Lesson 3.2

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For instructional purposes only • 1 Semester SY 2020-2021 19
Lesson 3.2: Cells: Batteries
Lesson Summary
Batteries are galvanic cells or a series of them connected to provide electrical
current at a constant voltage. The chemistry behind the different types of
batteries is based on how the galvanic cell functions. Two types of batteries
are the primary and secondary batteries; the main difference between the two
lies within the reversibility of its chemical reaction. The concentration cell and
fuel cell are a special type of galvanic cell.
Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the chemistry behind the several types of batteries and fuel
cells.
2. Enumerate examples for each type of battery and fuel cell.
Motivation Question
Do you know how do batteries operate? Why do some batteries are
rechargeable while others are not?
Discussion
Batteries have a major impact on our daily lives because of their
compactness and mobility. So, what are batteries then? Batteries are
innovative engineered commercial galvanic cell or a series of connected
galvanic cells used as a direct source of electrical current at a constant
voltage.
Primary Batteries
A primary battery is a non-rechargeable battery that when the

components reach the equilibrium concentration which means that the
reaction of the cell is not reversible, that is, the cell is “dead” and then
discarded. The examples of common primary batteries include the following:
a. Alkaline Battery
Dry cell or the Leclanché cell is a primary battery that is made
up of zinc-carbon and uses alkaline electrolytes. The zinc serves as
the anode and as a container that houses the mixture of MnO2 and a
weakly acidic electrolyte paste consisting of NH4Cl, ZnCl2, H2O, and
starch. The carbon which is the graphite is used as the cathode and
even nowadays the half-reaction is still not understood. It involved the
reduction of MnO2 (s) to Mn2O3 and an acid-base reaction between the
NH4 and OH-. The drawback for this dry cell is that it had short shelf
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life since the Zn anode reacted with the acidic NH4 ions causing the
generation of NH3 gas that will build up and causes a serious voltage
drop.
Figure 7. Alkaline Battery
A more expensive than your dry cell, the alkaline battery avoids
this drawback. Just like the dry cell, an alkaline battery also uses Zn
and MnO2 but uses KOH and water as electrolyte paste. This also will
have the same half-reactions but with the KOH it prevents the build-up
of NH3 gas and maintain the Zn electrode:
ANODE (oxidation): Zn (s) + 2 OH- (aq)  ZnO(s) + H2O (l) + 2e-

CATHODE (reduction): MnO2 (s) + 2 H2O (l) + 2e- Mn(OH)2 (s) + 2 OH- (aq)
OVERALL REACTION: Zn (s) + MnO2 (s) + H2O (l)  ZnO(s) + Mn(OH)2 (s)
The dry cell and alkaline battery are used in flashlights, transistor
radios, alarm clocks, toys, and the like.
b. Mercury and Silver Button Battery

Mercury and silver buttons battery is quietly the same. Both
batteries are expensive compared to a common dry cell and
commonly used in the field of medicine and electronic industries.
These batteries use a Zn container in a basic medium as the anode
(reducing agent) and steel as a cathode. The difference here is that
the mercury battery uses HgO as the oxidizing agent while the silver
battery uses Ag2O. The HgO and Ag2O reactants are in the solid phase
and being compacted with KOH and separated with a moist paper.
Figure 8. Mercury Button Battery
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The half-reactions and overall cell reactions that occur in the

following batteries are:
For both battery:
ANODE (oxidation): Zn (s) + 2 OH- (aq)  ZnO(s) + H2O (l) + 2e-
For mercury battery:
CATHODE (reduction): HgO (s) + H2O (l) + 2e-  Hg (l) + 2 OH- (aq)
OVERALL REACTION: Zn (s) + HgO (s)  ZnO (s) + Hg (l)
For silver battery:
CATHODE (reduction): AgO (s) + H2O (l) + 2e-  Ag (l) + 2 OH- (aq)
OVERALL REACTION: Zn (s) + AgO (s)  Ag (l) + ZnO (s)
c. Primary Lithium Batteries
Figure 9. Primary Lithium Battery
A primary lithium battery is commonly used in the watch and

implanted medical equipment. It has an extremely high energy/mass
ratio producing 1 mol of the electron (1 F) from less than 7g of Li
metal.
The anode is made up of Li metal foil which requires a non-
aqueous electrolyte and the cathode is a metal oxide in which Li+ lie
between oxide layers.
The half-reactions are:
ANODE (oxidation):
3.5 Li (s)  3.5 Li+(aq) + 3.5 e-
CATHODE (reduction):
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Ag2V2O5.5 + 3.5 Li+ + 3.5e-  Li3.5AgV2O5.5

