1

Unit 3
Teaching English as a second language

Module: Module 1 The Teaching Of ESL

In this module you will :
 
- understand the principles of good ESL teaching
- learn teaching techniques to use in the classroom
- learn strategies for engaging students in lessons
-learn about the different types of tests & assessments
-learn about  internationally recognised tests of English
 

INTRODUCTION
 
  
             ‘’ Who dares to teach must never
cease to learn." 
                                                John Cotton
Dana 
 
 
It is our job as teachers to create the best opportunities for learning in the classroom.Our
ultimate aim is successful learning on the part of our students.
There are many strategies and techniques that we can use in the classroom to help us to
achieve this goal.In this unit we will explore a number of these.In later modules we will look
at strategies for teaching each of the four main skills, i.e. reading, writing, speaking and
listening.
PROMOTING SUCCESS

PROMOTING SUCCESS
1.Context – Giving Students a Reason to Communicate
In theory, learning a language should be one of the most interesting and exciting lessons for
both teachers and learners, because language is about communication.Language learning is
not about the memorisation of facts.Rather, it is about the sharing of ideas and opinions.In
order to ensure succes we must aim to make each and every lesson interesting and
fun.Therefore, choosing the most appropriate topic is essential.In order to involve students,
the topic must be relevant to their lives and their age-goup.If a lesson topic is interesting and
stimulating, and we include a variety of materials and activities, our lessons will be
memorable and we will get our students talking.The aim of the topic is to give our students a
reason to talk.
2.Warm ups – Starting a lesson on the right note
The first few minutes of the lesson are critical to success.If we grab the students’
attention,then we start the lesson in a positive and motivating way.
The aim of a warm-up is to get the students ready for the lesson by engaging their interest in
the topic.Many coursebooks use visuals and questions to introduce and  focus the students’
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attention on the topic.However, teachers can add variety to the lessons by using a wider
variety of warm up activities.We shouldn’t always start lessons in the same manner –
predictable lessons are boring lessons, and when students are bored, they don’t learn.
Here are a few ideas on the types of warm up that can be used in the classroom.
Warm ups for Guessing  the Topic
As soon as you ask someone to guess something, you have got their attention, so warm ups
which get the students to guess the lesson topic are a good way to start a lesson.This type of
warm up also has the added advantage of activating prior knowledge.Here are a few ways to
do this :
Visuals :
Show a number of visual clues one at a time and ask the students to guess the topic of the
lesson.Show less obvious clues first before introducing more obvious clues.These visuals
may be in the form of individual pictures or flashcards, or they could be in the form of a
powerpoint presentation.Another option is to draw the pictures yourself on the board (You
don’t have to be good at drawing; students will enjoy laughing at your drawings !)
Example :   » Sherlock Holmes
Verbal Clues :
Giving verbal clues doesn’t require any materials.All you need is a few minutes before class
to create your clues.
 
EXAMPLE : »Guess the topic, Games
 
Word Cloud :   
Draw an outline of a cloud on the board, and tell the students that they have to guess the
topic.Before class, prepare  a list of key words linked to the topic.Write the words one by one
inside the cloud until the students guess the topic.
   EXAMPLE : »EXAMPLE WORD CLOUD 
 
   Other Types of warm up
There are many other types of warm up that can be used in class, e.g.
Pre-Quiz :
Rather than leaving quizzes until the end of the lesson to check comprehension, why not use
a topic based quiz at the beginning of a lesson to activate previous knowledge, to preview the
lesson’s content and to stimulate interest in the lesson.You can add an extra competitive
element by dividing the class into teams.You can also create suspense and motivation by not
revealing the correct answers at this stage – the students will discover the answers for
themselves during the lesson.
Songs :
Songs can be a great way of involving students, because we all love music.
Video Clips :
Showing a brief video clip is another good way to get the  students’ interest and to stimulate
an initial discussion about the topic.
Anecdotes :
Giving a brief account of an event or incident linked to the topic, especially a personal
anecdote, when done in an interesting and perhaps amusing manner can get the students
interested in the topic, and can also encourage the students to share their own anecdotes.
Jokes :
We want our students to have fun in lessons, and jokes can start a lesson on a humorous
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note.Understanding jokes in a foreign language can be challenging, but it is possible to find

appropriate jokes for use in the language classroom by searching on the internet.
 
Example Joke for Intermediate level students :
The lesson topic is ‘childhood.’
 
An elementary school teacher sends this note to all parents on the
first day of school. 

"If you promise not to believe everything your child says happens at
school, I will promise not to believe everything your child says
happens at home. 
 
 
3.Praise and encouragement :
In order to keep students motivated, it is important to remember to encourage students at all
times.We should give positive feedback wherever possible, but if a student makes a mistake,
we can praise effort instead.In this way, we can help to keep our students
motivated.Remember that learning a language is not easy, and that it is very easy to become
discouraged.Motivating students is an important role of a teacher. 

USE OF THE MOTHER TONGUE

When using a Communicative Approach to teaching, the language of instruction is
English.However, there is some debate as to the appropriateness of using the students’
mother tongue in the classroom.Some opinions state that the use of the mother tongue should
be avoided at all times, while others believe that the use of the students’ mother tongue has its
place in the language classroom.
It does of course depend on your student profile : if you are teaching a group of mixed
nationality students, it will not be possible to use the mother tongue of each student.However,
if you are teaching a homogenous group of the same nationality, and you also know that
language, there may be times when a limited use of the mother tongue can be advantageous.
The mother tongue can be used to overcome problems in the classroom.E.g. Rather than
spending 10 minutes trying to exlain a word or phrase, it can be judicial to use the students’
native tongue.At other times, a  contrast and comparison of structures done using the mother
tongue can help students develop a better understanding of the target language.Discussing
learning itself, and sharing learning strategies with students can also be more effective when
done in the students’ native language.
However, overuse of the mother tongue should be avoided as students will come to depend
on it, and will not push themselves to say what they are trying to say in the target language.

TEACHING SKILLS & STRATEGIES

1.GIVING INSTRUCTIONS :
Ensure that all instructions are short ,clear and simple.It is tempting to say too much as we
try to ensure that students understand what we are explaining.However, especially at lower
levels,  too many words can be confusing.Aim to keep all instructions short, and avoid
lengthy explanations.In this way they will be more understandable for students.
Avoid vague language as it can confuse students.
Remember to grade your language appropriately for the students’ level.However, this does
not mean using ‘Tarzan English’.Just avoid  using  language which is too advanced for the
students.
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At lower levels aim to give direct commands rather than too many polite requests.The
actual instruction can be missed when hidden in a polite request.
 
E.g. ‘Open your books at page 10’,is a lot clearer
than,’Would you mind opening your books at page 10.’
 
 
Break instructions down into stages.If you try to tell the students all the stages of what they
are going to do, they will have difficulty remembering anything but the last one.Have a look
at the following example instruction for an activity : 
 
E.g.
Teacher : I want you to close your eyes and think about a
country you would like
                  to visit.Try to picture it in your mind.Then you
will open your eyes and
                  write down the reasons why you want to go
there.Then we will do a
                  role-play at the travel agents, with one person
playing the part of the
                  travel agent.Ok.Are you ready?
 
 
The students would definitely be confused, don’t you think?
Instead, we should deal with one instruction at a time.
 
E.g.
Teacher :Think about a country you would like to visit.
                (Silence to give the students time to think of a
country)
                 Are you ready?Have you thought of one?
                 Ok.Now close your eyes.
                 Think about that country and all the reasons why
you would like
                 to visit there.For example, sun & sea, nature,
historical sites, etc.
                 (Silence while the students do as instructed)
                 Now open your eyes.
                 Make brief notes of the reasons you want to visit
that country.
                                                                                         
Etc.
 
 
Teach basic classroom language right from the beginning, and always encourage students to
use these phrases in English rather than using their mother tongues.E.g. Look at me; listen ;
write ; open your books; I don’t understand; Could you repeat that, please etc.
Use natural spoken language, i.e. shortened forms (e.g. I’m; I’ll; He’s etc.)In everyday
spoken English, the use of the shortened form is natural ( and using the full form sounds
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unnatural).Students need to get used to hearing this form in the classsroom in order to be able
to understand authentic language.

1.Giving Instructions
Ensure that all instructions are short ,clear and simple.It is tempting to say too much as we
try to ensure that students understand what we are explaining.However, especially at lower
levels,  too many words can be confusing.Aim to keep all instructions short, and avoid
lengthy explanations.In this way they will be more understandable for students.
Avoid vague language as it can confuse students.
Remember to grade your language appropriately for the students’ level.However, this does
not mean using ‘Tarzan English’.Just avoid  using  language which is too advanced for the
students.
At lower levels aim to give direct commands rather than too many polite requests.The
actual instruction can be missed when hidden in a polite request.
 
E.g. ‘Open your books at page 10’,is a lot clearer
than,’Would you mind opening your books at page 10.’
 
 
Break instructions down into stages.If you try to tell the students all the stages of what they
are going to do, they will have difficulty remembering anything but the last one.Have a look
at the following example instruction for an activity : 
 
E.g.
Teacher : I want you to close your eyes and think about a
country you would like
                  to visit.Try to picture it in your mind.Then you
will open your eyes and
                  write down the reasons why you want to go
there.Then we will do a
                  role-play at the travel agents, with one person
playing the part of the
                  travel agent.Ok.Are you ready?
 
 
The students would definitely be confused, don’t you think?
Instead, we should deal with one instruction at a time.
 
E.g.
Teacher :Think about a country you would like to visit.
                (Silence to give the students time to think of a
country)
                 Are you ready?Have you thought of one?
                 Ok.Now close your eyes.
                 Think about that country and all the reasons why
you would like
                 to visit there.For example, sun & sea, nature,
historical sites, etc.
                 (Silence while the students do as instructed)
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                 Now open your eyes.

                 Make brief notes of the reasons you want to visit
that country.
                                                                                         
Etc.
 
 
Teach basic classroom language right from the beginning, and always encourage students to
use these phrases in English rather than using their mother tongues.E.g. Look at me; listen ;
write ; open your books; I don’t understand; Could you repeat that, please etc.
Use natural spoken language, i.e. shortened forms (e.g. I’m; I’ll; He’s etc.)In everyday
spoken English, the use of the shortened form is natural ( and using the full form sounds
unnatural).Students need to get used to hearing this form in the classsroom in order to be able
to understand authentic language.

2.Modelling
Words are often not enough; we can reinforce the meaning of our words through the use of
modelling, i.e. showing the students through action what is expected of them.For example,
modelling a role play with a student before asking all the class to do the role play

3.Chorus, Isolate, Confirm

This involves chorussing entire sentences  with the aim of promoting sentence fluency.It
focusses on fluency, intonation and liason ( liason is the running together of words during
normal speech, e.g. ‘What do you do ?’ becomes ‘Whada-ya-do ?’)

Firstly, the entire sentence is chorussed once, and then working backwards from the end of
the sentence individual sounds rather than individual words are chorussed until the sentence
is built back up.The complete sentence is then chorussed again.There should be a marked
improvement.This is a useful tool for dialogue practice and can be used at all levels.

4.Drilling
Drilling is an exercise which provides very controlled practice of new structures before
moving on to freer practice.It is a technique greatly used in the audiolingual method.It is
basically the repetition of set words or phrases.Drilling can focus on vocabulary and
pronunciation, grammar or intonation.The aim is to promote fluency and ensure that students
are able to use new structures/vocabulary correctly before moving on to freer practice.
 
