Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Bayombong Campus

DEGREE BSEd COURSE NO. SECMATH 3

PROGRAM
SPECIALIZATION Math COURSE Logic and Set Theory
TITLE
YEAR LEVEL 1 TIME FRAME 3 Hrs WK NO. 1 IM 1
NO.

I. CHAPTER TITLE
Chapter 1: Introduction to Logic

II. LESSON TITLE

Lesson 1: History, Definition and Types of Logic

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

Logic is a language for reasoning. It is a collection of rules we use when doing logical reasoning.
Human reasoning has been observed over centuries from at least the times of Greeks, and patterns
appearing in reasoning have been extracted, abstracted, and streamlined. The foundation of the logic we
are going to learn here was laid down by a British mathematician George Boole in the middle of the 19th
century, and it was further developed and used in an attempt to derive all of mathematics by Gottlob
Frege, a German mathematician, towards the end of the 19th century. A British
philosopher/mathematician, Bertrand Russell, found a flaw in basic assumptions in Frege's attempt but he,
together with Alfred Whitehead, developed Frege's work further and repaired the damage. The logic we
study today is more or less along this line.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

a. state how logic as a branch of mathematics came about;
b. identify some mathematicians and their contributions to the development of logic as a part of
mathematics; and
c. differentiate traditional logic from modern logic.

V. LESSON CONTENT

THE HISTORY OF LOGIC

Logic is a branch of science that studies correct forms of reasoning. It plays a fundamental role in
such disciplines as philosophy, mathematics, and computer science. Like philosophy and mathematics,
logic has ancient roots. The earliest treatises on the nature of correct reasoning were written over 2000
years ago. Some of the most prominent philosophers of ancient Greece wrote of the nature of deduction
more than 2300 years ago, and thinkers in ancient China wrote of logical paradoxes around the same time.
However, though its roots may be in the distant past, logic continues to be a vibrant field of study to this
day.
Modern logic originated in the work of the great Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the
most famous student of Plato (c.427–c.347 BCE) and one of the most influential thinkers of all time.
Further advances were made by the Greek Stoic philosopher Chrysippus of Soli (c.278–c.206 BCE), who
developed the basics of what we now call propositional logic.
For many centuries the study of logic was mostly concentrated on different interpretations of the
works of Aristotle, and to a much lesser degree of those of Chrysippus, whose work was largely
forgotten. However, all the argument forms were written in words, and lacked formal machinery that
would create a logical calculus of deduction with which it would be easy to work.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

The great German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) was among the
first to realize the need to formalize logical argument forms. It was Leibniz’s dream to create a universal
formal language of science that would reduce all philosophical disputes to a matter of mere calculation by
recasting the reasoning in such disputes in this language.
The first real steps in this direction were taken in the middle of the nineteenth century by the
English mathematician George Boole (1815–1864). In 1854 Boole published An Investigation of the
Laws of Thought, in which he developed an algebraic system for discussing logic. Boole’s work ushered
in a revolution in logic, which was advanced further by Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871), Charles
Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), Ernst Schröder (1841–1902), and Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932).
The next key step in this revolution in logic was made by the great German mathematician and
philosopher Gottlob Frege (1848–1925). Frege created a powerful and profoundly original symbolic
system of logic, as well as suggested that the whole of mathematics could be developed on the basis of
formal logic, which resulted in the well-known school of logicism.
By the early twentieth century, the stage was set for Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) and Alfred
North Whitehead (1861–1947) to give a modern account of logic and the foundations of mathematics in
their influential treatise Principia Mathematica. Published in three volumes between 1910 and
1913, Principia was a culmination of work that had been done on logic and the foundations of
mathematics in the preceding century, and had a tremendous influence on further development of the
subject in the twentieth century.
The development of logic in the first few decades of the twentieth century is one of the most
remarkable events in intellectual history, bringing together many brilliant minds working on closely
related concepts. Mathematical logic has come to be a central tool of contemporary analytic philosophy,
forming the backbone of the work of major figures like Quine, Kripke, Davidson, and Dummet.
In 1917, French logician Jean Nicod discovered that it was possible to axiomatize propositional
logic using the Sheffer stroke and only a single axiom schema and single inference rule.
The notion of a “truth table” is often utilized in the discussion of truth-functional connectives
(discussed below). It seems to have been at least implicit in the work of Peirce, W. S. Jevons (1835-
1882), Lewis Carroll (1832-1898), John Venn (1834-1923), and Allan Marquand (1853-1924). Truth
tables appear explicitly in writings by Eugen Müller as early as 1909. Their use gained rapid popularity in
the early 1920s, perhaps due to the combined influence of the work of Emil Post, whose 1921 work
makes liberal use of them, and Ludwig Wittgenstein’s 1921 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, in which
truth tables and truth-functionality are prominently featured.
Systematic inquiry into axiomatic systems for propositional logic and related metatheory was
conducted in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s by David Hilbert, Paul Bernays, Alfred Tarski, Jan
Łukasiewicz, Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and others. It is during this period, that most of the important
metatheoretic results such as those discussed in Section VII were discovered.
Complete natural deduction systems for classical truth-functional propositional logic were
developed and popularized in the work of Gerhard Gentzen in the mid-1930s, and subsequently
introduced into influential textbooks such as that of F. B. Fitch (1952) and Irving Copi (1953).
Since about the 1950s special topics of interest to contemporary philosophers, such as modal
logic, tense logic, many-valued logic (used in the study of vagueness), deontic logic, relevance logic, and
non-standard logic, have been vigourously studied. The field still attracts talented mathematicians and
philosophers, and there is no sign of abatement.
What is Logic?
Logic is derived from the Greek word logos, which means “spoken word”, “speech”, or “reason”.
It was introduced by Zeno, a Greek philosopher, through his use of the term logike, which means
“discourses of thinking” or “treatises of thought”.
Logic is formally defined as a science and an art which helps our mind to distinguish between the
correct from incorrect. Logic is an art, means a student develops his skills on reasoning. Logic as a
science means there are rules to follow and principles to learn to develop correct reasoning. Logic is
correct reasoning means, a student differentiate what is correct reasoning to wrong one.
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educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution,”
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

