53) 36.48*
loss of privileges).
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Table 6. Mean Difference in the Motivation Variable (Learning Goals) Based on

46 the Performance Variable (Grades 7 to 10).
gl= 540
Average Grades Between Average Grades Between

Goals t
5 and 7* (SD) 7 and 10** (SD)
Learning Goals
1. Acquiring competence and
3.22 (.72) 4.68 (.81) -13.59*
control.
2. Interest in the subject
1.66 (.23) 3.62 (.44) -17.81*
(intrinsic motivation).
Self-Oriented Goals
by personal involvement 2.54 (.80) 4.24 (.91) -15.64*
(promoting motivation).
by lack of involvement 2.13 (.82) 1.18 (.89) 10.76*
5. Self-aggrandizement (by
2.56 (.19) 3.05 (.61) -8.00*
involvement).
6. Acquiring social value
by getting approval or
2.25 (.69) 1.22 (.71) 10.24*
by avoiding rejection
(involvement).
Achievement Goals or
7. Getting a good job in the
3.78 (.70) 4.64 (.78) -13.71*
future.
8. Avoiding punishment (or
2.14 (.41) 1.04 (.53) 10.63*
loss of privileges).
With regards to the motivation-performance comparison, results show that academic performance
increases as learning goals increase. This means that students who achieve a good performance (i.e.
high grades in EFL) are intrinsically motivated (i.e. their learning goals involve motivation, effort
and persistence to tackle academic tasks in order to acquire competences). In other words, students
who achieve high grades in EFL seek meaningful learning and reformulate their strategies when
they encounter academic failure. Results show that students with learning and performance goals
present significantly higher values as far as academic performance is concerned. On the other hand,
students who have a fear of failure or socially-oriented goals (i.e. avoiding social rejection) pres-
ent significantly lower values in academic performance as compared to other students. Likewise,
students with less academic performance (i.e. low grades in EFL) have low scores in goals oriented
to punishment-avoidance. This means that they are extrinsically motivated, i.e. they tackle the task
in order to achieve a goal different from the task in itself (such as avoiding parents’ punishment). It
is also worth stressing that self-oriented goals based on the defense of the Self (which are the ones
promoting motivation, as described in the Section “Types of Goals”) achieve high scores in line with
academic performance. Conversely, goals based on motivational inhibition are inversely proportional
to academic performance. Equally, socially-oriented goals (described in Table 1) are inversely pro-
portional to academic performance. This means that students’ motivation for getting low grades is
related to the acquisition of social value, either by getting approval and acceptance from others, or by
avoiding social rejection. In other words, they aim to achieve good results in order to reinforce their
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social image. Additionally, they get frustrated with poor results, which would account for a type of
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extrinsic motivation. Conversely, students who get high grades are not motivated by goals such as
getting approval from others, but their motivation comes from within, from the act of learning itself.
In other words, these students show a predominance of learning goals (defined in Table 1).
Discussion
Learning goals can predict and control behaviour, which is relevant in view of analysing as-
sociations among motivation, learning and academic performance. In fact, recent researchers have
stressed the importance of assessing multiple goals (both social and academic) with the purpose of
achieving the socio-emotional and academic integration of secondary education students (González-
Pienda, González-Cabanach, Núñez and Valle, 2002; Valle et al., 2008). In general terms, it can be
stressed that the profile of the studied sample is characterized by the predominance of learning goals
as well as reward-oriented goals. In other words, participating secondary education students study
EFL either because they like the subject per se (hence they seek to improve their competence, i.e.
they are intrinsically motivated), or because they seek to get a good job in the future (hence they
seek a reward-oriented goal, i.e. they are extrinsically motivated).
With regards to reward-oriented goals, there is a clear difference as far as results are concerned:
When motivation is based on punishment-avoidance or loss of privileges (extrinsic motivation),
students get poorer results (less performance). This would confirm the working hypothesis of the
study: the higher extrinsic motivation, the lower academic performance. These results are consistent
with those shown by Valle et al. (2008), suggesting that avoidance goals are more maladaptive than
learning and performance goals. However, within the same category, results show that students with
both good and poor grades are equally motivated to get a good job in the future. This means that
when motivation is understood as the effort and persistence to tackle academic tasks in order to get a
job, it is equally important to the entire sample, as all boys and girls participating in this study have
assigned a high score to the items reflecting it.
In line with what other authors have found in relation to other school subjects (González-
Pineda et al., 2002; Valle et al., 2008; Valle et al., 2009), results derived from the context in which
this study was conducted have shown that an association exists between learning goals and a high
academic performance. On the other hand, students who have a fear of failure or socially-oriented
goals present lower values in academic performance in the subject of EFL.
It is worth stressing that the different academic goals are not mutually exclusive. Especially
relevant is the fact that, in all analysed cases, the existence of two motivational orientations has been
confirmed: (1) intrinsic motivation and (2) extrinsic motivation. To this light, while some students are
driven by a desire to master the task, curiosity, perception of the task as a challenge and interest to
learn (intrinsic motivation), others are driven by the achievement of extrinsic goals (extrinsic motiva-
tion), such as getting good grades, rewards, favourable judgments, teachers’ and parents’ approval
and avoidance of negative judgments (Dweck and Leggett, 1988; González-Pineda et al., 2002).
Most research on motivation and second language acquisition (Masgoret and Gardner, 2003) was
conducted in Canada and the United States. In the Spanish context, further studies are still required
in the area of English as a Foreign Language, in order to examine in depth the variables, using not
only quantitative methods but also qualitative ones (interviews and observation). These methods
would improve motivational techniques in the teaching/learning of English, hence increasing the
level of English proficiency in Spain, which is below what is expected. In this sense, the present
study is relevant to the teaching practice in the Spanish context, as the goal theory can provide a
great amount of information on foreign language students’ motivation, as well as on their ability to
develop self-regulated learning, that is, a type of learning which, further from being considered a
mere transfer of knowledge between teachers and students, requires the construction of knowledge
by students themselves (Suárez and Fernández, 2004). Finally, as suggested by Núñez (2008), these
studies can provide a more realistic line of research, involving different types of goals, not in an
antagonistic way, but rather as complementary aims to which students can resort based on their
personal interests and situational demands.
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48 Conclusions
To conclude, the present study has proven that there is a correlation between academic goals
and academic results; in particular an association exists between learning goals (intrinsic motiva-
tion) and a high performance. In other words, learning goals are associated to a high use of process-
ing strategies and to highly-qualified learning strategies, which facilitate the comprehension of the
material to be learned. Along these lines, established studies (Valle et al., 2009) have found that the
deep learning approach is related to students’ involvement and intrinsic interest in learning in those
students who attribute their academic results to internal causes, such as effort or capacity. While it
is important for students to have learning goals, it is also worth stressing that performance goals do
not have to be necessarily maladaptive, but they can coexist together with learning goals to allow
students to achieve a good performance (Elliott and Dweck, 1988). Notably, Valle et al. (2009) found
that secondary education students with an extrinsic motivation (recognition from others) can take
responsibility for their success/failure and can also show learning goals. Furthermore, it can also be
assumed that the combined use of the two types of goals has an enhanced effect and a multiplica-
tive effect on performance. To achieve such effects, all the motivational resources suggested by the
teacher can be helpful. It is also important to consider the fact, that the student might be extrinsically
motivated does not exclude him/her from developing feelings of personal control and competences;
neither does it from showing a positive performance. What this study has shown is the importance
of intrinsic motivation (i.e. learning goals) in achieving good academic results; by showing that the
best grades corresponded to learning goals.
These results may be taken into account in view of an education aimed to improve social coex-
istence and attention to motivational diversity, as students are not only different as far as knowledge,
competences and attitudes are concerned, but they also differ at a motivational level. Therefore, there
are undoubtedly different ways to approach learning and achieve academic success.
Finally, it is worth highlighting that the study has shown the relevant role that academic goals
(i.e. learning goals, self-oriented goals, socially oriented goals and reward-oriented goals) play in
predicting school behaviour. This study has direct implications for the psycho-educational assess-
ment and intervention in the area of assessment and intervention of motivational components and
academic performance in Secondary Education.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Dirección General de Investigación (General Research Design).
Spanish Ministry of Education and Science.
References
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Advised by Guna Svence,

Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Francisco Manuel Morales Rodríguez PhD in Psychology and Bachelor of Labour, Associate Professor (Doctor),
Department of Psychology and Education, School of Psychology, University of
Malaga, Campus de Teatinos s / n, 29071, Malaga, Spain.
E-mail: framorrod@uma.es
Website: http://webdeptos.uma.es/psicoev/
ISSN 2029-8587
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50 UNDERSTANDING SELF-HARM IN
YOUNG PEOPLE: AN EMOTIONAL
UNBALANCE IN NEED FOR
INTERVENTION
Marta Reis, Margarida Gaspar de Matos,
Lúcia Ramiro, Isa Figueira
Technical University of Lisbon, CMDT & Aventura Social Project,
Cruz Quebrada, Portugal
E-mail: reispsmarta@gmail.com, mmatos@fmh.utl.pt, lisramiro@sapo.pt,
isapfigueira@gmail.com
Abstract
Self-harm behavior refers to the intentional self-destruction or alteration of body tissue without deliberate
suicidal intent. Studies claimed self-harm as being associated to obsessive-compulsive characteristics and
eating disorders, emotion-regulation functions when interpersonal distress occurs and physiological reactivity
during a distressing task in association to social problem-solving deficits. Three national studies referring to
young people will be presented. The main study’s aim was to understand frequency of self-harm in Portuguese
students and understanding the associations between self-harm and risk behaviors. A convenience sample
of 206 was collected among high school and university students. The instrument used was a self-completed
questionnaire: “Teens Self-Destructive Scale”. A minority of self-harmers was found. Results suggested as-
sociations between self-harm, eating disorders and difficulties regarding self-regulation of emotions and that
self-harm can be considered a non-adaptive and not successful personal strategy to manage emotions. Findings
from the other two national studies will be referred. All together, these findings demonstrate the relevance of
studies in this domain and helped producing guidelines in terms of therapeutic interventions. During the last
decades, young people became more literate regarding health information and more aware of risk behaviors,
but did not improve their literacy about emotions and how to deal with them. Are we in need for a “positive”
approach to mental health promotion in young people?
Key words: protective factors, risk factors, self-harm, students.
Introduction
Self-harm behavior refers to the intentional self-destruction or alteration of body tissue without
deliberate suicidal intent. Though systematic research on this behavior is still insufficient (Alfonso
& Dedrick, 2010), recent theoretical and empirical work has significantly advanced the understand-
ing of this perplexing behavior (Jacobson & Gould, 2007; ISSS, 2010). Self-harm is most preva-
lent among adolescents and young adults, typically involves cutting or carving the skin, and has a
consistent presentation cross nations (Klonsky, 2011; Whitlock & Knox, 2007). In general, studies
suggest that 13% to 25% of adolescents and young adults surveyed in schools have some history of
self-injury (Klonsky, 2011).
Across both clinical and community-based samples, research has shown that self-harm tends to
have its onset in adolescence, commonly occurring during middle-to-late adolescence (13-15 years
old) (Hamza, Stewart & Willoughby, 2012), which emphasizes adolescence as a period of difficulties
in emotional control and risk-taking, partly related to underlying biological changes (Moran, Cof-
fey, Romaniuk, Olsson, Borschmann, Carlin, & Patton, 2012) and sometimes hardened by traumatic
Marta REIS, Margarida GASPAR DE MATOS, Lúcia RAMIRO, Isa FIGUEIRA. Understanding Self-harm in Young People: ISSN 2029-8587
an Emotional Unbalance in Need for Intervention PROBLEMS
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episodes of life, for which they may not yet have sufficient personal and social skills to overcome
51
them (Glassman, Weierich, Hooley, Deliberto & Nock, 2007).
The most common kinds of self-harm behavior include cutting the skin (reported by 70% of
individuals), scratching, burning, ripping or pulling skin or hair, pinching, hitting or breaking bones.
Regarding areas of the body, the ones most referred are the arms, wrists, legs and belly, as are ar-
eas within easy reach and are also easily hidden (Nock, Gordon, Lloyd-Richardson, & Prinstein,
2006).
Literature on self-harm prevalence and gender is mixed. While some studies show it to be more
common among females, others suggest that it is as prevalent in males as in females. It is widely
agreed, though, that self-harm is much more visible among females than among males (Croyle &
Waltz, 2007; Whitlock, Eckenrode, & Silverman, 2006; Whitlock, Muehlenkamp, & Eckenrode,
2008).
Most often, self-harming behavior is used to regulate intense negative emotion or to calm
down quickly when feeling very emotional or overwrought. People who self-harm often have high
sensitivity to emotion and difficulty handling negative feelings. Although the practice may dispel
strong feelings in the short term, over time they are likely to experience intense shame or a sense of
lack of control (Yates, 2004; Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006). Others use self-harming behavior to
evoke emotion when they feel numb or dissociated. It may also be used as a means of self-control,
punishment, or distraction. Some people report self-injuring to increase energy or improve mood
but it may also be used to solicit attention from adults or peers, or to be part of a group (Whitlock,
Muehlenkamp, & Eckenrode, 2008).
Thoughts of engaging in self-harm typically occurs when the person is alone and experiencing
negative thoughts or feelings (e.g., feeling anger, self-hatred, or numbness) in response to a stressful
event (Nock, 2009). These thoughts and feelings immediately prior to engaging in self-harm have
been reported consistently across studies and support the belief that self-harm is performed in most
cases as a means of self-soothing or of help seeking (Klonsky, 2009; Muehlenkamp et al. 2009; Nock,
2009). Although people who engage in self-harm are more likely than people who don’t to have
drug and alcohol use disorders (Nock, Gordon, Lloyd-Richardson, & Prinstein, 2006), self-harmers
report using drugs or alcohol during less than five percent of those negative thoughts, suggesting that
thoughts and behavior typically occur during periods of sobriety (Nock, 2009). Interestingly, when
those thoughts occur, adolescents report simultaneously having thoughts of using drugs or alcohol
and of engaging in bingeing and purging approximately 15%–35% of the time (Nock, 2009), sug-
gesting that all these behaviors may serve the same function.
Individuals who engage in self-harming behavior may therefore have greater difficulty regu-
lating their affective and social experiences than individuals who do not engage in self-harming
behavior, and as a result are at increased risk for a variety of maladaptive coping behaviors (Hamza,
Willoughby, & Good, in press).
This study’s aim was to understand frequency of self-harm in Portuguese students and under-
stand the associations between self-harm and protective and risk behaviors. This was analyzed and
compared in three studies.
Study 1: Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC)

The Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) is a World Health Organization (WHO)
collaborative cross-national study (Currie, Roberts, Morgan, & Smith, 2004) which is carried out
every 4 years simultaneously in 43 countries or regions of Europe and North America in order to
study school-aged behavior regarding health and risk behaviors in adolescence. Portugal is part of this
group since 1996 (Currie, Hurrelmann, Settertobulte, Smith & Todd, 2000; Matos et al., 2011).
Study 2: Online Study of Young People’s Sexuality (OSYS)
ISSN 2029-8587 Marta REIS, Margarida GASPAR DE MATOS, Lúcia RAMIRO, Isa FIGUEIRA. Understanding Self-harm in Young People:
PROBLEMS an Emotional Unbalance in Need for Intervention
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The Online Study of Young People’s Sexuality (OSYS) is a Portuguese extension of the HBSC
52
study. It is a nationwide study that assesses Sexuality and Risk behaviors-related knowledge, at-
titudes, and practices among the population aged 13-21 years old (Matos, Ramiro, Reis & Equipa
Aventura Social, 2012).
Study 3: Self-harm behavior in Portuguese students (SeHaS)
Self-harm behavior in Portuguese students (SeHaS) is a study that assesses the frequency of
self-harm in Portuguese students between 18 and 25 years old, how it affects their social life and
understands the associations between self-harm and risk behaviors (Matos & Equipa Aventura So-
cial, in press).
Sample of Research

The 2010 study provides national representative data of 5050 Portuguese adolescents, randomly
chosen from those attending 6th grade, 8th grade (middle school) and 10th grade (high school) This
study used a subset of 8th (n=1594) and 10th graders (n=1900). This sample included 53.6% girls
and 46.4% boys, whose mean age was 14.94 years (SD= 1.30). The majority of adolescents are of
Portuguese nationality (94.2%).
A sample of 396 was collected through an online questionnaire. It included 46.5% girls and
53.5% males, whose mean age was 16.8 years (SD= 2.6). The majority of adolescents are of Portu-
guese nationality (93.4%).
A convenience sample of 206 was collected among high school and university students. The
sample included 87% women and 13% men, 13.1% high school and 86.9% college students with the
mean age 20 years old (SD=1.83). The majority of students live with their family (59.2%).

