ECPC29-Microwave Electronics

Course Instructor
Dr. Hemant Kumar
Assistant Professor, ECE
NIT Tiruchirappalli
Reference: NPTEL & Gilmour Book
 Outline
• Introduction to Conventional Tubes

• High Frequency Limitations of Conventional Tubes

• Microwave Tubes: Klystron, TWT, Magnetron → High Power

• Microwave Transistors

• Transferred electron – Gunn diode → Low Power

• Avalanche Transit-time devices:
IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT
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 Conventional Tubes
▪ Vacuum Tubes – Triode, Tetrode, Pentode etc.
• An electronic device in which electrons flow through vacuum
is called as vacuum tube.
• A vacuum tube consists of a evacuated glass envelope which
contains a cathode, an anode and one or more electrodes called
grids.
• Vacuum tubes are voltage controlled device.
• These can operate at very high voltages.
• High power can be easily produced by vacuum tubes.
• Useful below microwave frequencies
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High Frequency Limitations of Conventional Tubes
• Conventional tubes fails to operate above 1 GHz due to-
➢ Stray Reactance
▪ Inter-electrode Capacitance
▪ Lead Inductance
➢ Transit Time/angle effect
➢ Gain BW Product Limitation
➢ Skin Effect: Conductor Losses
➢ Radiation Losses
➢ Dielectric Losses
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 Inter-electrode Capacitance
• A capacitance exists when two pieces Triode
of metal are separated by a dielectric.
Plate/
• The capacitance between two Anode
electrodes is called as inter-electrode Cgp
capacitance and it is given by-
𝜀𝐴
𝐶= Grid Cpk
𝑑
1 Cgk
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Cathode
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 Lead Inductance
• The common lead inductance is the inductance associated
with the electrodes of the vacuum tubes.
Triode
𝑳 = 𝒍Τ𝝁𝑨 and 𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 Plate/
• Input impedance matching problem at microwave frequencies. Anode
• Small fraction of input reach to terminal for amplification. Lp
• The inductance of the cathode is common to both the Grid Lg
and anode circuit. This provides the path for regenerative Grid
feedback.
• These inductances form unwanted tuned circuit with the
capacitance, produce parasitic oscillations which affects the Lk
performance of the tubes. Cathode
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 Transit Time/angle effect
• The time taken by an electron to travel from cathode to anode is called Triode
as transit time and it is given by 𝜏 = 𝑑Τ𝒗𝟎 and transit angle is given Plate/
by 𝜽𝒈 = 𝝎𝝉 = 𝝎𝒅Τ𝒗𝟎 Anode
• At low frequencies, the transit time is very small (𝜏 > T) i.e. the
electrons reach instantaneously the anode plate from cathode. Grid 𝑑
• At high frequencies, the potential between cathode and grid
2𝑒𝑉0
changes 10 to 100 times during the electron transit as T ≪ 𝜏. 𝑣0 = 𝑚
𝑚/𝑠
• The grid potential during negative half cycle removes the energy given Cathode
to the electron in positive half cycle. 𝑽𝒈

• Electron may oscillate back and forth in the cathode grid space or return
to the cathode.
T
• To minimize this effect, the distance between the electrodes is to be reduced and high voltage
must be applied but this will increase the inter-electrode capacitance.
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 Other Limitations
• Gain BW product: Constant
➢ Higher gain can be achieved for narrower BW
• Skin Depth:
1 𝜌𝑙
𝛿= and 𝑅=
𝜋𝜇𝜎𝑓 𝐴

➢ Conductor losses- more at microwave frequencies

• Radiation Losses:
➢ Electrode pins start radiating at microwave frequencies
• Dielectric Losses:
➢ More at microwave frequencies
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 Microwave Tubes
Linear Beam Tube (O-type) Crossed Field Tubes (M-type)
• DC magnetic field is in parallel with • DC magnetic field and the dc electric
the dc electric field. field are perpendicular to each other.

