11th Congress of the International Society for Rock Mechanics – Ribeiro e Sousa, Olalla & Grossmann (eds)

© 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-45084-3

Study on shear strength characteristic of coal bearing strata

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Suseno Kramadibrata, Ridho K. Wattimena, Budi Sulistianto & Ganda M. Simangunsong
Department of Mining Engineering, Institute Technology Bandung, Indonesia

Armstrong Tobing
PT. Kaltim Prima Coal, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: It has been well known that the stability of “permanent” slopes in the open pit coal mines in Indonesia does not
remain constant over long periods of time. This has been mainly attributed to the weathering process that intensively occurs in
the tropical regions.
It is therefore appropriate to carry out an investigation of shear strength characteristics on rock samples of the predominant
coal bearing strata such as claystone and mudstone which are obtained from a number of open pit coal mines in Indonesia. The
investigation includes the behaviour of long term strength.
The research reveals that the long term strength of those two kinds of rock is significantly lower than their peak strengths. It
is also found that the Burger reology model does fit to the rehology of these rock samples.

1 INTRODUCTION Thus, it is worth thinking about whether the slopes of

A series of studies on time dependent shear strength behaviour
at the Department of Mining Engineering (DME) Institute
Technology Bandung (ITB) Indonesia was initiated by the
occurrences of considerable slope failures at MuaraTiga Besar
open pit coal mine of Tanjung Enim PT. BukitAsam (PTBA) in
South Sumatra and at Melawan west open pit coal mine of PT.
Kaltim Prima Coal (PT. KPC) in Sangatta, East Kalimantan.
The interesting part of the former one was that despite the
bedding planes were obviously oriented against the slope face
direction, significant failure of slopes still occurred. The cause
of the failure was much involved with intact material charac-
teristics of claystone rather than developing along a plane of
weakness, and this type of failure being common in highly
weathered geo-materials. It was recorded that the failure area
was poured with heavy rains for a period of about a week prior
to the slope failures. In addition, subsequent to heavy rain for
more than 4 consecutive days a huge low wall slope failure
took place at night shift at the Melawan pit. The failed mate-
rials were mudstone sitting on top of a coal seam. The failure
was previously believed attributed to geological structure. On
the contrary, a thorough research carried out not long after the
failure indicated that this slope failure was convinced primarly
due to a deterioration process of the geomaterials constituting
the slope and geometry rather than that of weak geological
structure. Laboratroy test confirmed that the rock materials
in this particular area was classified as weak materials (UCS
less than 7.5 MPa).
It is not unusual phenomenon in many Indonesian open
pit mines that slope monitoring did not make much available
of slope movement indications preceding to the slope fail-
ures including in the Muara Tiga Besar and the Melawan pits.
Having learned to a number of slope failures and considering
the weathering process, particularly, in open pit coal mines in
Indonesia, it can therefore be said that these failures may have
been owing to slope geometry, heavy rainfall, weathering, and
cohesion reduction. In essence, the last one could observably
be estimated through time dependent behaviour study.
active and non active benches remain stable over its prescribed
functional operation. Accordingly, long-term strength of geo-
material structures becomes one of the critical issues to be
taken into account in the success of the implementation of a
long-term open pit mine plan. Hence, this paper describes the
parameters controlling the stability of open pit mines. These
can be elaborated as follows; the overall geology of Indonesia,
tropical weather and long term behaviour of coal bearing strata
and determination long term shear strength of intact rock.
2 THE UNIQUENESS OF GENERAL GEOLOGY AND
CLIMATE OF INDONESIA
In general, there are three interesting geology phenomena
of Indonesia as indicated by the fact that about 80–90%
of Indonesian land is covered by quarter sediment resulted
from volcanic activities, as well as trass alluvial, and soils
resulted from rock weathering. Second, the rock formation
in Indonesia is very young, and third there are many tectonic
activities occurring in Indonesia. These types of geo-materials
do not seem quite dense and consequently the porosity is
relatively high.
It is believed by many that about 13%–17% of the active vol-
canoes in the world are located in the Indonesian archipelago
and there are 3 volcano magmatic belts, stretching from Suma-
tra to West Papua. In fact, sedimentary rock and rock formation
formed from volcanic activities are dominant in Indonesia.
In addition, mineral belts also relatively occupying the same
magmatic belts, even larger in Indonesia.
Regarding the tectonic activities, it should be borne in mind
that there are three tectonic plates i.e., Eurasia – Australia –
Indian Pacific Ocean, intersect each other in Indonesia. Thus,
it is not unusual if strong and many tectonic activities take
place in Indonesia.
Due to the proximity of the Indonesian archipelago to the
Equator and continents of Asia and Australia and being sur-
rounded by Pacific and Indian oceans, it is not uncommon