Data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire, from the Portuguese sample of
the Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC), and all procedures were followed according
to the international research protocol (Currie, Roberts, Morgan, & Smith, 2004).
The 139 schools in the sample were randomly selected from the official national list of public
schools, stratified by region: 52 schools in the North, 24 in the Centre, 41 in Lisbon and Tagus Val-
ley, 7 in Alentejo and 6 in the Algarve. In each school, one class was randomly selected for each
educational stage. After having received authorization, we solicited voluntary participants to fill out
the questionnaires and explained the study’s aim. The survey is nationwide and was conducted during
the 2009/2010 school year for the Ministry of Portuguese Health and for the National Coordination
for HIV/AIDS Infection by the Technical University of Lisbon.
In the questionnaire, which covers a wide range of questions about health and risk behaviors
in adolescence, issues that relate to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, school attended,
nationality), self-harming behavior (Yes/No and parts of the body most often chosen), protective
factors (quality of life, resilience, self-regulation, skills, parental monitoring and family relationship)
and risk factors (physical and psychological symptoms, drunkenness, drug use in the last month,
walking with a gun in the last month, involvement in fights in last 12 months, suffering injury in
last 12 months, going out with friends at night, feeling such sadness one cannot handle, and missing
classes) were selected.
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The sample collection was conducted through an online questionnaire. Only young people
who were between 13 and 21 years old at the time of the survey (May to June, 2011) were entitled
to participate. Participation was anonymous and voluntary. Each person could participate only once
and completing the questionnaire lasted between 15 and 30 minutes.
In the questionnaire, which covers a wide range of questions about sexual health and risk be-
haviors in adolescence, issues that relate to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, nation-
ality), self-harm behavior (Yes/No, methods for self-harm, parts of the body most often chosen and
emotions felt during self-harm), protective and risk factors (parental monitoring, drunkenness, drug
use in the last month and involvement in fights in last 12 months) were selected.
This survey was conducted during the 2010/2011 school year by the Technical University of
Lisbon. The sampling unit used in this survey was the class.
In the questionnaire it was selected issues that relate to socio-demographic characteristics (gen-
der, age, school attended, residence), the description of self-harming experiences (knowing someone
with self-harming behavior, time and kind of the first experience, kind of behaviors, part of the body
most frequently hurt, emotions felt before, during and after) and the Teens Self-Destructive Scale -
were assessed through 76 items adapted from the original scale (Canevisio, P. et al, 2007). Students
were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the statements using a five-point response format
(1=never; 2=few times; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always).
The three studies had the approval of a scientific committee, the National Ethics Committee
and the National Commission for Data Protection and followed strictly all the guidelines for human
rights protection.
Data Analysis
The data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (version 20 for Win-
dows). Descriptive statistics including frequencies, means and standard deviations were performed
to give general descriptions of the data for the three studies. The associations between several inde-
pendent variables (protective and risk factors) and the dependent variables (self-harming behavior)
were ascertained using multivariate logistic regression analysis for study 1 and
2. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for all independent
variables for studies 1 and 2. Exploratory data analysis, assessment of internal consistency, followed
by an exploratory factor analysis of the Teens Self-Destructive Scale were conducted for study 3.
Mann Whitney test was performed to examine differences in the Teens Self-Destructive Scale scores
for the partial sample that mentioned having/not having had self-harming behavior in study 3. For
the three studies the level for statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Only significant results
were discussed.
Results of Research
Study 1 - (HBSC)
Self-harm Behavior
The results showed 15.6% adolescents reported self-harming behavior in the last 12 months,
mostly girls (57.6%). The parts of the body most often chosen were: arms (52.9%), legs (24.7%)
and belly (16.7%).
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Protective Factors Associated with Self-harm Behavior

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Using a multivariate logistic regression we obtained an adjusted model (Hosmer and Lemeshow
χ²= 9,744; df=8; p=0.283) and the regression equation explained 7% of the variance (Nagelkerke R2=
.078) and 85.8% of cases that showed having had self-harm behavior. In this model, the condition of
“having had self-harming behavior” is explained by the variables quality of life (less quality of life
with a 0.9 times greater likelihood of being in this group) [OR 0.86; 95% CI 0.76-0.98; p=0.019],
self-regulation (adolescents with less self-regulation with a probability 0.9 times higher to be in
this group) [OR 0.86; 95% CI 0.75-0.99; p=0.029], parental monitoring (those who reported fewer
parental monitoring with a 0.8 times greater likelihood of being in this group) [OR 0.83; 95% CI
0.74-0.93; p=0.001], and family relationship (those who reported a family relationship less good,
with a probability 0.7 times higher to be in this group) [OR 0.73; 95% CI 0.65-0.81; p=0.000].
Although significant variables in the model only explain 8%, and the association is not very
strong to determine the dependent variable (having had self-harming behavior), this may be due to
influential protective factors that are not evaluated in this research.
Table 1. Protective factors associated with having had self-harming behavior.
β SE OR 95% IC p
Quality of life (Kidscreen Scale) -0.147 0.063 0.864 (0.764 – 0.976) 0.019
Resilience -0.038 0.066 0.963 (0.846 – 1.097) 0.570
Self-regulation -0.152 0.070 0.859 (0.750 – 0.985) 0.029

Skills -0.070 0.060 0.933 (0.829 – 1.049) 0.246
Parental monitoring -0.189 0.057 0.828 (0.741 – 0.925) 0.001
Family relationship -0.320 0.056 0.726 (0.651 – 0.810) 0.000

OR: adjusted odds ratios for all other variables in the table; CI: confidence interval
Risk Factors Associated with Having Had Self-harming Behavior
Using a multivariate logistic regression it was obtained an adjusted model (Hosmer and
Lemeshow χ²= 11,337; df=8; p=0.183) and the regression equation explained 7% of the variance
(Nagelkerke R2= .133) and 85% of cases that showed having had self-harming behavior. In this
model, the condition of “having had self-harming behavior” is explained by the variables physical
and psychological symptoms (those with more symptoms with a 1.4 times greater likelihood of be-
ing in this group) [OR 1.38; 95% CI 1.24-1.53; p=0.000], involvement in fights in last 12 months
(adolescents who reported more involvement in fights with a probability 1.1 times higher to be in
this group) [OR 1.14; 95% CI 1.02-1.27; p=0.022], feeling such sadness one cannot handle (those
who reported feeling more sadness with a 1.6 times greater likelihood of being in this group) [OR
1.60; 95% CI 1.42-1.79; p=0.000], and missing classes (those who reported missing classes, with a
probability 1.1 times higher to be in this group) [OR 1.14; 95% CI 1.03-1.26; p=0.011].
Although significant variables in the model only explained 13%, and the association was not
very strong to determine the dependent variable (having had self-harming behavior), this may be
due to influential protective factors that were not evaluated in this research.
Table 2. Protective factors associated with having had self-harming behavior
β SE OR 95% IC p
Physical and psychological symptoms 0.318 0.053 1.375 (1.239 – 1.525) 0.000
Drunkenness -0.043 0.060 0.958 (0.851 – 1.078) 0.476
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β SE OR 95% IC p 55
Drug use in the last month 0.017 0.051 1.018 (1.018 – 0.920) 0.733
Walking with a gun in the last month 0.075 0.049 1.078 (0.980 – 1.186) 0.122
Involvement in fights in last 12 months 0.131 0.057 1.140 (1.019 – 1.274) 0.022
Suffering injury in last 12 months 0.028 0.052 1.029 (0.929 – 1.139) 0.589
Going out with friends at night 0.112 0.058 1.119 (0.999 – 1.253) 0.053
Feeling such sadness one cannot handle 0.468 0.059 1.596 (1.423 – 1.791) 0.000
Missing classes 0.131 0.052 1.140 (1.030 – 1.261) 0.011
OR: adjusted odds ratios for all other variables in the table; CI: confidence interval
Study 2- (OSYS)
Self-harming Behavior
The results showed 18% adolescents reported self-harming behavior in the last 12 months, mostly
females (54.5%). Of these, the methods more often mentioned for self-harm were cutting (49.1%),
squeezing (30.9%) and burning (16.4%) and body areas most often used were arms (70.9%), legs
(32.7%) and belly (23.6%). They mentioned feelings of anger / hostility (63.6%), lack of hope for
the future (60%) and sadness (58.2%) during the self-harming behavior.
Protective and Risk Factors Associated with Having Had Self-harming Behavior
Using a multivariate logistic regression it was obtained an adjusted model (Hosmer and Leme-
show χ²= 7.682; df=7; p=0.362) and the regression equation explained 8% of the variance (Nagelkerke
R2=.075) and 83.2% of cases that showed having had self-harming behavior. In this model, the
condition of “having had self-harming behavior” was explained by the variable involvement in fights
in last 12 months (adolescents who reported more involvement in fights with a probability 1.5 times
higher to be in this group) [OR 1.47; 95% CI 1.08-1.99; p=0.012].
Although significant variables in the model only explained 8%, and the association was not
very strong to determine the dependent variable (having had self-harming behavior), this may be
due to influential protective factors that were not evaluated in this research.
Table 3. Protective and risk factors associated with self-harm behavior.
β SE OR 95% IC p
Parental monitoring -0.296 0.161 0.744 (0.543 – 1.019) 0.065

Drunkenness 0.022 0.182 1.023 (0.715 – 1.462) 0.903
Drug use in the last month -0.484 0.289 0.616 (0.350 – 1.087) 0.094
Involvement in fights in last 12 months 0.388 0.155 1.474 (1.089 – 1.996) 0.012
Study 3- (SeHaS)
Knowing Someone with Self-harming Behavior
15.2% of the total sample referred that they knew of someone with self-harming behavior. Of
these, 25.4% and 4.7% reported knowing of some friends and some family (respectively) with self-
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harming behavior. 18.8% of friends used sharp objects for cutting arms or wrists and 3.4% knew of
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family members who had got drunk, cut or scratched themselves as a self-harming behavior.
Self-harming Behavior
As for participants self-harming behavior, 10.4% adolescents reported having done so in the
last 12 months, mostly females (85.7%). They also reported their first self-harming behavior to have
occurred between 12 and 23 years old, having used sharp objects (38.1%) or beating (23.8%) and
biting (9.5%) themselves. As for other experiences of self-harm, the methods more often mentioned
were cutting or scratching themselves (38.1%), getting drunk or knocking on objects (33.3%), caus-
ing bruises (23.8%), biting (19%) and burning, choking or piercing and taking drugs (14.3%). As
body areas, the most often used were arms and wrists (38.1%), legs (23.8%) and belly (14.3%). They
mentioned feelings of anger (80%), sadness (60%), anxiety (35%), disgust (25%) and fear (20%)
before the self-harming behavior. During self-harm the most reported feelings were anger (50%),
sadness (35%) and fear (30%) and after sadness (55%), relief (50%) and fear (35%).
Principal Components Factor Analysis

with Oblique Rotation of “Teens Self Destructive Scale”
The 76 items of Teens Self Destructive Scale were subjected to principal components factor
analysis with oblique rotation. The items with communality <.40, and an extraction of 4 factors
were suppressed.
The remaining 35 items were again subjected to a principal components factor analysis with
oblique rotation, which revealed an extraction with 4 factorial factors, explaining 40% of variance
(see table 4).
Table 4. Factor analysis of Teens Self-Destructive Scale.
Factors
Factor Analysis
Risk Negative Social
Detachment
behaviors feelings support
Engaging in Fights (beating/ assaulting someone) 0.673
Running away from home 0.609
Attempting suicide 0.603
Thinking about running away from home 0.586
Breaking objects on purpose when angry 0.580
Making competitions / speeding car / bike races 0.564
Making threats 0.560
Using hard drugs (eg. cocaine, ecstasy, heroin) 0.539
Going to the emergency room / clinic as a result of self-

0.506
harming behavior
Having sexual intercourse with different people at the

same time (if you have never had sexual intercourse 0.496
respond imagining what you would do in this situation)
Hurting oneself on purpose when I argue with other people

0.483
(parents, friends, etc.)
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Factors 57
Factor Analysis
Risk Negative Social
Detachment
behaviors feelings support
Inducing vomit 0.461
Taking soft Drugs 0.432
Thinking that nobody understands me 0.681
Being afraid 0.673
Feeling anxious 0.662
Worrying for long periods of time when I have a problem 0.660
Feeling alone 0.657
Feeling angry 0.643
Feeling bored 0.616
Getting angry with myself if I cannot solve a problem 0.567
Thinking about not being able to sort things out on my own

0.516
in certain situations
Arguing with my parents 0.425
Thinking about dropping school or abandoning my job

0.417
without a valid reason
Avoiding situations that trigger fear in me 0.414
Talking about my personal problems to friends 0.807
Sharing my problems with other people 0.796
Talking to someone when I’m not ok 0.791
Calling /being with friends when I don’t know what to do 0.672
Having a meeting place to be with my friends 0.440
Being indifferent when I am reprimanded / at school or

0.757
work
Being indifferent when I have bad grades / make mistakes

0.720
at work
Practicing a team sport 0.525
Not talking to my parents when I’m physically indisposed 0.523
Waiting for a problem to resolve itself when I cannot

0.438
resolve it on my own
Explained variance 16,84 9,16 8,31 6,04
The first factor included 13 items related to risk behaviors, and explained 16.8% of the variance.
The second and third factor grouped 12 and 5 items related to negative feelings and social support
and explained 9.2% and 8.3% of variance, respectively. Finally, the fourth factor grouped 5 items
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that had to do with detachment, with 6% of the explained variance. Thus, the factor that was most
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relevant to explain the variance of 16.8% was risk behaviors.
Differences in the Teens Self-Destructive Scale Scores

for the Partial Sample that Mentioned Having/Not Having Had Self-harming Behavior
A partial sample of 21 students was derived from the total sample of self-harmers (consider-
ing all students that referred having ever experienced self-harming behavior) and was paired with
another partial sample of 21 students with the same age and gender but not self-harmers (consider-
ing all students that referred having never experienced self-harming behavior), making a total of 42
students.
Table 5. Differences in the Teens Self-Destructive Scale scores for the partial
sample that mentioned having/not having had self-harming behavior.
Having had self- Not having had

Total
harming behavior self-harming U
(N=42)
(N=21) behavior (N=21)
M SD M SD M SD
Teens Self-Destructive Scale 82.70 10.73 76.10 6.98 79.40 9.54 125,000*
Risk Behavior (subscale) 18.40 5.17 15.40 2.23 16.90 4.22 121,500*
Negative feelings (subscale) 35.10 5.21 32.00 5.79 33.59 5.66 163,000
Social support (subscale) 18.00 3.86 17.55 3.87 17.78 3.82 198,000
Detachment (subscale) 10.95 2.42 11.15 2.08 11.05 2.24 182,500
* p< 0.05
Comparing the 2 groups by using the non parametric Man Whitney test, there were no statisti-
cally significant differences for negative feelings, social support and detachment. Statistical signifi-
cant differences occurred regarding the global Teens Self-Destructive Scale and the risk behavior
subscale.
Discussion
These cross-sectional studies of young people examined prevalence as well as protective and
risk behaviors correlates associated with reporting self-harming behavior. The findings showed that
some demographic factors, some risk factors and the lack of some protective factors associated with
self-harming behavior vary significantly: girls/women and students in lower grade levels were most
likely to report self-harming behavior. Moreover, findings showed that there is a significant overlap
in the modifiable protective and risk factors associated with self-harming behavior that can be tar-
geted for future research and prevention strategies. These are: involvement in fights, physical and
psychological symptoms (e.g. headaches, depression), sadness, missing classes and lower levels of
quality of life, parental monitoring and family relationship.
Regarding the demographic characteristics associated with self-harming behavior, it was clear
that girls/women were at the highest risk, as were those who engaged in or were exposed to other
high-risk behaviors. This was not surprising given previous researches that showed that being female,
having behavior problems, somatic problems, substance use and aggressive behavior were associ-
ated with self-harming behavior in young people (Croyle & Waltz, 2007; Whitlock, Eckenrode, &
Silverman, 2006; Whitlock, Muehlenkamp, & Eckenrode, 2008).
Prevalence rates of 15.6%, 18% and 10.4% were consistent with other studies and suggest
that self-harming behavior in this population should be given serious consideration. Most other
studies reported a life time prevalence of self-harm from 13% to 25% (Klonsky, 2011). The most
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frequently referred methods for self-harm were cutting or scratching and the most frequently used
59
body areas were arms, legs and belly. They mentioned feelings of anger, sadness, anxiety, disgust
and fear before the self-harming behavior, anger, sadness and fear during and sadness, relief and
fear after. These results were also consistent with other studies (Nock, Gordon, Lloyd-Richardson,
& Prinstein, 2006).
There are several noteworthy limitations that should be considered when interpreting these find-
ings. First, measures were self-reported and may reflect biases, especially underreporting of sensitive
information. Second, the data represented students in high-school and university and may not be
generalized to Portuguese young people or those who have dropped out of school. Third, analyses
were based on cross-sectional data, which do not allow temporal ordering between correlates and
outcomes. Accordingly, the analyses simply addressed the extent to which protective and risk factors
correlates were associated with the outcome variable of interest. Fourth, the study did not assess other
potential factors or mediators that may have been important in the associations examined. Several
important factors such as the use of coping strategies, cognitive functioning and communication
strategies in addition to past help-seeking were not available within the existing dataset but could
have been helpful in the explanation of factors associated with self-harming behavior.
Despite these limitations, the findings from this study can be used to empirically document a
relatively high overlap between self-harm among young people. Moreover, it appears that there are
shared and unique factors that may be incorporated in future research and prevention programs of
self-harm behavior among vulnerable young people. Unfortunately, public health prevention strate-
gies that specifically address self-harm in populations of young people are not available in Portugal.
However, there are several different types of programs that may have some success in addressing
self-harming behavior either by directly addressing self-harm or indirectly by addressing the associ-
ated risk factors.
Despite the increased interest and pursuit of research into self-harm, its etiology and epidemiol-
ogy, many aspects of self-harm remain relatively poorly understood. As such, future research is clearly
needed to better understand and respond to the growing need of youth who experience self-harming
behavior. One of the key barriers to progress in this field is the scarcity of available data sources that
have included measures of self-harm. A recommendation for future data collections is to incorporate
measures of self-harm, particularly among adolescents and young adults, so that the prevalence and
epidemiology of self-harm can be studied across a range of populations and settings. Finally, while
self-harm is clearly a complex and multi-faceted problem, efforts that seek to understand this issue
better and that find ways to develop prevention and intervention strategies are sorely needed.
Conclusions
This study marks a needed step forward in assessing self-harming behavior prevalence and
practices in a sample of adolescents and young adults. Findings suggested that educators, medi-
cal providers and therapists see a significant number of adolescents and young adults whom they
may fail to recognize as self-harmers. Some of these are at heightened risk for severe distress and
suicide-related behaviors. The reticence of those who practice self-harming behavior to seek advice
from anyone makes it critical that medical and mental health providers find effective strategies for
recognizing, treating, and preventing self-harming behavior. Results pointed out that self-harming
behavior is related to other risk behaviors that may be addressed by means of universal interven-
tions, in school and in the community, aiming at helping young people to choose and keep a healthy
lifestyle and helping them increase their perception of well being and health related to quality of
life. However results also suggested that self-harm is sometimes “used” as a way to calm down or
conversely to keep up, that is to say to regulate one’s emotions, This fact calls for specific interven-
tions aiming at supporting young people finding alternative ways to recognize and deal with their
own emotions without self-harming or adopting risk behaviors. In light of the current evidence,
more research into the root causes, detection, prevention, and treatment of self-harm behavior is a
public health imperative.
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60 References
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Advised by Maria Ledzińska,

University of Warsaw, Poland
Received: August 07, 2012 Accepted: November 08, 2012
Marta Reis PhD Student, Clinical and Health Psychologist, Technical University of Lisbon, CMDT &
Aventura Social Project, Estrada da Costa – Cruz, Quebrada, Portugal.
E-mail: reispsmarta@gmail.com
Website: http://www.aventurasocial.com
Margarida Gaspar de Matos PhD, Full Professor, Clinical and Health Psychologist, Technical University of Lisbon,
CMDT & Aventura Social Project, Estrada da Costa – Cruz, Quebrada, Portugal.
E-mail: mmatos@fmh.utl.pt
Lúcia Ramiro PhD Student, Teacher, Technical University of Lisbon, CMDT & Aventura Social Project,
Estrada da Costa – Cruz, Quebrada, Portugal.
E-mail: lisramiro@sapo.pt
Isa Figueira MSc Student, Clinical and Health Psychologist, Technical University of Lisbon, CMDT &
Aventura Social Project, Estrada da Costa – Cruz, Quebrada, Portugal.
E-mail: isapfigueira@gmail.com
ISSN 2029-8587
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62 THE EFFECTS OF A SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL

LEARNING PROGRAM
ON THE THINKING PATTERN OF A
GROUP OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Sebastian Raul Vaida
Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca, Romania
E-mail: sebastianvaida@psychology.ro
Abstract
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) is one of the best approaches to teaching students the skills needed to better
adapt to life and develop on a personal and professional level. Your-SELF is an abbreviation for “Your Social
Emotional Learning Facilitator” and represents a social-emotional learning program based on the Rational
Emotive Behavior Theory (REBT). It was implemented and tested as a personal development program for
university students, for an entire academic year, with 3-4 hours weekly trainings. It is also a powerful and
effective way to decrease the level of irrationality in the students’ thinking style, along with developing some
major life competencies (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, decision ma-
king). In order to test this idea, an experimental design with repeated measures was used and the results clearly
support the hypothesis that a SEL program based on the principles of REBT can lead to a significant decrease
in the level of irrationality of the students in the experimental group, compared to the control one. Also, the
four sub-scales of the instrument used to investigate the level of irrationality (ABS2) were analyzed and the
same significant results were found on the level of low frustration tolerance, self-downing/global evaluation
and awfulizing. The only exception was demandingness, and a rationale for this is offered in the discussion
part of the article. The study shows that such a program can be beneficial and useful for the students involved
and it is worth implementing on a larger scale.
Key words: competencies; rational and irrational thinking pattern; rational emotive behavior education;
social-emotional learning; training; university students.
Introduction
The last decades have seen a change in the educational paradigm, with the accent shifting from
teaching students only information to teaching them both knowledge and competencies. And some
of the competencies with the most benefits for personal and professional development are achieved
as a result of the social emotional learning (SEL).
Problem of Research
SEL represents the process of developing the social-emotional competencies and abilities of
students, by providing the proper environment and learning skills. Thus, SEL is mainly based on
active learning and developing skills, behaviors and thinking processes that help students become
healthy and competent members of the society (Elias, 2003).
SEL has emerged as a result of the research on prevention and resiliency (Haggerty & al.,
2004) with an increasing interest after two more new concepts have appeared: multiple intelligence
(Gardner, 1993) and emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Goleman, 1995).
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Research Focus
63
The research done so far in this area (CASEL, 2003) identifies five main categories of social
emotional competencies that are essential to the optimal development of people, and that will help
them reach their full potential:
• Self-Awareness: identifying and recognizing one’s emotions, values, abilities and
strengths/weaknesses, self-efficacy and self-trust.
• Self-Management: emotions, behavior and stress management, perseverance and mo-
tivation.
• Social-Awareness: empathy and respect for others, valuing similarities and dissimilari-
ties.
• Relationship Skills: setting positive relations based on cooperation, preventing interper-
sonal conflicts, communication.
• Responsible Decision Making: making constructive and ethical choices, evaluating and
reflecting upon them.
• As mentioned before, there are many benefits of SEL for students (Durlak et al., 2011),
and some are definitely worth mentioning. First of all, SEL can improve behavior and
health and increase academic success. Also, it can prevent problems such as drug abuse,
violence and aggression. It can lead to a decrease in the level of emotional distress and,
last but not least, it can prepare the students for becoming adults, by helping them to
be better communicators, great leaders and team/community members, deal with chal-
lenges, set and achieve their goals and, most important, adapt better to life, thanks to a
more rational thinking.
The program presented here is called Your-SELF, an acronym for “Your Social Emotional
Learning Facilitator”, where the accent lays on the students (you, your), thus empowering them.
As the name says, the program is targeted at university students and is among the first of this kind
addressed specifically to this category. There are tenths of SEL programs throughout the world,
with promising results. Yet, they all stop at K12, and this is the reason why such a program can be
considered beneficial and necessary.
In this particular study, the impact and the effects of our program on the level of irrationality of
the students involved are discussed. The concept of irrationality is used as it is defined and understood
by the Rational Emotive Behavior and Therapy (REBT), developed by Albert Ellis starting with 1955.
REBT is a part of the larger family of therapies called cognitive behavior therapies (CBT), along with
other important forms such as cognitive therapy (CT) developed by Aaron Beck (1976) or cognitive
behavior changes (CBC) developed by Donald Meichenbaum (1977). REBT has also developed in
an educational form, which represents an intervention approach based on counseling, built on the
assumption that our emotional and behavioral problems result mainly from a faulty understanding
of the events, rather than from the events themselves. The idea is best expressed through the ABC
model of the emotional/behavioral problems. In the ABC model, A stands for any activating event, B
represents the beliefs about that event and C stands for the emotional/behavioral consequence (s).
Figure 1. The ABC model (Ellis, 1979).

ISSN 2029-8587 Sebastian Raul VAIDA. The Effects of a Social-Emotional Learning Program on the Thinking Pattern of a Group of University Students
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REBT claims that an individual’s beliefs about the event are those that become critical in de-
64
termining the consequences. If the beliefs are rational, than the results are moderate emotions that
help people act constructively in reaching their goals. On the other hand, if the beliefs are irrational,
they will lead to negative dysfunctional emotions such as anger, anxiety, depression, thus stopping
the individuals from reaching their goals.
REBT works with two main concepts - rationality and irrationality. It is considered to be rational
any thinking pattern that helps an individual in reaching his goals, is logic and has a correspondent
in the objective reality. On the opposite site, irrational is considered to be any thinking pattern that
blocks the individual from reaching his goals, is ilogic (e.g. rigid and dogmatic) and doesn’t cor-
respond to reality.
The main idea in REBT is that the negative dysfunctional emotions come from three main ir-
rational beliefs:
1. The idea that I must do well in everything and gain everyone’s approval for my perform-
ance, or else I will look worthless.
2. The opinion that the others must treat me with respect, exactly the way I wish to be treated
and unless they do that, the entire society should blame and punish them for their lack
of consideration concerning me.
3. The conviction that I must live in such a manner that I get everything in the easiest way
possible and avoid everything I do not wish for.
These irrational beliefs result in the form of some totally unproductive attitudes:
1. Lack of personal worth (“I am a worthless person if I don’t do perfect and gain everyone’s
approval exactly as I wish for”).
2. Over-reacting (“It is terrible and awful if I don’t do everything perfect).
3. Lack of tolerance (“I can’t stand the things that are happening to me and shouldn’t have
happened”).
Once identified these irrational beliefs, one can proceed to the next stages of the ABC model,
D and E. In this model, D stands for disputing, and involves challenging the irrational beliefs, by
questioning the assumptions about a certain event. After the challenging takes place and the irrational
beliefs are replaced with more rational ones, moderate emotions appear, thus becoming possible the
next step, finding efficient solutions (stage E). For a more detailed explanation of REBT and the
ABC model, see Dryden & DiGiuseppe (1990).
Your-SELF as a social emotional learning program is designed to address the five main areas of
SEL development: self-awareness, self-management, social-awareness, relationship skills and respon-
sible decision making. The first two areas (self-awareness and social-awareness) are the ones more
intimately connected with emotional management through cognitive restructuring. It is a complex
program that extends over an entire year and goes parallel with the academic university year. The
trainings are scheduled as 3-4 hours long meetings, with one week periodicity and a practical, hands-
on character. The theory covers no more than 10-20% of the length of training, and the accents lays
on exercises, games, role-plays and other practical activities. The students are seen as active actors,
which mean they are both beneficiary and developers as well. And although the program has from
the beginning a clear structure, it can be and is continuously adapted to the needs of the students,
either observed by the trainers or addressed by the students. At the end of each training session, the
students receive an assignment, in order to help them clarify and strengthen what they’ve learned
so far. The character of these assignments is not compulsory and yet the students decide to do them
because they are no longer perceived as “homework” but rather as “challenges” and, more important,
they are done with FUN. So yes, work and personal development can be done (and should be done)
with fun and enjoyment.
Some of the themes in Your-SELF program include topics such as “Get to Know Your Self”,
“Your Strengths and Weaknesses”, “Be a Better Communicator”, “Be a Good Team Member”, “Con-
quer Your Fears”, etc. To make sure the information is understood and the transfer of knowledge
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is done, at the end of each semester, there is a project to be done, in groups of 3-4 students. These
65
2 projects (at the end of each semester) are chosen by the students, from a list proposed by them
as a result of a brainstorming session, in which they address some major issues they observed over
time (as high school students, as teenagers and as members of the community they live in). Such
issues regard lack of communication between students and teachers or students and parents, lack of
team spirit, lack of involvement in the society and many more. Part of the solution to such problems
becomes their projects and their decisions to get involved and become active citizens. For example,
one of the projects proposed by the students in Your-SELF program is to develop a team building
for high school students and deliver such trainings in several pilot high schools.
After this brief presentation of the concepts of social-emotional learning and rational emotive
behavior therapy, the next step is to proceed to the main focus of this study, namely to see if a SEL
program based on REBT can lead to a significant change measured as a decrease in the level of ir-
rationality of the students involved in the program.
Social emotional learning programs are one of the best approach to developing the skills and
competencies students need in order to adapt to every day’s challenges and to develop on a personal
and professional level. In this research, the purpose was to see if applying a social-emotional learn-
ing program based on the principles of rational emotive behavior therapy, would lead to a decrease
in the level of irrationality of the participants. In order to test this hypothesis, the program called
Your-SELF was designed and tested and the acronyms stand for “your social emotional learning
facilitator”.
Participants
This study involved two groups, an experimental one and a control one, both part of a larger
group of psychology students from the Faculty of Psychology at Babes Bolyai University in Cluj
Napoca, Romania. The experimental group consisted of 21 students aged 18-20 (mean age = 19.05
years) and the control groups consisted of 33 students aged 18-23 (mean age 19.36 years). Before
beginning, all the students gave their written consent for participating in this study.
In order to measure the level of irrationality of the students involved in this study, a scale called
Attitude Beliefs Scale 2 (ABS 2) was used, based on the instrument developed by DiGiuseppe et al.
(1988), then later translated and adapted for the Romanian population (Macavei, 2002). The scale
has 72 items (36 are for rational beliefs and 36 for irrational beliefs), with 4 sub-scales, measuring
low frustration tolerance (LFT), self-downing and global evaluation (SD/GE), awfulizing (AWF)
and demandingness (DEM).
Data Analysis
Weeks before beginning the program, all 54 students were tested for their level of irrationality
with ABS2. After that, they were asked whether they would be interested to participate in a personal
development program and, after having their consent for involvement, they were randomly assigned
to one of the two groups: experimental or control one. The decision to work with a smaller number of
students in the experimental groups was due to the conditions imposed by training standards, which
recommend that the ideal number of participants in a training groups should be somewhere between
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15 and 30. Without further details, this was the main reason why the experimental groups consisted
66
of a smaller number of participants. The rest of the 33 students were assigned to the control group
and received no intervention. The pretest phase took place at the beginning of the academic year, in
October, and the post-test phase at the end of their first year, in late June, after the program ended
for the experimental group.
A basic experimental design was used, with repeated measures. The independent variable was
the program and the dependent one was the level of irrationality.
Results of Research
In order to make sure that the two groups are homogeneous, an independent sample t-test was
conducted on the level of irrationality in general and on the four subscales as they were measured in
the pretest phase (table 1). These four subscales were: low frustration tolerance (lft), self-downing
/ global evaluation (sd/ge), awfulizing (awf) and demandingness (dem).
Table 1. Independent samples t-test for homogeneity in pretest.
Scale/subscale Group Mean SD t p
Exp (21) 75.81 36.87

General irrationality -0.42 0.673
Ctrl (33)
Low Exp (21) 22.24 11.52
-0.43 0.667
frustration tolerance Ctrl (33)
Self-Downing / Exp (21) 11.67
17.24 0.58 0.561
Global Evaluation Ctrl (33)
Exp (21) 19.33
Awfulizing 10 -0.13 0.890
Ctrl (33)
Exp (21) 17.00 8.02
Demandingness -1.7 0.086
Ctrl (33)
*p<0.05
From the above data, one can see that there were no significant differences between the two
groups in the pretest phase, on both the general irrationality and the sub-scales (lft, sd/ge, awf, dem).
This meant the two groups (experimental and control) were similar in their level of irrationality and,
if any effect appeared (either in the increase or decrease of irrationality), it could be attributed to
something else than the start level.
Then, a one way repeated measures Anova was conducted, with two groups (experimental and
control), at two times (pretest and post-test). This type of analysis was chosen as compared to an
independent design because it was more sensitive and the unsystematic variance was smaller. Since
the repeated measures variable had less than three levels, the assumption of sphericity was not an
issue. Therefore, the next step was to present the descriptive statistics, with the means and standards
deviations for the two samples of students (table 2). One could easily see that the means of the two
groups in the pretest phase were quite similar and the results in table 1 showed there were no sig-
nificant differences between the two groups in that stage concerning the level of irrationality. Then,
in the post-test phase, the differences between the two groups (experimental and control) became
higher, and this proved that they were also significant, namely there was a significant decrease in the
level of total irrationality in the experimental group compared to the control one.
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Table 2. Descriptive statistics for 2x2 repeated measures Anova.

67
Time Group M SD N
Experimental 75.81 36.87 21

Pretest
Control 80.03 34.74 33
Total 78.39 35.30 54
Experimental 44.95 33.29 21
Post-test
Control 73.00 42.99 33
Total 62.09 41.53 54
The fact that Box’s test of equality of covariance matrices showed a non-significant value
confirmed that the covariance matrices was the same between the experimental and control group
(table 3). In other words, the correlation between pretest and post-test was the same for both the
experimental and control group.
Table 3. Box’s test of equality of covariance matrices.
Box’s M 2.380
F 0.758
Df1 3
Df2 77081.263
Sig. 0.518
The results in table 4 showed that the pre-post level of general irrationality by group interaction
was statistically significant [F (1, 52) = 7.448, p<0.05]. In other words, there was a significant effect
of the social-emotional program in decreasing the level of irrationality for the experimental group
as compared to the control one, in the post-test phase.
Table 4. Tests of within-subjects effects for general irrationality.
Test F p
Sphericity Assumed 7.448 0.009

Greenhouse-Geisser 7.448 0.009
Huynh-Feldt 7.448 0.009
Lower-bound 7.448 0.009
*p<0.05
As mentioned in the beginning of this article, the scale used to measure the level of irrationality
had also four subscales (low frustration tolerance, self-downing / global evaluation, awfulizing and
demandingness), that could offer more detailed information about the types of irrational thoughts.
In table 5, one can see that there was an interaction between the experimental group and the control
one and that the experimental group decreased more that the control one. And this could also be seen
in the fact that the pre-post irrationality by group interaction was statistically significant on three
of the four subscales of ABS2. The differences between measurements (pretest and post-test) were
dependent on group membership and, implicitly, to whether they took part in the program or not. The
interaction was significant on low frustration tolerance [F (1, 52) = 5.209, p<0.05], self-downing/
global evaluation [F (1, 52) = 4.60, p<0.05] and awfulizing [F (1, 52) = 9.70, p<0.05]. The only
exception was demandingness [F (1, 52) = 2.87, p>0.05], where the interaction was not statistically
significant. While there was a decrease in the level of demandingness for the experimental group,
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there was also a decrease for the control one and this certainly could not be attributed to the program.
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A possible explanation for this will was presented in the discussion part of the article.
Table 5. Tests of within-subjects effects for subscales.
Subscale Phase Group M SD N Test F p
Exp 22.24 11.52 21 Sphericity Assumed 5.209 0.027

Pretest
Ctrl 23.48 9.51 33 Greenhouse-Geisser 5.209 0.027
LFT
Exp 11.90 9.37 21 Huynh-Feldt 5.209 0.027
Post-test
Ctrl 19.45 11.47 33 Lower-bound 5.209 0.027
Pretest
SD / GE
Exp 12.33 10.67 21 Huynh-Feldt 4.60 0.037
Post-test
Ctrl 16.09 12.37 33 Lower-bound 4.60 0.037
Pretest
AWF Exp 11.05 8.45 21 Huynh-Feldt 9.70 0.003

Post-test
Ctrl 18.82 11.88 33 Lower-bound 9.70 0.003
Pretest
DEM Exp 9.67 7.30 21 Huynh-Feldt 2.87 0.096

Post-test
Ctrl 18.64 11.19 33 Lower-bound 2.87 0.096
Discussion
This study supported the assumption that implementing a social-emotional learning program
based on the principles of rational emotive behavior theory could lead to a significant decrease in the
level of irrationality. More precisely, significant results have been achieved on the general irratio-
nality level and three of the four subscales of irrationality: low frustration tolerance, self-downing /
global evaluation and awfulizing. This meant that the students in the experimental group developed
a more rational thinking style, which translated as less dysfunctional emotions and, in the end, a
more fulfilling life.
The specific activities from the program Your-SELF had a beneficial influence in significantly
decreasing the students’ low frustration tolerance. This was achieved by first presenting the basics
of REBT on low frustration tolerance, then by teaching them the appropriate strategies they can use
when faced with such situations, then testing what they learn, first imagining the events, then in real
life situations (e.g. role-plays). Same for the concepts of self-downing, global evaluation and awfu-
lizing. After proving a good grasp in the understanding of REBT and the ABC model, the students
experienced no problems in applying and transferring the knowledge to reality.
The one subscale where the results were not significant is demandingness. In REBT, the
concept of demandingness was regarded as an irrational thinking pattern or attitude, that could be
directed towards self, others or life in general. Therefore, a decrease in the level of demandingness
could be achieved by a change in the environment. For the most part of the students, the change
from high-school to university was huge, with everything that it involved: new city, new friends and
colleagues, being away from family and aquaintances, etc. This could sometimes trigger irrational
beliefs in the form of “I demand that life and the others are treating me good, or else everyone is to
blame”, but in other cases can also trigger some more adaptive ideas and beliefs like “I would very
much love to be treated well and have a beautiful life, but I understand that this is not always the
case and I can live with it”. And this was the most common scenario in a students’ life, especially
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when they met different expectations and challenges, that they were not familiarized with before.
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And in such cases, some adapted a more rational thinking style, while other failed to cope with the
everyday challenges.
In the control group investigated, there was a small decrease in the level of demandingness
and the above explanation could be a possible one. Other possible justifications could refer to the
students’ involvement in extra-curricular projects and associations, where they learned many sound
and healthy life principles.
The future directions for research include using larger groups (at least in the control one), sev-
eral instruments in order to have more sensitive measurements and complementary methods such
as qualitative measurements.
Conclusions
Overall, Your-SELF as a social-emotional development program proved to be effective in de-

creasing the irrationality level of the participants in this study. Decreasing the participants’ level of
irrationality meant achieving a more rational thinking pattern and thus experiencing less dysfunctional
negative emotions and changing them with adaptive ones. The largest gain from this program was
the fact that students learned that they can be in control of their thoughts and, consequently, their
emotions.
The program has already been resumed with a new group of students, some from the previous
trainings, and some at the beginning. Time will tell if the program is a success in teaching the students
how to achieve a rational thinking pattern that will help them face and cope with every day’s chal-
lenges and, in the end, become more adapted members of society and life happy, fulfilling lives.
We consider of great importance the implementation and testing of similar programs of social-
emotional learning for students, since they have to be equipped with the right competencies in order
to adapt to all the changes they have to face when they make the switch from high-school to the uni-
versity. The standard university curriculum is absolutely necessary in forming them as professionals.
Unfortunately, it is not sufficient for shaping them as members of the society and future leaders.
References
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EducationalPracticesSeriesPdf/prac11e.pdf
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Press.
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic.
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Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.
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Macavei, B. (2002). Scala de Atitudini şi Convingeri II (ABS II) – date preliminare pentru populaţia de limba
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Salovey, P., & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing.
Advised by Opre Adrian,

Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca, Romania
Sebastian Vaida Research Assistant, PhD Student, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Cluj
Napoca, Republicii Street No 37, Code 400015, Cluj, Romania
E-mail: sebastianvaida@psychology.ro
Website: http://www.psychology.ro
ISSN 2029-8587
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СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЯ 71
СОВРЕМЕННЫХ РОССИЯН ОБ
ОДИНОКОМ ЧЕЛОВЕКЕ
Марина В. Сафонова
Красноярский государственный педагогический университет
им. В. П. Астафьева, Россия
Э-почта: marina.safonova@mail.ru
Абстракт
В статье рассматриваются результаты изучения социальных представлений россиян об одиноком

человеке. Одиночество в современном мире давно перестало быть проблемой отдельного человека, по
специфическим причинам не сумевшего адаптироваться к обществу, выстроить удовлетворяющие его
эмоциональные взаимоотношения с окружающими. В течение двух последних десятилетий одиноче-
ство стало рассматриваться как социальная проблема, не случайно об одиночестве все чаще говорят
как о социальной болезни. Эффективность психологической помощи одиноким людям, построение
и реализация программ, направленных на коррекцию, а главное, – на предупреждение хронического
одиночества во многом зависит от учета современных социальных представлений об одиночестве и
одиноком человеке. Трудности в изучении феномена одиночества в некоторой степени связаны с не-
обходимостью получать информацию, которая затрагивает глубокие интимные пласты личности. С
одной стороны, срабатывают механизмы психологической защиты: респондент начинает испыты-
вать чувство тревоги из-за необходимости давать ответы о себе, с другой – проявляется тенденция
к социальной желательности. Для минимизации этих проявлений в исследовании использовался метод
проективного сочинения. Во ходе контент-анализа данных, полученных с помощью метода проек-
тивного сочинения, были выделены 13 семантических компонентов, каждый из которых раскрывает
определенные черты образа одинокого человека. Психологическая интерпретация полученных данных
позволила описать несколько прототипов одинокого человека, складывающихся в представлениях
современников. Актуальность использования категории «прототип» связана со специфическими
особенностями социальной реальности: сложностью, динамичностью, изменчивостью, многознач-
ностью признаков, используемых для категоризации. Согласно модели частоты признаков, прототип
отражает наиболее часто встречающиеся признаки, свойственные некоторому набору экземпляров,
соответственно, прототип усваивается через фиксацию повторяющихся элементов, присущих объ-
екту, либо ситуации. Анализ представлений респондентов об одиноком человеке позволил выделить
несколько складывающихся прототипов одинокого человека: «карьерист», «одинокий волк», «домосед»,
«антисоциальная личность».
Ключевые слова: одиночество, социальные представления об одиночестве, метод проективного со-
чинения, прототип одинокого человека.
Введение
Исследование проблемы одиночества является весьма актуальным в контексте

особенностей развития современного общества, создающих предпосылки к развитию
одиночества. К их числу можно отнести высокую скорость качественных изменений элементов
культуры, высокую степень расслоения общества, увеличивающуюся разобщенность людей,
особенно в больших городах, культ индивидуализма, недостаточность глубоких эмоциональных
отношений, подмена подлинного интимно-личностного общения виртуальными отношениями
ISSN 2029-8587 Марина В. САФОНОВА. Социальные представления современных россиян об одиноком человеке
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в сети Интернет. Одиночество в современном мире давно перестало быть проблемой отдельного
72
человека, по специфическим причинам не сумевшего адаптироваться к обществу, выстроить
удовлетворяющие его эмоциональные взаимоотношения с окружающими. Оно превратилось
в серьезную социальную проблему, не случайно об одиночестве все чаще говорят как о
социальной болезни.
Феномен одиночества рассматривался в различных философских учениях, в рамках
большинства психологических направлений, в социологических исследованиях. В его состав
входит и особый онтологический статус – реальное состояние человека, и способ проживания
одиночества, и форма переживания одиночества и его последствий. Отмечая тенденцию к
расширению и углублению изучения одиночества как предметной области, И.М. Слободчиков
(2007) в ходе анализа современных исследований констатирует, что психология одиночества
как особая отрасль научного исследования находится на начальных стадиях своего развития,
не смотря на то, что за последние десять лет число работ, изучающих одиночество в рамках
разнонаправленной проблематики, увеличилось в разы.
Получили своё дополнение и определённое развитие гипотезы и предположения с позиций
когнитивного подхода (Perlman, 1988, Peplau, 1985), активно формировалась эмпирическая
база исследований в рамках социологических теорий (Shaver, Hazan, 1984), было продолжено
описание проблем общения, касающихся возрастных групп (Asher, 1984, Rubin, 1991, Pin-
quart, 2001, Cohen-Mansfield, Parpura-Gill, 2007). Среди современных работ можно выделить
научные комментарии Андре (Andre, 1991), утверждающие позитивный смысл переживания
одиночества; исследование Рокача и Брока (Rokach, 1990, Rokach, Broek,1998, Rokach, 2001),
выявляющее стратегии преодоления и факторы одиночества, исследования рассматривающие
одиночество людей, ориентированных на достижение успеха (Cooper, 2003), пользователей
сети Интернет (Moody, 2001, Amichai-Hamburger, Ben-Artzi, 2003), исследования, посвященные
влиянию гендера и семейного статуса на переживание одиночества (Pinquart, 2003, Dykstra,
Fokkema, 2007, Rokach, Matalon, Safarov, 2007), работы, рассматривающие одиночество как
фактор возникновения депрессивных состояний (Cacioppo, 2006).
Проблемное поле изучения одиночества в отечественной психологии весьма широко:
изучение одиночества как общепсихологического феномена (Слободчиков, 2007), социально-
психологического феномена (Абульханова-Славская, 1999, Трубникова 1999, Пузанова, 2007);
изучение культурно-исторических форм одиночества (Покровский, 1996, Ветров 1995, Швалб,
Данчева, 2001); изучение психологических особенностей одиночества на различных этапах
онтогенеза (И.С. Кон, Долгинова, 2000, Перешеина, 1999, Рогова, 2005, Коротеева, 2005);
описание явлений, близких одиночеству (изоляция, уединение) (Кузнецов, Лебедев, 1992,
Хараш, 2000) и т.д.
Одиночество нельзя сводить к психическому состоянию с отрицательной модальностью
переживаний. Это гораздо более сложный феномен, связанный с взаимодействием и взаимоот-
ношениями человека с окружающей природной и социальной действительностью, приводящий
к возникновению разнообразных психических состояний и переживаний. В контексте нашего
исследования важным аспектом является изучение социальных представлений об одиночестве.
Понятие одинокой личности, несмотря на значительное число исследований в этой области,
определено недостаточно четко. Оно по-разному воспринимается в зависимости от конкретной
личности, ситуации жизнедеятельности, и люди, как правило, используют различные стандар-
ты, когда судят о своем собственном одиночестве или об одиночестве других. Поэтому, когда
человек говорит: «Я чувствую себя одиноким» или «Это одинокий человек», – он необязательно
понимает одиночество однозначно. Ввиду разнообразия значений, приписываемых одинокой
личности необходима некая отправная точка, которая давала бы представление о способах
употребления людьми этого понятия. Хоровиц, Френч и Андерсон (1989) изучали «прототи-
пы» одинокой личности, но в силу изменившихся условий общества ХХI века, мы считаем
необходимым изучить современные социальные представления об одиноком человеке.
Социальное представление выполняет три функции: инструментальную (является ин-
струментом познания социального мира); опосредования поведения (участвует в процессах
формирования поведения и ориентации социальных коммуникаций); адаптационную (пред-
ставление является средством адаптации совершающихся событий к уже имеющимся). Чтобы
Марина В. САФОНОВА. Социальные представления современных россиян об одиноком человеке ISSN 2029-8587
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социальных стереотипов, способов адаптации и маргинализации различных социальных групп
необходимо прослеживать и понимать причины изменения формирования социальных пред-
ставлений в конкретных исторических трансформациях. В этом плане изучение представлений
об одиноком человеке оказывается важным с точки зрения исследования проблемы субъек-
тивного отношения к одиноким людям и последовательного поведения. В конструировании
социальных представлений современных россиян об одиноком человеке состоит основная
цель настоящего исследования.
Методология исследования
Трудности в изучении феномена одиночества в некоторой степени связаны с

необходимостью получать информацию, которая затрагивает глубокие интимные пласты
личности. Самораскрытие на интимно-личностном уровне возможно только в процессе
доверительного общения. Анкетный опрос не предполагает такого рода общения, поскольку,
с одной стороны, срабатывают механизмы психологической защиты: респондент начинает
испытывать чувство тревоги из-за необходимости давать ответы о себе, с другой – проявляется
тенденция к социальной желательности: высказывая суждения на тему, к которой в обществе
нет однозначного отношения, респондент может ориентироваться на невербальные проявления
одобрения /неодобрения со стороны исследователя. Для минимизации этих проявлений в
исследовании использовался метод проективного сочинения. Респондентам предлагалось
не отвечать на прямые вопросы о переживании чувства одиночества, а написать небольшое
сочинение об абстрактном одиноком человеке. Проективный метод – это средство изучения
путей и способов организации индивидом своего физического и социального опыта,
субъективных представлений о себе и своем социальном окружении. Определяя специфику
проективного подхода, Л. Франк (2000) пишет о том, что это прием исследования личности, с
помощью которого испытуемого помещают в ситуацию, реакцию на которую он осуществляет
в зависимости от значения для него этой ситуации, его мыслей и чувств. Ценность и главное
назначение проективных методик – выявление присущих личности способов структурирования
ее «жизненного пространства», ее субъективного внутреннего мира (Соколова, 1980).
Выбор метода обоснован несколькими соображениями. Во-первых, один из механизмов
психологической защиты – это проекция, которая заключается в неосознанном наделении
другого человека присущими данной личности мотивами, чертами и свойствами. Поэтому
респонденты, имеющие опыт переживания одиночества, с большой доле вероятности
вербализуют его в проективном сочинении. Во-вторых, учитывая многомерность человеческого
мышления необходимо использовать как методы изучения осознанных уровней мышления, так
и методы, предназначенные для изучения неосознанных его уровней (Маркова, 1988) Метод
проективного сочинения будет способствовать выявлению глубинного, неосознаваемого,
автоматизированного уровня репрезентации одиночества. В-третьих, у респондентов, не
имеющих опыта переживания одиночества, под влиянием средств массовой информации,
кинофильмов, художественных произведений сформировалось представление об одиноком
человеке, некий прототип, сложилось отношение к одиноким людям, а проективное сочинение
дает хорошую возможность систематизировать и вербализовать имеющиеся представления.
Данные о частотности ответов респондентов дают возможность впоследствии построить
когнитивную схему представления.
В когнитивной психологии разрабатывается понятие прототипа, которое связано с
представлением о когнитивных схемах, когнитивных структурах. Актуальность использования
данной категории связана со специфическими особенностями социальной реальности:
сложностью, динамичностью, изменчивостью, многозначностью признаков, используемых для
категоризации (Полев, 2004). Согласно Р. Аткинсону (1999), прототип следует рассматривать в
связи с проблемой формирования понятий. Признаки, формирующие понятие, распадаются на
две группы: признаки, характеризующие прототип понятия, и признаки, составляющие ядро
понятия. Большинство социальных категорий представляют собой весьма размытые понятия,
не имеющие чётко идентифицируемого ядра. Прототип даёт возможность категоризации
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Прототип включает те признаки, которые принадлежат наилучшим примерам понятия. Так,
представления о типичном политике могут включать представление о мужчине, 40-50 лет,
серьёзном, официальном и т.д. Таким образом, прототип позволяет отнести объект к классу,
опираясь на внешние, наглядно представленные признаки. Согласно модели частоты
признаков, прототип отражает наиболее часто встречающиеся признаки, свойственные
некоторому набору экземпляров, соответственно, прототип усваивается через фиксацию
повторяющихся элементов, присущих объекту, либо ситуации. Эксперименты Франкса и
Брансфорда, Ноймана, Солсо и Маккарти подтверждают эту модель (Солсо,1996).
Респондентам было предложено высказать их мнение о наилучшем (идеальном) образце
одинокой личности; установить приблизительный возраст и пол такой личности, отметить
наиболее характерные для этого человека чувства, его мысли и поступки. Аналогичный
прием использовали Л.М. Хоровиц, Р. Де С. Френч и К.А. Андерсон на начальных этапах
исследования (1989).
В исследовании приняли участие 120 человек, в том числе 18 подростков в возрасте
14 – 17 лет (10 девочек и 8 мальчиков), 38 молодых людей в возрасте 20 – 35 лет (26 женщин
и 12 мужчин), 28 зрелых людей в возрасте от 40 до 50 лет (18 женщин и 10 мужчин) и 36
человек в возрасте 55 – 75 лет (24 женщины и 12 мужчин). Среди респондентов мужчины
и женщины, обучающиеся или работающие в гуманитарных (63%) и технических (37%)
областях, в группу респондентов 55-75 лет вошли как работающие (42,5%), так и вышедшие
на пенсию (57,4%).
В ходе проведения исследования с применением качественных методов встает
проблема структурирования большого массива данных для выделения желаемого образа. У
качественных методов нет строгих правил анализа, целью работы может быть лишь ясное
представление данных и обнаружение в них некоторых закономерностей. Контент-анализ
текстовой информации, полученной методом проективных сочинений, состоит из нескольких
этапов обобщения: типичные высказывания отдельных респондентов, обобщение на уровне
здравого смысла исследователя, абстрактно-аналитический уровень обобщений. В результате
этого процесса сложная социальная реальность должна «свернуться» в некоторое количество
категорий, классов, которые могут быть подвергнуты дальнейшему описанию, анализу и
интерпретации. Классификационная схема должна обеспечивать легкий доступ к данным и
помогать при многократном обращении к начальной информации.
В результате сбора информации по проблеме одиночества методом проективного
сочинения было получено 1832 элементарных обоснования – законченных суждений об
одиноком человеке. На первом этапе обработки полученной информации при просмотре всего
массива текста отыскивались повторения в употреблении элементарных обоснований. Они
были заметны еще во время занесения данных в матрицу. Затем повторяющиеся элементарные
обоснования группировались в элементы. Согласованные (синонимичные, семантически
близкие) ответы сводились вместе, это привело к тому, что внутри элементов содержатся
элементарные обоснования со схожим смыслом, и в то же время сами элементы ясно и четко
различаются между собой. Элементы получили названия, употребляемые респондентами.
На втором этапе осуществлялся анализ вербальных категорий. Для этого элементы
сравнивались между собой, что позволило провести их смысловую классификацию и
сконструировать компоненты. Компоненты – это категории, которые в прямом значении могли
и не встречаться в данных, но были выявлены при аналитическом пересечении и объединении
элементов.
Интерпретируя полученный образ одинокого человека, важно осознавать, что между
изучаемым явлением и его сконструированной абстракцией всегда будет существовать
некоторое расхождение. Это обусловлено тем, что в процессе анализа феномена, существующего
в объективной реальности, происходит его неизбежное упрощение, схематизация, а полученные
описания того, что происходит в опыте респондентов, не могут быть полностью тождественны
нашей интерпретации этих описаний. Тем не менее, с долей погрешности, прототип одинокого
человека в представлении наших современников может быть описан следующим образом.
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Результаты исследования 75
За основу изучения представления была взята концепция социального представления
С.Московичи (1984). Традиционно в теории социальных представлений выделяют следующие
компоненты.
1. Когнитивный уровень – результат познавательной деятельности человека,
та содержательная информация, которая уже стала продуктом обработки и
структурирования знаний.
2. Эмоционально-оценочный уровень («установка» по С. Московичи) – своеобразное
двойное дно представления, которое не осознается самими респондентами.
Выявление эмоциональных доминант позволяет детальнее анализировать
многомерность представления об одиноком человеке.
3. Организационный уровень представления – соотношение между знаниями,
организация содержания знания с качественной стороны. По своему значению
близок понятию «когнитивная схема».
В таблице 1 представлены тринадцать компонентов, которые были выделены в результате
анализа полученных данных. Можно отметить, что у современников представление об
одиноком человеке становится более дифференцированным и когнитивно сложным. В целом
когнитивный уровень социальных представлений современных россиян об одиноком человеке
может быть описан следующим образом.
Таблица 1. Компоненты образа одинокого человека
Абсолютный вес (частота

Компонент Доля в %
встречаемости)
1. Причины одиночества 419 22,87

2. Особенности личности одинокого человека 293 15,99
3. Занятия, увлечения 182 9,93
4. Настроение 159 8,68
5. Образ жизни 118 6,44
6. Общение 118 6,44
7. Отношение людей к одинокому человеку 105 5,73
8. Отношение одинокого человека к людям 102 5,57
9. Особенности поведения 92 5,02
10. Социальный статус 78 4,26
11. Ситуации, усугубляющие одиночество 68 3,71
12. Род занятий 54 2,95
13. Возраст 44 2,40
Итого 1832 100
Каждый из компонентов раскрывает определенные черты образа одинокого человека.