 
E.g. Target Structure : What’s your favourite…? /My
favourite ……is ………
 
The teacher has presented the target structure in the context
of fruit and vegetables.
The teacher now shows different nouns on flashcards (these
may be  written words, or pictures) to the class, and the
students add the noun to the phrase.The aim is to initially
practise the question form.
 
Teacher shows the word ‘sport’.
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Class : What’s your favourite sport?

Teacher shows the word, ‘film.’
Class : What’s your favourite film?
Teacher shows the words, TV programme.’
Class : What’s your favourite TV programme?
 
The drilling could then be continued in pairs in order to
practise both the question and the answer form.
 
i.e. Each pair has a pile of word cards face down on the
table.The students take it in turns to turn over a card and use
the noun to formulate the question.The other student then
answers the question before picking another card and asking
a question in return.
 
 
There are many different types of drills, but the main types are as follows :
Repetition Drill : The teacher models a word or sentence, and the students repeat it.The
teacher might get the whole class to chorus the word or sentence, or might get individual
students to repeat it, before the whole class chorus it again.
Substitution Drill : The same phrase is repeated, but one part of the sentence is substituted
with another word.The first drill used in the example lesson above is an example of a
substitution drill.
Question & Answer Drill : One part of either the question or the answer is substituted with
another word.The pairwork activity in the example lesson is an example of a question and
answer drill.
Drilling is generally used more extensively with lower level students, and should be used
with discretion – overuse can become quite boring in the classroom.However, drilling can be
made more interesting by keeping the rhythm fast, or by modelling and getting the students to
say the words/phrases according to different emotions, e.g. sad, happy, excited, scared etc.

5.Grammar Chants
Grammar chants are a type of drilling with an extra emphasis on rhythm.The teacher says the
sentences and the students repeat in chorus (think of it like a rap!)The teacher must be
confident when presenting them, be able to maintain a good rythm and to make the chants fun
and enjoyable.
E.g. Grammar Chant : Place prepositions – in,at
 
Teacher : In the evening.
Class : In the evening.
Teacher : I read in the evening.
Class : I read in the evening.
Teacher : In the morning.
Class : In the morning.
Teacher : I got to work in the morning.
Class : I go to work in the morning.
Teacher : In the afternoon.
Class : In the afternoon.
Teacher : I work in the afternoon.
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Class : I work in the afternoon.

Teacher : At night.
Class : At night.
Teacher : I go to bed at night.
Class : I go to bed at night.
Teacher : In.At.
Class : In.At
Teacher : In.At
Class : In.At.
Teacher : In for morning,afternoon,evening.
Class : In for morning,afternoon,evening
Teacher : But don’t forget.
Class : But don’t forget .
Teacher : At night.
Class : At night.
Teacher : In.At.
Class : In.At.
Teacher : In.At
Class : In.At.
Teacher : We end it like that.
Class : We end it like that.

6.Eliciting
Teachers should not assume that students do not know the language to be taught.Conversely,
they should also not assume that the students do know.In order for the teacher to find out
what students do and don’t know, eliciting should be used.Eliciting also activates prior
knowledge, and actively engages students in a lesson.
Direct Presentation Eliciting prior knowledge
The teacher writes on the board ,‘I
The present perfect tense is used have been to Nepal’, and asks :
to talk about events that happened Do you know what tense this
at an unspecified time in the past. sentence uses?
We can use it to talk about How is it different from the past
experiences… simple tense?
Etc. When can we use it?
Etc

7.Correction & Feedback

A good teacher knows what, why, when and how to correct student errors.If not handled
carefully, students can lose confidence and become reluctant to speak in class.Error
correction will be handled in more detail in Unit 3, Module 4.

8.Concept Checking Questions

This type of questioning is used to establish meaning and to check understanding.Asking the
question,’Do you understand?’ is not an effective way of checking understanding because
students are often reluctant to admit that they do not understand.So, rather than asking this
question, we can use concept checking questions.They can be used with both grammar and
vocabulary/expressions.They check such things as concept, time-frame, function and
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context.The should clarify meaning and assist the students in developing an undertsanding of
the item being taught.
 
Example : ‘I used to play tennis.’
The teacher has presented the structure, and now aims to
clarify understanding.
 
T : Am I talking about the past ,present or future?
S : The past
T : Did I play tennis before?
S : Yes.
T : Did I play tennis regularly?
S : Yes.
T : Do I still play tennis now?
S : No.
T : What happened?
S : You stopped playing.
 
After the meaning of the language has been clarified,
personalised questions can be used.
 
E.g. 
T : Have you done anything regularly in the past which you
no longer do now?
 
The teacher can then use the target language in 
questions.
E.g. 
T : What did you use to do when you were younger?

9.Grouping Strategies
When setting up activities in the classroom, you should consider the most effective type of
grouping for that particular activity and group, e.g.pairwork, small group and whole
class activities.The aim of pairwork and groupwork activities is to increase student-student
interactions.In order to meet this aim, we need to consider whether a particular grouping will
enable all students to be actively involved.
We should avoid always getting students to do pairwork with the student they are sitting next
to (students usually always sit in the same seats during each lesson); we should give students
the opportunity to interact with as many different students as possible.The same applies for
small group activities – avoid always placing students into the same groups.
 
Open & Closed Pairs : When using pairwork activities, most are carried out in closed pairs,
i.e. each pair of students works seperately and simultaneously.This type of pairwork activity
provides maximum talking time for students.However, another option is open pairs.This is
when two students interact in front of the whole group.After the interaction, another pair of
students interact in front of the group.This type of activity usually focusses on the controlled
and accurate practice of newly-learned language.
Expanded Tasks :When using group and pairwork activities in the classroom, you may find
that some students finish a lot earlier than other students, e.g. a  group who finds a task easy
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may complete an activity much earlier than the other groups in the class.One way to address
this problem (because it can lead to classroom management problems) is to provide a second
step of a task (i.e. the task has been expanded) which can be handed out to groups which
finish their tasks early.
Mixed Ability  Groups : In most groups there will be students at different levles.In mixed-
ability groups, it can be beneficial to form groups from students who are at similar levels,
otherwise weaker students may not be confident enough to participate, or may not get the
opportunity to participate.However, at other times placing a stronger student with weaker
students may stimulate the weaker student to contribute more.It is important to get to know
your students levels well in order to decide on the most appropriate grouping strategy for
those students.
One way to address the problem of mixed ability students in a class is to devise graded
tasks. This involves using a simpler version of an activity with the less capable students, and
a more advanced version of the same activity with more capable students.Preparing graded
tasks can be time-consuming, but it  means that all students are kept meaningfully engaged in
a lesson.Another option is to prepare different roles within a groupwork activity.By giving
the simpler roles to the weaker students, and the more complex roles to the stronger students,
students at different levels can work together.

TESTING AND ASSESSMENT

Testing is an important element of teaching.We use a variety of different kinds of test at
different stages of a language programme :
1.Diagnostic Tests :  identify a student’s strengths and weaknesses.They show us what a
student knows or doesn’t know.They can be used as a needs analysis at the beginning of a
course or a new unit of study.
2.Placement Tests : are used to identify the appropriate level of study for a student.A good
placement test should include the testing of skills (including speaking), and not just the
testing of grammar.A placement test usually starts with very simple language and gradually
progresses in difficulty .
3.Progress Tests : are usually used at intervals throughout the course to test the students’
progress.
4.Achievement Tests : usually come at the end of a course and are used to measure the
students’ level of success.
Why do we test?  
Testing is important for both students and teachers.
Benefits for the teacher : Benefits for the students :
   
-By identifying students’ strengths -Tests provide students with
and    feedback on
 weaknesses, tests enable a teacher   strengths and weaknesses and
to plan enable them
 future lessons more effectively   to identify areas that they need to
-Tests enable a teacher to evaluate work on
her/his   more.
  own teaching and teaching -They provide feedback on
materials. progress and can  
    thus increase student motivation.
-They provide a valuable
opportunity for
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   revision
 
 
What is an effective test?
In order for a test to be valid, the following points should be considered :
 
It must only test what has actually been taught in class, and must be
appropriate to the students’ level.
 
It should provide useful information for the student and teacher, i.e.
rather than just an overall score or grade, it should highlight progress
in specific language areas.In this way,  the students will know which
areas of the language they need to study more.
 
It should test skills as well as grammar.
 
It should not be too easy, or too difficult.
 
The test instructions must be clear and easy to understand.If students
misunderstand instructions, the test will be a waste of valuable time.

TWO TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

Summative Assessment : as the name implies, focusses on summarising progress.This type
of assessment provides a score or grade, and shows a student’s level of success.This is the
kind of assessment used during an  achievement test.We can say that it is an assessment OF
learning.
Formative Assessment : The aim of this type of assessment is diagnosis.The information
gained from a formative assessment is used by the teacher to adapt and improve future
lessons to meet the students’needs more specifically.It can also provide students with specific
advice about  what they need to do to improve learning.We can say that formative
assessmment is an assessment FOR learning – the important point is that the information
gained from the assessment will be used to improve teaching and learning.
 
  ‘’When the cook tastes the
soup,
   that’s formative assessment;
   When the customer tastes the
soup,
   that’s summative assessment.’’
                               Paul Black.
 
 
An effective language course should include formative assessment in order to help the
students to become more effective learners, and in order to improve the process of
teaching.So, rather than just giving a score or precentage at the end of a progress test, think
about what constructive advice you could give to students based on those results.
Look at the examples of summative and formative assessment feedback below.
Summative Feedback on a Formative Feedback on a
Writing Test Writing Test
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18/20 Excellent.
Writing : good use of
conjunctions, and good choice of
vocabulary.Well organised.Take
care with spelling and
18/20 – Excellent.Keep up the punctuation.
good work  
  12/20 Good try.
  Writing : Your ideas are good, but
  you need to organise them better
  on the page.Spend time planning
12/20  = Grade C your text before writing – focus on
the stages of the essay.Always
proof read your work before
submitting it – check for spelling
and other mistakes.
 
 
International Tests of English :
You may have students whose ultimate goal is to sit an internationally recognised test of
English.Students sit these types of exams for a number of reasons, but usually for :
 Work : for promotion or increased salary, or in order to get a new job.
Study : in order to be accepted for study abroad.
If you are required to teach an exam preparation class, you must understand the skills focus
of the target test and the idiosyncracies of that test in order to prepare your students
effectively.You can find detailed information, and often practice tests on the internet.Many
exam preparation books are also published for many of these exams.
 