705
for Indonesia to experience a very high average rainfall rate
annually being 3000–4000 mm. This turns out mostly in the
areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Java. A combination of high
rainfall, high ambient temperature and intensity of ultravio-
let rays over a year period causes chemical weathering taking
place frequently. Thus, the weathering process turns hard rock
formation into so-called soft rock that is sometimes difficult
to handle. Consequently, regardless the mining method, the
rapid mining development coupled with soft rock behaviour,
problems related to the geomechanical or rock engineering
have been obvious.
3 LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Failure criteria
Determination of Safety Factor (SF) for slope stability analy-
sis by using limit equilibrium method is based upon the ratio
of resistance force against moving force at a failure plane.
Thus, failure criteria which include shear strength is the most
appropriate method to be used for slope stability analysis and
Mohr-Coulomb criteria is the most well accepted. Despite of
criticism on the accurracy of this criteria in predicting rock
strength, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion has been widely
used both for soil and rock stability analysis (Schofield, 1998;
Swan & Seo, 1999). The Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria sug-
gests that shear strength (τ) is a function of cohesion (C),
normal stress (σn ), and internal friction angle (φ), and can be
written as follows:
This criteria can be used to predict whether the applied
stresses on a plane are strong enough to overcome the shear
stress so that displacement along the plane occurs. Consider-
ing its wide application, many have put forward methods to
determine c and φ of other failure criterion such as failure
criteria of Drucker-Prager (Chen & Saleeb, 1982) and failure
criteria of Hoek-Brown (Hoek & Brown, 1997).
It is important to note that that the Mohr-Coulomb failure
criteria is associated with a contact problem, meaning that
in order two surface planes move across each other under
frictional circumstance those two planes must be intact. This
condition will only prevail if the normal stress being compres-
sion, and when the normal stress is tension, the failure criteria
will no longer valid (Brace et al., 1966; Jaeger & Cook, 1979;
Price & Cosgrove, 1990; Brady & Brown, 1993).
3.2 Time dependent behaviour
From time dependent strength can be defined as the maxi-
mum stress sustained by geo-materials at which failure just
not occur or just occur, no matter how long the force has been
applied. The strength has been described by various terms
namely fundamental strength, true strength, time safe stress,
and long term strength.
Regarding the time dependent behaviour of geo-materials
this may be approached by a combination of two fundamen-
tal rheological models, namely Hooke and Newton. In view
of the basic equations of the time dependent behaviour, it
appears that no general equation exists to adequately define
the rheological properties of geo-materials.
So far, uniaxial compressive creep testing at laboratory
scale has been the most suitable method to derive the appro-
priate time dependent behaviour equation and description of
706
Strain (∈)
I
II III
Failure
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T
P
U
ε0
Q V
R
Time (t)
Figure 1. Creep curve of uniaxial compression (Goodman, 1989).
this is available elsewhere including Lama & Vutukuri (1978).
Goodman (1989) classifies uniaxial compression creep into
four stages; instantenous elastic strain (ε0 ), primary creep (I),
secondary creep (II), and tertiary creep (III) as depicted in
Figure 1.
The instantenous elastic strain occurs as soon as load is
applied onto a specimen and followed by primary creep. At
this stage the specimen will recover to the intial state when load
is taken off (OQR). Secondary creep is indicated by constant
strain rate, and when the load is taken off, the specimen will
undergo permanent strain (TUV). At the tertiary creep, elastic
strain rate will increase until the specimen fails.
3.3 Rheology model
Rheology is branch of science which is related to a study on
phenomena of flow or displacement of a substance. There are
several models in the rheology that can be used to describe
mechanical behaviour of a material, encompasing from sim-
ple to complex models. Table 1 shows a number of rheology
models with their symbols which are generally used for
mechanical analysis and assumed applicable for shear strength
determination.
3.4 Long-term strength
Stress level applied on a specimen in a creep test is usually
lower than that of applied in standard tests such uniaxial com-
pression, uniaxial tension and shear tests. By plotting the stress
level against failure time that is obtained from creep test, the
long-term strength of the rock specimen can be predicted as
shown in Figure 2.
It is known that the creep test can be carried out based
on continuous constant and multistage loads. The continuous
constant load test needs a lot of samples whereas the multistage
load test only requires few samples, although the constant load
to be applied are influenced by the previous load.
4 SHEAR CREEP BEHAVIOUR OF COAL BEARING
STRATA OF OPEN PIT COAL MINES
4.1 Tanjung Enim open pit coal mine – PT. Bukit Asam
An interesting planar failure was encountered at an area of
southern part of the North Muara Tiga Besar open pit mine.
The failure occurred within the sandstone interburden B–C
coal seams, that contained thin layer of claystone of the mon-
morilonite clay minerals. Failure direction was apparently in
the same with that of bedding. The area accounted for this fail-
ure was of 500 m long (along the strike) and 100 m wide (down
 Table 1. Rheology models.