Наибольший удельный вес у таких компонентов как «причины одиночества» и «особенности
одинокого человека», как будет отмечено далее, эти два компонента во многом взаимосвязаны.
Тем не менее, хочу начать представление результатов с других компонентов.
Почти десятая часть высказываний, описывающих одинокого человека пришлась в сумме
на три компонента: возраст, социальный статус и род занятий. Респонденты достаточно часто
отмечали в сочинениях, что возраст не имеет значения, но прямые высказывания о возрасте
позволяют судить, что в представлениях современников одиноким человеком чаще всего
является пожилой человек, хотя одиночество знакомо и людям среднего возраста и подросткам.
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пожилого возраста, возможно потому, что подростковое одиночество преходящее, не случайно
его называют псевдо одиночеством.
Респонденты обратили внимание на то, что определенный социальный статус
способствует возникновению одиночества, с большим преимуществом здесь «лидирует» статус
«интеллигентный человек, представитель среднего класса», далее идут пенсионеры, матери-
одиночки, разведенные люди. Можно предположить, что доминирование в ответах элемента
««интеллигентный человек, представитель среднего класса» в определенной степени является
следствием усвоения стереотипа, транслируемого современными кино, художественной
литературой, СМИ, в какой-то степени – отражением современных тенденций в социальных
отношениях наиболее активного слоя населения. Это предположение подтверждают суждения,
вошедшие в компонент «Род занятий». По мнению респондентов, одинокий человек,
скорее всего, менеджер среднего звена, сосредоточенный на карьере в ущерб отношениям;
представитель мало оплачиваемой интеллигентной профессии, не престижной, снижающей
привлекательность ее обладателя на современном «рынке» отношений; представитель
творческих профессий, которые предполагают характерный образ жизни: требуют уединения,
определенной личной свободы.
Почти шестая часть высказываний в проективных сочинениях посвящена описанию черт
характера, особенностей личности одинокого человека. В этот компонент вошли двадцать
элементов, объединившие 293 элементарных суждения.
Таблица 2. Категории, вошедшие в компонент «Особенности личности

одинокого человека»
Категории 293 100,00
1. Застенчивый человек. 34 11,60

2. С заниженной самооценкой, считает себя
34 11,60
малопривлекательной личностью.
3. Отсутствие смысла жизни, целей. 30 10,24
4. Эгоистичность, «Я – центр Вселенной, а меня не ценят!». 26 8,87
5. Скромный. 24 8,19
6. Трудолюбие. 20 6,83
7. «Брюзга». 18 6,14
8. Интроверт. 17 5,80
9. Свободолюбие. 12 4,10
10. Доброта. 12 4,10
11. Неуверенный в себе. 10 3,41
12. Слишком умный. 10 3,41
13. Самодостаточность. 10 3,41
14. Простота. 8 2,73
15. Отзывчивость. 8 2,73
16. Дружелюбность. 8 2,73
17. Чувство юмора. 6 2,05
18. Находчивость. 2 0,68
19. Авантюризм. 2 0,68
При обобщении элементы могут быть сгруппированы в несколько категорий, по смыслу

поддерживающих складывающиеся в представлении респондентов прототипы одинокого
человека. Образ милого, но робкого интеллигентного человека раскрывается в таких элементах
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самооценкой, простой, отзывчивый, дружелюбный, с чувством юмора. Такой человек имеет
ряд привлекательных для окружающих людей характеристик, но в силу застенчивости и
неуверенности испытывает трудности в установлении отношений. Для части окружающих он
может казаться недостаточно современным, а поэтому при первом впечатлении – недостаточно
привлекательным, поскольку СМИ транслируют иную модель ролевого поведения. В сумме
этот образ описывается 130 элементарными высказываниями.
Другой складывающийся прототип одинокого человека – человек, сознательно выбирающий
независимость: самодостаточный, свободолюбивый, интроверт, авантюрист, слишком умный
в сравнении с окружающими. Такому человеку тесно в традиционных рамках и моделях
отношений, и он выбирает свой путь, пусть и в одиночестве.
Остальные элементы характеризуют качества, негативно оцениваемые партнерами, а,
следовательно, разрушающе действующие на отношения, препятствующие установлению
психологически близких отношений: «брюзга» или «эгоист, центр вселенной». Любопытно, что в
10,24% элементарных суждений высказана мысль о том, что одинокий человек не имеет смысла,
целей в жизни. И лишь в 0,68% суждений содержится предположение о том, что у одинокого
человека есть и желания, и цели, но по личным качествам он не может их реализовать.
Давая характеристику особенностям общения одинокого человека с окружающими,
респонденты приводили элементарные суждения, которые могут быть сгруппированы по двум
полюсам: тяжело устанавливать контакты, тянется к людям, хочет общения, но неуверенность,
робость ему мешают, и, напротив, грубый, импульсивный, агрессивный, раздражительный,
упрямый, конфликтный, оказывает психологическое давление на других, лицемерный, не умеет
работать в команде, требует повышенного внимания к себе. В подавляющем большинстве
суждений респонденты отмечают неприятный для окружающих стиль общения одинокого
человека. Нельзя сделать однозначных выводов о том, является ли одиночество в этом случае
причиной или следствием. Поскольку одиночество можно рассматривать как фрустрацию
потребности в эмоционально теплых близких отношениях, то робкое и застенчивое общение
может быть проявлением импунитивных реакций на фрустрацию, а конфликтное, агрессивное –
экстрапунитивных реакций, то есть являться следствием негативных переживаний одиночества.
В любом случае, респонденты фиксируют неэффективный стиль общения у одиноких людей,
что подчеркивает трудности, которые испытывают и одинокий человек, и те люди, которые
общаются с ним. Это делает важным оказание психологической помощи одиноким людям в
развитии их социальной компетентности.
Интересны элементарные суждения, раскрывающие такой компонент одинокого человека
как «образ жизни». Развивая свое представление об одиноком человеке, респонденты
описывают три стиля жизни: «карьерист», «одинокий волк», «домосед». Прототип домоседа
описан респондентами наиболее подробно: скучный, однообразный образ жизни, работа –
дом, отсутствие друзей, интересов и увлечений, сосредоточенность на болезнях, неприятных
переживаниях. Выделенный как отдельный компонент «Занятия, увлечения» логично
продолжает развитие образа одинокого человека: для «домоседов» – пенсионеры, разведенные
люди, матери-одиночки, представители мало оплачиваемых интеллигентных профессий – это,
согласно атрибуции респондентов, телевизор, сериалы, домашние дела, домашние животные,
цветоводство, рукоделие, коллекционирование. Для «одиноких волков», «интеллигентных людей,
среднего класса» – чтение книг, возможно, их написание, искусство, медитация, йога, философия,
религия, фотография, путешествия. Мы допускаем, что любые из этих занятий можно было бы
отнести и к другому складывающемуся прототипу, в том числе, «карьеристу». Указанные занятия
можно рассматривать как определенные стратегии совладания, своеобразную замену общению.
Но обращает на себя внимание тот факт, что все они не предполагают активного взаимодействия
с другими людьми, т.е. не способствуют развитию социальных контактов, следовательно, не
решают, а лишь временно «смягчают» проблему дефицита эмоциональных связей.
Дополняют образ одинокого человека суждения об особенностях поведения. Интересно, что
все элементарные суждения носят преимущественно негативную оценку «типичного» поведения
одинокого человека – ленив, инертен, неактивен, мало заметен, зависим от компьютерных игр,
социальных сетей, предпочитает виртуальное общение реальному, демонстрирует зависимости,
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формировании негативной установки на одиноких людей, как переживающих одиночество по
собственной вине. Тем не менее, не представляется возможным дать однозначную интерпретацию
суждениям респондентов в том плане, что отмечаемые ими особенности поведения могут быть
как причиной одиночества (человек с таким поведением не является привлекательным для
других), так и его следствием (пассивность, инертность, различные виды зависимостей могут
являться реакцией на состояние одиночества, служить способами, помогающими переживать
неприятные эмоции, связанные с одиночеством). Указанный факт делает актуальной помощь
одиноким людям в поиске адекватных и эффективных стратегий совладания с негативными
переживаниями.
Описывая характерное для одинокого человека настроение (159 элементарных суждений,
сгруппированных по 15 категориям), респонденты подчеркивают преимущественно негативную
модальность переживаний, при этом подавляющее большинство высказываний отражают
сниженный фон настроения: настроение чаще унылое, чувство печали, глубокого несчастья;
тоска; пустота; грустный, опустивший руки; ощущение разбитости; пессимистичен, от будущего
ждет лишь худшего, расстроен безнадежностью, депрессия; считает свою жизнь и жизнь
других людей бессмысленной. Респонденты отмечают, что одинокий человек чувствует себя
не таким, как все, испытывает чувство жалости к себе, ему не хватает положительных эмоций
и переживаний. Для одинокого человека характерны как чрезмерная тревожность и страх, так
и чувство злости. Лишь в десятой части высказываний отмечается, что одинокие люди редко
показывают свои переживания и стараются казаться равнодушными. Таким образом, можно
говорить о том, что одинокие люди преимущественно испытывают негативные эмоциональные
переживания, нередко подавляя их в себе, что ухудшает их психологическое состояние.
Задачами работы с одинокими людьми могут стать, с одной стороны, работа по когнитивному
переструктурированию, преодолению пессимистичного взгляда на жизнь, с другой – обучение
способам адекватного отреагирования эмоциональных состояний, оптимизации эмоционального
фона.
Примерно равное количество элементарных суждений относятся к компонентам «Отношение
людей к одинокому человеку» (105 элементарных суждений) и «Отношение одинокого человека
к людям» (102 элементарных суждения). Первый компонент раскрывает эмоционально-
оценочную составляющую социального представления об одиноком человеке (установку). Если
располагать категории, раскрывающие отношение людей к одинокому человеку в континууме
от резко негативного до позитивного, то можно получить следующую последовательность:
«хочется его презирать» – «с непониманием, раздражением» – «людям неинтересен такой
человек, их привлекают жизнерадостные люди» – «безразлично» – «с жалостью, сочувствием» –
«находятся те, кто поддерживает таких людей». Как видим, нейтральное отношение выражено в
минимальной степени, т.е. можно наблюдать определенную поляризацию отношения в обществе
к одинокой личности, но примечательно, что положительное отношение несколько преобладает
над негативным, хотя последнее более дифференцировано по своим проявлениям.
Аналогичный континуум можно выстроить и для категорий, раскрывающих отношение
одинокого человека к окружающим людям: «негативно относится к другим» – «недоверчивость,
подозрительность, ожидает неприятностей от других» – «нет чувства общности с другими» –
«избегает социальных контактов, сам изолирует себя от людей» – «безразлично» – «интересуется
жизнью других» – «хочет быть нужным». Также, как и в предыдущем компоненте, нейтральное
отношение выражено минимально, но негативное отношение к окружающим, по мнению
респондентов, у одинокого человека превалирует над позитивным. На наш взгляд, в этой ситуации
максимально проявился механизм проекции.
Представляет интерес анализ причин, приводящих к одиночеству. В психологии для
объяснения многих явлений традиционно выделяются две большие группы факторов:
ситуационных (внешних, объективных) и личностных (внутренних, субъективных,
характерологических). Вейс (1989) выделяет ситуации, при которых возникает вероятность
одиночества: развод, смерть, потеря близкого человека, – и указывает на психологические
свойства личности, черты ее характера, приводящие к одиночеству: сосредоточенность на своём
внутреннем мире, застенчивость, низкая самооценка. Среди личностных черт, способствующих
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себе, а среди ситуативных факторов указывает на события, которые должны вызывать негативные
переживания. Поскольку ситуационные факторы разнообразны и всегда выступают в качестве
внешнего условия для психологических явлений, психологами уделяется больше внимания
личностным факторам, т.е. поиску комплекса характерологических черт или отдельных свойств,
яркая выраженность которых создает у человека предрасположенность к одиночеству.
В нашем исследовании компонент «Причины одиночества» набрал максимальный
удельный вес (419 элементарных суждений или 22,87%). Всего в этот компонент вошли
26 категорий, которые мы сгруппировали в категории второго уровня, представленные в
таблице 3.
Таблица 3. Категории, вошедшие в компонент «Причины одиночества»
Категории 419 100,00
1. Индивидуальные особенности, препятствующие установлению психологически

143 34,13
близких отношений
2. Кризисная ситуация (ситуативное одиночество, эмоциональная, реже социальная
изоляция) 128 30,54
3. Несоответствие требованиям окружающей социальной среды (социальная

изоляция) 69 16,46
4. Принадлежность к низко статусной социальной группе (социальная изоляция) 53 12,64

5. Потребность в уединении (позитивное одиночество) 26 6,2
Как видим, респонденты больший акцент сделали на индивидуальных особенностях,

препятствующих установлению близких отношений (отсутствие навыков общения, отсутствие
терпимости к окружающим, боязнь зрелых отношений, эгоизм, неуверенность, страхи и
комплексы).
Вторая по весу категория раскрывает жизненные обстоятельства, приведшие к кризису
и, соответственно, к ситуативному переживанию одиночества (разрыв отношений, кризисный
этап в развитии личности, жизненное потрясение, разочарование, переезд на новое место
жительства). Интересно, на наш взгляд, появление такой первичной категории как «кризисный
этап в развитии», что по смыслу отражает «нормативное» переживание одиночества,
необходимое для совершения внутренней работы. Оно может переживаться тяжело, но в
итоге исполнено внутреннего смысла. В этом случае человек познаёт себя, свой собственный
внутренний мир. Также обращает внимание появление категории «переезд на новое место
жительства», что делает актуальной проблему адаптации мигрантов еще и с позиции изучаемой
проблемы.
Респонденты отмечают в качестве причин одиночества несоответствие человека
требованиям окружающей среды, при этом категория раскрывается не только в суждениях,
отражающих неадаптивное, антисоциальное поведение человека, но и в суждениях,
раскрывающих наличие у одинокого человека иных ценностей и суждений, принадлежность
к другому мировоззрению, религии, неспособность человека соответствовать современному
темпу жизни, высоким стандартам социального успеха, в какой-то степени несоответствие
личности требованиям культуры.
Одна из категорий объединила причины, которые можно обозначить как принадлежность к
низко статусной социальной группе. Мы впервые столкнулись с прямым указанием участников
исследований на одиночество, обусловленное старостью, инвалидностью, национальной
принадлежностью, бедностью. Процесс социального расслоения достигает такого уровня,
когда возникает социальная сегрегация.
В качестве позитивной причины одиночества, рассматриваемого скорее как уединение,
респонденты отмечают потребность побыть с самим собой, отрешиться от суеты, обрести
себя.
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Таким образом, можно говорить о том, что социальные представление об одиноком человеке
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претерпевают изменения, закономерно связанные с процессами развития общества.
Дисскусия
Рассматривая результаты проведенного исследования в сравнении с полученными другими

авторами, можно заметить следующее.
В 1980 г, рассматривая прототипы одинокой личности, Л.М. Хоровиц, Р де С. Френч и
К.А. Андерсон (1989) отмечали, что одинокие люди обладают признаками, которые можно
объединить в три группы: 1) мысли и чувства: ощущение и понимание (истинное или
иллюзорное) своей непохожести на других, своей ненужности никому, неполноценности; 2)
поведение: избегание социальных контактов, самоизоляция от остальных; 3) параноидальные
ощущения, включая чувство злости и подавленности
В социологическом исследовании Ж.В. Пузановой (2006), проведенном в 2002 г. с
помощью метода незаконченных предложений, выделено 10 компонентов, описывающих
модель одинокого человека, наибольший удельный вес получили компоненты «характеристики
одинокого человека», «общение», «причины одиночества», «отношение к одинокому человеку»,
«поступки, поведение одинокого»
В настоящем исследовании респондентами выделяется уже 13 компонентов, раскрывающих
представление об одиноком человеке. Это свидетельствует о том, что когнитивный компонент
представления становится более сложным и дифференцированным. Следует отметить, как
появление новых элементов в когнитивном образе одинокого человека (возраст, статус, род
занятий, образ жизни), так и дифференциацию имеющихся. Так, в компоненте «причины
одиночества» появились такие категории как «несоответствие требованиям окружающей
социальной среды», «принадлежность к низко статусной социальной группе», приводящие
к возникновению одиночества по типу социальной изоляции. Осознаваемое на когнитивном
уровне, негативно зафиксированное на эмоционально-оценочном уровне, такое знание
складывается в когнитивную схему, определяющую последовательное поведение по
отношению к людям, попадающим в указанные категории, что представляет определенную
социальную проблему.
Как и в исследовании Вейса (1989), респонденты, рассматривая причины одиночества,
также сделали больший акцент на индивидуальных особенностях, препятствующих
установлению близких отношений (отсутствие навыков общения, отсутствие терпимости к
окружающим, боязнь зрелых отношений, эгоизм, неуверенность, страхи и комплексы). Похожие
результаты были получены группой ученых под руководством Сигельмана (по Швалб, 2001).
Среди характеристик, отрицательно влияющих на способность к поддержанию близких
отношений, были выделены: ощущение себя неудачником, жалость к себе, избегание близкого
общения, лживость, ненадёжность, враждебность к другим людям. Можно предположить,
что в таких суждениях в том числе проявляется ошибка каузальной атрибуции, связанная
с объяснением поведения личными особенностями человека там, где оно на самом деле
определялось ситуацией.
Болгарский психолог Л. Симеонова (по Швалб, 2001) сделала попытку сгруппировать
людей, подверженных одиночеству, по их характерным поведенческим особенностям и
выделила следующие типы:
1. Люди с ненасытной потребностью в самоутверждении, у которых в центре внимания
стоит только собственный успех.
2. Люди с сильно выраженной стереотипизацией поведения, вследствие которой они
не в состоянии выйти из рамок выбранной ими роли и не могут позволить себе
раскованность.
3. Люди, отличающиеся сильной нестандартностью в поведении, у которых
мировосприятие и поступки не соответствуют установленным в доступных для
них группах правилам и нормам.
4. Люди, сосредоточенные на своём внутреннем мире, представляющие события
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на все то, что происходит с другими.
5. Люди застенчивые, с заниженной самооценкой, недооценивающие себя как
личность, стремящиеся всегда держаться в тени.
Особенности личности, поведения и общения одинокого человека, выделенные
респондентами в нашем исследовании, в целом подтверждают предложенную типологию, что
говорит о формировании достаточно устойчивых образов одинокого человека.
В сравнении с результатами исследования Л.М. Хоровиц, Р. де С. Френча и К.А. Андерсона
(1989), только 5% суждений респондентов связаны с описанием параноидальных ощущений
у одинокого человека. Большинством респондентов эмоциональное состояние одинокого че-
ловека описывается как негативное, но не выходящее за границы психического здоровья, т.е.
в социальном представлении одинокий человек не является «ненормальным». В тоже время,
часть респондентов отметила наличие депрессивных состояний у одиноких людей, что со-
гласуется с данными Cacioppo (2006).
Как и в исследовании Cooper (2003), респонденты отмечают, что карьерно ориентиро-
ванные люди часто расплачиваются за достигнутый успех переживанием одиночества, более
того, мы отмечаем, что возникает новый прототип одинокого человека – менеджер-карьерист,
пренебрегающий эмоционально-близкими отношениями, не умеющий или не желающий их
строить. Находят свое подтверждение и данные исследований одиночества пользователей сети
Интернет (Moody, 2001, Amichai-Hamburger, Ben-Artzi, 2003). Респонденты (37%) отмечают,
что одинокими людьми являются те, кто «зависим» от компьютерных игр, социальных сетей
и погружается в виртуальные отношения вместо того, чтобы уделять внимание реальному
взаимодействию с окружающими.
Суждения об одиноком человеке, показали, что в сознании россиян, одинокий человек
занимает статус матери-одиночки, холостого или разведенного человека, что в целом не
противоречит результатам исследований, посвященных влиянию гендера и семейного ста-
туса на переживание одиночества (Pinquart, 2003. Dykstra, Fokkema, 2007, Rokach, Matalon,
Safarov, 2007).
Таким образом, можно говорить о том, что в последнее десятилетие складывается
более когнитивно сложное представление об одиноком человеке, универсальный прототип
одинокого человека замещается рядом новых прототипов, порожденных новыми социально-
экономическими и культурными условиями. Можно говорить о том, что в условиях глобали-
зации складывается некоторое универсальное, кросс-культурное представление об одиноком
человек, имеющее, тем не менее, вариативные особенности в различных социокультурных
группах. Установка на одиноких людей поляризирована, и факторы ее формирования у разных
категорий населения требуют дальнейшего изучения.
Заключение
Обобщая результаты проведенного пилотажного исследования, можно заключить, что