Magnetic Field

https://blog.oureducation.in/principle-and-operation-of-magnetrons-and-twttravelling-wave-tube/ http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Waves/magnetron.html
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 O-type Microwave Tubes
Multi-cavity
Klystron
Cavity Resonant Klystron

Reflex Klystron
Linear
Beam
Tube Forward Helix TWT
Wave
(O-type) Slow
Wave Coupled Cavity TWT
Structure
BWA
Backward
Wave
BWO
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 Klystron
• Klystron tube is a vacuum tube that can be operated either as an
oscillator or as an amplifier at microwave frequencies.
• Configurations:
• Multi-cavity Klystron – low power microwave amplifier
➢ Two-cavity Klystron
➢ Three-cavity Klystron
• Reflex Klystron – low power microwave oscillator
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 Multicavity Klystron
Assumptions:
Drift Space
• Transit time in the cavity gap is very Buncher Catcher
small compared to the period of the Cavity Cavity
Density of Electrons
input RF signal cycle. Cathode Collector

• Input RF signal amplitude is very

small compared to the dc beam
Electron
voltage. 𝑉0 Anode Beam

• The RF fields are totally confined in

Microwave Input Microwave Output
the cavity gaps, zero in the drift space.
• Electrons leave the cathode with zero
initial velocity.
• Space charge effects are negligible.
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 Two -Cavity Klystron
Microwave Amplifier
• Working Principle: Velocity and Current Modulation
• Electrons Injection: from cathode
➢ Electrons reach at first cavity with uniform velocity
• Velocity Modulation: In first (buncher) cavity by input RF signal
• Bunch Formation
• Current Modulation
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 Working: Two -Cavity Klystron
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑽𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕) Bunching Process

𝒆𝒍
𝒆𝒆 𝒆𝟎
𝑉𝑠 𝑑 𝜔𝑑
𝑉0 𝜏 = 𝑡𝑔 − 𝑡0 = ⇒ 𝜃𝑔 = 𝜔𝜏 =
d
𝑣0 𝑣0
𝑉1 𝑆𝑎(𝜃𝑔 /2)
𝒆𝑽𝟎 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟎 /𝟐 𝑉𝑠 ≪ 𝑉0 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 1+ sin(𝜔𝑡𝑔 − 𝜃𝑔 /2)
2𝑉0
2𝑒𝑉0
𝑣0 = 𝑚/𝑠 Images Source: Microwave Devices and circuits by Samuel Y. Liao
𝑚 14
Velocity Modulation Process
Kinetic energy (E) of the electron
beam is given by
1
E = m vo 2; E = eVo
2

Vo is the DC beam voltage; vo is the

electron beam velocity; e is the charge
of the electron

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Velocity Modulation Process
Input microwave signal

Where V1<<V0

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 Velocity Modulation Process
Transit time through the buncher gap is given by

The average gap transit angle can be expressed

as
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Velocity Modulation Process
Average voltage in the buncher gap is
given by

Using trigonometric identities

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 Velocity Modulation Process
Beam Coupling Coefficient is given by

Beam coupling coefficient (βi) depends on the value of d.

If d is large coupling coefficient will be small.

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 Velocity Modulation Process
Beam Coupling Coefficient is given by

Velocity at the exit of the buncher cavity is given by

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Velocity Modulation Process

Depth of modulation is given by

The above equation can be written alternatively as

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 Velocity Modulation Process

Looking this equation it is understood that at

the exit of the buncher cavity electron velocity
is dependent on sine function

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Bunching Process

Fig. Bunching Distance

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 Bunching Process
Distance from the buncher cavity to the location of
dense bunching
------------------(a)

-----(b)

-----(c)

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 Bunching Process
Minimum and maximum velocities are given by

---------------(d)

---------------(e)
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 Bunching Process
Substituting equation (d) and (e) in equation (b) and (c)

For bunching to occur the above equations must be

equal to equation (a)

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 Bunching Process

So this will converge to the following

equation

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 Bunching Process
Where ΔL is the distance from buncher cavity at
which maximum bunching can occur.

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 Bunching Process
Time required for the electron to travel
from buncher cavity to catcher cavity is
given by

Where To = L / vo
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 Bunching Process

Above expression can be written in

terms of radians as

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 Bunching Process
Where θo is given by
θo =⍵ To

X is the Bunching parameter of the klystron

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Specifications: Two-Cavity Klystron
• Beam Voltage: up to Few hundreds of KV
• Efficiency: about 40%
• Power Output:
➢ Average (CW) Power: upto 500KW
➢ Pulsed Power: Tens of MW
at up to 10GHz
• Power Gain: about 30dB
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 Three cavity Klystron Amplifier
Addition of intermediate
cavities between the input and
output cavities :
Improve amplification, power
output, BW and efficiency.