Here is an overview of the most commonly used and recognised tests of English :
                                                                                          
Cambridge
  IBT TOEFL IELTS TOEIC
FCE
What Test of International Test of English for First
does the English as a English International Communication Certificate  of
name Foreign Language English
stand for? Language  Testing Service (Upper
(IBT = Intermediate
Internet Level)
Based Other levels of
Test).The Cambridge
Paper Based ESOL exams
Test (PBT) is are :
only available KET-Key
in some places English Test
where IBT is PET-Primary
not available English Test
CAE-
Certificate in
Advanced
English
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CPE-
Certificate in
Proficiency in
English
Universities in
Universities in
the U.K. & other
Who the U.S.A. & An ‘A’ grade
countries,e.g.
requires other countries. Universities is accepted
Australia,Canada
these tests Government companies & corporations arounby some
.
primarily agencies. d the world. universities
Employers in
? Scholarship  
the U.K. and
programmes.
other countries
How
One level,
many 2 Levels :
(but two tests – Reading &
levels of One -Academic One
Listening /Speaking & Writing.
test are -General
One or both tests can be sat.)
there?
Can you
fail the No No No YES
test?
Grade :
How is it A band from 0 Reading & Listening 10 – 990
0 – 120 A,B,C,D,E 
scored? to 9 Speaking & Writing 0 - 200
& U = Fail
Reading & Listening : 2 ½
How long
Approximatel Approximately hours Approximatel
is the
y 4 hours 3 hours Speaking & Writing : 90 y 5 hours
test?
minutes
Where
can the Official Test Official Test Official Test
Official Test Centres
test be Centres Centres Centres
sat?
Reading
Reading Reading
Writing
What is Writing Writing Reading & Listening – 1 test
Listening
tested ? Listening Listening Speaking & Writing – 1 test
Speaking
Speaking Speaking
Use of English

Unit 3 : Teaching English as a second language

Module: Module 2 : Teaching Receptive Skills

In this module you will  :
 
 
-understand the difference between extensive and intensive reading
and listening
-understand the stages of well-planned listening and reading lessons
-understand the difficulties students have with reading/listening skills
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-learn effective strategies for helping students to develop their

listening & reading skills
 
 
INTRODUCTION
 
‘Education is not the filling of a pail, but the
lighting of a fire.’
                                                                                   
W.B. Yeats
 

Language is comprised of 4 main language skills – Reading, Writing, Listening & Speaking.
Our aim should be to encorporate an integrated skills approach in the classroom in order to
give students the opportunity to develop each skill.
In this module we will focus on the two receptive skills, i.e. Listening & Reading
With regard to learning a language, a person first needs exposure to the language (through
listening and reading) before they can be expected to produce it through speaking or writing,
i.e. input before output.
We will firstly look at some elements common to both of the receptive skills, before moving
on to look at each of the two skills individually.

THE RECEPTIVE SKILLS

WHAT ARE EXTENSIVE & INTENSIVE READING & LISTENING?
There are two main types of reading and listening :   Extensive and  Intensive. 
Extensive reading & listening  :

 is when we listen or read widely (extensively),  often  for pleasure.The person reading
or listening  is not concerned about understanding every detail.

Intensive reading & listening :

 is a more focussed and concentrated approach to reading and listening usually

associated with studying.While  reading or listening intensively the person has a
specific goal in mind and must understand specific details of the language.

Both intensive and extensive reading and listening are skills that we use in our everyday
lives.
Extensive & Intensive Reading/Listening in real life:
 
In real life In real life
   
Extensive Reading   Extensive Listening 
   
E.g. When we read each E.g. When we listen to the music
bestseller of our favourite author, charts on the radio we :
we  : -are listening for pleasure
-aim to enjoy the content of the -are not concerned with
 15

books
understanding
-are not concerned with
  every word in the songs
understanding
 
 every single word
   
Intensive Reading  Intensive Listening 
   
E.g. When we scan an e-mail to E.g. When we listen to the
find out the flight time and flight weather forecast on the radio, we
number of a friend who is coming are focussing on the details about
to visit : our region and ‘tune out’ the other
We are searching for  number of details
specific details  
 
In the classroom our focus is usually on Intensive Reading and Listening skills where we get
students to look at texts in depth and to listen in detail to listening texts in order to develop
their language skills .

EXTENSIVE READING & LISTENING

As teachers we should encourage our students to read and listen extensively outside the
classroom in order to assist them with their language development. Extensive reading and
listening help language learners to develop their vocabulary knowledge and to develop their
understanding of language structures and phrases.
 
It may  be possible to encorporate a reading programme into a language programme through
identifying and making available suitable  materials for the students’ level.Graded
Readers are books which have been produced especially for ESL students.These books are
often adaptations of well-known books.The books are clearly graded according to language
levels (e.g. Beginner,Elementary etc.)It is important to allow students to choose their own
reading materials .If they are interested in, and enjoy a book, they will be motivated  to read
more.
It is also possible to encourage reading outside the classroom by forwarding interesting
materials to students by e-mail.(The productive skills of speaking and writing could also be
integrated here by getting students to discuss the text in their next lesson, or to write a reply
to the e-mail.)
With regard to listening, we can recommend relevant materials from the internet, and
encourage students to listen to music in English.Teachers can also encourage higher level
students to  watch T.V. programmes and films in English.For lower level students, however
,these kinds of materials can be discouraging, because  the level of English is often too
advanced for their level.
Many of the Readers mentioned above also have audio recordings of the books.These provide
ideal listening practice at the right level for our students.

THE THREE STAGES OF LISTENING & READING LESSONS

PRE- READING / LISTENING : 
During this stage of the process, we  prepare  students for what they are about to read or
hear in order to make the task more manageable.If we overlook this stage, our students will
be anxious because :

-they do not know what to expect

 16

-they do not know  what they should focus on while reading/listening

-they will be distracted by unknown vocabulary

Think about how we read and listen in real life – we usually have some idea of what we are
going to hear or read.For example, when you read an article on the internet, it is something
that attracts your attention and you have some expectations about what it will be about.When
you watch your favourite soap opera, from your knowledge of the characters and the plot so
far, you have some idea of what to expect.In the same way, we have to prepare our students
for what they are about  to do.
 
Strategies used during the pre-reading & pre-listening stage :
 
Previewing  :
A preview is something that gives an advance idea or impression of something that is to
come.For example, when you see a film preview, you see excerpts from the film and get an
overall impression of what the film is about.We can preview reading and listening texts in the
following ways :

Activating prior knowledge to find out what students already know about the subject, e.g.
through questioning, brainstorming  or discussion.(Brainstorming  is when the students are
asked to think of as many words or ideas as possible linked to a specific theme or topic.It is
useful for activating prior knowledge and generating ideas, vocabulary and
interest.Brainstorming can be made more interesting and challenging by adding a competitive
element, i.e. dividing the class into teams or adding a time-limit.)
 
Giving background information to set the scene.
Setting the scene for Pre- Setting the scene for Pre-
Listening Reading
Examples : Examples :
   
We are going to listen to a lady We are going to look at an
calling the doctor’s receptionist excerpt from a short story about
to arrange an appointment. problem neighbours.
   
You are going to hear a man  
trying to arrange a night out We’re going to read a recent
with a friend. news story about teenage drug
  addiction.
 
Giving essential vocabulary that will be needed in order to understand the text
 
Predicting :
Prediction is when we get the students to make guesses about  what they are about to hear or
read.This can be done in the following ways :
 
Looking at the picures/graphics accompanying a  reading text and predicting what the text
is about.
E.g.   
   
Look at the photos.  
 17

What do they show?

What do you think our text will be about?

 
 
 

 
What information do you think the text will
include?
 
The pictures show :
a)A cocoa pod on a cocoa tree
b)Cocoa beans in a cocoa pod
c)Cocoa beans and cocoa powder
d)A spa cocoa body scrub treatment
 
 
Looking at the title or headlines in reading texts and predicting the content.
E.g.      Prime Minister Demands Investigation   (headline)
 
Are we eating horse meat??
 
Another scandal hits the government        (the sub headlines)
 
Another cover up??
 18

 
Giving the  key words from a reading or listening text and making predictions based on
those words.
 
E.g. For the text about cocoa, the following words are presented
to the students:
 
South America     Health           Beans
Plantations           Fair trade     Cholesterol
 
The students are asked to predict the content of the text based
on these items of vocabulary.
 
 
Asking questions related to the topic,which will be answered in the upcoming lesson.
 
Eg. The lesson topic is about cultural differences.
       The students are asked to predict the answers to the
following questions.
 

1. In China you should point with :

a)a closed fist

b)an open hand
c)the thumb
 
       2.In Finland, a toss of the head means :
             a)No
             b) Come here
 
       3.In Japan, the ‘Ok’ sign used in Western cultures
means :
             a)Okay
             b)You’re crazy.
             c) Money
 
 
If you are interested in finding out the answers, here they
are :
1. In China, you should point with an open hand.

1. In Finland, a toss of the head means ‘Come here.’

1. In Japan, the ‘Ok’ sign means ‘money.’

PRE- READING / LISTENING

PRE- READING / LISTENING : 
During this stage of the process, we  prepare  students for what they are about to read or
 19

hear in order to make the task more manageable.If we overlook this stage, our students will
be anxious because :

-they do not know what to expect

-they do not know  what they should focus on while reading/listening
-they will be distracted by unknown vocabulary

Think about how we read and listen in real life – we usually have some idea of what we are
going to hear or read.For example, when you read an article on the internet, it is something
that attracts your attention and you have some expectations about what it will be about.When
you watch your favourite soap opera, from your knowledge of the characters and the plot so
far, you have some idea of what to expect.In the same way, we have to prepare our students
for what they are about  to do.
 
Strategies used during the pre-reading & pre-listening stage :
 
Previewing  :
A preview is something that gives an advance idea or impression of something that is to
come.For example, when you see a film preview, you see excerpts from the film and get an
overall impression of what the film is about.We can preview reading and listening texts in the
following ways :

Activating prior knowledge to find out what students already know about the subject, e.g.
through questioning, brainstorming  or discussion.(Brainstorming  is when the students are
asked to think of as many words or ideas as possible linked to a specific theme or topic.It is
useful for activating prior knowledge and generating ideas, vocabulary and
interest.Brainstorming can be made more interesting and challenging by adding a competitive
element, i.e. dividing the class into teams or adding a time-limit.)
 
Giving background information to set the scene.
Setting the scene for Pre- Setting the scene for Pre-
Listening Reading
Examples : Examples :
   
We are going to listen to a lady We are going to look at an
calling the doctor’s receptionist excerpt from a short story about
to arrange an appointment. problem neighbours.
   
You are going to hear a man  
trying to arrange a night out We’re going to read a recent
with a friend. news story about teenage drug
  addiction.
 
Giving essential vocabulary that will be needed in order to understand the text
 
Predicting :
Prediction is when we get the students to make guesses about  what they are about to hear or
read.This can be done in the following ways :
 
 20

Looking at the picures/graphics accompanying a  reading text and predicting what the text
is about.
E.g. 
 
Look at the photos.  
What do they show?  
What do you think our text will be about?  

 
 
 

 
What information do you think the text will
include?
 
The pictures show :
a)A cocoa pod on a cocoa tree
b)Cocoa beans in a cocoa pod
c)Cocoa beans and cocoa powder
d)A spa cocoa body scrub treatment
 
 
Looking at the title or headlines in reading texts and predicting the content.
E.g.      Prime Minister Demands Investigation   (headline)
 
Are we eating horse meat??
 
 21

Another scandal hits the government        (the sub headlines)

 
Another cover up??
 
Giving the  key words from a reading or listening text and making predictions based on
those words.
 
E.g. For the text about cocoa, the following words are presented
to the students:
 
South America     Health           Beans
Plantations           Fair trade     Cholesterol
 
The students are asked to predict the content of the text based
on these items of vocabulary.
 
 
Asking questions related to the topic,which will be answered in the upcoming lesson.
 
Eg. The lesson topic is about cultural differences.
       The students are asked to predict the answers to the
following questions.
 

1. In China you should point with :

a)a closed fist

b)an open hand
c)the thumb
 
       2.In Finland, a toss of the head means :
             a)No
             b) Come here
 
       3.In Japan, the ‘Ok’ sign used in Western cultures
means :
             a)Okay
             b)You’re crazy.
             c) Money
 
 
If you are interested in finding out the answers, here they
are :
1. In China, you should point with an open hand.