Logic is not based on mere opinion or hypothesis, but on certain demonstrated knowledge.
Through logic, man’s reason is guided so that it can proceed according to a system or order with ease and
cautious avoidance of error as it draws definitions and understands terms, propositions, syllogisms, and
fallacies, among others.
Logic is important in a conversation. We also learn how to convince our listeners of our opinion
by means of argument. We influence others of our point of view by means of debate. We can also
recognize people who want to deceive us and try to take advantage of us by means of fallacious argument.
Logic is a process of thinking. In logic, the mind go through a process that is why when we think,
it is called logical thinking. Logic develops your reasoning power.

Aims of Logic
1. Logic seeks to develop a system of methods and principles that may be used as criteria in
evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of our own.
2. Logic enables us to become more confident in criticizing the arguments of others and in
advancing arguments of our own.
3. Logic develops in us the habit of analyzing our thought, of distinguishing carefully between
our evidence and our conclusion.
4. Logic gives us norms or laws for recognizing correct thinking as well as incorrect thinking.

Types of Logic
a. Traditional Logic (Aristotlelian Logic) – is said to be the Logic of Terms, Logic of Classes or
Syllogistic Logic
This is the first known method in order to attain a certain demonstrated knowledge. Aristotle, also
known as the father of Logic, was the first thinker to devise a logical system. Influenced by his teacher
Plato, Aristotle drew upon the emphasis on the universal definition found in Socrates, the use of reduction
ad absurdum in Zeno of Elea, the claims about propositional structure and negation in Parmenides and
Plato, and the body of argumentative techniques found in legal reasoning and geometrical proofs. From
such ideas, Aristotle developed the syllogistic method, which is typically deductive, that is still being
used today.
b. Modern Logic (Symbolic Logic)- referred to as Logic of Statements, Logic of Propositions or
Sentential Logic, Mathematical Logic
Symbolic logic, unlike traditional logic, uses symbols in the analysis of the arguments in order to
easily analyze it.
In the modern era, mathematicians contributed a lot in the development of logic. Towards the end
of the 19th century, one can distinguish three overlapping traditions in the development of logic.
1. Algebraic School- originated from George Boole, Charles Peirce, and John Venn among others. This
school focused on the relationship between correct reasoning and operations like addition and
multiplication. The primary aim of logicians in this school was to develop calculi common to the
reasoning in different areas, such as propositions, classes, and probabilities.
2. Logicist School- aimed to codify the underlying logic of all rational, scientific discourse into a single
system. The major logicians in this school were Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Gotlob Frege.
Because of the contribution of Frege, he was considered as the greatest logician since Aristotle by his
contemporaries. It was Frege who held that arithmetic and analysis are part of logic.

“In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution,”
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

3. Mathematical School- The aim of this school was the axiomatization of particular branches of
mathematics like geometry, arithmetic, analysis and set theory.
The modern period marks the development of the inductive method way of reasoning and the
symbolic logic. Francis Bacon was the one responsible for the development of the inductive method;
thereby making him be considered as the father of modern logic by the logicians.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

From your readings, answer the following:
1. How was logic in mathematics developed?
2. Differentiate traditional logic from modern logic.

VII. ASSIGNMENT

Choose one mathematician who contributed in the development of logic in mathematics and
describe his life and his contributions to the development of logic in mathematics.

VIII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)

Same as learning activities

IX. REFERENCES

An Introduction to Symbolic Logic. Guram Bezhanishvili and Wesley Fussner. Retrieved on September 14, 2020
from https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/an-introduction-to-symbolic-logic

Symbolic Logic. Retrieved on September 14, 2020 from

https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/images/upload_library/46/Pengelley_projects/symbolic_logic_final.pdf

Philosophy Index. Retrieved on September 16, 2020 from http://www.philosophy-index.com/logic/symbolic/

Introduction to Logic. Retrieved on September 16, 2020 from https://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/symbolic.html

“In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution,”
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