Model Symbol Rheology equation

Newton

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Maxwell

Kelvin

Generalized Kelvin

Burger

Before failure After failure

Stress Level (%)

o
24
15 m
40 m
Long-term Strength

Laminated claystone
a

Before failure 10 m
Failure Time
After failure
Figure 2. Determination of long-term strength. 30 m

dip), broken into blocks with size of about 2 × 3 × 5 m3 , and
displaced down at average of 15 m down dip (Figure 3a).
It is worth mentioning that heavy rains for a period of about
a week happened prior to the failures. About 200 away from
the slope failure, along the strike, there were surface sticks
to monitor the anticipated slope area. Surprisingly, failure
at this anticipated area did not even occur until a consider-
able period of time. The surface sticks were connected with
a small diameter of wire rope, and at another end of which a
steel weigh was suspended and attached to a slide ruler. Slope
movement was recorded every day by taking a reading on the
ruler. Unpredictably, there were no significant indications of
slope movement.
At the northern part from the location of the planar failure
mentioned above, a number of single slope circular failures
had happened. This type of failure develops independent of
geological structural features as can be seen that the bedding
planes are obviously oriented against the slope face direction
and this is illustrated in Figure 3b. The phenomenon behind
this may be self explained that as the materials constituting the
slope was categorized being soft materials and led to shear
strength reduction. It can then be said that this should had
been attributed to the fact that pressure induced might have
exceeded the inherent strength of the material and these types
of failure are common in highly weathered or soft rocks.
Circular
failure
o
A1
18
A2
b
Figure 3. Cross-section of the planar and circular slope failures at
North Muara Tiga Besar open pit mine.
A research on time dependent behaviour on slope stabil-
ity was afterwards carried out using samples obtained from
the northern part of the Muara Tiga Besar which circular fail-
ure happened. Taking account the fact that the overburden in
north Muara Tiga Besar is dominated by claystone, the average
annual rainfall is of 3000 mm, and the overall height of slopes
is up to 80 m, the average overall slope of 20o would there-
fore be deemed optimum. The individual slope would remain
stable at maximum height of 40 m and 35o. These essentially
attribute to the designed Safety Factors of overall and indi-
vidual slopes that vary from 1.35 to 3.6, depending on the
material types making up the slope and the geological com-
plexity. Nevertheless, having remained standing for periods
of about 18 months, failure took place at some of the slopes.
In order to further find out the cause of this particular plane
failure, shear creep tests on claystone samples obtained from