метод проективных сочинений соответствует задаче изучения социальных представлений об
одиноком человеке. Даже на уровне описательной статистики получены результаты, которые,
с одной стороны, подтверждают выводы, сделанные в систематических исследованиях
одиночества, с другой – показывают динамику социальных представлений об одиночестве у
современных жителей.
Социальные представления современных россиян являют собой многоуровневую
систему, включающую разные аспекты социальной действительности и образа одинокого
человека. Можно говорить о том, что социальные представления об одиночестве стали
более дифференцированными, на смену универсальному прототипу одинокого человека,
схожему с прототипом депрессивной личности, приходят несколько прототипов одинокой
личности, отражающих стиль жизни и особенности восприятия одиночества современниками.
Развивая свое представление об одиноком человеке, респонденты описывают три прототипа:
«карьерист», «одинокий волк», «домосед».
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статусной социальной группе (старики (пенсионеры), инвалиды, люди иной национальной
принадлежностью (мигранты), люди, живущие за чертой бедности), традиционно
рассматриваемые как низкостатусные с точки зрения семейного статуса матери-одиночки,
холостые и разведенные, т.е. одинокий человек не соответствует высоким стандартам
социального успеха.
Новой тенденцией в развитии социальных представлений об одиноком человеке
является определение его как человека с иным мировоззрением, религией, ценностями, как
несоответствующего современному темпу и стилю жизни, требованиям культуры. В эту
категорию попадают люди и с вполне высоким социально-экономическим статусом.
Представления о ведущей роли индивидуальных характеристик в возникновении
одиночества сохраняют свою устойчивость. Преимущественно негативная оценка «типичного»
поведения одинокого человека свидетельствует о формировании негативной установки на
одиноких людей, как переживающих одиночество по собственной вине.
Большая часть элементов социального представления россиян об одиноком человеке
совпадает с полученными на зарубежных выборках, что свидетельствует о некоторой
универсальности складывающихся у современников когнитивных схем.
Литература
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114-128). Москва: Прогресс.
Ветров, С. А. (1995). Отчуждение в трансформируемом обществе (Неопубликованная дис. канд.
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jat & R. Crandall (Eds.), Loneliness: Theory, research and applications (pp.105-124). Newbury Park,
84 California: Sage Publications.
Summary
SOCIAL REPRESENTATIONS OF MODERN RUSSIANS ABOUT THE

LONELY PERSON
Marina Safonova
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after
V. P. Astaf’ev, Krasnoyarsk, Russia
In the article results of studying of social representations of Russians about the lonely person are considered.
The loneliness in the modern world has ceased to be for a long time a problem of the separate person, for
the specific reasons not managed to adapt for a society, to build emotional mutual relations satisfying it with
associates. It has turned to a serious social problem. Efficiency of the psychological help to lonely people,
constructions and realizations of programs on preventive maintenance of chronic loneliness is in many respects
connected with the account of the developed social representations about loneliness and the lonely person.
Difficulties in studying of a phenomenon of loneliness are somewhat connected with necessity to receive the
information which mentions deep intimate layers of the person. On the one hand, work mechanisms of psy-
chological protection. The respondent starts to have a feeling of alarm because of necessity to give answers
about itself, with another – the tendency to social desirability is shown. For minimization of these displays in
research the method of the projective composition was used. During the content-analysis of the text informa-
tion received by a method of projective compositions, 13 semantic components have been allocated, each of
which opens certain lines of an image of the lonely person. Psychological interpretation of the received data
has allowed to describe some prototypes of the lonely person developing in representations of contemporar-
ies. The urgency of the use of a category “prototype” is connected with specific features of a social reality:
complexity, dynamism, variability, a polysemy of the signs used for a categorization. According to model of
frequency of signs, the prototype reflects most often meeting signs, accordingly, the prototype is acquired
through fixing of the repeating elements inherent in an object, or a situation. The analysis of representations
of respondents about the lonely person allows to allocate some developing prototypes: “careerist”, «a lonely
wolf», “homebody”, “ the unsocial person”.
Key words: loneliness, social representations about loneliness, a method of the projective composition, a
prototype of the lonely person.
Advised by Irena Gailienė,

SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Received: June 05, 2012 Accepted: October 28, 2012
Marina Safonova PhD, Senior Lecturer, Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V. P. Astaf’ev,
Krasnoyarsk, Russia.
E-mail: marina.safonova@mail.ru
Website: http://www.kspu.ru/
ISSN 2029-8587
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ТРЕНИРОВКА ТОРМОЖЕНИЯ КАК 85
ОДИН ИЗ ОСНОВНЫХ ФАКТОРОВ

ВОСПИТАНИЯ ЛИЧНОСТИ ЧЕЛОВЕКА
Галина Шульгина
Институт высшей нервной деятельности и нейрофизиологии РАН,
Москва, Россия
Э-почта: shulgina28@mail.ru
Абстракт
На основе систематизации ряда представлений философов, физиологов, этологов и фактического

материала о нарушении у людей инстинктов, по происхождению общих у нас с животными,
вследствие неверного понимания свободы как вседозволенности, чрезмерного развития потребления,
гипертрофии чувства собственности, а также об ослаблении воли к преодолению жизненных невзгод,
сделано заключение о необходимости тренировки торможения в процессе становления личности
человека. Кратко, со ссылкой на развернутые научные публикации, изложен фактический материал
о нейрофизиологическом обеспечении торможения поведения при обучении посредством повышения
реактивности тормозных систем, локальных и общемозговых, и о положительном влиянии на этот
процесс агониста рецепторов тормозного нейромедиатора (гамма-аминомасляной кислоты - ГАМК)
– фенибута. Предполагается, что эти сведения могут быть полезны для правильной организации
воспитания и для профилактики и коррекции девиантного поведения.
Ключевые слова: инстинкты животных и человека, обучение, тренировка торможения поведения,
нейрофизиология торможения, ГАМК, фенибут.
Актуальность и значимость проблемы тренировки торможения действий,

неадекватных ситуации
Необходимость четкого понимания значения воспитания торможения поведения как

для отдельных личностей, так и для общества в целом отчетливо выступает при прочтении
цитаты из работы русского философа Н. Бердяева: «Народ достоин гражданской зрелости,
когда он научается управлять собой. Свобода и есть, прежде всего, способность к
самоуправлению. Управлять другими, управлять целой страной могут лишь те, которые
научились управлять собой, своими мыслями и чувствами, своей собственной стихией.
Лишь те могут установить порядок в стране, которые установили порядок внутри себя,
привели в порядок собственную волю и направили ее к высшей цели... Свобода не означает
произвола, не означает, что каждый может делать, что ему в голову взбредет, - свобода
предполагает уважение ко всякой человеческой личности, признание ее неотъемлемых прав,
бережное отношение к собственности и к чужой человеческой душе… Свобода невозможна
без дисциплины, без самообуздания и самоограничения, без подчинения себя той истине,
которая и делает человека свободным» (Бердяев, 1996, с. 96 - 97). О том же примерно в те
же годы говорил и русский естествоиспытатель И. П. Павлов. Весной 1918 года в Петрограде
он прочел три публичные лекции «Об уме вообще и о русском в частности». Выдержки
из этих лекций имеют прямое отношение к теме сообщения: «Основной закон нервной
системы - тот, что она состоит из двух половин, из проявления деятельности раздражения,
или свободы в широком смысле, и проявления деятельности задерживания, торможения,
или дисциплины, узды. Вне этого нет жизни… Если торможение упразднено, остается
ISSN 2029-8587 Галина ШУЛЬГИНА. Тренировка торможения как один из основных факторов воспитания личности человека
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одно возбуждение, отсюда всякие эксцессы и в области желаний, и в области мысли, и в

86
области поведения. Это есть проявление вольности, свободы без всякого участия другой
половины жизни – дисциплины… Вы можете иметь нервную систему с очень слабым
развитием важного тормозного процесса. Но после определенной практики, тренировки, на
ваших глазах идет усовершенствование нервной системы, и очень большое» (Павлов, 1918).
Причиной глубокой озабоченности прогрессивных деятелей положением дел в России в годы
революции 1917 г. было глубокое падение нравов, разгул преступности, противоправные
действия и со стороны обычных людей, и со стороны новой власти (см., например, Бунин,
1990). Путь к восстановлению истинно человеческих отношений между людьми И. П.
Павлов видел в развитии науки о работе человеческого мозга. В 1922 г. он писал: «…на
этом пути (объективного исследования работы головного мозга) окончательное торжество
человеческого ума над последней и верховной задачей его – познать механизмы и законы
человеческой натуры, откуда только и может произойти истинное, полное и прочное
человеческое счастье…Только… точная наука о самом человеке, – а вернейший подход к
ней со стороны всемогущего естествознания, – выведет его из теперешнего мрака и очистит
его от теперешнего позора в сфере межлюдских отношений» (Павлов, 1973, стр. 12). С
тех пор прошло без малого сто лет. Цель данной работы - систематизация фактического
материала о современном состоянии «сферы межлюдских отношений» и краткое (со
ссылкой на развернутые научные работы) изложение сведений о нейрофизиологическом
обеспечении торможения поведения, которые, как я полагаю, могут быть полезны педагогам,
психологам, медикам для правильной организации воспитания и для профилактики и
коррекции девиантного поведения.
Нарушение у людей некоторых инстинктов, по происхождению общих у

нас с животными
Идеальная личность. Какими мы хотели бы видеть своих потомков? Прежде всего,

они должны быть здоровыми, и телесно, и психически. Далее, они непременно должны
любить жизнь во всех ее проявлениях. Необходимо, чтобы они хотели жить, чтобы осознали
с ранних детских лет и на всю жизнь тот непреложный факт, что нет ничего более ценного,
чем жизнь человека, и своя и других людей, ближних и дальних. Надо, чтобы они в своей
жизни испытали счастье, выполняя основное предназначение людей – рождение нового
человека, радость отцовства и материнства, радость осознания своего бессмертия в этом
новом комочке жизни, радость увидеть свадьбы своих детей. Далее, наши потомки должны
быть людьми творческими, тогда они могли бы свободно адаптироваться к окружающему
миру, физическому, биологическому, социальному, умели бы вмешиваться в течение
событий и активно менять его направление. А для этого необходимо, чтобы они обладали
множеством знаний и умений и не растрачивали бы впустую данные им мгновения жизни.
Такие люди будут жить с ощущением свободы и независимости от внешних обстоятельств,
умея управлять собой и своими инстинктами, не поддаваясь манипуляции их сознанием.
Великий русский писатель А. П. Чехов, детство которого было бедным и трудным, говорил
о своем взрослом становлении: «Я по капле выдавливал из себя раба». Тяжко и унизительно
быть рабом, неважно, чего и кого, других людей или собственных пагубных привычек.
Самостоятельно мыслящему человеку присуще глубокое понимание процессов, движущих
социальными силами, и чувство ответственности за все, что происходит вокруг (если не
я, то кто же). Уверенность в своих силах и возможностях, осознание своей ценности и
необходимости для других людей определяет любовь и уважение к своему социальному
окружению и к человечеству в целом.
Реальная личность. А каковы мы сами и наши дети в реальности? Прежде чем
разбирать особенности психики современных людей, необходимо обсудить те основы,
которые определяют способность живых существ к выживанию. Эта способность обе-
спечивается, с одной стороны, как сейчас принято говорить, «кондиционированием», т. е.
возникновением при необходимости новых форм поведения, соответствующих условиям
среды. Но образуются эти новые формы на основе безусловных рефлексов и инстинктов,
Галина ШУЛЬГИНА. Тренировка торможения как один из основных факторов воспитания личности человека ISSN 2029-8587
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которые возникли вследствие приспособления вида к внешней среде на протяжении многих

