Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

Experiment # 1
Familiarization with Laboratory Equipment and Instruments
(Voltage and Resistance Usage)

INTRODUCTION

A multimeter is an electrical instrument capable of measuring voltage, current, and

resistance. Digital multimeters have numerical displays, like digital clocks, for indicating the
quantity of voltage, current, or resistance. Analog multimeters indicate these quantities by means of
a moving pointer over a printed scale.

Electricity -- at least in small, safe quantities -- is insensible by our human bodies. Your most
fundamental "eyes" in the world of electricity and electronics will be a device called a multimeter.
Multimeters indicate the presence of, and measure the quantity of, electrical properties such as
voltage, current, and resistance.

Voltage is the measure of electrical "push" ready to motivate electrons to move through a
conductor. In scientific terms, it is the specific energy per unit charge, mathematically defined as
joules per coulomb. It is analogous to pressure in a fluid system: the force that moves fluid through a
pipe, and is measured in the unit of the Volt (V)

Resistance is the measure of electrical "friction" as electrons move through a conductor. It is

measured in the unit of the "Ohm," that unit symbolized by the capital Greek letter omega (Ω).

OBJECTIVES

1. To be become familiar with laboratory equipment and instrument

2. To learn how to connect external source to constructor deck
3. To be able to learn how to measure voltage and resistance.
4. Characteristics of voltage and resistance: existing between two points
5. Selection of proper meter range
6. Determination and comprehension of "electrical continuity"
7. Determination and comprehension of "electrically common points"
8. Relative conductivity of various components and materials

MATERIALS

• Multimeters ( Analog/ digital)

• Constructor deck ( EEC 470)
• Power Supply ( PS 445)
• Assorted batteries
• Set of electronics component ( EEC 471-2)
• Connecting wires/ cable

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PROCEDURE

A. Voltmeter Usage

1. Set your multimeter's selector switch to the highest-value "DC volt" position available.
2. Touch the red test probe to the positive (+) side of a battery, and the black test probe to the
negative (-) side of the same battery. The meter should now provide you with some sort of
indication. Reverse the test probe connections to the battery if the meter's indication is
negative (on an analog meter, a negative value is indicated by the pointer deflecting left
instead of right).

Note:

Autoranging multimeters may only have a single position for DC voltage, in which case you need to set the
switch to that one position.

If your meter is a manual-range type, and the selector switch has been set to a high-range position, the
indication will be small. Move the selector switch to the next lower DC voltage range setting and reconnect to the
battery. The indication should be stronger now, as indicated by a greater deflection of the analog meter pointer
(needle), or more active digits on the digital meter display.

For the best results, move the selector switch to the lowest-range setting that does not "over-range" the meter.
An over-ranged analog meter is said to be "pegged," as the needle will be forced all the way to the right-hand side
of the scale, past the full-range scale value. An over-ranged digital meter sometimes displays the letters "OL", or a
series of dashed lines. This indication is manufacturer-specific.

3. Read and record your reading on table 1-1.

4. Connect the dc source of power supply (PS 445) to the constructor deck (EEC 470).
5. Insert the negative test probe of your multimeter on the 0 slot of your constructor deck and
move the positive test probe of multimeter on the +5,-15, +15, +20 respectively.
6. Read and record your reading on table 1-1
7. Connect the ac source of power supply to the constructor deck
8. Measure the value and record your reading on table 1-1

Questions
1. What happens if you only touch one meter test probe to one end of a battery?
2. How does the meter have to connect to the battery in order to provide an indication?
3. What does this tell us about voltmeter use and the nature of voltage?
4. Is there such a thing as voltage "at" a single point?

B. Ohmmeter Usage
1. Set your multimeter to the highest resistance range available.
The resistance function is usually denoted by the unit symbol for resistance: the Greek letter omega (Ω), or
sometimes by the word "ohms."

2. Touch the two test probes of your meter together.

• When you do, the meter should register 0 ohms of resistance.
• If you are using an analog meter, you will notice the needle deflect full-scale when the probes are touched
together, and return to its resting position when the probes are pulled apart.