707

Figure 4. Shear creep test frame.
Shear stress levels (%)
120
100
y = 139,42x-0,23
80
R2 = 0,67
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600
Time (days)
Figure 5. Long-term shear strength of a claystone specimen.
the failure area were carried out at the Laboratory of Geome-
chanics DME ITB. The shear creep tests were performed using
a modified shear creep test frame that previously employed
for uniaxial creep test (see Figure 4) at the Laboratory of
Geomechanics DME ITB (Kramadibrata & Kushardanto,
2002).
Prior to the creep tests a series of “standard” direct shear test
to determine the shear strength of the claystone was conducted.
The same normal stresses (σn ) used in the “standard” direct
test were applied constantly to the specimens, but the applied
constant shear stresses (τnt ) were varied depending on the cor-
responded normal stresses in the “standard” direct shear test.
The shear displacements were recorded and plotted against
time. The long-term shear strength was then determined using
the method proposed by Lama and Vutukuri (1978). The tests
and its analysis revealed the following (see Figure 5);
• Claystone time dependent behavior follows the Burger
rheology model and the long-term shear strength of clay-
stone levels off at about 40% of its peak strength after about
240 days (8 months).
• The slope stability study found out that the Safety Factor of
the slope decreases from 3.6 to 1.4, meaning that the slope
could still be assuredly stable.
• Cohesion (C) and internal friction angle (φ) decrease
with time and they can be estimated using the equations
of: C = 513.8 t−0.24 ; φ = 73 t−0.20 respectively, where t is
the day.
4.2 Melawan West pit coal mine, PT. Kaltim Prima Coal
Even though slope stability analysis based on limit equilibrium
suggesting that slopes would be stable and yet slope failure
still happened. It could therefore be said that this method
of analysis could not apparently take account the long-term
behaviour of the geo-materials which governs the long-term
shear strength characteristics of the in situ materials.
708
Table 2. Shear strength parameters of Melawan mudstone
(Wattimena et al., 2006).
Shear strength parameter Peak Residual Long-term
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Cohesion (kPa) 275 0 156
Angle of int. friction (0 ) 58 39 43
Subsequently, a research was conducted and the results
show that the failure was obviously brought about by low
shear strength of the mudstone material and the geometry of
the slope. A follow up shear creep tests was then carried out
at the Laboratory of Geomechanics DME ITB to observe the
creep characteristics as well as the long-term shear strength
of the mudstone material.
Similarly to the previous case of the shear tests on clay-
stone samples of Muara Tiga Besar, “standard” direct shear
tests were also conducted to determine the shear strength
of the mudstone samples of the Melawan West. Shear creep
tests were then performed using five mudstone specimens.
The same normal stresses (σn ) used in the “standard” direct
test were applied constantly to the specimens, but the applied
constant shear stresses (τnt ) were varied in the range of
46%–71% of those used for corresponded normal stresses in
the “standard” direct shear test.
Using the same principle as mentioned in Point 4.1 (Lama
and Vutukuri, 1978), the test results revealed that creep charac-
teristics of the mudstone obeyed the Burger Rheology model.
Furthermore, long-term cohesion and tangent of long-term
angle of internal friction of the mudstone was 57% of the
peak values obtained in the “standard” direct shear test (see
Table 2). Consequently, any slope stability analysis performed
for the mudstone should use the reduction factor of 57% for
the cohesion and 70% for the angle of internal friction (equiv-
alent to the 57% reduction for the tangent of angle of internal
friction).
5 CLOSING REMARKS
Having gone through the foregoing analysis the following
points may be worth suggested;
1. Prior to the design of working bench, it is important to con-
duct detailed site investigations and this should be directed
to determine possible potential failure. Moreover, time
dependent analysis may be included in order to provide
an indication on how durable the slopes against weathering
phenomenon such as heavy rainfall.
2. The time dependent behaviour of rock slope can be obtained
by performing laboratory test of shear creep and the creep
test frame designed and manufactured in-house – which
is the first time in Indonesia – is apparently proven to
repeatedly used for other creep tests.
3. Shear strength time dependent behaviour of coal bearing
measures, especially claystone and mudstone samples had
been obviously fitted to the Burger rheology model.
4. For long term slope design pruposes it is important to take
account the long term factor meaning the cohesion and
internal friction angle should be reduced down between 40
to 50% from the their peak values.
5. A major deficiency of laboratory testing of rock specimens
is that the specimens are limited in size and therefore repre-
sent a very small sample of the rock mass from which they
 were removed. Thus, in order to gain a better understanding
of long term shear strength of rock mass, scale effect study
of shear creep testing may be worth carried out.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to extend their gratitude to all the final
year students who participated in conducting the shear creep
studies of the mentioned coal bearing strata, and Labora-
tory technicians, Mr. Sudibyo and Mr. Iwan, without whom
the research work would have not possibly been well per-
formed. Our sincere thanks are also due to the Management
of PT. Bukit Asam and PT. KPC who have provided invaluable
support to these studies.
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