Electronic Physics

Lecture-1
Material Classification

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 • To understand Natures of atoms, energy
levels.
1

• Be able to describe the difference

between conductor, insulators, and
2 semiconductors.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

All matter is composed of atoms

The fundamental components of an atom are the

electron, proton, and neutron.

Two models are proposed to describle the atom

structure; Bohr model and quantum model

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE BOHR MODE

• An atom* is the smallest particle of

an element
• Each of the known 118 elements has
a unique atomic structure.
• In the lattice structure, neutrons(no
ch) and protons (+ ch) form the
nucleus and electrons(- ch) appear in
fixed orbits around the nucleus, see Fig. 1.1 The Bohr model of an
fig 1.1. atom [2].

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE BOHR MODEL ATOMIC NUMBER

• All elements are arranged in the periodic table

of the elements in order according to their
atomic number.
(a) Hydrogen atom [2]

atomic number = # protons = # electrons ,

see fig 1.2 a and b.

(b) Helium atom [2]

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed
Fig 1.3 Atomic numbers of all the elements are shown on the periodic table of the elements
[2].
Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed
 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE BOHR MODEL Electrons and Shells

• In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy levels known as

shells.

• Each shell has a fixed maximam # of electrons.

• These shells are designated 1, 2, 3, and so on, with 1 being closest to

the nucleus.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE BOHR MODEL Electrons and Shells

) can be calculated using this formula

The Maximum Number of Electrons in Each Shell
(

=2 ... 1.1
n is the # of shell
Ex 1
= 2(1) = 2
2-Max # electrons in shell 2= = 2(2) = 8
1- Max # electrons in shell 1 =
Fig 1.4 Silicon Atom [2]

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE BOHR MODEL Valence Electrons

• The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom that contains

high-energy electrons loosely bonded to the atom.

• Valence shell electrons is called valence electrons.

• These valence electrons contribute to bond within the structure of

a material and determine its electrical properties

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE BOHR MODEL Ionization

• When an atom absorbs energy, the valence electrons can easily jump to higher
energy shells.

• Valence electron can escape from the valence shell (atom influence) when
quieter a sufficient energy called ionization energy and become free electron.

• The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization, and the

resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion.

• For some nonmetallic materials such as chlorine, a free electron can be

captured by the neutral atom, forming a negative ion.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE QUANTUM MODEL

• The quantum model (like the Bohr model) has a nucleus of

protons(+) and neutrons(0) surrounded by electrons(-).

• Unlike the Bohr model, the electrons in the quantum model do not
exist in precise circular orbits as particles.

• Three important principles lie behind the quantum model:

the wave-particle duality principle, the uncertainty principle, and the
superposition principle.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE QUANTUM MODEL

• Wave-Particle Duality principle, as alight wave and a particle

(photon), electrons are thought to reveal a wave-particle duality.
• uncertainty principle, it is impossible to determine simultaneously
both the position and velocity of an electron with any degree of
accuracy or certainty.
• Superposition principle, at the subatomic level the state of any
object is unknown, it is actually in all possible states
simultaneously as long as an observation is not attempted.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE QUANTUM MODEL ENERGY LEVELES

• Energy Level or Shell is deviced upto four subshells or orbitals,

which are s, p, d, and f.
• orbital s can hold a maximum of two electrons,
• orbital p can hold six electrons,
• orbital d can hold 10 electrons,
• and orbital f can hold 14 electrons.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE QUANTUM MODEL ENERGY LEVELES

Electron Configuration Table:

1 : 2 electrons in shell 1, orbital s

2 2 5 electrons in shell 2: 2 in orbital s, 3 in orbital p

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 ATOM STRUCTURE

THE QUANTUM MODEL ENERGY LEVELES

Electron Configuration Table:

1 : 2 electrons in shell 1, orbital s

2 2 8 electrons in shell 2: 2 in orbital s, 6 in orbital p
3 3 4 electrons in shell 3: 2 in orbital s, 2 in orbital p

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

ATOM STRUCTURE

THE QUANTUM MODEL ENERGY LEVELES

<<< Fig. 1.5:

Three-dimensional
quantum model of the
sodium atom (Na11)
showing the orbitals and
number of electrons in
each orbital [2].

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES

INSULATORS
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical
current under normal conditions.

• Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there are
very few free electrons in an insulator.

• Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element

materials and have very high resistivities.

• Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES

CONDUCTORS
A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical
current.

• The best conductors are characterized by atoms with only one valence
electron, very loosely bound to the atom. These loosely bounded
valence electrons can become free electrons with the addition of a
small amount of energy to free them from the atom.

• Most good conductors are single-element materials.

• Examples of conductors are copper(Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and

aluminum (Al)
Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed
 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES

SEMICONDUCTORS

• SEMICONDUCTORS is a material that is between conductors and

insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.

• A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor

or a good insulator.
• Examples of semiconductors are Silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and
gallium arsenide (GaAs).
• Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor.

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed

 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES

SEMICONDUCTORS

Fig 1.6 Covalent bonding of the silicon atom [1] Fig 1.7 Covalent bonding of the GaAs crystal [1].
Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed
MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES

ENERGY LEVELS

Fig 1.8 conduction and valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor [1].
Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed
 QUESTIONS

• Q1 Discuss the Bohr model of an atom.

• Q2 Define electron, proton, neutron, and nucleus.
• Q3 Define atomic number.
• Q4 Discuss electron shells and orbits.
• Q5 Explain energy levels.
• Q6 Define valence electron.
• Q7 What is a free electron?
• Q8 Discuss the difference between positive and negative ionization.
• Q9 Name three principles that distinguish the quantum model.
• Q10 How many valence electrons does a conductor such as copper have?
• Q11 What is meant by the term intrinsic?
• Q12 What is a crystal?

Dr. Rabah A. Ahmed