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• The resistance scale on an analog multimeter is reverse-printed from the other scales: zero resistance in
indicated at the far right-hand side of the scale, and infinite resistance is indicated at the far left-hand side.
• There should also be a small adjustment knob or "wheel" on the analog multimeter to calibrate it for "zero"
ohms of resistance.
• Touch the test probes together and move this adjustment until the needle exactly points to zero at the right-hand
end of the scale.
• Digital multimeters set to the "resistance" mode indicate non-continuity by displaying some non-numerical
indication on the display. Some models say "OL" (Open-Loop), while others display dashed lines.

3. Use your meter to determine continuity between the holes on a constructor deck.
• An important concept in electricity, closely related to electrical continuity, is that of points being electrically
common to each other. Electrically common points are points of contact on a device or in a circuit that have
negligible (extremely small) resistance between them.
• Continuity describes what is between points of contact, while commonality describes how the points themselves
relate to each other
• Like continuity, commonality is a qualitative assessment, based on a relative comparison of resistance between
other points in a circuit. It is an important concept to grasp, because there are certain facts regarding voltage
in relation to electrically common points that are valuable in circuit analysis and troubleshooting, the first one
being that there will never be substantial voltage dropped between points that are electrically common to each
other.

4. Select five resistors from your parts assortment.

5. Connect the meter's test probes across the resistor as such, and note its indication on the resistance
scale

• If the needle points very close to zero, you need to select a lower resistance range on the meter, just as you
needed to select an appropriate voltage range when reading the voltage of a battery

• If you are using a digital multimeter, you should see a numerical on the display

6. Record your reading on table 1-2

7. Try reversing the test probe connections on the resistor.

Questions:

1. Does this change the meter's indication at all?

2. What does this tell us about the resistance of a resistor?
3. What happens when you only touch one probe to the resistor?
4. What does this tell us about the nature of resistance, and how it is measured?
5. How does this compare with voltage measurement, and what happened when we tried to
measure battery voltage by touching only one probe to the battery?

8. You may safely measure the resistance of your own body by holding one probe tip with the
fingers of one hand, and the other probe tip with the fingers of the other hand. You may safely
measure the resistance of your own body by holding one probe tip with the fingers of one hand, and
the other probe tip with the fingers of the other hand.

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• be very careful with the probes, as they are often sharpened to a needle-point. Hold the probe tips along their
length, not at the very points! You may need to adjust the meter range again after measuring the 10 kΩ resistor,
as your body resistance tends to be greater than 10,000 ohms hand-to-hand.

9. Try wetting your fingers with water and re-measuring resistance with the meter. What impact
does this have on the indication?
10. Try wetting your fingers with saltwater prepared using the glass of water and table salt, and re-
measuring resistance. What impact does this have on your body's resistance as measured by the
meter?
11. Take a piece of paper and draw a very heavy black mark on it with a pencil (not a pen!).
12. Measure resistance on the black strip with your meter, placing the probe tips at each end of the
mark like this:

13. Move the probe tips closer together on the black mark and note the change in resistance
value.

Questions:

1. Does it increase or decrease with decreased probe spacing?

2. If the results are inconsistent, you need to redraw the mark with more and heavier pencil
strokes, so that it is consistent in its density.
3. What does this teach you about resistance versus length of a conductive material?

Table 1.1 Voltmeter Reading

Digital Analog
Battery
a. 1.5 volts
b. 9 volts
c. cell phone bat
Power Supply (PS445)
a. +5
b. -15
c. +15
d. +20

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Variable Output (PS445)

a. ¼ turn
b. ½ turn
c. ¾ turn
d. max turn
AC Source (PS 445)
a.
b.
c.
d.

Table 1.2 Ohmmeter Reading

Digital Analog
Resistor 1
Resistor 2
Resistor 3
Resistor 4
Resistor 5

Table 1.3 Body Resistance

A. Dry hands
Group member Digital Analog
1
2
3
4
5
6

B. Hands wet with water

Group member Digital Analog
1
2
3
4
5
6

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C. Hands wet with salted water

Group member Digital Analog
1
2
3
4
5
6

Table 1.4 Resistance on the black strip

black mark length Digital Analog
a. 2 inches
b. ¾ inch
c. ½ inch
d. 1 inch

CONCLUSIONS:

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Experiment # 2
Simple Circuit and Ammeter Usage

INTRODUCTION/THEORETICAL INFORMATION:

A simple circuit contains the minimum requirements neede to have a functioning electric
circuit. A simple circuit requires three things:

1. A source of electrical potential difference or voltage.

2. A conductive path which would allow for the movement of charges
3. An electrical resistance which is defined as any component that uses electricity to do
work.