Ag2V2O5.5 + 3.5 Li  Li3.5AgV2O5.5
Secondary Batteries
Contrary to primary batteries, secondary batteries are rechargeable,

that when it run down it is recharge by supplying electrical energy to reverse
the chemical reaction and reform the reactant.
a. Lead-Acid Battery
The most commonly used secondary battery is the lead-acid car
battery that is made up of six cells connected in a series, each of
which delivers 2.1 V giving a total of 12 V. Each cell has two lead
grids packed together on a metal plate: a spongy high-surface-area
Pb in the anode and PbO2 in the cathode. Both of the electrodes are
submerged in an aqueous solution of H2SO4 which acts as an
electrolyte. The cell reactions are the following and are reversed
when charging:
ANODE (Oxidation): Pb (s) + SO42- (aq)  PbSO4 (s) + 2e-
CATHODE (Reduction): PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2e-  PbSO4 (s) + 2 H2O (l)
OVERALL REACTION:
Pb (s) + 2 SO42- (aq) + PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) 2 PbSO4 (s) + 2 H2O (l)
Figure 10. Lead Acid Battery
For a century, truck and car owners relied on the lead-acid battery
to provide the large burst of current for the need to start the engine.
There are problems encountered in using the lead-acid battery
specifically the loss of capacity and safety measures.
The apparent breakdown of this battery is an increase in
viscosity of the electrolyte as the temperature decreases. Ions
move slowly in a viscous medium so the fluid resistance
decreases, leading to a decrease in the power output of the battery.
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Also, corrosion detachment of active material as a result of

mechanical bumping, and the formation of large crystals of PbSO4
thus making the recharging difficult which then causes the loss of
capacity.
b. Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Battery

Nickel-cadmium battery leads to the problem of toxicity thus nickel-
metal hydride battery was created as its replacement. It is a
lightweight battery with high power, but with long storage, it may
discharge excessively. This battery is commonly used in camera
flash units, cordless razors, and power tools.
Figure 11. Ni-MH Battery
The H absorbed within a metal alloy in a basic KOH electrolyte is

being oxidized in the anode and the Ni3+ in the form of NiO(OH) is
reduced at the cathode. The following cell reaction is reversed
during charging:
ANODE (oxidation): MH (s) + OH- (aq)  M (s) + H2O(l) + e-
CATHODE (reduction): NiO(OH) (s) + H2O (l) + e-  Ni(OH)2 (s) + OH- (aq)
OVERALL REACTION: MH (s) + NiO(OH) (s)  M (s) + Ni(OH)2 (s)
c. Lithium-Ion Battery
A rechargeable or secondary lithium-ion battery has an anode of Li
atoms between graphite sheets of graphite designated as LixC6.
The cathode is made up of lithium oxides, such as LiMn2O4 and
LiCoO2. Due to high reactivity, a typical electrolyte is a 1 M LiPF6 in
an organic solvent such as dimethyl carbonate. Solvated Li+ ions
flow from anode to cathode within the cell and the electrons flow
through the circuit.
The simple cell reaction for this is also reversed during charging:
ANODE: Li(s)  Li+ (aq) + e-
CATHODE: Li+ (aq) + CoO2 + e-  LiCoO2 (s)
OVERALL REACTION: Li(s) + CoO2  LiCoO2 (s) Ecell = 3.4 V
The lithium-ion battery is used in countless laptops, netbooks,
cell phones, and camera recorders. Lithium batteries’ advantage
over others is that lithium has the most negative standard
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reduction potential and thus the greatest reducing strength. The

only drawback of this is the expense and flammability of the
organic solvent.
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Fuel Cells
Fuel cells, also called a flow battery, compared to the primary and
secondary batteries, required a continuous supply of reactants to continue
functioning. A highly combustible fuel such as hydrogen gas and oxygen is
used as a reactant. The reactants enter the cell, and the products leave the
cell as it generates electricity through controlled oxidation of the fuel. Fuel
cells use combustion, which is also a type of redox reaction, to produce
electricity.
The most common fuel cell being developed for hybrid cars is the
hydrogen fuel cell or the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) cell. It uses H2
gas as the fuel and operates at a temperature around 80 oC. The cell reaction
is:
ANODE (oxidation): 2H2 (g)  4 H+ (aq) + 4 e-
CATHODE (reduction): O2 (g) + 4 H+ (aq) + 4 e-  2 H2O (g)
OVERALL REACTION: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 H2O (g) Ecell = 1.2 V
Figure 12. Fuel Cell
The PEM cell is made up of Pt-based composite nanoparticles

deposited on graphite which acts as an electrocatalyst. This is embedded in a
polymer membrane made up of sulfonated perfluoroethylene. At the anode,
two H2 molecules split and oxidize forming two electrons (which travels to the
circuit) and H+ for each molecule. The H+ will be hydrated into H3O+ by an
electrolyte (commonly a KOH). In the cathode, O2 is adsorbed in the Pt and
provides electron forming O2--. One H3O+ donates it H+ to O2—forming HO-O.
The O-O bond breaks as another H3O+ give its H+ and the catalyst provides
another electron thus forming the first H2O. The steps will then repeat and the
water molecules will desorb and leave the cell.
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Hydrogen fuel cells have been used for years to provide electricity and
pure water in space flights. These cells produce no pollutants and around
75% of the reactants are converted into useable power.
Concentration Cells
If you mix a concentrated solution of salt with a dilute concentration