1. In Finland, a toss of the head means ‘Come here.’

1. In Japan, the ‘Ok’ sign means ‘money.’

 22

WHILE READING/LISTENING
This is when we ‘process’ the text.At this stage, specific tasks are given to develop
comprehension.
Students need to be able to read or listen more than once in order to really develop their
understanding.Include 2 or 3 opportunities for reading/listening.
The teacher should include some tasks for checking understanding after each
reading/listening in order to gradually develop comprehension.
During reading/Listening, we can focus on the following types of reading/listening :
General Understanding (Gist)
This is when we get an overall understanding of a text without being concerned with the
details.This is usually done during the first reading/listening.
 
E.g.
 
While you read the text (or ‘listen’), try to find out if the writer has
a positive or negative view of ……
 
In the phone call that we are going to listen to ,what is the lady
trying to arrange?
 
 
Detailed Understanding
This is when we read or listen to find and understand specific details.This is usually done
during the second reading/listening.
 
DURING READING/LISTENING : Example Task Types :
 
Depending on the specific aims of the reading/listening activity, the
following task types are commonly used by coursebooks:
 
 
a.Fill in the gaps (Gap fill)
b.Matching (e.g. match headings to each paragraph in a text)
c.Filling in Charts
d.Multiple Choice Questions
e.Reconstructing texts
f.Guessing the meaning of words in context
g.Guessing what will happen next
h.True/False Questions

AFTER READING/LISTENING
This stage of the process focusses on getting the students to engage with the text on a deeper
level, and often integrates the other skills of speaking and /or writing. During this post
reading phase the teacher encourages critical thinking and personal involvement with the text
in order to promote retention of what has been learned (memory).During this stage of the
lesson, the teacher may focus on language development (grammar) ,vocabulary develpment
or skills development.
Here are some examples of skills development tasks :     
 
 23

  - Writing a personal response to the listening /reading

  - Carrying out a role play based on the situation
  - Carrying out a discussion based on the issues raised
   - Writing an alternative ending to a story that has been read
   - Writing a different account of a story from the
perspective of one of the
      characters
 
 
A READING/LISTENING LESSON SEQUENCE:
Depending on the needs of the students, you may wish to focus on different skills in different
lessons.However, if the aim is to develop general reading/listening skills, the following
lesson sequence can provide a useful guideline.
Example reading/listening lesson sequence:
 
 
Warm-Up : To introduce and get the students interested in
the lesson (e.g. a
Joke, or an anecdote, etc.)
 
Pre-Reading/listening : To prepare the students for what
they about to read/listen to through previewing and
prediction.
 
Pre-teach Essential Vocabulary : To promote
comprehension of the text
 
First Reading/Listening : To get the ‘gist’ (general
understanding) of the text.Give the question before
reading/listening.Get the students to read or listen without
worrying about every detail, then get the students’ answers
to the gist question.
 
Second Reading/listening :  After getting a general idea of
the text, set other reading tasks and get the students to
read/listen  again to develop a better understanding of the
details.
 
Post Reading Language Development : To get the
students to interract further with the text.E.g. A discussion,
vocabulary development etc.

AFTER READING/LISTENING
This stage of the process focusses on getting the students to engage with the text on a deeper
level, and often integrates the other skills of speaking and /or writing. During this post
reading phase the teacher encourages critical thinking and personal involvement with the text
in order to promote retention of what has been learned (memory).During this stage of the
lesson, the teacher may focus on language development (grammar) ,vocabulary develpment
or skills development.
 24

Here are some examples of skills development tasks :     

 
  - Writing a personal response to the listening /reading
  - Carrying out a role play based on the situation
  - Carrying out a discussion based on the issues raised
   - Writing an alternative ending to a story that has been read
   - Writing a different account of a story from the
perspective of one of the
      characters
 
 
A READING/LISTENING LESSON SEQUENCE:
Depending on the needs of the students, you may wish to focus on different skills in different
lessons.However, if the aim is to develop general reading/listening skills, the following
lesson sequence can provide a useful guideline.
Example reading/listening lesson sequence:
 
 
Warm-Up : To introduce and get the students interested in
the lesson (e.g. a
Joke, or an anecdote, etc.)
 
Pre-Reading/listening : To prepare the students for what
they about to read/listen to through previewing and
prediction.
 
Pre-teach Essential Vocabulary : To promote
comprehension of the text
 
First Reading/Listening : To get the ‘gist’ (general
understanding) of the text.Give the question before
reading/listening.Get the students to read or listen without
worrying about every detail, then get the students’ answers
to the gist question.
 
Second Reading/listening :  After getting a general idea of
the text, set other reading tasks and get the students to
read/listen  again to develop a better understanding of the
details.
 
Post Reading Language Development : To get the
students to interract further with the text.E.g. A discussion,
vocabulary development etc.

 LISTENING SKILLS
Now we will look  specifically at listening skills.

Listening is a skill which many students find  difficult and stressful.Why is that?
Well firstly, it’s because you can only develop successful listening skills over time and with
lots of practice!
 25

Some other reasons are :

 
 

 while  listening you do not have the opportunity to return to

earlier sections to check understanding as you do when you are
reading.

  the pace of talking is usually  fast in authentic materials.

 the range of different accents, and hence pronunciation presents a

challenge for students.

 when doing listening activities in class, students do not receive

any of the  clues they would receive when talking with someone
face to face, such as body language and facial expression.

 
 

 Students can be distracted due to unknown vocabulary

 
 
 
STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING LISTENING 
All of the following points help to reduce student anxiety about listening tasks, and will help
students to listen more effectively.
 
1.Reassure students that they do not have to understand every word.
 
2.Choose materials carefully to avoid  using materials that are too advanced
for the
    students’ level.
 
3.Clearly tell the students what is expected of them, i.e. what they should
listen for (in this  
     way, they can ignore irrelevant details and focus on listening for the
information that  
     they need.)
 
4. Expose students to a variety of listening materials and a variety of accents
 
5. Let students listen more than once, i.e. 2 or 3 times.If you tell the students
 26

this in
     advance, it will reduce the pressure they feel to understand everything
during the first
     listening.
 
6. Use materials that are relevant to your students lives, and that they will
find interesting.
 
7. Prepare the students well during the pre –listening phase by activating
prior knowledge,
      setting the scene and getting the students to make predictions
 
8. Teach essential vocabulary pre-listening to avoid unknown vocabulary
hindering
      understanding. 
 
9. Help students to understand the gist of the script before focussing on to
the details.
 
10. Pause the recording at intervals and check understanding before
continuing with the
       text can make a listening activity easier for students.
 
11. When listening for specific details, play the relevant section of a
recording rather than
       the whole recording, to help students to find the information they
require.   
 
 
Listening for tone/emotion :
 Especially at higher levels, being able to interpret tone and emotion while listening is an
important skill.What we hear is not just about the words that we hear, it is also about the tone
or emotion of what is being said.
 
 

1. Happy & excited : When

you see an old school
 
friend who you haven’t
E.g.
seen for years.
 
Think about the sentence,’It’s
 
great to see you again’, and the
different tones that could be used
1. Uncertain & wary :
while saying this sentence.
When a person greets
 
you enthusiastically, but
you can’t remember who
that person is.

 
 27

 
This can be a difficult skill for students to develop, but if you get into the habit of asking this
type of question with the majority of listening tasks done in class, the studens will begin to
develop their skills in this area. 
Listening Materials : Recorded & Live
Teachers usually make extensive use of recorded materials for listening practice in the
classroom, including the recorded transcipts included in coursebook materials.Apart from the
coursebook recordings, teachers can take advantage of the wide range of listening materials
available on the internet.
Students are also continually involved in live listening while in the classroom, i.e. listening to
the student and teacher interactions.Another way to provide live listening in the classroom is
to use ‘reading aloud’.E.g.It is possible to integrate listening skills with reading skills by
getting the students to listen while the teacher reads a text aloud (the students do not see the
written text at this stage).Following a check of comprehension, the students can then be
introduced to the written text.
Another way to practise live listening and to integrate reading and listening skills is to firstly
get the students to read a text.The students then cover their texts and the teacher reads the text
aloud.However, while reading the teacher alters some of the details.The students have to
listen carefully to identify and correct those errors.

» READING SKILLS
As teachers we shouldn’t assume that because students can read that they are efficient
readers.Most ESL students, when presented with a text,  will try to work out the meaning of
the text word by word.When they encounter unknown words (or grammar), they are likely to
ask the teacher for the meaning, or refer to a dictionary .However, this is not an effective way
of reading and relies purely on the students’ language knowledge.This approach is known
as Bottom Up reading (i.e. focussing on the details of the language first.)
There are, however, a number of reading strategies that we can teach our students to help
them to read more effectively using  a Top Down approach.A top-down approach means
getting an overall understanding of a text before focussing on the details.

» READING STRATEGIES
Students should be taught and encouraged to use the following strategies when reading in
order to develop their reading skills.
Predict and Preview : If students are taught to use predicting and previewing skills  when
they encounter a new text outside of the classroom,  it will help to prepare them for what they
are about to read.They should focus on the pictures and headlines, and think about what they
expect to see in the text.
Skimming :This means reading through a text very quickly to get the general idea of the
text.This will help students get an overall understanding of the text before moving on to the
details.
Scanning :This means running your eyes  quickly over a text in order to find specific details
and ignoring other irrelevant information.This will help students to develop the habit of
focussing on what they are looking for in a text.
Using Contextual Clues :This means guessing the meaning of unknown words through clues
occurring  in the text. E.g. Looking at the other words in a sentence to decide if an unknown
word  is a noun, verb, adjective etc. and whether it has a positive or negative meaning.This
will help students to deal more effectively with unknown words while reading.
 
TYPES OF CLASSROOM READING TASKS :
 28

Previewing :
 
Brainstorming : Ask students to list all they know about the topic within a set time-limit,
then feedback to the whole class.Alternatively, students are asked to brainstorm words related
to the topic.
Lead-in Questions : Ask the students pertinent questions to generate ideas about the topic to 
prepare for the reading text.
Predict : Ask the students to look at the title (and pictures if there are any) and to guess what
they think the text will be about.
Students’ Questions : Ask the students to write 3 questions about the topic.These can then
be checked after reading to find out whether the text has answered the questions.
Partial preview : Ask the students to read the first paragraph (and possibly the first sentence
of each subsequent paragraph), then to make predictions based on what they have just read.
Sequencing headlines : Prepare a headline for each paragraph and mix them up.Prepare
enough sets of the headlines for students to work in pairs or in small groups.Ask the students
to guess the correct sequence of the headlines, and to work together to predict  the content of
the text.
Vocabulary Preview : Before the lesson, select a few key words from the text.Write these
words and the title on the board, and ask the students to guess the content of the text.
 