Current is the measure of the rate of electron flow in a circuit. It is measured in the unit of
ampere (A). The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and
insert the ammeter in series with the circuit.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To make essential configuration needed to make a circuit

2. To determine the normal voltage drops in an operating circuit
3. To determine the importance of continuity to a circuit
4. To differentiate “open" and "short" circuits
5. To selection proper meter range of an ammeter
6. How to measure current with a multimeter
7. How to check a multimeter's internal fuse?

MATERIALS:

• 9-volt battery / power supply

• 6-volt incandescent lamp
• Jumper wires
• Breadboard
• Terminal strip
• Multimeter

PROCEDURE AND DRAWING:

A. Simple Circuit Construction

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Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of a simple circuit

Figure 2.2 Simple equivalent complete circuit: a battery and an incandescent lamp

1. Connect the lamp to the battery as shown in the illustration, and the lamp should light,
assuming the battery and lamp are both in good condition and they are matched to one
another in terms of voltage.

Note: If there is a "break" (discontinuity) anywhere in the circuit, the lamp will fail to light. It does not matter where
such a break occurs! Many students assume that because electrons leave the negative (-) side of the battery and continue
through the circuit to the positive (+) side, that the wire connecting the negative terminal of the battery to the lamp is
more important to circuit operation than the other wire providing a return path for electrons back to the battery. This is
not true!

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Figure 2.3 Circuit with discontinuity

2. Using your multimeter set to the appropriate "DC volt" range, measure voltage across the
battery, across the lamp, and across each jumper wire. Familiarize yourself with the normal
voltages in a functioning circuit.
3. Now, "break" the circuit at one point and re-measure voltage between the same sets of points,
additionally measuring voltage across the break like this:

Figure 2.4 Circuit with break at one point

Questions:

a. What voltages measure the same as before?

b. What voltages are different since introducing the break?

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c. How much voltage is manifest, or dropped across the break?

d. What is the polarity of the voltage drop across the break, as indicated by the meter?

4. Re-connect the jumper wire to the lamp, and break the circuit in another place.
5. Measure all voltage "drops" again, familiarizing yourself with the voltages of an "open" circuit.
6. Construct the same circuit on a breadboard/ constructors deck, taking care to place the lamp and
wires into the breadboard/deck in such a way that continuity will be maintained.

Figure 2.5 Sample construction of circuit on a breadboard

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Figure 2.6 example of an accidental short circuit

Figure 2.7. No "shorting" wire present on the breadboard, yet there is a short circuit

Question: Based on your understanding of breadboard hole connections, can you determine where
the "short" is in this circuit?

Note: Short circuits are generally to be avoided, as they result in very high rates of electron flow, causing wires to heat
up and battery power sources to deplete. If the power source is substantial enough, a short circuit may cause heat of
explosive proportions to manifest, causing equipment damage and hazard to nearby personnel. This is what happens
when a tree limb "shorts" across wires on a power line: the limb -- being composed of wet wood -- acts as a low-
resistance path to electric current, resulting in heat and sparks.

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B. Ammeter Usage

Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram

Figure 2.9 Illustration of circuit connection using an ammeter

THEORETICAL INFORMATION

Current is the measure of the rate of electron "flow" in a circuit. It is measured in the unit of the Ampere, simply
called "Amp," (A).

The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and insert an "ammeter" in series
(in-line) with the circuit so that all electrons flowing through the circuit also have to go through the meter. Because
measuring current in this manner requires the meter be made part of the circuit, it is a more difficult type of
measurement to make than either voltage or resistance.

