ASSIGNMENT NO.

TITLE

HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS

Student: Prof:
TALANGAN, TRINIDAD Engr. Norlan Santos

Subject: Day/Time:
Com01LAB THS/12:00pm-
01:30pm
 Introduction

Electronics
Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal
with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and matter. It uses active devices to
control electron flow by amplification and rectification, which distinguishes it from
classical electrical engineering which uses passive effects such
as resistance, capacitance and inductance to control current flow.

History of Electronic Components

Vacuum tubes (Thermionic valves) were among the earliest electronic components.
They were almost solely responsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of the
twentieth century. They allowed for vastly more complicated systems and gave
us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long-distance telephony and much more. 

Types of Circuits
Circuits and components can be divided into two groups: analog and digital.

Analog circuits

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from

combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage
or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in
analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include
vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.

Digital circuits
 Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital
circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra, and are the basis of
all digital computers.
To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are
interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits use a binary system with
two voltage levels labelled "0" and "1". 

What are Passive Electronic Components?

There are two common properties all passive electronic components have in common:
 No power generation—passive electronic components do not generate electrical
power; they only dissipate power (in resistive components) or store unused power (in reactive
components). 
 No power source—all passive electronic components function without a power source;
they only influence the flow of power and the electrical output cannot be modified by some
external power source.

Basic Passive Components

The three basic passive electronic components are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
Other passive components include transformers, diodes, thermistors, varactors, transducers,
and many other common components.

Passives have many applications in common circuits, such as:

 Filters, including specialty high-frequency filters operating at GHz frequencies
 Termination and impedance matching networks
 Power decoupling networks with multiple capacitors

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE ON HOW TO TEST PASSIVE

COMPONENTS USING ANALOG VOM.

-How to Test a Diode using Analog Multimeter

Testing Diode by Multimeter (DMM & AMM in Resistance Mode)
If “diode test is not available in case of digital multimeter or you have to test the diode with
analog multimeter, Resistance mode (Ω) can be used to test the diode as alternative.

Steps:
1. Remove the diode from the circuit and make sure that power supply is disconnected
from the circuit and there is no voltage across the diode which has to be tested. Also,
discharge all the capacitors by shorting their leads in the circuits if any.
2. Set the meter on “Resistance mode (Ω)” Mode by turning the rotary switch of
multimeter. For better result, set the Ω range on 1kΩ for forward bias and 100kΩ for reverse
bias as shown in fig below.
3. Connect the RED test lead to the anode of the diode and BLACK test lead to the cathode
of diode (Forward Bias) as shown in fig. Note the measurement and reading.
4. Now reverse the test leads i.e. RED test lead to cathode and BLACK to anode (Reverse
Bias) and note the reading and measurement displayed by multimeter.
 If multimeter shows 1k Ω to 10 MΩ (not OL or infinite ∞), its mean the diode is in good
condition (forward-biased). Mostly, the best value is below 1kΩ i.e. for good diode, the
forward bias resistance should be low.
 If multimeter shows “OL” in reverse biased. The diode is good as well.
 If the multimeter displays same reading and measurement in both directions (i.e.
forward biased and reverse bias), its mean diode is bad and need to be replaced accordingly.
 If multimeter shows the same results i.e. low resistance or high resistance (OL) in both
direction (forward and reverse bias), the diode is short and open respectively. In other
words, if the multimeter shows 0Ω resistance in both reverse and forward bias, the diode is
short, if ohmmeter shows ∞, OL or very high resistance in both forward and reverse bias,
the diode is open and need to be replaced with new one.
 To make sure the result is accurate, the best practice is that test and compare the result
of good diodes in Resistance Mode.

8 Ways to Check and Test a Capacitor

To check a capacitor by AVO (Ampere, Volt, Ohm Meter) in the Resistance “Ω” or Ohm mode,
follow the following steps.
1. Make sure the suspected capacitor is fully discharged.
2. Take an AVO meter.
3. Rotate the knob on the analog meter to select the resistance “OHM” mode (Always,
select the higher range of Ohms).
4. Connect the Meter leads to the capacitor terminals. (COM to the “-Ve” and Positive to
the “+Ve) terminals).
5. Note the reading and compare with the following results.
6. Short Capacitors: Shorted Capacitor will show very low resistance.
7. Open Capacitors: An Open Capacitor will not show any movement (Deflection) on the
OHM meter scale.
8. Good Capacitors: Initially, it will show low resistance, and then gradually increases
toward the infinite. It means that the capacitor is in good condition.