Reading for Gist :
 
Skimming : Get the students to read the text quickly and silently while ignoring unknown
words in order to find the answer to a gist question.
Find a Title : With the title or headline removed, get the students to skim the text to get a
general understanding of the topic, then ask them to decide in pairs on an appropriate
title/headline.
Sequencing Headlines : As well as being used as a pre-reading task, this activity also works
well as an understanding the gist activity after the first reading.
Sequencing Pictures : An alternative to sequencing headlines is to get the students to place a
number of pictures in the correct order according to the information in each paragraph.
Scrambled Paragraphs : Cut the text up into paragraphs.The students are then given a time
limit in which they have to rearrange the paragraphs into the correct order.The time limit
ensures that the students skim read the text rather than focus on the details.
Information sharing : In pairs get each student to read the first paragraph silently.Student A
then has to give the general idea (not the details) about that paragraph to student B.If student
B doesn’t agree, he can  give his understanding of the paragraph.The two students then read
the next paragraph and student B gives the general idea, and so on until all the paragraphs
have been read.
 
Reading for Details :
 
Reading Race : To practise scanning for specific details, start with the text covered, then give
the students a question (specific detail) and get the students to open their texts and find the
answer as quickly as possible.Rather than getting the first student to give the answer, (after a
few questions, the students who read more slowly will give up because they are never first !)
ask the students to stand up when they find the answer (or write down the answer, then stand
up).Wait until most of the students have found the answer before checking their answers.  
Jigsaw Reading : Divide a text into two halves – A and B, and prepare comprehension
questions for each half of the text.Divide the class into A‘s and B’s.Hand out text A to the A
 29

students and text B to the B students.Students work individually to read and complete their
questions.Then every A student pairs with a B student.The A students tell their partners about
their own part of the text and the B students tell their partners about their part of the  text.In
this way, speaking skills are combined with reading skills.
Co-operative Reading : Divide a text into chunks (one chunk can equal one paragraph) and
label the chunks in the  order that they appear as A,B,C etc.Divide the class into A,B and C
students.Handout the appropriate chunks to the students and ask the students to read and to
prepare to summarise their chunks.When all the students are ready, arrange the class into
groups – each chunk should be represented in each group.The students (after deciding on the
correct sequence) should then summarise their chunks in sequence to their groups.This can be
continued by giving out comprehension questions.The students will complete these in their
groups, having the opportunity to ask each other questions to find out the information they
need.This activity integrates reading and speaking skills.
D.I.Y. (Do-It-Yourself) Quiz : Each student scans the text and writes 3 or 4 questions about
it.Divide the students into pairs, and get the students to ask each other the questions they have
prepared.
Find the Mistakes : After reading a text, the students are  asked to  cover their texts.The
teacher then summarises the text.However, while summarising the teacher will give some
incorrect details.The class should listen carefully and correct the mistakes that they hear.This
can also be done as a pairwork activity with students taking it in turns to summarise the
paragraphs.This activity combines listening and reading skills.
Reading Pairs: Divide the class into A and B students.Place each A student with a B
student.Student A reads the first paragraph aloud while B reads and listens.The two students
then check their comprehension of that paragraph .Student B then reads the next paragraph
and the students confer again.
Cloze Reading : Two copies of a text are prepared – A & B.Some words are erased from text
A, and different words are erased from text B. The students then have to ask each other the
appropriate questions to find out the information that is missing from their own texts.

» EXAMPLES OF A READING LESSON

EXAMPLE FROM A READING LESSON

Look at the first part of the lesson  below.
The lesson is aimed at Intermediate level students.
 
The teacher shows some photos of different breeds of dog.
 
Teacher : Do you like dogs?
                  Do you know the breed names of any of these dogs?
                  Have you ever heard the expression,’Dogs are a man’s best friend’?
                  Would you agree?
 
The teacher invites feedback from the students in response to her questions.
 
Teacher : Have you ever heard of a lion dog?
                  Can you guess what kind of a dog it might be with regards to appearance
or  
                   character?
                   Do you think it is a big or a small dog?
 
 30

The teacher writes adjectives suggested by the students on the board.

 
Teacher : I have an interesting article about a lion dog, but first I want to show you
the text’s
                  title.
 
The teacher writes the headline, ‘Saved from disaster by a lion dog’ on the board
and invites comments through the asking of a few questions.
SELF CHECK

Now look at the text that the above lesson was based on.
 
 
Saved from Disaster by a Lion Dog    
 
For those who have never heard of a  lion dog  before, it is
actually the literal  translation of the Chinese breed name, Shih
Tzu.The name results from the fact that these dogs were             
bred to resemble the lion as it is depicted in traditional Chinese
art.These little dogs are a small breed, often known as  lap-dogs
or companion dogs.They are renowned for their gentle, loving
nature and their intelligence.
 
This is the story of one  Shih Tzu, named Babu.Babu lives with
her 83-year owner, Tami Akunuma,  in the district of Taro-
Kawamukai in Japan.
 
The day started like any other.There was nothing to suggest that
the day would bring disaster  yet again to Taro-Kawamukai.A
few days had passed since the March, 2011 earthquake had
caused devastation across Japan.
 
Babu’s owner  decided to take her for a walk.She was surprised
by Babu’s eagerness and insistence to go for  a walk as she was
not a particularly  active dog.While following the normal route
of their daily walks, Mrs Akunuma  was again surprised by
Babu’s behaviour that day .Babu  was now  insisting on taking a
new route uphill.
 
Minutes after they had arrived at the top of the hill, the 2011
March Tsunami hit and flattened Taro-Kawamukai.
 
 31

Although this is an amazing story, it is not unusual.Animals are

renowned for their sixth sense  and ability to sense physical
disasters well before humans can see the first signs,  and stories
of animals saving their owners from death and disaster are also
common.
 
 
SELF CHECK

Now look at the continuation of the lesson as it was done by the teacher.
 
The continuation of the lion dog lesson
 
Teacher : I’m going to give you a few key elements from the
story, and I want you to try to predict what the story is about.
 
The teacher writes the following points on the board :
 
                          Japan                       2011              
earthquake  
 
                             tsunami               flattened             hill
 
Teacher : Please try to guess what the story is about with your
partner.
 

SELF CHECK

There is not one correct way of presenting this, or any other lesson.Teachers use their
creativity and skills in order to make lessons as effective and interesting as possible.
In the lion dog lesson the teacher’s main aim at this stage of the lesson was to develop the
students’ predictive skills.The teacher has assumed that at this level (Intermediate),  the
students will be familiar with  the words used in the lesson so far, i.e. breed (in the warm up),
saved, disaster (when previewing the title of the story), earthquake, tsunami, flattened, hill
(when predicting the story using key words from the text.)
However, in her lesson plan she has dealt with this issue, and planned how to teach those
words if they are not known by the students.
i.e. breed :  demonstrated through use of the photos in the warm up
      saved & disaster : demonstrated with definitions and example sentences
      earthquake,tsunami, hill & flattened : demonstrated by pictures and explanations 

SELF CHECK

Now compare you lesson with the teacher’s lesson.

The Lion Dog Lesson : Pre-taught Vocabulary
 
The teacher decided that there was only one word which needed to be
pre-taught at this stage.
Any other unknown words should not prevent the students from
 32

achieving an overall understanding of the text.

The word chosen was ‘INSIST’ and its other forms.
The teacher checked whether the students already knew this word,
then clarified the meaning.
 
Then :
Teacher : Please place the different forms of ‘insist’  in the correct
sections of the Word Form Chart.
If you do not know all the forms, ask your classmates, or check in
your dictonaries.
 
              
Verb Noun Adjective Adverb
       
       

SELF CHECK

The next stage of the lesson focussed on reading for gist.

SELF CHECK

Now let’s look at what task the teacher used with the students :
 
The Lion Dog Lesson : Reading for gist
 
Teacher : Now,let’s read the text and find out what the lion
dog did.
                  You have two minutes to read the text.
                  Don’t worry about the details, and at this stage
ignore any words that
                  you don’t know.
                  Focus on finding out what Babu did.
                  After you have read it, I would like you to give a
brief summary of what
                  Babu did to your partner.
 
 
After this first reading, the students gave their summaries to each other in pairs, then the
teacher asked two students to give their summaries to the whole group.
Let’s recap on what the students have done so far :
1.Previewed the text
2.Predicted what the text is about
3.Dealt with vocabulary
4.Got an overall understanding of the text.
The teacher now wants the students to develop a more detailed understanding of the text. 

SELF CHECK
 33

Now look at how the teacher focussed on scanning for details.

 
 
Scanning for detail questions :
 
1.What is a lion dog?
2.How did the lion dog get its name?
3.What are these dogs famous for?
4.Where does Babu live?
5.What kind of a day was it?
6.What was unusual about Babu’s behaviour that day?
7.When did the tsunami hit?
8.What is a possible explanation for Babu’s behaviour on that
day?
 
The scanning activity :
The teacher carried out a reading race with the above questions,
then dealt with any remaining problems with comprehension.
 
 
For the after-reading stage of the lesson the teacher decided to focus on vocabulary
development.Think about what kind of a vocabulary activity you would use with this class
based on the Lion Dog reading text.

SELF CHECK

Now let’s look at how the teacher dealt with vocabulary development in the lesson.
 
The Lion Dog Lesson Vocabulary Development
Fill the gaps in the sentences
below with one word from the  
word list on the right.
1.It is very difficult to give Depict(ed) (v.)
……………  
   translations when translating  
Japanese  
   proverbs into English. Insistence (n.)
   
2.It took the region many months  
to rebuild  
   the towns after the …………… Eagerness (n.)
caused by the  
   floods.  
  Resemble (v.)
3.Japanese people are …………… 
for their  
    politeness.  
  Devastation (n.)
4.The children’s ………….. to  
play in the snow  
 34

    wasn’t surprising – they had

never seen
    snow before.
 
 5.He had worked for hours on his
painting,
    but when she looked at it, it  
didn’t ………… Literal (adj.)
    anything.  
   
6.The little boy constantly asked  
his mum to Renowned (adj.)
   buy him a dog.His ……………  
was becoming
   annoying.
 
7.The picture in the advert
………. a happy 
    family relaxing at home.
   
 
ANSWERS :
 
1.literal
2.devastation
3.renowned
4.eagerness
5.resemble
6.insistence
7.depicted
 
 
The students were given a few minutes to do this gap fill exercise.They were also advised to 
refer to how these words were used in the text for extra clues.The teacher then checked the
answers with the group and dealt with any problems with regard to the meaning of these
words.
The teacher then asked the students to complete a word form chart  to further support
vocabulary development.The students were asked to fill in the different forms of the new
vocabulary.(N.B. Not all of the words have four forms).

SELF CHECK

The last thing to consider is the setting of a homework task.The homework could focus on
further vocbulary practice or writing skills for example. 

Unit 3 : Teaching English as a second language

Module 3 : Teaching Productive Skills

 
In this module you will :
 35

 
-understand some of the problems students experience when
practising productive skills
 
-understand the importance of good preparation before speaking and
writing tasks
 
-learn  strategies & techniques for teaching speaking and writing
skills
 
-learn how to make  lessons more interesting and effective
 
 
 
INTRODUCTION
 
                     ‘’I speak two languages,Body and English’’
                                                                            Mae West
 
‘’Great Britain and the United States are nations seperated by
a common 
     language.’’
                 William Shakespeare
 
         ‘’To produce a mighty book, you must choose a mighty
theme.’’
                                                                                             Herman
Melville
 
    ‘’It is perfectly okay to write garbage – as long as you edit
brilliantly.’’
   
C.J. Cherryh
 
In the previous module we looked at how to teach receptive skills.We will now focus on the
teaching of the two productive skills of Speaking and Writing.
Input before output
In order to develop these two skills effectively, a language learner requires sufficient
language input.You cannot expect output before input just as you can’t expect a wood-
burning stove to give out heat if you don’t firstly put in sufficient wood!
 