When an ammeter is placed in series with a circuit, it ideally drops no voltage as current goes through it. In other
words, it acts very much like a piece of wire, with very little resistance from one test probe to the other. Consequently, an
ammeter will act as a short circuit if placed in parallel (across the terminals of) a substantial source of voltage. If this is

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done, a surge in current will result, potentially damaging the meter:

Figure 2.10 Ammeter as short circuit if placed in parallel a substantial source of voltage

Note:

Ammeters are generally protected from excessive current by means of a small fuse located inside the meter housing. If
the ammeter is accidently connected across a substantial voltage source, the resultant surge in current will "blow" the
fuse and render the meter incapable of measuring current until the fuse is replaced. Be very careful to avoid this
scenario!

1. Test the condition of a multimeter's fuse by switching it to the resistance mode and measuring
continuity through the test leads (and through the fuse).
2. On a meter where the same test lead jacks are used for both resistance and current measurement,
simply leave the test lead plugs where they are and touch the two probes together.
3. On a meter where different jacks are used, this is how you insert the test lead plugs to check the
fuse:

Figure 2.11 This is how you insert the test lead plugs to check the fuse

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4. Build the one-battery, one-lamp circuit using jumper wires to connect the battery to the lamp,
and verify that the lamp lights up before connecting the meter in series with it.
5. Then, break the circuit open at any point and connect the meter's test probes to the two points of
the break to measure current.
6. As usual, if your meter is manually-ranged, begin by selecting the highest range for current, then
move the selector switch to lower range positions until the strongest indication is obtained on the
meter display without over-ranging it.
7. If the meter indication is "backwards," (left motion on analog needle, or negative reading on a
digital display), then reverse the test probe connections and try again.
8. When the ammeter indicates a normal reading (not "backwards"), electrons are entering the black
test lead and exiting the red.

Notes: This is how you determine direction of current using a meter. For a 6-volt battery and a small lamp, the circuit
current will be in the range of thousandths of an amp, or milliamps. Digital meters often show a small letter "m" in the
right-hand side of the display to indicate this metric prefix.

9. Try breaking the circuit at some other point and inserting the meter there instead.

Questions:
a. What do you notice about the amount of current measured?
b. Why do you think this is?

10. Re-construct the circuit on a breadboard like this:

Figure 2.12 Circuit on breadboard

10. Students often get confused when connecting an ammeter to a breadboard circuit.

How can the meter be connected so as to intercept all the circuit's current and not create a short
circuit? One easy method that guarantees success is this:

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• Identify what wire or component terminal you wish to measure current through.
• Pull that wire or terminal out of the breadboard hole. Leave it hanging in mid-air.
• Insert a spare piece of wire into the hole you just pulled the other wire or terminal out of.
Leave the other end of this wire hanging in mid-air.
• Connect the ammeter between the two unconnected wire ends (the two that were hanging in
mid-air). You are now assured of measuring current through the wire or terminal initially
identified.

Figure 2.13 Circuit on breadboard with ammeter

11. Again, measure current through different wires in this circuit, following the same connection
procedure outlined above.

Question: What do you notice about these current measurements?

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_______.

CONCLUSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ .

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Experiment # 3
Ohms Law and Nonlinear Resistance

INTRODUCTION/ THEORETICAL INFORMATION

Ohm's Law
For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will flow through them is
directly proportional to the voltage applied to them. When a microscopic view of Ohm's law is
taken, it is found to depend upon the fact that the drift velocity of charges through the material is
proportional to the electric field in the conductor. The ratio of voltage to current is called the
resistance, and if the ratio is constant over a wide range of voltages, the material is said to be an
"ohmic" material. If the material can be characterized by such a resistance, then the current can be
predicted from the relationship:

Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage
applied to the electric current which flows through it:

If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I = V/R, can be
used to predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition above involves DC current and
voltage, the same definition holds for the AC application of resistors.
Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk
resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges of

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temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of

resistance.