How to test/check Resistors

To check if the Resistor is in good condition or broken, we use a multimeter.  For this
purpose, take AVO meter (or Digital Multimeter) and select “Resistance” (in AVO
meter…Rotate the knob to the “Ω” or Resistance). Now connect both ends of resistor
with the AVO or Digital Multimeter Terminals. If the meter reading shows the exact
value of resistance or with a percentage tolerance, it means Resistor in “Good
Condition”.

What are Active Electronic Components?

Active components are parts of a circuit that rely on an external power source to

control or modify electrical signals. Active components such as transistors and silicon-
controlled rectifiers (SCRs) use electricity to control electricity.
Active components are useful because they often enable a small amount of electricity to
control a larger quantity. In other words, one of the major benefits of active devices like
transistors, tunnel diodes, and vacuum tubes is that they allow amplification. Whether
they influence the flow of electricity by using voltage or current as the control, active
components allow a small input to generate a matching, larger output.
Basic Active Components

Active components such as amplifiers, vacuum tubes, and transistors make use of

an external power source to add power to a system. They use one electrical signal to
control another and are required for the circuit to be considered “electronic.”
Technically, we don’t define circuits without active components as “electronics,” but in
practice, virtually all electronic circuits have passive components as well.

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE ON HOW TO TEST ACTIVE

COMPONENTS USING ANALOG VOM.

Step by step instructions on how to test transistor using

analog

The instructions are given primarily for an NPN transistor as these are the most common types
in use. The variations are shown for PNP varieties - these are indicated in brackets (.. .. ..):

1. Set the meter to its ohms range - any range should do, but the middle ohms range if
several are available is probably best.
2. Connect the base terminal of the transistor to the terminal marked positive (usually
coloured red) on the multimeter
3. Connect the terminal marked negative or common (usually coloured black) to the
collector and measure the resistance. It should read open circuit (there should be a
deflection for a PNP transistor).
4. With the terminal marked positive still connected to the base, repeat the measurement
with the positive terminal connected to the emitter. The reading should again read open
circuit (the multimeter should deflect for a PNP transistor).
5. Now reverse the connection to the base of the transistor, this time connecting the
negative or common (black) terminal of the analogue test meter to the base of the
transistor.
6. Connect the terminal marked positive, first to the collector and measure the resistance.
Then take it to the emitter. In both cases the meter should deflect (indicate open circuit for a
PNP transistor).
7. It is next necessary to connect the meter negative or common to the collector and
meter positive to the emitter. Check that the meter reads open circuit. (The meter should
read open circuit for both NPN and PNP types.
8. Now reverse the connections so that the meter negative or common is connected to the
emitter and meter positive to the collector. Check again that the meter reads open circuit.
9. If the transistor passes all the tests then it is basically functional and all the junctions are
intact.

Step by step procedure on how to test scr using analog

A multimeter can be used to test SCRs quite effectively. The first procedure is to check
the diode action between the gate and cathode terminals of the SCR. This test is just like what
you have done in the case of testing a silicon diode (see testing a silicon diode).
Now put the multimeter selector switch in a high resistance position. Connect the positive lead
of multimeter to the anode of SCR and negative lead to the cathode. The multimeter will show
an open circuit. Now reverse the connections and the multimeter will again show an open
circuit.

Then connect the anode and gate terminals of the SCR to the positive lead of multimeter and
cathode to the negative lead. The multimeter will show a low resistance indicating the switch
ON of SCR. Now carefully remove the gate terminal from the anode and again the multimeter
will show a low resistance reading indicating the latching condition. Here the multimeter
battery supplies the holding current for the triac. If all of the above tests are positive we can
assume the SCR to be working fine.
Step by step procedure on how to test oscillator using analog vom

Locate the position of the crystal oscillator. If the crystal oscillator is within an
electrical circuit, it needs to be located. If it is connected to a computer motherboard, the
crystal oscillator will normally be labelled "XTAL", and the frequency of oscillation will be
written on top of the device.

Plug the measurement probes into the multimeter. The red probe should be plugged into the
positive terminal and the black probe should be plugged into the negative terminal. Switch on
the multimeter and select the frequency function.

Switch on the device which powers the crystal monitor. The test will only work when the
crystal monitor is powered. Bring the measurement probes of the multimeter into contact
with the metallic legs of the crystal oscillator. One probe should touch each leg. The
multimeter should now read a frequency that corresponds to the one written on the crystal
oscillator casing. If no oscillation frequency is measured, it is fluctuating strongly with time, or
it is at a different to the stated value, then the crystal oscillator is likely to be faulty.