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 Re-entrant Cavity Analysis
Input impedance of the short-circuited
transmission line

Where Zo is characteristic impedance of coaxial

cable and Zin is given by

Inductance of the cavity is given by

j⍵L = Zin || Zin
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 Re-entrant Cavity Analysis
Capacitance of the cavity is given by

At resonance

After substituting L and Cg values

----(1)

Where v is the phase velocity in the medium

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 Re-entrant Cavity Analysis

-------------------- (1)

Equation (1) contains many solutions. Which means

that the resonant cavity can support any operating
frequency. Or in other words resonant cavity can be
operated in different operating modes.
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 Applications: Klystron Amplifiers
As power output tubes
• In UHF TV transmitters
• In troposphere scatter transmitters
• In satellite communication ground station
• In Radar transmitters
• Global Resource Corporation (GRC) currently using a klystron
amplifier to convert the hydrocarbons in daily materials, coal,
automotive waste, diesel fuel, and oil sands into natural gas.

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 Reflex Klystron
• Low power microwave oscillator
• Has a reflector/repeller and one
cavity as a resonator
• Working Principle: Velocity and
Current Modulation
• Velocity Modulation
• Bunch Formation
Image Source: http://lampes-et-tubes.info/mwkl/mw047.php?l=e

• Current Modulation
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 Working: Reflex Klystron
RF Output d Bunching Process and Modes
L
Distance from
Anode
cavity gap Modes: n + 𝟑Τ𝟒
Cathode Repeller 𝐿𝑒
Electron Beam 𝐿0
𝐿𝑙

𝑒𝑒 𝑒0 𝑒𝑙
0 t
𝑉0 Cavity gap 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑏 𝑡𝑐 𝑡𝑑
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑡0
voltage
1𝟑Τ𝟒
𝑉𝑟 𝟑ൗ
𝟒
t
𝑉1 𝑆𝑎(𝜃𝑔 /2)
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣0 1+ sin(𝜔𝑡𝑔 − 𝜃𝑔 /2)
2𝑉0 Bunching time depends on-
• Repeller Voltage Vr
Images Source: Microwave Devices and circuits by Samuel Y. Liao
• Repeller distance L 39
 Specifications: Reflex Klystron
• Frequency range: 1 – 200 GHz
• Tuning range: 5 GHz at 2 W – 30 GHz at 10 mW
• Power output: 10mW – 2.5W
• Theoretical efficiency: 22.78 %
• Practical efficiency: 10 – 20%

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 Applications: Reflex Klystron
• RADAR receivers
• Radio receivers
• Signal source in microwave generators
• Local oscillators in receivers.
• Pump oscillators in parametric amplifiers
• Portable microwave links

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 Travelling Wave Tubes (TWTs)
• Non-Resonant structure
• Helix TWTs:
➢ Slow Wave Structure
➢ For Broadband applications
• Coupled Cavity TWTs:
➢ For high Power applications (e.g. RADAR
Transmitters)

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 Slow Wave Structures
Helical line Folded back line
p p


d d 𝑝2 + (𝜋𝑑)2
Zigzag line

𝑣𝑝 𝑝
= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑐 𝑝2 + (𝜋𝑑)2
Corrugated Waveguide
𝑐 1
𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑝 = ; 𝑐=
1+(𝜋𝑑/𝑝)2 ) 𝜇𝜀
Images Source: Microwave Devices and circuits by Samuel Y. Liao 43
 Helix Travelling Wave Tubes
Contains electron gun, RF
interaction circuit, electron
beam focusing magnet,
attenuator and collector

Electron Beam Focusing:

• A magnetic field – to hold the electron beam
The beam tends to disperse or spread out as a result of the natural repulsive
forces between electrons.
Attenuator: To attenuate any reflected waves generated due to the impedance
mismatch.
Image Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 44
 Working: Helix TWT