OBJECTIVES
1. To use voltmeter
2. To use ammeter
3. To use ohmmeter
4. To use Ohms Law
5. Realization that some resistances are unstable!
6. Scientific method

MATERIALS
• Multimeters ( Analog/ digital)
• Constructor deck ( EEC 470)
• Power Supply ( PS 445)/
• Set of electronics component ( EEC 471-2)
• Connecting wires/ cable
• Calculator (or pencil and paper for doing arithmetic)
• Assortment of 10 resistors between 1 KΩ and 100 kΩ in value
• Low-voltage incandescent lamp

PROCEDURE
A. Ohms Law

Schematic Diagram

1. Select a resistor from the assortment, and measure its resistance with your multimeter
set to the appropriate resistance range.
2. Be sure not to hold the resistor terminals when measuring resistance, or else your hand-
to-hand body resistance will influence the measurement!
3. Record this resistance value for future use.
4. Build a one-battery, one-resistor circuit.
5. Set your multimeter to the appropriate voltage range and measure voltage across the
resistor as it is being powered by the battery.
6. Record this voltage value along with the resistance value previously measured.
7. Set your multimeter to the highest current range available.

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8. Break the circuit and connect the ammeter within that break, so it becomes a part of the
circuit, in series with the battery and resistor.
9. Select the best current range: whichever one gives the strongest meter indication
without over-ranging the meter.
10. If your multimeter is autoranging, of course, you need not bother with setting ranges.
11. Record this current value along with the resistance and voltage values previously
recorded.
12. Taking the measured figures for voltage and resistance, use the Ohm's Law equation to
calculate circuit current.
13. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit current:

14. Taking the measured figures for voltage and current, use the Ohm's Law equation to
calculate circuit resistance.
15. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit resistance:

16. Finally, taking the measured figures for resistance and current, use the Ohm's Law
equation to calculate circuit voltage.
17. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit voltage:

18. There should be close agreement between all measured and all calculated figures.
19. Any differences in respective quantities of voltage, current, or resistance are most
likely due to meter inaccuracies.
20. These differences should be rather small, no more than several percent. Some meters,
of course, are more accurate than others!
21. Substitute different resistors in the circuit and re-take all resistance, voltage, and
current measurements.
22. Re-calculate these figures and check for agreement with the experimental data
(measured quantities).

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23. Also note the simple mathematical relationship between changes in resistor value and
changes in circuit current.
24. Voltage should remain approximately the same for any resistor size inserted into the
circuit, because it is the nature of a battery to maintain voltage at a constant level.

B. Nonlinear resistance

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

1. Measure the resistance of the lamp with your multimeter.

2. This resistance figure is due to the thin metal "filament" inside the lamp.
3. It has substantially more resistance than a jumper wire, but less than any of the resistors
from the last experiment.
4. Record this resistance value for future use.
5. Build a one-battery, one-lamp circuit.
6. Set your multimeter to the appropriate voltage range and measure voltage across the lamp as
it is energized (lit).
7. Record this voltage value along with the resistance value previously measured.
8. Set your multimeter to the highest current range available.
9. Break the circuit and connect the ammeter within that break, so it becomes a part of the
circuit, in series with the battery and lamp.
10. Select the best current range: whichever one gives the strongest meter indication without
over-ranging the meter.
11. If your multimeter is autoranging, of course, you need not bother with setting ranges.
12. Record this current value along with the resistance and voltage values previously recorded.
13. Taking the measured figures for voltage and resistance, use the Ohm's Law equation to
calculate circuit current.
14. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit current:

NOTE: What you should find is a marked difference between measured current and calculated
current: the calculated figure is much greater. Why is this?

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15. To make things more interesting, try measuring the lamp's resistance again, this time using a
different model of meter.
16. You will need to disconnect the lamp from the battery circuit in order to obtain a resistance
reading, because voltages outside of the meter interfere with resistance measurement.
17. This is a general rule that should be remembered: measure resistance only on an
unpowered component!
18. Using a different ohmmeter, the lamp will probably register as a different value of resistance.
19. Usually, analog meters give higher lamp resistance readings than digital meters.

Questions:

a. This behavior is very different from that of the resistors in the last experiment.
Why?
b. What factor(s) might influence the resistance of the lamp filament?
c. How might those factors be different between conditions of lit and unlit, or
between resistance measurements taken with different types of meters?

This problem is a good test case for the application of scientific method. Once you've thought
of a possible reason for the lamp's resistance changing between lit and unlit conditions, try to
duplicate that cause by some other means. For example, if you think the lamp resistance might
change as it is exposed to light (its own light, when lit), and that this accounts for the difference
between the measured and calculated circuit currents, try exposing the lamp to an external source of
light while measuring its resistance. If you measure substantial resistance change as a result of light
exposure, then your hypothesis has some evidential support. If not, then your hypothesis has been
falsified, and another cause must be responsible for the change in circuit current.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_______.

CONCLUSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ .

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EXPERIMENT No. 4
Resistor Networks

INTRODUCTION/ THEORETICAL INFORAMATION

Series Circuit

If different electrical components are connected end to end, it is said to be in series. There is
only a single path for the current to flow, hence, the same currents flows through all the components in series.

Parallel Circuit
When various components are joined together in such a way that there are only two common
points of connection, they are said to be connected in parallel

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate what happens when resistors are interconnected in a circuit.

MATERIALS:

(1) Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470

(1) Basic Electricity and Electronics Kit EEC471-2
(1) Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c. regulated (eg. Feedback Power Supply PS445)
(2) Multimeters or (1) Voltmeter 0-10V dc; (1) Milliammeter 0-10mA dc

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line. Ensure that the variable d.c control is at
minimum. DO NOT switch on yet.

“Investigate the currents and voltages present when several resistors are connected together to provide
a network of resistors.”

2. Connect up the circuit as shown in the layout of fig 4.1.

Fig 4.1

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3. The circuit for the above connection is given in fig 4.2.

4. First ensure that the variable d.c. control knob is fully counterclockwise, then switch on the power
supply unit. Adjust its output voltage to be 20V.

“Investigate the currents I, and the voltages across, each branch of the network. Let us first
measure the voltages.”

5. Using the 0-10V voltmeter, measure the voltage across R1.Note the polarity of the voltage. Repeat the
measurement for each of the other resistors.
6. Copy the table as shown in Table 1, reproduced at the end of this assignment, and tabulate your
results. Also draw a circuit diagram of the network, as shown in fig 4.4, and mark the voltages on it,
with their polarities.

“Now let us measure the currents in each component, to see if we can find a relationship
for the currents.”

7. Remove link 1 and connect the milliammeter in its place.

8. Record the current value and polarity, then replace link 1. (This has given the current flowing in R1.)
9. Repeat this procedure for links 2, 3, 4 and 5. (These give the currents flowing in resistors R4, R2, R5
and R3 respectively.)
10. Copy the table as shown in Table 2, reproduced at the end of this assignment, and use this to
tabulate the currents.
11. From the measured values of current and voltage in each branch calculate, using Ohm's Law, the
value of resistance in each leg of the network.
12. Copy the table as shown in Table 3, reproduced at the end of this assignment, and enter the
results.

R1 I1
A I4 R4

1k0 330R

+ R3
0–20V dc
variable 2k2

R2 I3 R5

B 470R I2 I5 680R

Fig 4.2

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Fig 4.3

Table of Results Table 1

resistor branch voltage (V)
R1
R2
R3
R4

Table 2
resistor branch current (I)
(mA)
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

Table 3
resistor marked current voltage actual
value( ) value (• ) (V) (V)
R1 1000 1.0k
R2 470 470
R3 2200 2.2k
R4 330 330
R5 680 680

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QUESTIONS:
1. With reference to fig 4.4, can you notice any relationship between the voltages round the loop ACDB?
(Remember the polarities).

2. Does the sum of the voltages around loop CEFD give the same relationship?

3. What about the loop ACEFDB?

4. Are the directions of the currents shown in fig 4.2 correct?

5. What can you say about the currents I1 I3 and I4 at node C? ('node' means junction)

6. Does the same apply for currents I2 I3 and I5 at node D?

7. What is the algebraic sum of the voltages around a loop in a circuit?

8. What is the algebraic sum of the currents at a node in a circuit?

9. By what percentage do the actual values differ from the marked values?

10. Do you think that these differences could account for the variation between measured and
calculated values of current and voltage?

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_______.

CONCLUSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

EXPERIMENT No. 5
Resistors in Series and Parallel

THEORETICAL INFORMATION:

The total resistance of the two in series is equal to the sum of the individual resistor values.

ie R = R1 + R2
With series connection of resistors, the same current must flow through each resistance. Let
us call this current I.