 36

We need to ensure that we provide our students with enough input (preparation) before they
are expected to carry out communicative speaking  activties, or writing tasks.

 
 Meaningful communication
Language means communication,  i.e. the transmission of information.Speaking  and writing
skills involve the transmission of thoughts, feelings, opinions, observations etc.In order to be
able to do this well, the language user must have a reason to communicate, so all lessons
must be interesting and relevant to the students’ lives.
Language practice versus skills practice
Don’t confuse language pratice with skills practice.Writing sentences in order to practise a
particular language point is not  skills practice.Writing skills activities involve the
transmission of real information within a meaningful context and with a clear purpose, e.g.
writing a short note to a friend to arrange when and where to meet at the weekend.With
regards to speaking, asking students for  example sentences of positive, negative and question
forms  is not skills practice, because the activity has no communicative purpose.However,
asking students real questions related to their lives in order to elicit answers using the target
language, produces real communication. 

Speaking Skills
Speaking is closely linked to listening.In order to speak effectively, one must be an effective
listener in order to respond appropriately during conversations.
 37

                                                       

 
WHY  STUDENTS  HAVE  PROBLEMS  WITH  SPEAKING:
Students may find speaking in class difficult and/or stressful  for a number of reasons :
 

 Students who are used to traditional grammar-focussed

methods are not used to being asked to speak in class, so
may be reluctant to speak

 Students may be afraid of making mistakes (they may

have been over-corrected and embarrassed/demotivated
during their previous language learning experiences)

 
 

 As speaking is closely linked to listening, those students

with weak listening skills will also have difficulties with
speaking

 Pronunciation is an integral aspect of speaking.Students

may be relucant to speak due to people not understanding
what they are saying (due to poor pronunciation)

 
 

 If a lesson  is not interesting or meaningful, students will

have nothing to say

 
 38

 
STRATEGIES  FOR   TEACHING  SPEAKING  SKILLS 
When teaching speaking skills, it is important to consider two aspects of speaking :
Fluency: Accuracy:
 
-the ability to use the language
 
accurately .If
-the ability to speak easily at a
  there are too many
normal pace
grammatical 
  and without too many
  mistakes, communication will
hesitations or pauses.
be hindered.
 
 
A good speaker requires both aspects of the language, so we should not overlook either of
these skills in the classroom.We will focus specifically on accuracy and error correction later
in the Error Module.
In order to develop both fluency and accuracy, a language learner requires plenty
of exposure to good models of the language, and plenty of opportunity to use the
language.Therefore, teachers must give students as much opportunity to speak as
possible.Remember that if students are learning English in their native countries, they may
not have much opportunity to use the language orally outside  the classroom
Making Speaking Skills Practice More Effective :
1. Integrate Speaking Into All Lessons regardless of the
main language focus of the lesson.For example, if your
main fous in on writing, you can integrate discussion and
brainstorming activities before writing in order to generate
ideas and activate prior knowledge.

1. Avoid Teacher-Directed Lessons : In teacher-directed

lessons, the students do not get the opportunity to develop
real speaking skill, such as  asking  questions, maintaining
and ending conversations etc, because the teacher is always
the leader.

1. Limit Teacher Talk Time : – If the teacher does all the

speaking, the students will be developing their listening
skills and NOT their speaking skills.Groupwork and
pairwork increase Student Talk Time.

 
4.Make Lessons Interesting : If the lesson is not
interesting/relevant, students will not be
        motivated to participate.Add variety, and use a good topic to
make a lesson enjoyable.
 
5.Prepare students well : Students will not be able to contribute if
 39

they do not have the  vocabulary, grammar awareness and

expressions that they require for the task.
 

1. Grade Activities Step by Step : To build up students’

confidence, provide sufficient controlled practice before
expecting them to use the language in  more
communicative activities.

1. Give Positive Feedback and

Encouragement : Remember that learning a language is
not easy, and that students easily become discouraged, so
we have to work to maintain their motivation.

1. Match The Task To The Students’ Level : If a task is too

difficult, students will fail and be discouraged. E.g. For
students at beginner level, a discussion  activity would be
inappropriate because the students would not have
sufficient knowledge of the language and the expressions
required in order to be able to discuss a topic.

                                             

                                  Making Speaking Tasks More Meaningful

Communicative Language Teaching requires the use of authentic language and meaningul
interactions.Some approaches used in language teaching have traditionally included many
repetitive language practice activities where the focus has been on the repetitive use of
grammar structures, but with no focus on meaning
E.g. Consider the following language drill used with a beginner class.The teacher has just
taught the modal verb ‘can’ for ability,and after saying (and writing) some examples, is now
using a chain drill :
Example lesson 1 : Chain Drill
 
Teacher : Juan,can you sing?
Juan : Yes,I can.
Teacher : Juan,please ask Marianne another question with
can.Then Marianne can ask Henri,and so on.
Juan : Mmm.Ok.Can you cook?
Marianne : Yes,I can.Henri,can you speak German?
Henri : No,I can’t.Cecile,can you draw?
Cecile : No, I can’t.
Etc.
 
 
 40

 
As we can see, the activity  gives the students repetitive practice in using the target structure,
but it is not very interesting or stimulating .Let’s look at how we can provide the students
with more meaningful practice.

SELF CHECK

 
Example Lesson 2 :
 
Teacher :     Let’s talk about hobbies .Which hobbies can you
do? For example,I like
                      swimming.I can swim.
(The teacher writes ‘swim’ on the board under the heading, ’I
can.’)
Teacher : And I can sing. (Writes ‘swim’ on the board.)
                  But I can’t play tennis. (Writes ‘play tennis’ under
the heading ‘Can’t’ on the
                  board.)
                  What can you do, Juan?
Juan :         Play guitar.
Teacher :   Great.You can play the guitar.Thank you, Juan.
(The teacher writes ‘play the guitar’ on the board.)
Teacher :    And you, Marianne? What can you do? Think
about your hobbies.
Marianne : I like draw pictures
The teacher writes ‘draw’ on the board.
Teacher :    You  can draw? Great.Thanks.Any more?
(The teacher writes more student suggestions on the board.)
Teacher :    Now let’s look at this survey result from a local
school…

 
 
The lesson continues ..
 
Teacher :     Look.In this school there are 100
students.Ninety students CAN (word
                      stressed by teacher) swim,and eighty five can
draw.
                      And fifty can  …. …(the teacher pauses and
raises her palms to
                      demonstrate that she is asking a question in
order to elicit the students’
                      answers.)
Henri :          Play chess.
Teacher :     Thank you Henri.Yes,fifty students CAN play
chess.
 41

Teacher  :     What else?

Marianne :  70 can play tennis.
Teacher :      Yes, 70 students can play tennis.Thank you
Marianne.
                       Now we will do a survey for our class.Let’s see
what we can do.(The teacher 
                       hands out the questionnaires to the
students)Please look at the
                       questionnaire.
 
 
 
 
I/He/She
Myself  Name  Name Name
Can….
 
Swim      
 
 
Draw      
 
Play  
     
Tennis  
Play  
     
Chess  
 
The lesson continues …
 
The teacher then asks the students to fill out the first collumn
according to their own abilities, then  models how to fill in
the questionnaire, by asking one student the questions,
writing his/her name in one collumn, and putting a tick or a
cross in the appropriate boxes.
Teacher : Ok.Let’s fill out our questionnaires.Everyone stand
up, please (the teacher raises her arms to reinforce her verbal
instruction).Ask all the questions to one person and write in
your questionnaire (the teacher mimes recording on her
questionnaire).Then find another person and ask the questions
again.Ask the questions to three people.
 
A little later ….
 
As a whole group, the teacher  gets the students to report on
their findings, eliciting full sentences in the positive and
negative forms.
E.g.Teacher : How many students in your group can swim?
      
 
N.B. With the questionnaire above, the class was divided into groups of four, and the class
consisted of 20 students.Then after the activity,the data from each group was added together
to provide the  results for the whole class, and a graph of the class results was prepared.
 42

SELF CHECK

Remember that our overall aim  is to create the best conditions in which learners can
learn.This means working to make all classroom activities meaningful.
There are many  techniques, such as the use of questionnaires seen above, which can be used
in the classroom in order to get students to use the target language meaningfully,  to promote
confidence and to engage the students in speaking.

SPEAKING TASK TYPES – COMMNICATIVE ACTIVITIES

1.INFORMATION GAP :  Information gap exercises can be structured to practise very
controlled language structures, or to provide  real communicative opportunities.Students have
information that their partners don’t have.The students must ask each other questions in order
to get the information that they need.This type of activity can be used with both lower and
higher level students.
Example :
Explanation : Suitable for higher level students.
A company has been interviewing potential employees for the post of receptionist.Each
interviewer interviewed two applicants.In order to choose the best  applicant, the interviewers
have to share information about the candidates.This activity is carried out as a pairwork
activity.
Student A’s information:
Score
Body 1= Suitability
Experienc Appearanc
Name Age Personality Languag low to Yes/No
e e
e 5= Reason
High
 
James
             
Booth
 
10 years Perhaps a Yes.
Good
as a little Good
Penny 33 eye-
hospital overconfident Very smart 4 experience.Know
Powers   contact.
receptionis ? s what she is
Relaxed
t Talkative talking about
Quiet Not
4 years No.
Jane Shy confident
26 personal Appropriate 2 Lack of
Blye Polite Poor eye-
secretary confidence
  contact
 
Cindy
             
Jones
 
 
Student B’s information :
Score
Suitability
Body 1= low
Name Age Experience Personality Appearance Yes/No
Language to 5 =
Reason
High
James 21 No Cheerful Presentable, Open 3 Maybe too
 43

previous young and

posture
experience but casual experienced??
Booth   Friendly Good eye-
Newly clothes Very warm
contact
graduated and friendly
 
Penny  
           
Powers  
 
 
Jane
             
Blye
 
Worked  3
years as
hotel Confident. Maybe :
receptionist A bit Doesn’t Not working
Cindy 28 Well-
,but not serious in smile very   for a few
Jones   dressed
working for nature. much years.
4 years   Too serious?
(had a
child)

1.INFORMATION GAP
1.INFORMATION GAP :  Information gap exercises can be structured to practise very
controlled language structures, or to provide  real communicative opportunities.Students have
information that their partners don’t have.The students must ask each other questions in order
to get the information that they need.This type of activity can be used with both lower and
higher level students.
Example :
Explanation : Suitable for higher level students.
A company has been interviewing potential employees for the post of receptionist.Each
interviewer interviewed two applicants.In order to choose the best  applicant, the interviewers
have to share information about the candidates.This activity is carried out as a pairwork
activity.
Student A’s information:
Score
Body Suitability
1= low
Name Age ExperiencePersonality AppearanceLanguag Yes/No
to 5 =
e Reason
High
 
James
             
Booth
 
Yes.
10 years Perhaps a little
Good eye- Good
Penny 33 as a overconfident
Very smart contact. 4 experience.Knows
Powers   hospital ?
Relaxed what she is
receptionist Talkative
talking about
Quiet Not
4 years No.
Jane Shy confident
26 personal Appropriate 2 Lack of
Blye Polite Poor eye-
secretary confidence
  contact
 44

 
Cindy
             
Jones
 
 
Student B’s information :
Score
Suitability
Body 1= low
Name Age Experience Personality Appearance Yes/No
Language to 5 =
Reason
High
Maybe too
No previous Open
Presentable, young and
James 21 experience Cheerful posture
but casual 3 experienced??
Booth   Newly Friendly Good eye-
clothes Very warm
graduated contact
and friendly
 
Penny  
           
Powers  
 
 
Jane
             
Blye
 
Worked  3
years as
Confident. Maybe :
hotel
A bit Doesn’t Not working
Cindy 28 receptionist
serious in Well-dressed smile very   for a few
Jones   ,but not
nature. much years.
working for
  Too serious?
4 years (had
a child)

2.JIGSAW ACTIVITIES
are a special form of information gap exercise where key information required to complete a
task is divided between two students.The students must share their information in order to
successfully complete the task.The above information gap activity would work well as a
jigsaw activity,i.e. after getting all the information, the students would then discuss and
decide on which applicant should get the job.In this way, the students have to share the
information in order to complete the task.