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миллионов лет. Как утверждает учение о высшей нервной деятельности, ни животные, ни
человек не рождаются с центральной нервной системой «tabula rasa», не начинают жизнь
с чистого листа, хотя это представление почему-то приписывает школе И. П. Павлова К.
Лоренц (Лоренц, 1998). Параллельно с изучением условных и безусловных рефлексов, И.
П. Павлов, начиная с 1916 г., изучал инстинкты разного рода. Он называл их сложнейшими
безусловными рефлексами и рассматривал как цепные безусловные рефлексы. Он считал,
что рефлекторная природа инстинктов является несомненной. Примером инстинктов у жи-
вотных, как и у людей, являются витальные инстинкты, диктуемые чувством самосохранения
(голод, жажда, запасание продуктов питания на зимний период), зоосоциальные инстинкты,
(инстинкты продолжения рода: ухаживание в брачный период, забота о потомстве, опреде-
ление и охрана территории, необходимой для выживания и воспроизводства, иерархическое
соподчинение, экономия сил) и инстинкты саморазвития (игра, удовлетворение чувства
любознательности и др.) (Симонов 1993). С позиции потребностно-информационного под-
хода П. В. Симонова, личность есть индивидуально-неповторимая композиция и внутренняя
иерархия основных (витальных, социальных, идеальных) потребностей данного человека.
Наиболее важной характеристикой личности является то, какие из этих потребностей
занимают доминирующее положение. Личность формируется под решающим влиянием
конкретной социальной среды, где генетически заданное и онтогенетически приобретенное
находятся в сложных отношениях взаимозависимости. Личность – динамическая система.
Цель воспитания человека в обществе – формирование определенного набора и иерархии
потребностей, соответствующей ценностным ориентациям социума. Эта цель достига-
ется: 1) непосредственным воздействием на сознание и подсознание субъекта и 2) через
обеспечение субъекта социально приемлемыми способами и средствами удовлетворения
своих потребностей (Симонов, 1993). Удается ли в итоге обществу в реальности создавать
условия для решения проблемы воспитания идеальной личности?
Здоровье телесное. Человечество справилось с множеством инфекционных заболеваний,
хотя некоторые из них, например, туберкулез, СПИД и др. еще угрожают каждому, даже
в утробе матери. Но сердечнососудистые болезни, онкологические и другие, напрямую
связанные с неправильным образом жизни, стрессом, с пагубными привычками, сокращают
жизнь многих людей, превращают радость жизнеощущения в боль и страдания.
Здоровье психическое. Велика ли у нового поколения воля к жизни? По официальной
статистике ежегодно в мире регистрируют случаи самоубийства более 1 100 000 человек.
Число реальных самоубийств значительно превосходит эту цифру. Предполагается, что
оно более 4 миллионов человек. 19 миллионов человек каждый год совершают неудачные
попытки самоубийства. Суицид во всех странах неуклонно нарастает, в том числе детский
(Статистика самоубийств, 2011). Суицид – чисто человеческая особенность поведения. Это
– агрессия против самого себя, определяемая отсутствием воли к жизни, отсутствием сил,
желания и умения противостоять невзгодам, собственным тревогам и страхам. Если для
ухода из жизни в пожилом возрасте иногда есть веские причины, то рост суицида детей и
подростков – явление уже совсем противоестественное. Детский суицид – это проявление
индивидуализма, часто в порядке протеста против давления и контроля общества над
личностью. Любому человеку необходим не только контроль, но и расширение возможностей
с целью воспитания самостоятельной творческой личности с раннего детства. Обществу,
где дети не хотят жить и не умеют справляться с трудностями иначе, как уходя от них в
небытие, есть о чем задуматься.
Наркотики. Другая форма ухода людей от трудностей и забот, от необходимости
преодолевать их и учиться управлять собой – это наркотики. Самый распространенный ле-
гальный наркотик – алкоголь. Потребление алкоголя постоянно растет, что приносит гибель
пьющему, боль и страдания его близким и урон демографической ситуации. Чтобы в этом
убедиться, достаточно посмотреть графики роста потребления спирта на душу населения и
смертности в России. Полный параллелизм. Во времена антиалкогольной компании первой
половины восьмидесятых годов прошлого века было резкое снижение потребления спирта
и резкое снижение смертности населения. После ее отмены – снова постоянный рост того
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затем дегенерация клеток высших отделов головного мозга - новой коры и гиппокампа (см.
Шульгина, 2008) и, соответственно, растормаживание отделов, реализующих примитивные
низшие инстинкты. Отсюда прямая связь потребления алкоголя и рост преступности. Уве-
личение потребления алкоголя определяется высокой прибылью от его продажи вследствие
существенной разницы между себестоимостью его производства и его цены на рынке. Т.
Гайдар считает, что одна из причин быстрого развала СССР - антиалкогольная компания и
соответственно снижение доходов государства. (Гайдар, 2006). Что касается других видов
наркотиков, то, согласно выводам доклада Управления ООН по наркотикам и преступ-
ности (УНП ООН, 2011) за 2011 год, наркомафия постоянно предлагает новые продукты и
открывает новые рынки. Самой распространенной нелегальной субстанцией является мари-
хуана. Ее выращивают практически во всех странах мира и курят до 190 млн. человек. Но
даже марихуана постепенно сдает позиции по сравнению с синтетическими наркотиками.
Именно наркомания последние 5 лет продолжает оставаться основной причиной распро-
странения СПИДа и ВИЧ-инфекции (Наркомания, мировая статистика, 2012). Для людей,
принимающих наркотики, характерна эмоциональная глухота. У них возникает патологи-
ческая доминанта, вначале подкрепляемая желанием «кайфа», а затем необходимостью
пополнить запасы наркотика, который встроился в обмен веществ организма наркомана.
Согласно учению А. А. Ухтомского, доминанта затормаживает все чувства, реализация ко-
торых несовместима с ее разрешением (Ухтомский, 1978). Последствия приема наркотиков:
«снижение общей активности и защитных функций организма, дистрофия внутренних орга-
нов, общее и нервное истощение, тяжелые заболевания печени и почек, сердечнососудистой
системы, потеря воли, психозы, слабоумие… Максимальный срок жизни наркомана – 15
лет» (Наркотическая зависимость или наркомания, 2012).
Другая форма ухода от реального мира – это компьютерные игры. Это зло поражает
почти каждую семью, где есть дети и подростки. И взрослые часто не остаются в стороне.
Компьютерные игры – это двойное зло. С одной стороны, они вызывают отчуждение между
людьми. Их виртуальный красочный мир, где можно побыть полководцем, миллионером
и даже властелином мира, для многих ярче, интереснее действительности и окружающих
людей. С другой стороны, для коммерческого успеха некоторые производители игр возбуж-
дают у потребителя низменные инстинкты охоты не только на животных, но и на людей,
предоставляя возможность виртуального убийства. Эти чувства, которые в современном мире
должны быть «табу», становятся привычными, обыденными. Недаром то и дело появляются
сообщения о диких драках между подростками, о якобы немотивированных убийствах. По-
мраченный ум недоступен ни логике, ни чувству жалости. Самоуправление исчезает. Как
уже говорилось, игра – это инстинкт саморазвития, необходимый для становления лично-
сти (Симонов 1993). Увлечение компьютерными играми в настоящее время становится для
многих людей нарушением этого инстинкта, которое создается и усиливается коммерческим
интересом производителей компьютерных игр.
Чувство собственности. Это чувство, очевидно, еще одна форма наркомании. Этот
инстинкт, вероятно, близок к животному инстинкту запасания пищи впрок, например, на
зимний период, возможно, еще и к инстинкту обозначения границ территории обитания. У
людей этот инстинкт достиг невероятных размеров. Желание умножения собственности,
возникая, становится патологическим. Нет необходимости доказывать, что удовлетворение
патологических форм чувства собственности – причина и источник множества преступлений
против человечности.
Агрессия. Природа заложила в нервной системе животных специфические функцио-
нальные системы, которые необходимы для проявления агрессии в процессе охоты, при
утверждении права на потомство, при поддержании порядка в стаде, для защиты территории,
необходимой для выживания и воспроизводства. Обычно естественное проявление этих ин-
стинктов у животных отличается чувством меры. Они, за редким исключением, не убивают
больше, чем им требуется для еды в ближайшее время (см., например, Моуэт, 1992). Брачные
турниры редко имеют смертельный исход. Правда, у некоторых видов обезьян имеет место
инфантицид, обычно при смене самца – иерарха. Предполагается, что это явление имеет
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кормящих самок для повышения численности потомства нового иерарха.
Агрессия человека в общем плане несравнима с таковой животных. Предполагается, что
одна из причин этого явления состоит в том, что исходно у человека отсутствуют сдержи-
вающие механизмы против внутривидовой агрессии, имеющиеся у животных – хищников.
В этих механизмах нет необходимости, поскольку человек не обладает ни когтями, ни клы-
ками и при схватке смертельное ранение маловероятно. Но человек изобрел средства уни-
чтожения себе подобных, и индивидуальные, и общие, которые при отсутствии сдерживания
могут погубить все человечество. Что касается охоты, то человек убивает других зверей не
только себе на еду, но для получения прибыли и даже просто для развлечения (см. примеры,
Моуэт, 1992). Внутрисемейные отношения людей и таковые отношения у животных нельзя
даже сравнивать. У животных бывает сбой в программе поведения, когда матери поедают
свое потомство, это не правило, а исключение, и именно сбой в программе. В животном
мире самец никогда не бьет самочку смертным боем, детенышей тоже никогда жестоко не
наказывают. Для людей с давних времен, и чем дальше, тем хуже, существует печальная
статистика внутрисемейных насильственных действий (см, например, Внутрисемейные пре-
ступления, 2012). Причины происходящего в нарушенном инстинкте агрессии. Отсутствие
воспитания необходимости сдерживать свои страсти, чувство власти и безнаказанности
приводят к трагическим последствиям. Агрессия между людьми проявляется либо в
преступлениях против личности (разные формы насилия, в том числе наказанием лишения
жизни за отход от семейных и религиозных традиций), либо против собственности. Как
показывает судебная практика, все чаще имущественные споры между людьми решаются
посредством убийств и других противоправных действий, и число таких преступлений
неуклонно растет (см. Скобликов, 2001). На государственном уровне – это бесчисленные
войны с применением оружия массового уничтожения и терроризм, для которого гибель ни
в чем не повинных людей служит средством достижения политических целей.
Уровень пре ступно сти в го сударстве в большой мере зависит от работы
правоохранительных органов. Так на протяжении многих лет отмечалась аномальность
тенденций интенсивного роста умышленных убийств в США наряду с повышением общего
уровня преступности. Начиная с 1982 г., Конгресс США принял целый ряд нормативных
актов, которые жестко ограничивают права граждан в области владения оружием и расширяют
компетенцию правоохранительных органов в процессе осуществления контроля над уличной
и бытовой преступностью. Реализация этих законов привела к тому, что при общем снижении
уровня преступности в США наблюдается последовательное снижение уровня умышленных
убийств и иных насильственных преступлений. На этом примере можно четко видеть, что
безнаказанность приводит к ослаблению у людей торможения противоправных действий
(Виктимизация в США, 2009).
Таким образом, агрессия в человеческом обществе является нарушением естествен-
ных животных инстинктов. К. Лоренц в своей книге «Оборотная сторона зеркала» пишет:
« Зачем нужна человечеству... все убыстряющаяся до безумия конкуренция, возрастающее
и все более страшное вооружение, прогрессирующая изнеженность урбанизированного че-
ловека, и т. д. и т. п.? При ближайшем рассмотрении оказывается, однако, что едва ли не все
эти вредные явления представляют собой расстройства вполне определённых механизмов
поведения, первоначально весьма ценных для сохранения вида. Иначе говоря, их следует
рассматривать как патологические». Лоренц утверждает, что в человеческом сообществе
остался единственный фактор, определяющий его развитие – это внутривидовой отбор. При
этом «Соревнование человека с человеком действует, как ни один биологический фактор до
него, против «предвечной силы благотворной», и разрушает едва ли не все созданные ею
ценности холодным дьявольским кулаком, которым управляют одни только слепые к цен-
ностям коммерческие расчёты… Под давлением соревнования между людьми уже почти
забыто все, что хорошо и полезно для человечества в целом и даже для отдельного человека.
Подавляющее большинство ныне живущих людей воспринимает как ценность лишь то, что
лучше помогает им перегнать своих собратьев в безжалостной конкурентной борьбе… Воз-
никает вопрос, что больше вредит душе современного человека, ослепляющая жажда денег
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или изматывающая спешка. Во всяком случае, власть имущие всех политических направлений
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заинтересованы в том и другом, доводя до гипертрофии мотивы, толкающие людей к со-
ревнованию». К Лоренц выделяет еще одну причину изматывания человека в конкурентной
борьбе. Он пишет: «... я считаю весьма вероятным, что, наряду с жаждой обладания и более
высокого популяционного ранга, или с тем и другим, важнейшую роль здесь играет страх –
страх отстать в беге наперегонки… Страх во всех видах является, безусловно, важнейшим
фактором, подрывающим здоровье современного человека... Человек спешит, конечно, не
только из алчности, никакая приманка не могла бы побудить его столь энергично вредить
самому себе; спешит он потому, что его что-то подгоняет, а подгонять его может только
страх… ». По мнению Лоренца, с которым нельзя не согласиться, еще один процесс опасен
для человечества: «Кроме коммерческого внутривидового отбора на все ускоряющийся темп
работы действует и другой опасный циклический процесс... – процесс, ведущий к посто-
янному возрастанию человеческих потребностей. Понятно, что каждый производитель
всячески стремится повысить потребность покупателей в своём товаре». В итоге К. Лоренц
предполагает, что вышеуказанные процессы ведут к генетическому вырождению и гибели
человечества (Лоренц, 1998). Дело усугубляется еще и тем, что главной технологией под-
чинения людей и в сфере производства, и в сфере потребления в настоящее время сделана
манипуляция сознанием посредством индустрии массовой культуры, превращающей челове-
ка в программируемый робот. Происходит скрытое навязывание людям действий, результат
которых не соответствует их интересам (см. Кара-Мурза, 2011). Выход из ситуации четко
обозначает русский философ И. Гончаров. Он пишет: «... идет борьба быта и бытия - по ли-
ниям духовной и материальной, ценностей абсолютных и относительных. С одной стороны:
бытовой комфорт, гедонизм, наслажденчество материальными благами, потребление, деньги,
прибыль, радующее богатство. С другой стороны: смысл материальных богатств - в их по-
лезности, необходимости для жизни (достаток, пища, одежда, экологически чистая среда
обитания, удобное жилище). Это не отрицается. Это положительные ценности, необходимые
ради творческой самореализации человека. Они значимы, если соединены с высокими
нравственными идеалами» (Гончаров, 2012). По мнению П. В. Симонова, «естественные
права» человека проистекают из объективного факта существования триады потребностей
(витальные, социальные и потребности саморазвития) и из объективной необходимости
согласовывать свои потребности с потребностями других (Симонов, 1993, с.92). Таким
образом, корни вышеуказанных проблем психологии человека - генетические, биологиче-
ские, социальные. Решение этих проблем определяется установкой воспитания людей в
сознании высоких нравственных идеалов. А эти идеалы могут быть выработаны не иначе
как через усвоение необходимости самоограничения, торможения неадекватного ситуации
проявления инстинктов, приобретенных человеком в процессе эволюции для выживания.
Торможение, вырабатываемое при обучении. Любая форма нарушения естественного
поведения человека связана с нарушением баланса основных нервных процессов в ЦНС,
обычно либо в сторону преобладания возбуждения, либо в сторону ослабления торможения.
Возникает потеря способности управлять собой, превращение человека в раба обстоятельств
и своих пороков. Нейрофизиологические механизмы этого явления психологами и
психиатрами не всегда берутся в рассмотрение. Следствием такого подхода может быть
неправильная диагностика и недостаточная коррекция взаимодействия основных нервных
процессов, к настоящему времени детально изученного на уровне общей нейрофизиологии
и нейрофизиологии поведения.
В допавловский период нейрофизиологии поведения был известен только один вид
торможения – безусловное торможение, т. е. торможение, не требующее обучения. Это
торможение работы одних нервных центров под влиянием активации других впервые
обнаружил И. М. Сеченов (Сеченов 1952). Заслуга школы И. П. Павлова заключается в
открытии другого вида торможения, возникновение которого требует обучения (Павлов,
1973). Этот вид торможения отличается тем, что оно развивается внутри рефлекторной
дуги тормозимой деятельности, и потому получило название внутреннего. Интересно, что
о необходимости выработки у людей торможения неправильного поведения едва ли не
первым из естествоиспытателей заговорил Декарт. Он обратил внимание на тот факт, что
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подстреленная утка и приносить ее охотнику, а также не гнаться за птицей, встреченной в
лесу, а становиться в стойку, подавая знак о ее присутствии. Декарт отмечал, что если такое
существо, как собака, лишенное, по его мнению, и души, и разума, может справиться со
своими страстями, то человек должен это делать много лучше (Декарт, 1989). Внутреннее
торможение возникает в структурах головного мозга при повторении любых раздражителей
при отмене биологически значимого подкрепления и выражается в исчезновении
периферических реакций (вегетативных, секреторных, двигательных: автоматических и
произвольных), ориентировочных либо условнорефлекторных, исходно вызываемых этими
раздражителями. Внутреннее торможение не тождественно утомлению. Активная природа
внутреннего торможения проявляется в снижении ответа на активирующий стимул в случае
его совместного действия с тормозящим раздражителем. Кроме того, заторможенные при
повторении неподкрепляемого стимула реакции временно восстанавливаются при любом
изменении условий опыта. Открытие школой И. П. Павлова специфического тормозного
процесса, возникающего в результате обучения, является не менее фундаментальным
достижением нейрофизиологии, чем выявление механизмов и закономерностей образования
новых активных форм поведения. Именно внутреннее торможение обеспечивает возможность
тончайшего приспособления животных и человека к постоянно меняющимся условиям
внешней среды. Оно определяет выбор наиболее адекватного поведения, затормаживая,
ограничивая выход возбуждения к эффекторам, и не только к эффекторам, но и, при
необходимости, в сферу сознания, предотвращая тем самым осуществление бесчисленного
множества реакций, не соответствующих данной ситуации, ненужных для текущего образа
действий и мышления. Внутреннее торможение играет решающую роль в организации
правильного социального поведения человека, в реализации самых разнообразных форм его
деятельности, от элементарных бытовых навыков до высших форм творческой активности.
Согласно представлению И. П. Павлова, творческая и научная деятельность человека
заключается в поиске, отборе и закреплении гипотез, соответствующих действительности,
и в отбрасывании, затормаживании неправильных, ошибочных умозаключений (Павлов,
1973).
Тренировка торможения как способ коррекции нарушений психики. В последние
годы жизни И. П. Павлов уделял большое внимание разного рода психическим заболеваниям.
Он пришел к заключению, что часто они провоцируются нарушением нормального
взаимодействия возбудительных и тормозных процессов. При этом возникают срывы
нормальной работы мозга, разного рода неврозы и другие заболевания. Эти срывы могут
быть направлены в сторону патологического усиления или ослабления возбудительных
или тормозных процессов. Школой И. П. Павлова нарушения взаимодействия основных
нервных процессов изучались с применением разного рода экспериментальных приемов у
здоровых животных, а также при лечении экспериментальных неврозов. Было установлено,
что торможение, слабое либо от природы, либо вследствие неблагоприятных воздействий
(истощение, невроз, кастрация) может быть усилено посредством медленной постепенной
тренировки, либо посредством применения лекарственных препаратов (бром, кофеин и
др.) (Работы М. К. Петровой, Н. А. Кашерининовой, Н. В. Виноградова и др. см.Майоров,
1954).
Особые свойства внутреннего торможения. В статье И. П. Павлова «Особенная
лабильность внутреннего торможения условных рефлексов» (Павлов, 1973) было
подчеркнуто основное положение: процесс внутреннего торможения вообще гораздо
лабильнее, чем процесс условного раздражения (возбуждения). По словам Ф. П. Майорова,
этот момент большей лабильности, хрупкости, неустойчивости торможения по сравнению
с процессом возбуждения, проходит красной линией в истории исследований Павловской
школы (Майоров, 1954).
И. П. Павлов о соотношении возбуждения и торможения. Механизмы
нейрофизиологического обеспечения реализации торможения неподкрепляемых реакций –
внутреннего торможения долгое время оставались неясными. По поводу взаимоотношения
возбуждения и этого вида торможения И. П. Павлов писал следующее: « Несмотря на массу
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рефлексах, в частности, вопрос об отношении между раздражением и торможением остается
вопросом пока упорно не поддающимся решению… Несмотря на множество изученных
нами частных отношений между раздражительным и тормозным процессами, общий закон
связи этих процессов до сих пор не поддается точной формулировке» (См. Майоров, 1954,
с. 207 – 208). К настоящему времени успехи исследования взаимодействия возбуждения
и торможения на уровне взаимодействия отдельных нейронов в общей нейрофизиологии
и в нейрофизиологии поведения позволяют сказать, что вопрос о нейрофизиологическом
обеспечении торможения поведения близок к своему решению.
Нейрофизиологические основы внутреннего торможения. Как показывают
эксперименты с регистрацией работы отдельных нервных клеток, суммарных медленных
потенциалов и поведения, внутреннее торможение осуществляется вследствие относительного
усиления тормозных гиперполяризационных процессов. Это явление отражается в усилении
фазной активности нейронов, в чередовании активации и торможения их разрядов и в
повышении амплитуды соответствующих медленных колебаний биопотенциалов (рис. 1, 2).
Рис.1 Фазные реакции, чередование активации и торможения потенциалов

действия нейрона зрительной коры на неподкрепляемые
вспышки на фоне непрерывного света – условного тормоза и
растормаживание тормозных пауз в ответ на сочетание вспышек
света с подкреплением по сравнению с ответами на вспышки на
фоне условного тормоза.
1 - активность нейрона, 2 –суммарные медленные биопотенциалы: I - в ответ на вспышки света (включение отме-
чено стрелками) на фоне условного тормоза (УТ) - непрерывного света (включение отмечено ромбиком) без подкре-
пления; II – в ответ на сочетание вспышек (верхний ряд стрелок) с электрокожным раздражением конечности (ЭРК)
(нижний ряд стрелок). Отведение медленных биопотенциалов тем же микроэлектродом, что и отведение активно-
сти нейрона, из глубоких слоев коры. Калибровка: 100мсек, 250 мкВ (по Шульгиной и соавт. 2011).
При тех видах внутреннего торможения, когда тормозные раздражители чередуются с

подкрепляемыми, т. е. при общем деятельном состоянии мозга, усиление фазной активности
нейронов и медленных колебаний потенциала наблюдается в структурах, воспринимающих
тормозный условный стимул, например, в зрительном анализаторе при выработке торможе-
ния на вспышки света. Если же торможение становится генерализованным, как на стадии
глубокого угашения условного рефлекса, часто переходящего в сон, усиление фазной актив-
ности нейронов и соответствующих медленных колебаний потенциала наблюдается во всех
регистрируемых участках новой коры и других структур головного мозга (рис. 2).
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Рис.2. Развитие медленных колебаний потенциала и нерегулярной

групповой активности нейронов новой коры вследствие длительного
угашения оборонительного условного рефлекса на вспышки света.
Активация ЭЭГ, появление тета-ритма, ослабление тормозных
пауз и появление тонических потоков импульсации у нейронов
сенсомоторной и зрительной областей коры кролика на первое
применение болевого подкрепления.
Сверху вниз: 1 - миограмма задней конечности, на которую наносили ЭРК, 2 - медленные биопотенциалы, отводимые
от дорзального гиппокампа, 3 - от сенсомоторной области коры, 4 - активность нейрона сенсомоторной коры,
5 - медленные потенциалы, отводимые тем же микроэлектродом, 6 - медленные потенциалы, отводимые от
зрительной коры, 7 - активность нейрона зрительной коры. Калибровка 250 мкВ, 1 сек.
Изменения исследуемых показателей работы мозга при повышении уровня ак-