From Ohm's Law, the voltage across R1, (VR1), is given by:

VR1 = IR1 (1)

similarly, the voltage across R2 (VR2) is given by:

VR2 = IR2 (2)

But by Kirchhoff's Law of voltage, the sum of the voltages around a circuit is zero, and with
the psu set to 20V: VR1 + VR2 – 20 = 0

VR1 + VR2 = 20 (3)

If the total circuit resistance is called R;

IR = 20 (4)

Therefore, combining (1), (2), (3) and (4), we get:

IR1 + IR2 = IR or R1+ R2 = R

OBJECTIVE:

To investigate the connection of resistors in series and parallel in a circuit.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

(2) Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470

(2) Basic Electricity and Electronics Kit EEC471-2
(3) Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c. regulated (eg. Feedback Power Supply PS445)
(4) Multimeters or (1) Voltmeter 0-10V dc; (1) Milliammeter 0-10mA dc

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line. Ensure that the variable d.c control is at minimum.
DO NOT switch on yet.

“Having found the laws governing currents and voltages in a circuit, we will now use them,
together with Ohm's Law, to formulate expressions for the connection of resistors in series and in
parallel.”

A. Series connection of resistors.

2. Connect up the circuit as shown in fig 4.2 according to the layout of fig 4.1 with the two resistors in series.

Figure 5.1

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

Figure 5.2

3. Switch on the power supply unit (psu) and set the voltage to 2V.
4. Measure and record the current.

“Although a value of resistance could be obtained with just one reading of V and I, it is better to
take current readings for a selection of different voltages, and obtain an average resistance value from
these. Taking an average value over several readings tends to minimize any errors of measurement.”

5. Now set the voltage to 4V, and read the current again.
6. Repeat for settings of 6V, 8V and 10V.
7. Enter your results in table 4.a.
8. Calculate the resistance and the average for the five readings.
9. Compare this value with the individual values of R1 and R2.
10. Reset the output voltage to zero, and reconnect the circuit as in fig 5.3 according to the layout of fig 5.4.

Fig 5.3

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

0 – 50mA
A
330R R1

3K0 R2

0 – 20V R3
d.c 100R

680R R4

11. Repeat the recording of current readings for voltage settings of 2V, 4V, 6V, 8V and 10V for the new
circuit.
12. Copy the table as shown in fig 4.3, reproduced at the end of this assignment, and enter your results.
13. Calculate an average for the resistance.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_______.

CONCLUSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

Experiment No. 6
Superposition Theorem

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the effects of more than one voltage source in a network.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
(3) Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470
(3) Basic Electricity and Electronics Kit EEC471-2
(5) Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c. regulated (eg. Feedback Power Supply PS445)
(2)Multimeters or (1) Voltmeter 0-10V dc; (1) Milliammeter 0-10mA dc

THEORETICAL INFORMATION:

The sum of the currents due to individual voltage sources is equal to the current resulting when
both sources are present in the network.
i.e I1 = I1' + I1"
similarly I2 = I2 ' + I2"
and I3 = I3' + I3"
If the voltage sources had any internal resistance, for example the internal resistance of a
cell*, this is usually regarded as being in series with the voltage source, and thus the
source would have to be replaced by its internal resistance to arrive at the correct answer.
*The internal resistance of a typical dry cell may be between 0.5 and 5 ohms and is
caused by contact resistances, the resistance of the electrolyte, any corrosion of the plates,
etc.
The principle of superposition is summarized by the Superposition Theorem, which states:

'In any network containing more than one source of emf, the resultant current in any one
branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would be produced by each emf, acting
alone, all the other sources of emf being replaced meanwhile by their respective internal
resistances.'

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the layout as shown in fig 6.2 and check with the circuit diagram of fig 6.1.
2. Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line.
3. Ensure that the variable d.c. control is at minimum. DO NOT switch on yet.