3.OPINION EXCHANGE
Students share personal opinions on a topic in pairs.It gives quieter students the opportunity
to speak.This activity ensures that all students have the opportunity to express themselves,
and it prevents discussions being dominated by more vocal students (which can happen when
done as a groupwork activity).It is also less threatening and can thus help to build student
confidence.
 
Example : 
Explanation : This example is used as a pre-reading activity in order to generate ideas and
prior knowledge.The students will be reading an article about children’s health nowadays
compared to children’s health twenty years ago.The coursebook includes some lead-in
questions for group discussion, but the teacher decides to use the questions as an opinion
exchange activity in pairs.
 45

The following questions are written on the board :

 
 
Do you think that children’s health has generally improved or got
worse?
 
What do you think with regard to their level of exercise?
 
What do you think with regard to their diet?
 
What other factors do you think affect children’s health?

4.PROBLEM SOLVING
: This kind of activity provides students with a reason to communicate and gets the students
working together.The students have to apply the target language in order to solve problems or
complete tasks which they can expect to encounter in real life, e.g. getting directions
somewhere.
This type of activity promotes the language used for making suggestions and negotiating.It
can be adapted for use with higher or lower level students.With lower level students, the
focus should be on one or two language structures only (e.g. They can …. /They should …./
They might …..).With higher level students, a  freer use of stuctures and expressions can be
encouraged.
Example :  For use with higher level students in groups of 4 students.
 
The situation :
You are housemates.
Your house is too small.
There is not enough room for all
your belongings.
You must collectively decide
what to keep and what to get rid
of.
 
 The Items : (You must get rid of all
Useful Language but 3 of the
                        items !)
We don’t need…., because…                               4 Tennis rackets
It could be useful.We might use                                A spare
it ….. television (not being
I think that ….is more useful                                used,but kept in a
than ….. cupboard)
If we get rid of it,we might                                A Christmas tree
regret it later. with lights
We can’t get rid of …., because                                and decorations
….                                A pair of
What if ……? binoculars
What are you going to do                                A crash helmet
with…?                                A Halloween
I know what you mean, but …. costume  
 46

                                   (Dracula)
                               A bookcase full
of books 
                               An electric
What do you mean? barbeque (never
You can’t be serious!                                     used)
I agree/ I don’t agree.                                A big pile of
  travel brochures
                                 A popcorn-
making machine
                               A pile of spare
blankets and
                               pillows

5.INTERVIEWS
: Interviews can provide relatively controlled practice if the questions are provided, or freer
practice if the students are asked to prepare their own questions and to ask follow-up
questions depending on the answers received.
Example :
Background : Aimed at lower-level students.
Situation Things to ask about Useful Language
Likes & Dislikes
E.g. music/films/ tv Do you like..?
You are looking for a
programmes What kind of … do
new flatmate.
Habits & Daily you like?
You must interview
Routine  
some people.Find out
E.g. get up/go to Do you ……?
as much as possible,
bed/go to school or What time do you
because you have to
work usually..?
decide if you can live
Skills  
with him or her.
E.g. cooking, cleaning Can you ?
 

6.DISCUSSIONS
The use  of discussion in the classroom  can assist  students with the development of many
skills needed in daily life, e.g. starting, maintaining and ending a discussion; agreeing and
disagreeing politely; asking for clarification; using examples to support opinions; using
conjunctions to link ideas; interupting politely; expressing disbelief etc.
Teachers often have problems in getting students actively involved in discussions.Let’s look
at some of the problems and some ways of addressing those problems.
Problems Possible Solutions
1.Teacher-directed  - the teacher
does all
Group & pair work
    the work in maintaining the
discussion
Choose relevant topics for your
2.Bored students          students
 
3.Students have nothing to  say Use good warm ups to activate
 47

ideas and interest

Give thinking time before being
expected to talk
4.Students don’t have the words
Elicit/teach useful vocabulary
they need
prior to discussion
  to say what they want to say
Choose activities appropriate for
5.Students unable to formulate
the students’ level
what they
Provide useful expressions on the
    want to say
board as a reference
Use different grouping strategies
Give different roles
6.Certain Students dominate the Use small group rather than whole
discussion group discussion
  Token debate (see below)
   
                             
 
   
 
Activities to prepare students for group discussion 
Chain Discussion : Write the phrases that you want the students to use on the board for easy
reference.
Asking for opinions Agreeing Disagreeing politely
That’s a good
point,but…
I agree
Maybe,but …
That’s absolutely right
I know what you
I couldn’t agree more
What do you think? mean, but ….
You’ve hit the nail on
Do you agree? True, but on the other
the head
hand ….
Definitely!
Yes, but it depends
You’re right
on….
 
 
Prepare some discussion cards on interesting topics and place them face down in a pile.The
first student reads the first card, then gives his personal opinion using one of the phrases on
the board.The teacher  makes sure that the students justify /support their opinions.The student
makes one comment on the topic, then turns to the next student and asks for his or her
opinion using the phrases on the board.This continues around the circle.When a subject has
been exhausted, the next student should take the next discussion card in the pile.
Devil’s Advocate : ‘To play the devil’s advocate’  is an expression used to refer to someone
who takes a position in a discussion, sometimes one he/she disagrees with, for the sake of
argument.In this ESL activity,the students work in pairs.The teacher prepares some
discussion cards which are placed face down in front of the students.The students take it in
turns to pick up a card and give their opinions and justications.The other student  then has to
disagree (regardless of whether he agrees or disagrees) and justify his opinion.
Three-way discussion : Divide the students into groups of three and  name the students as
A,B or C.The roles are as follows :
    Student 1  : Student  A picks up a discussion card, states his opinion and gives a   
 48

                          justification.
    Student 2 :  Student B agrees with A, and gives a further justification for that opinion.
     Student 3 :  Student C has to disagree with the opinion and justify his opinion.
Then, for each round of the activity, the students rotate their roles, i.e. for the next round,
student B become student 1, student C becomes student 2 and student A becomes student 3.In
this way the students get to play each role.
Token Discussion :  This is a great activity for ensuring that everyone takes active part in a
discussion and to encourage students to invite others into a conversation.Give each student a
small number of tokens (these could be coins, counters, beads, pieces of paper etc.) The
teacher tells the students that she will see how good they are at discussion.During the
discussion, the students will put one token on the table for each contribution that they
make.In order for a group to  complete the task successfully, each student must get rid of all
his/her tokens.

7.ROLE PLAYS
Students are given situations and roles and a task or objective to be accomplished.Role plays
are a way of recreating real life situations in the classroom, and can be both effective and
enjoyable.
Role plays provide an excellent opportunity for practising language within a  meaningful
context.In order for role plays to work successfully, the teacher must remember to:
Things to remember when doing role plays
 
-generate interest
 
-model the role play to demonstrate what is expected and to create
‘energy’ in the  
  classroom
 
-provide useful vocablary and expressions
 
- give clear instructions.
 
-get the students to stand up if the situation would involve standing in
real life, e.g. booking
  in at a hotel.It is not possible to recreate the atmosphere if the
students remain seated.If it
  is possible to move furniture, it can also help to create the right
atmosphere.
 
-bring in prompts to add authenticity E.g. For a role play at a
restaurant, the teacher can
  bring in such props as menus, table cloths, plastic plates etc.
 
 
Example : 
Background : A role play aimed at beginner level students.
                        The students will practise introductions and the exchanging of personal
                         information.
ROLE PLAY : In groups of three
 49

Location : A cafe by the sea in a holiday location

Players :    Two American friends on holiday abroad
                    A local who wants to practise his English
Situation : The two friends are having a drink at a cafe.The
local decides to
                    introduce himself to the tourists, and  asks to join
them.They
                    exchange personal information, and ask each
other questions.
                    The local will then say goodbye, and leave.
 
 
In order for this role play to be successful, the teacher should first model it with two
students.The teacher will take the place of the local, and model introducing herself and asking
to join them, and model the types of questions that could be asked,e.g.  ‘Where are you
staying?’, ‘Do you like my country?’, Do you like …… food /music/people? If students need
more support during the role play, the teacher can write partial question prompts on the board
fort hem to refer to.
Prompts written on the board
E.g.
 
Do you like ………?  (music/food/hotel/local places)
 
 
Have you got any ………………? (children, siblings)
 
What ………  (job)?  
 
Where ………. (staying)?    
                                      
How long …………. (staying)?

8.DIALOGUES
Dialogues provide examples of authentic language in context.Students can read dialogues
together in pairs in order to get a feel for  authentic interactions and to see useful expressions
used in context.When students are asked to read dialogues aloud in pairs, they usually keep
their heads down looking at the page.In order to encourage more effective intonation and eye
contact as in authentic dialogues, it is useful to model the Look Up and Speak technique.
Look up and speak technique :
 
Teacher : Don’t read like this.
(The teacher models reading the dialogue with a student
with lack of intonation and without looking at the other
student.)
Teacher : Read it like this.
(The teacher models reading one sentence of her first
speaking part, looking up and making eye contact with the
other student, and saying the words from memory, then
encourages his/her partner to do the same)
 50

 
 
 The dialogue can then be used as a model, by getting the students to improvise their own
dialogues.

9.LANGUAGE GAMES
You will find many examples of language games on the internet if you search under ‘esl
language games’.Some teachers are reluctant to play games in the classroom for a number of
reasons, e.g. thinking that games are only suitable for children  / thinking that it will be a
waste of time / fearing that adults will think that games are  childish.However, games have an
important role to play in the classroom as long as there is a clear language aim to the
game.You can find many games for practising vocabulary or grammar.Language games can
provide more controlled, or freer practice.(See some examples of word games in the
Vocabulary Module.)
Example:
Name : WHAT’S THE QUESTION
Target
Appropriate for all levels
Level :
Language
To practise forming questions
Aims :
Materials Whiteboard/Blackboard
Required : Markers/ Chalk
The teacher starts by writing the answer to a
question on the board :
On the board :                                       Not
written on the board :
E.g.Red                               (What’s your
favourite colour?)
       Paris                            (Which place would
you most like to visit?)
       Three times a week  (How often do you go
to the gym?)   
   
The aim of the game is for the students to
guess the question.In
Procedure : order to do so, they must form the questions
correctly.
 
E.g. For the answer seen above – Paris, the
students might ask :
        Have you been to Paris?
        Did you go to Paris on your last holiday?
        Are you planning to go to Paris for your
next holiday?
        Do you want to live in Paris?
Etc.
 