of the same salt, the final concentration will be an intermediate value. A
concentration cell uses this phenomenon to generate electricity in which the
two solutions are not mixed rather they are separated in a half-cell.
So how does concentration work? Let us have a voltaic cell with a
2+
Cu/Cu half-reaction. You already know that a cell reaction is the sum of the
two half-reactions, so this means that EOcopper - EOcopper = EOcell = 0. This is
because based on a standard condition (both at 1 M concentration). In a
concentration cell, the half-reactions are the same but the concentrations are
different. Thus, this will be in a non-standard condition so Ecell will not be
equal to zero since it will depend on the ratio of concentrations.
A B
Figure 13. Concentration Cell
A concentration cell with a 0.10 M Cu2+ in the anode and 1.0 M Cu2+ in
the cathode. The half-cell and overall reaction are:
ANODE (oxidation): Cu (s)  Cu2+ (aq, 0.1 M) + 2e-
CATHODE (reduction): Cu2+ (aq, 1.0 M) + 2e-  Cu (s)
OVERALL REACTION: Cu2+ (aq, 1.0 M)  Cu2+ (aq, 0.1 M) Ecell = ?
The cell potential at initial condition (A) of the 0.10 M and 1.0 M Cu2+,
with an n=2, is obtained from the Nernst equation:
[ ( )]
What is actually going on this concentration cell as it operates? In the

anode, the Cu atoms in the electrode give up electrons and become Cu2+ ions
making it more concentrated. The electrons released will flow from anode to
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cathode compartment. The Cu2+ ions in the concentrated solution will pick up
the electrons and become Cu atoms making the solution less concentrated.
The cell will continue until it reaches equilibrium when the concentration of
Cu2+ in both half-cells is the same.
Learning Task/Activities
The ubiquitous Geobacter bacteria normally grow at the bottom of rivers or
lakes. They get their energy by oxidizing the decaying organic matter to
produce carbon dioxide. The bacteria possess tentacles 10 times the length
of their size to reach the electron acceptors [mostly iron(III) oxide] in the
overall anaerobic redox process. Construct a bacterial fuel cell out of it using
a graphite electrode and have acetate ion as the organic matter.
Assessment
1. Many common electrical devices require the use of more than one
battery.
(a) How many alkaline batteries must be placed in series to light a
flashlight with a 6.0-V bulb?
(b) What is the voltage requirement of a camera that uses six silver
batteries?
(c) How many volts can a car battery deliver if two of its
anode/cathode cells are shorted?
2. In the everyday batteries used for flashlights, toys, etc., no salt bridge
is evident. What is used in these cells to separate the anode and
cathode compartments?
Instructions on how to submit student output

For hard copies:
You may submit your outputs via VSU Learning Kiosks (for Baybay City Area)
or mail through concerned LGU partners, may it be handwritten or printed.
Make sure to provide your full name and the assessment number on your
paper.
For e-copies:
You may email your files to mervinjuneg@gmail.com (for students under Mr.
Gasatan) or helengrace.oracion@vsu.edu.com (for students under Ms.
Oracion). Make sure to put your subject as “Assesment[No.]_[Name]”.
Remove the brackets, do not put spaces, and the name format must be
[LastNameFirstName]. The same formatting also applies to your file name.
Any further inquiries shall be directed to Mr. Gasatan ( Email Address:
mervinjuneg@gmail.com; Contact Number: 09291624464) or Ms. Oracion
(Email Address: helengrace.oracion@vsu.edu.com; Contact Number:
09073118005).
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For instructional purposes only • 1 Semester SY 2020-2021 19

Lesson 3.2: Cells: Batteries

A primary battery is a non-rechargeable battery that when the

Figure 7. Alkaline Battery

ANODE (oxidation): Zn (s) + 2 OH- (aq)  ZnO(s) + H2O (l) + 2e-

b. Mercury and Silver Button Battery

Figure 8. Mercury Button Battery

The half-reactions and overall cell reactions that occur in the

c. Primary Lithium Batteries

Figure 9. Primary Lithium Battery

A primary lithium battery is commonly used in the watch and

Ag2V2O5.5 + 3.5 Li+ + 3.5e-  Li3.5AgV2O5.5

Contrary to primary batteries, secondary batteries are rechargeable,

Figure 10. Lead Acid Battery

Also, corrosion detachment of active material as a result of

b. Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Battery

Figure 11. Ni-MH Battery

The H absorbed within a metal alloy in a basic KOH electrolyte is

reduction potential and thus the greatest reducing strength. The

Figure 12. Fuel Cell

The PEM cell is made up of Pt-based composite nanoparticles

If you mix a concentrated solution of salt with a dilute concentration

Figure 13. Concentration Cell

What is actually going on this concentration cell as it operates? In the

Instructions on how to submit student output

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