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Image Source: Microwave Devices

and circuits by Samuel Y. Liao 45
 Specifications: Helix TWTs
• Frequency range: 1 – 100 GHz
• Power output: up to 10 KW average
• Power gain: up to 60 dB
• Efficiency: 20 – 40%

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 Applications: Helix TWTs
• Low noise RF amplifier in broad band microwave receivers.
• Repeater amplifier in wideband communication links and long distance telephony.
• Due to long tube life, TWT is power output tube in communication satellite.
• For medium power and higher power satellite transponder output.
• Continuous wave high power TWT’s are used in troposcatter links (due to higher
power and larger bandwidth).
• Used in Air borne and ship borne pulsed high power radars.
• Electronic counter measure system (ECM)
• Military applications – phased array radar
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Comparison between Klystron and TWT Amplifiers
Klystron Amplifier
• Resonant cavities for input and output
circuits
• Narrow-band device
• Higher Efficiency
• Frequency of operation: up to 50GHz
• Can handle power up to 2.5W
• The interaction of electron beam and
RF field occurs only at the gaps of
resonant cavities
• Each cavity operates independently
• Non-Propagating Wave
TWT Amplifier
• Non- resonant microwave circuit
• Wideband device
• Lower Efficiency
• Frequency of operation: up to 100GHz
• Can handle continuous power up to 200W
• The interaction of electron beam and RF
field is continuous over the entire length
of the circuit
• In the coupled cavity TWT, coupling
exists between the cavities
• Propagating Wave
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 M-type Microwave Tubes
Standing
Resonant Reentrant Magnetron
Wave

Reentrant FWCFA
Forward
Wave Non-
Crossed Field Dematron
Non- Reentrant
Tubes (M-type)
Resonant
Reentrant Amplitron
Backward
Wave Non-
Carcinotron
Maser Reentrant
Gyrotron
Effect
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 Magnetron Oscillator
1. Split-anode Magnetron: Static negative resistance between two anode
segments
➢ Below microwave region and low efficiency
2. Cyclotron-frequency Magnetron: Synchronism between electric field
and oscillation of electrons parallel to the field.
➢ Low output power and low efficiency
3. Traveling-wave Magnetron: Interaction of electrons with EM field
➢ High output power
Cylindrical Magnetron Linear/Planar Magnetron
Coaxial Magnetron Voltage-tunable Magnetron
Inverted Coaxial Magnetron Frequency-agile Magnetron
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 Multi-Cavity/Cylindrical Magnetron
Filament leads
• Re-entrant cavities: Connected to
gaps
• Cycloidal path of electrons: In

Interaction Space
cathode anode space and L C

Resonant cavity
Resonant cavity
depends on

Cathode
• DC voltage: Hull cut-off
voltage equation
• Magnetic flux: Hull cut-off
magnetic equation 1 1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
Image Source: http://www.radartutorial.eu/08.transmitters/Magnetron.en.html

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 Working: Multi-Cavity Magnetron
Magnetron Basic Operation:
• Generation and acceleration of an electron beam in a dc field
• Velocity-modulation of the electron beam in an ac field
• Formation of electron bunches by velocity modulation (In form of
a “Space-Charge Wheel”)
• Dispensing of energy to the ac field

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Working: Multi-Cavity Magnetron (Contd..)
Trajectory of an electron The influence of the high- Rotating space-
for different magnetic frequency electrical field on charge wheel
flux densities trajectory of an electron

𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 Images Source: http://www.radartutorial.eu/08.transmitters/Magnetron.en.html

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 Specifications: Magnetron
• Frequency range: 500MHz - 12 GHz
• Power output:
Peak power output up to 40MW, dc voltage 50kV at
10GHz
• Efficiency: 40 to 70%
• THOMSON TH3074A Magnetron
• Frequency:8.5 - 9.5GHz • Power: 220 kW
• Anode voltage: 21.5 kV • Anode current: 27.5 A
Source: http://lampes-et-tubes.info/mwma/gallery.php?l=e 54
 Applications: Magnetron
Magnetrons oscillators:
• Radar transmitters
• Industrial heating
• Microwave oven
Standard power = 600W
Frequency = 915MHz or 2450 MHz
• Microwave-excited lighting systems
Sulfur lamp
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Comparison of Microwave Tubes

Image Source: Granatstein et al. Proc. IEEE 1999

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