Previous experiments have shown what currents and voltages are present in a resistive network with
one source of emf. We now wish to investigate networks which have more than one source, and to try
to formulate some expressions for the resultant currents

This is a similar network to the one used to investigate Kirchhoff's Laws, except that two sources of
emf are used

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Fig 6.1

Figure 6.2

4. Monitor the variable d.c voltage.

5. Switch on the psu and set the variable d.c voltage to 20V.
6. Firstly, measure the current in each branch of the network. Do this by disconnecting each of the links 1–3
in turn, replacing them with the 0-10mA meter. This will give the current in R1 and R2, R3 and R4 and R5
respectively.
7. Note both the magnitude and the polarity of each current, and tabulate them.
8. Now disconnect the 15V source and link the resistors R3 and R5, as shown in the circuit of fig 6.3
9. Measure and tabulate the magnitude and polarity of the currents I1', I2', and I3'.
10. Remove the link between R3 and R5 and replace the +15V source connections as they were initially.
11. Disconnect the 20V source, and link R2 and R3, giving the circuit shown in fig 6.4.
12. Copy the table as shown in fig 5.6, reproduced at the end of this assignment.
13. Measure the branch currents I1", I2" and I3" as before, and enter all the currents in the table.

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

Fig 6.3

Fig 6.4

Table 6.1

I1 = I1' = I1'' =

I2 = I2' = I2'' =

I3 = I3' = I3'' =

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_______.

CONCLUSIONS:

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

Experiment No. 7
Thévenin’s Theorem

OBJECTIVE:
To find a method of simplifying a network in order to obtain the current flowing in one
particular branch of the network.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
(4) Electricity & Electronics Constructor EEC470
(4) Basic Electricity and Electronics Kit EEC471-2
(6) Power supply unit 0 to 20V variable d.c. regulated (eg. Feedback Power Supply PS445)
(2)Multimeters or (1) Voltmeter 0-10V dc; (1) Milliammeter 0-10mA dc

THEORETICAL INFORMATION:

Thévenin's Theorem, which states: 'The current through a resistance R connected across any two points
X and Y of a network containing one or more sources of emf is obtained by dividing the p.d between
X and Y, with R disconnected, by (R + r), where r is the resistance of the network measured between
points X and Y with R disconnected and the sources of emf replaced by their internal
+10V
resistances'.

PRELIMINARY PROCEDURE:
Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line. Ensure that the variable d.c control is at
minimum. DO NOT switch on yet.
For this investigation we will use the network of fig 7.1.

Fig 7.1

PROCEDURE:

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Laboratory Manual in Circuits 1- DC Circuit Analysis

1. Connect the layout as shown in fig 7.2 and check with the circuit diagram of fig 7.1.
2. Monitor the dc input voltage
3. To get the current I, remove link 1 and replace it with 0-10mA meter.
4. Switch on the power supply and adjust it to 10 volts.
5. Measure and record the current flowing in the 680Ω resistor.
6.
Previous experiments have shown what currents and voltages are present in a resistive network with
one source of emf. We now wish to investigate networks which have more than one source, and to try
to formulate some expressions for the resultant currents

This is a similar network to the one used to investigate Kirchhoff's Laws, except that two sources of
emf are used

7. Monitor the variable d.c voltage.

8. Switch on the psu and set the variable d.c voltage to 20V.
9. Firstly, measure the current in each branch of the network. Do this by disconnecting each of the links 1–3
in turn, replacing them with the 0-10mA meter. This will give the current in R1 and R2, R3 and R4 and R5
respectively.
10. Note both the magnitude and the polarity of each current, and tabulate them.
11. Now disconnect the 15V source and link the resistors R3 and R5, as shown in the circuit of fig 7.3
12. Measure and tabulate the magnitude and polarity of the currents I1', I2', and I3'.
13. Remove the link between R3 and R5 and replace the +15V source connections as they were initially.
14. Disconnect the 20V source, and link R2 and R3, giving the circuit shown in fig 7.4.
15. Copy the table as shown in fig 5.6, reproduced at the end of this assignment.
16. Measure the branch currents I1", I2" and I3" as before, and enter all the currents in the table.

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REFERENCES:

Bird, John, Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, Reed Education and
Professional Publishing Ltd., 2nd edition
Basic Electricity and Electronics, Feedback Manual EEC471-2 Ed08 062001

Edminister, Joseph A., Nahvi, Mahmood, Theory and Problems of Electric Circuits, Mc
Graw Hill, 3rd edition

Tan, Jonny C., Electric Circuit Analysis, National Book Store Inc.

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