тивации ГАМК-ергической нейромедиаторной системы. Изучение биоэлектрической
активности коры головного мозга в сопоставлении с динамикой поведения привело нас к
представлению о том, что ограничение проведения возбуждения при выработке различных
форм внутреннего торможения возникает вследствие расхождения частот и фаз медленных
колебаний возбудимости и реактивности во взаимосвязанных популяциях нейронов, которое
обусловлено относительным усилением тормозных гиперполяризационных процессов при
отмене подкрепления (см. Шульгина, 2008, 2010; L[vanov, Shulgina, 1983). Это представление
дает основание для целенаправленного исследования нейромедиаторной природы внутреннего
торможения. Известно, что основным нейромедиатором гиперполяризационного торможения
в коре головного мозга является гамма-аминомасляная кислота (ГАМК). В настоящее время в
клинике нервных болезней в России широко применяется фенибут – фенильное производное
ГАМК, синтезированный с целью создать препарат, в отличие от ГАМК, легко проникающий
через гемато-энцефалический барьер.
Исследование действия фенибута (АО «Олайнфарм, Латвия») в хронических опытах,
на процесс выработки оборонительных и тормозных условных рефлексов, вводимого в дозе
40 мг/кг, п/к в день опыта за два часа до начала обучения, показало облегчение под его влия-
нием выработки условного тормоза (Шульгина, Зяблицева, 2005). В опытах с применением
микроэлектродной техники (Шульгина, 2008) было обнаружено, что через два часа после
введения фенибута предварительно обученным кроликам (в дозе 40 мг/кг в трех мл физио-
логического раствора, п/к, та же фирма) различение активирующих и тормозных условных
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этих же опытах можно было видеть, что на фоне действия фенибута в новой коре постепенно
усиливались медленные биопотенциалы и соответствующая им фазная активность нейронов
(чередование активации и торможения потенциалов действия) вначале (через 20 – 30 мин) в
ответах на вспышки света, особенно отчетливо на неподкрепляемые вспышки на фоне УТ.
Через 1,5 – 2,0 ч от момента введения фенибута усиление медленных колебаний потенциала
наблюдалось и в межсигнальные периоды, не только в зрительной, но и в других исследуемых
областях коры (сенсомоторная кора, гиппокамп). Таким образом, фенибут – линейное произво-
дное ГАМК, судя по изменениям вероятностей двигательных реакций, суммарных медленных
колебаний потенциала и активности нейронов, усиливает тормозные гиперполяризационные
процессы в коре головного мозга и улучшает различение активирующих и тормозных услов-
ных раздражителей. Следовательно, динамика поведения, медленных потенциалов, фоновых
и вызванных, и активности нейронов новой коры головного мозга по мере развития влияния
фенибута в значительной мере соответствует их динамике при выработке различных форм
внутреннего торможения.
Следует отметить, что наряду с отчетливым усилением тормозных гиперполяризаци-
онных процессов в коре головного мозга после введения фенибута наблюдалось усиление и
возбудительных компонентов в реакциях нейронов коры головного мозга на все применяемые
раздражители (рис.3).
Рис 3. Усиление возбудительных и тормозных компонентов реакций

нейронов зрительной коры под влиянием фенибута. Усредненные
перистимульные гистограммы ответов 29-и нейронов зрительной
коры: I – до введения, II – через 2 ч после введения фенибута.
1 –ответы на неподкрепляемые вспышки на фоне условного тормоза – непрерывного света, 2 – ответы на сочетания
вспышек с ЭКР. Включение света – ромбики, включение вспышек – верхний ряд, ЭКР – нижний ряд стрелок. По оси
ординат – число импульсов, по оси абсцисс – время, шаг гистограммы – 20 мсек (по Шульгиной, 2008).
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между собой. Как показывают опыты на крысах, проведенные нами совместно с Д. А Береж-
ной и Н. А Парфентьевым, выработка условного торможения и введение фенибута – деривата
ГАМК действуют в одинаковом направлении. И тот и другой фактор ослабляют тревогу и страх,
которые у крыс в опасной ситуации (выработка оборонительного рефлекса на электрическую
стимуляцию) проявляются в видоспецифическом поведении в форме замирания (freezing).
Возникающее в этой ситуации поведение в виде пребывания в неподвижном напряженном со-
стоянии на полу камеры и при выработке торможения и на фоне действия фенибута заменяется
переходом к свободному обследованию камеры с вставанием на задние лапы, к обнюхиванию
всех выступов и заглядыванию в отверстие, где крыса подвергалась электрораздражению.
Результаты этих опытов при учете данных литературы позволяют предположить, что оба
фактора, и выработка внутреннего торможения, и фенибут, вследствие повышения уровня
активности ГАМКергической нейромедиаторной системы мозга затормаживают рефлекс за-
мирания, возникающий при активации базолатерального и центрального ядер миндалины.
Сходные результаты получены в опытах на мышах. Показано, что ослабление активности
нейронов типа I центрального ядра миндалины посредством их гиперполяризации вызывает
активацию в новой коре головного мозга и переход от реакции замирания на звук, ассоции-
рованный с электростимуляцией, к ориентировочно-исследовательскому поведению (Gozzi
et all., 2010).
Генетически обусловленное торможение. Торможение поведения без предварительной
выработки, прирожденное, генетически обусловленное, возникает либо при действии сверх-
сильных раздражителей (запредельное торможение), либо при взаимодействии двух и более
активных систем, из которых более интенсивная подавляет другую (внешнее торможение,
доминантное торможение, «prepulse inhibition” и др.). Эти виды торможения реализуются на
фоне активации ЭЭГ вследствие ослабления тормозных гиперполяризационных процессов, что
предполагает участие в этом процессе структур ретикулярной формации и соответствующих
нейромедиаторов (ацетилхолин, норадреналин, дофамин, серотонин). Нейроны новой коры
и других структур головного мозга при этом переходят на новый режим работы. Часть из них
разряжается тоническими упорядоченными потоками импульсации, а другая часть в то же
время на более или менее длительный срок затормаживается. У значительной части нейронов
«круга Пейпеца» - двусторонне связанных структур лимбической системы на фоне активации
ЭЭГ появляется ритм в полосе тета (5 – 7 в сек) (Шульгина, 2008).
История религии и законодательства как история утверждения заповеди о тормо-
жении животных инстинктов. Наиболее сильное развитие система торможения получила у
стадных животных и у человека. Собственно, можно сказать, что торможение было, наряду
с трудовой деятельностью и речью, одним из основных факторов, которые сделали человека
человеком и в плане его выделения из животного мира и в плане становления человека как
индивидуума. На всем протяжении развития человечества, общество вырабатывало определен-
ные правила поведения для отдельных своих членов, которые делают возможным совместное
проживание людей в семье, в социуме, получение образования и профессиональных навыков,
совместную работу на производстве, совместное проведение досуга. Вспомним заповеди,
которые в разных формах проповедуются священнослужителями любых религий: иудаизма,
христианства, ислама. Почти все они имеют запретительный характер: не поклоняйся другим
богам, не сотвори себе кумира, не произноси имени Господа всуе, не убивай, не прелюбо-
действуй, не кради, не лжесвидетельствуй, не желай имущества ближнего своего. Цель этих
заповедей одна: с детства вырабатывать у членов общества навыки социального поведения.
Для того, чтобы соблюдать запреты, надо вырабатывать и тренировать торможение. При
этом, как было сказано выше, это торможение может быть пассивным, основанным на стра-
хе наказания или на чувстве вины - внешнее или доминантное торможение, или активным,
основанным на сознательной выработке торможения неуместного проявления инстинктов или
страстей, неправильных форм поведения. Интересно отметить, что на более ранней стадии
развития человеческого общества торможение противоправных действий было основано
преимущественно на страхе. Ад, геенна огненная, тяжкое унизительное наказание – этим про-
низаны все поучения для того, чтобы удержать человека в рамках социального общежития. В
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96
у своих граждан сознательного следования законам и человеческой морали, к соблюдению
самодисциплины, порядочности, чести и достоинства в любых жизненных обстоятельствах,
что может быть реализовано только при условии выработки и постоянной тренировки вну-
треннего торможения. Выработка внутреннего торможения делает человека человечным. У
человека, воспитанного в любви и уважении к другим людям, заторможен инстинкт агрессии
настолько, что он не проявится в неуместной ситуации не только к своему родственнику, но
и к преступнику (человечество давно осудило самосуд), и тем более в отношении к ничем
неповинным людям, как это происходит пока что в случае террористических актов.
Приемы профилактики и коррекции девиантного поведения.
При различных формах патологии поведения нарушаются условия взаимодействия
процессов возбуждения и торможения в ЦНС в процессе реализации как генетически
обусловленных форм торможения поведения, так и внутреннего торможения, вырабатываемого
при обучении (см. Шульгина,2010). Причины нарушения баланса основных нервных
процессов у людей: органические дефекты в работе нервной системы, дефекты воспитания:
изоляция в раннем детстве от матери, недостаток тепла и внимания, неграмотность и дефекты
поведения родителей, особенно в маргинальных слоях населения, неправильные установки,
пагубные привычки, уход в ирреальный мир, вседозволенность, дефекты современных
тенденций социальной системы, о которых говорили К. Лоренц и С. Кара-Мурза. Вследствие
нарушения баланса основных нервных процессов у людей возникает неспособность
управлять своим поведением. Для противостояния процессу обесчеловечивания человека
необходимы целенаправленные общие усилия по воспитанию необходимых установок
доброты, коллективизма с раннего детства, тренировка баланса основных нервных процессов,
возбуждения и торможения, формирование самостоятельной творческой личности,
способной управлять своими инстинктами, не поддающейся манипуляциям ее сознанием,
умеющей хорошо адаптироваться к жизненной ситуации и способной изменять ее в сторону,
благоприятную для себя и для своего социального окружения.
Заключение
Таким образом, рассмотрение в первой части нашей работы сведений о современных

тенденциях развития общества людей показывает наличие ряда негативных явлений в
виде нарастания агрессии во внутрисемейных и общественных отношениях, гипертрофии
инстинктов собственности, стремления значительной части людей вместо решения жизненных
проблем уйти из жизни вообще, либо в ирреальный мир (алкоголь, наркотики, компьютерные
игры), превращения потребления в самоцель вместо использования достижений в материальной
сфере для духовного роста и самосовершенствования. На основе этих сведений делается вывод
о том, что причиной всех перечисленных явлений в значительной мере является дисбаланс
основных нервных процессов в сторону недостаточной тренировки торможения поведения
как в процессе воспитания детей и подростков, так и в процессе самоуправления взрослых
людей. Для правильной организации воспитания, а также для профилактики и коррекции
девиантного поведения необходимо знать нейрофизиологические основы обеспечения
баланса нервных процессов в центральной нервной системе. В работе кратко (со ссылкой на
развернутые научные публикации) приведены результаты многолетней работы автора в этом
направлении. Благодаря применению одновременной регистрации активности отдельных
нейронов, медленных колебаний биопотенциалов и поведения показано, что в реализации
торможения поведения при обучении решающую роль играет относительное усиление
тормозных гиперполяризационных процессов в новой коре и в других структурах головного
мозга. В пользу этого представления говорят и результаты выявления положительного влияния
одного из дериватов ГАМК - фенибута, применяющихся в клинике для коррекции ряда
нарушений в работе нервной системы, на выработку торможения поведения при обучении.
Получены также сведения в пользу представления о том, что ГАМКергическая система
принимает участие и в регуляции состояния страха и тревоги. На основе вышеизложенного
можно полагать, что преодоление негативных тенденций в развитии человека возможно при
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Volume 4, 2012
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Summary
INHIBITION TRAINING AS ONE OF BASIC FACTORS OF THE

COMING INTO BEING OF THE PERSON
Galina I. Shulgina
Institute of the Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology
of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
On the basis of systematization of a number of ideas of philosophers, physiologists, ethologists and the actual
material about violation at people of instincts, by origin the general at us with animals, owing to incorrect
understanding of freedom as permissivenesses, excessive development of consumption, a hypertrophy of feeling
of a property, and also about weakening of will to overcoming of adversity of life, the conclusion about need of
training of inhibition in the course of formation of the identity of the person is made. Briefly, referring to the
detailed scientific publications, the actual material about neurophysiological ensuring inhibition of behavior
during training by means of increase of reactivity of inhibitory systems, local and all-brain, and about posi-
tive influence on this process of an agonist of receptors of an inhibitory neuromediator (gamma aminobutiric
acids - GABA) – phenibut is stated. It is supposed that these data can be useful to the correct organization of
education and for prophylaxis and correction of deviant behavior.
Key words: deviant behavior, inhibition training, personality.
Advised by Irina V. Pavlova,

Institute of the Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology
of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
Galina I. Shulgina PhD, Leading Researcher, Institute of the Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of
the Russian Academy of Sciences, Polini Osipenko Street, 16, 33, Moscow, Russia.
E-mail: shulgina28@mail.ru
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ISSN 2029-8587
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 4, 2012
102
Quality Issues and Insights in the 21st

Century is an international, periodical,
peer reviewed scientific journal, issued by
the Scientia Socialis, UAB in cooperation
with SMC “Scientia Educologica”.
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific

Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“,
Republic of Lithuania
Quality Issues and Insights in the 21st Century

(ISSN 2029-9575) is abstracted and/or indexed
in:
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MSc., Renata Bilbokaitơ, University of Siauliai, Republic of Lithuania (Editorial Assistant)

Dr., Andrea Bernhard, Universities Austria, Austria
Dr., Prof. John Gowland Mwangi, Egerton University, Kenya
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of
Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., Prof. Liviu Moldovan, „Petru Maior” University of Tirgu Mures, Romania
Dr., Prof. Kestutis Pukelis, Vytautas Magnus University, Republic of Lithuania
Prof. Ramayah Thurasamy, University of Science Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr., Assoc. Prof. Dalius Serafinas, Vilnius University, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Assoc. Prof. Adriana Tafrova-Grigorova, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Bulgaria
Website: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/QIIC/Quality_Issues_Insights.htm
ISSN 2029-8587
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 4, 2012
103
Problems of Management in the

21st Century is an international,
periodical, peer reviewed
scientific journal, issued by the
Scientia Socialis in cooperation
with SMC “Scientia
Educologica”.
Editor-in-Chief
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas,

Scientific Methodical Centre
„Scientia Educologica“, Republic of
Lithuania
Problems of Management in the

21st Century (ISSN 2029-6932) is
abstracted and/or indexed in:
Index Copernicus -
http://journals.indexcopernicus.com
/karta.php?action=masterlist&id=61
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Editor-in-Chief
Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of

Lithuania
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Prof., dr. Constantin Bratianu, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania
Assoc. prof., dr. Tsai-Hsin Chu, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Assoc. prof., dr. Dana Egerova, University of West Bohemia, Czech Republic
Assoc. prof., dr. Marek Franek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Prof., dr. Ivars Muzis, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Prof., dr. Stephen Nzuve, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Asst. prof., dr. Ivona Orzea, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania
Prof., dr. Sonia Teresinha de Sousa Penin, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., dr. Chris Rensleigh, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Asst. prof., dr. Nikhil Chandra Shil, American International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Website: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/PMC/Problems_of_Management.htm
Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-8587 VOLUME 4, 2012
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Linas Janonis
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16 November 2012. Publishing in Quires 10,25. Edition 250
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Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-8587

Scientia Socialis in Cooperation with

Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

ISSN 2029-8587 © Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2012

PSYCHO-HYGIENIC СOMPETENCE OF SPECIALISTS IN INTERNET- ENVIRONMENT USE . . . .4

LOVE STYLES FROM A BILINGUAL

RATES OF INFORMATION AWARENESS ON AGGRESSIVE DRIVING AS THE INDICATORS

AN INVESTIGATION INTO FACTORS LEADING TO THE EXCLUSION OF

SCHOOL MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION . . . 39

UNDERSTANDING SELF-HARM IN YOUNG PEOPLE: AN EMOTIONAL UNBALANCE

THE EFFECTS OF A SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL LEARNING PROGRAM

СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЯ СОВРЕМЕННЫХ РОССИЯН ОБ ОДИНОКОМ ЧЕЛОВЕКЕ . . 74

ТРЕНИРОВКА ТОРМОЖЕНИЯ КАК ОДИН ИЗ ОСНОВНЫХ

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

rectional, rehabilitation) and pedagogical (teaching and upbringing) methods.

Received: July 25, 2012 Accepted: September 22, 2012

LOVE STYLES FROM A BILINGUAL

General Background of Research

Instrument and Procedures

10 Results of the Research

Table 1. T-test for independent samples – monolingual Serbian group and

Independent Samples Test

LOVE Significance Standard

Equal variances 0.5385 0.11969

Equal variances 0.4005 0.19045

Table 2. T-test for independent samples – monolingual Serbian group and

Independent Samples Test

LOVE Significance Standard

Equal variances 0.5385 0.11969

Equal variances 0.4005 0.19045

Table 3. T-test for dependent samples – bilingual Hungarian answers and

Paired Samples Test

LOVE STYLE t-test df Significance (2-tailed)

Pair 3 Storge Hungarian – Storge

Table 4. Means and standard deviations of the bilingual group – tendency

Mean Standard deviation

STORGE HUNGARIAN 0.4353 0.16017

MANIA HUNGARIAN 0.4897 0.13561

Figure 3: Tendency towards significance between the two languages (Hungarian

Advised by Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova,

Received: September 07, 2012 Accepted: October 16, 2012

RATES OF INFORMATION AWARENESS

General Background of Research

Instrument and Procedures

Information awareness of respondents in relation to determination of aggressive driving was

Self-evaluation of Terminology Knowledge

Level of Term Understanding (expected level)

Term Knowledge (real level)

Level of Term Understanding (real level)

Figure 1: Level of understanding of formulation of aggressive driving (Part 1) by

Figure 2: Level of understanding of formulation of aggressive driving (Part 2) by

Level of Agreement with the Formulation

1. Agree 2. Partially agree 3. Do not agree

Figure 3: Level of agreement with the formulation of aggressive driving (Part 1)

1. Agree 2. Partially agree 3. Do not agree

Figure 4: Level of agreement with the formulation of aggressive driving (Part 2)

Interconnection between Factors of Information Awareness

Cluster Analysis of Rates of Information Awareness

Figure 5: Average value of standardized factors of information awareness in the

Information Awareness about Aggressive Driving

Thus, summarizing the obtained results in relation to information awareness of respondents,

Advised by Aleksejs Ruza,

Received: September 10, 2012 Accepted: October 24, 2012