Play continues until the question is guessed, or
the time limit expires
 51

WRITING
INTRODUCTION
Unfortunately, writing is the skill that many students, as well as teachers, love to hate! It is
also a skill which is often overlooked in the classroom.Let’s look at some of the problems
students and teachers face with regard to writing skills :

 
Problems with Teaching Writing Skills
 
1.Many students do not like writing in their native language.
 
2.Some students are not good writers in their native language.
 
3.Many students find writing  boring.
 
4.Teachers often delegate writing as a homework task because of
lack of time in the classroom, so
    students do not get enough support and encouragement with their
writing.
 
5.Some teachers avoid setting writing tasks because marking those
tasks is time consuming.
 
6.Many students don’t like writing because it is a solitary task which
requires a lot of thought and
    planning
 
7.Classroom writing tasks are often not very stimulating or
meaningful for students.
 
 
SELF CHECK

At this point the student is likely to think, ‘Why? We’ve done listening and reading activities,
and we’ve described ourselves orally  in class, so why do we need to do this again?’
The problem is that the writing task has not been well-planned -  it is boring. Writing, like all
the four main skills requires time and practice, but in order to engage our students in writing
skills, the  challenge is to make writing lessons  interesting.
Later in this module we will consider some techniques for making writing tasks more
motivating and effective.
 
SKILLS INVOLVED IN WRITING 
 
We should remember that writing is a complex task requiring a wide range of skills, such as
the ability to form grammatically correct sentences, and the ability to organise thoughts into a
readable format.
Writing skills are closely linked with reading skills – through extensive reading students will
become more familiar with  how to use language effectively in the written form.
In order to develop writing skills, writing practice must not be overlooked in the
 52

classroom.We should also remember that the writing of unrelated sentences is not skills
practice, but language practice (i.e.  grammar practice.) Skills work involves putting
sentences together in a meaningful way within a specific context, with a clear aim in mind.
 
WHAT TO TEACH 
So, where should we start and what should we include?
When deciding what to teach and what writing tasks to use, we need to consider :
1.The different  forms of writing :
    E.g. letters;  reports;  e-mails; essays , notes & messages ; advertisments etc.
2.The different functions of writing  (why we are writing) :
    E.g. to inform, to compare, to invite, to entertain with a narrative, to complain, to report
etc.
The forms and functions that we teach will depend on :
 
 
- The students’ level
   E.g. We would not teach how to write a formal letter of complaint 
to beginner level students as 
   their language awareness would not be sufficient.
 
- The reason that the students need the language 
   E.g.When teaching students who aim to study at an English
speaking university, it would be
    essential to focus on essay writing.
 
N.B.The coursebooks that most teachers use,  help us to know what
should be taught at which level.
 
 
When presenting students with a writing task, the students need to be given the following
information:
 
1.Who they will be writing to 
    E.g. close friend/employer/employee/young child
    This will affect the style and register of the text, e.g. informal
and friendly to a friend,
     but formal and respectful to an employer
 
2.Why they are writing  
    E.g.to complain/to enquire/to inform/to entertain
 
3.The appropriate layout of the text 
    E.g. letter format; a newspaper article with headlines; an essay
with its different sections

APPROACHES TO TEACHING WRITING SKILLS

There are two main approaches to teaching writing skills :
Product Writing Process Writing
   
 53

In more recent years there has

Traditionally, the focus has been
on the final product.This approach
is known as Product Writing.
In this approach there is a big
emphasis on using a model text to
analyse and prepare the students
for writing.
E.g. In a lesson teaching formal
letter writing, the teacher  uses a
model letter in order to analyse the
content and layout.
The most effective writing lessons combine both approaches.
Process  Writing :
 Let’s look at what is involved in the stages of successful writing.
A Stimulus/Reason to write
Brainstorming ideas
Planning & Outlining
First Draft
Editing & Final Draft
been more of a focus on what is
actually involved in the process of
writing.This approach is known
as Process Writing.
The teacher focusses on the
processes involved in writing
effectively, e.g. planning and
editing.
Firstly, the writer needs to have
something to write about.
Then, rather than just picking up
a pen and starting to write, the
writer needs to think about what
to include in the text.
Now, the writer makes notes,
records ideas and considers how
to organise them in a coherent
way.
Now the writer  writes the text,
but the process shouldn’t end
here …
One of the most important stages
of writing is the checking  and
improving of the first draft  -
checking for mistakes and
deficiencies.
The writer then produces the
final product – the final draft.

A WRITING LESSON SEQUENCE

If we combine the stages of the writing process, and include a model text and language focus,
we can outline a plan for a successful writing lesson.You can follow these lesson stages in
order to help you in the planning of writing lessons.However, bear in mind that the stages are
flexible and that you might not include all the stages in every lesson.E.g. In some writing
lessons the teacher may ask the students to write a first draft before introducing the model
text  in order to stimulate creativity.
1.WARM UP: Aim : To get the Example Activities :
students interested in Brainstorming; Guess
the topic of the lesson the Topic ; Visuals;
 54

(Focus on the topic

first rather than the Anecdotes etc.
language focus)
 
N.B. Using a warm up activity to introduce the topic will  interest the students  more
effectively than introducing the language aims of the lesson (E.g.Today we are going to write
a letter of complaint.) 
 
Example
Aim : To generate activities : Questions;
ideas & activate prior Quizzes;
2.LEAD-IN
knowledge and Brainstorming;
vocabulary Discussion;
Visualisation
 
N.B. : Writing lessons will not succeed if students do not have an idea of what to include in
the text.Imagine that you were asked to write about an important memory in your life, you
would need time  firstly to choose an occasion, and then to remember the details.
 
Example Activities :
-Placing sections of a
Aim : To show the text into
layout, style and   the correct order
register of the target -Underlining language
text type.   structures
E.g. -Substituting
-Focus on the layout underlined words
(e.g. the Introductory, -Fill in the gaps in a
Body and Concluding text
paragraphs of an -Rewrite a short text
essay.) extract
3.MODEL TEXT
-Focus on language -Match section labels
functions (e.g. how with the
adjectives bring a   sections in a text (e.g.
descriptive essay to 1=
life)   reason for writing; 2
-Focus on useful = address
vocabulary and   of sender etc.)
phrases (e.g.Phrases -Correct mistakes in
used in a formal letter grammar,
of enquiry)   spelling and
punctuation
-Give the text a title
 
 N.B. : The model text provides students with a guide and stimulus.Time spent analysing the
content, the format and the vocabulary will help to prepare the students for the actual writing
task.
 
4.WRITING Aims :To provide Example Activites :
PREPARATION : practice in using  -Matching sentence
 55

halves
structures and -Completing sentence
language features starters
To organise   thoughts -Mind Maps
in preparation for -Writing an outline
writing  
 
 
The focus of this stage of the lesson will depend on the lesson aims.If the main aim is to
practise using a specific language structure in a text, this stage will focus on language
practice exercises.However, if the main aim of the lesson  is to teach how to plan and
organise ideas when writing, this stage could focus on how to create mind maps.
Example activities :
-Solitary Writing
-Cooperative Writing
in pairs
Aims : To put pen to
-Free writing (writing
5.FIRST DRAFT : paper and write the
fluently without
target text
worrying about the
correct use of grammar
and the correct
spellings etc.)
 
At this stage of the process, the students should be told not to worry too much about spelling
and grammar – if they focus on those areas, it can block the flow of thoughts and creativity
required when writing.
Example Activities :
Aims : To check the
-Edit using a Check
first draft for layout,
6.EDITING & List
punctuation,   
REVISING: -Peer editing (Students
 spelling, text
check
progression etc.
  each other’s work)
 
Editing is an important part of the writing process and should not be overlooked in class.
Activity :Following
the editing stage,the
7.FINAL DRAFT
students write their
final text.

WRITING TECHNIQUES FOR THE CLASSROOM

Below are some great ideas for motivating your students to write by making  writing a more
interesting and pleasurable activity.
1.COLLABORATIVE WRITING : ‘Collaborative’ means working together
cooperatively.Students can work collaboratively during the planning stages of a lesson, or
during the main writing activity.
 
‘’Collaborative writing has been shown to lower anxiety and
foster self-confidence,
  compared with completing tasks individually.’’
 56

                                                                (Johnson and

Johnson 1998) 
 
 
 
 
Example 1  Collaborative Writing during
the planning stage of the lesson
 
As a group, prepare a colourful mind map for the
writing topic on the board.Then in small groups or pairs
the students decide on the order of the main items in the
mind map.
 
 
 
Example 2 : Collaborative Writing during
the planning stage of a lesson
 
 After getting the students interested in the topic, each
student writes one comment on the topic at the top of a
piece of paper.The pieces of paper are passed clockwise
around the circle; each time a student receives a new
piece of paper, he/she must write another comment until
the papers return to the original authors.The students
then have a variety of possible ideas to include in their
texts.The students  can then choose and read aloud the
idea they liked best from their sheets.
 
 
 
 
Example 3 : Collaborative Writing during the main
writing stage of a lesson
 
This is a good descriptive writing activity. Each student
is asked to write a paragraph on a given topic.At this
stage the students should be asked to keep to the basic
details and not worry about descriptive devices.
The students should also write with double spacing
between the lines so that additions can be made.Students
then swap texts.Each student then adds the descriptive
details to his/her partner’s  text in order to make it more
interesting (E.g. Adding appropriate adjectives and
adverbs.)The texts are then given back to the original
authors and the two alternative texts can be read aloud to
the group.
 
 
 
 57

2.JIGSAW WRITING :  is when the students work as a group to write different sections of
the same text. One way to do this is to use a picture story.
 
Example 4: JIGSAW WRITING
 
Divide the students into small groups.Give each group one
picture from the story.Together they should write a text for
their picture.Each student must write their own copy.
The groups are then rearranged so that each group contains
one student for each picture.The students then decide
together on the correct sequence of the story and make any
necessary changes.The story can then be read aloud.
 
 
3.EXPANDING WRITING :This activity can be done as a whole group activity on the
board, or in small groups.The basic idea is that a simple sentence is introduced and expanded
on step by step until a short text is produced.The teacher can direct this process by asking
pertinent questions to elicit ideas, or can leave the students free to produce their own ideas.
 
Example 5 :EXPANDING
 
WRITING
Sentences on the board
Questions by the teacher
 
The man walked home.
(original sentence)
 
 
 
The man walked home quickly.
 
 
How did he walk?
The tall, thin man walked home
 
quickly.
What did the man look like?
 
 
The tall, thin man, who was a
Can we say who the man is?
baker, walked home quickly.
 
 
 
The tall,thin man, who was a
What was the weather like?
baker, walked home quickly in
the storm.
 
 
The activity can continue in this way  by introducing new sentences and information in order
to create a story.Once the students are familiar with this activity, it can be done as a pairwork
or small group activity.
4.FREE WRITING : encourages students to write creatively in order to record their ideas
without being ‘blocked’ by worrying about grammar, punctuation and spelling.It can work
well when it follows a brainstorming activity.The students are given a topic and  time limit
(e.g. 3 to 5 minutes.)The students are told not to stop writing until the time limit is
reached.These initial texts can then be used  to practice editing and redrafting.
5.OPENING SENTENCES : This is a good technique to use with  narrative text writing.It
helps students by providing a lead-in to their writing.Rather than starting with a blank page, it
 58

provides a stimulating opening which they can expand on.This activity provides a good
opportunity to focus on connective devices and narrative tenses.
 
Example 6: OPENING SENTENCES
 
Provide the students with the following opening to a narrative :
 
The storm had been increasing in intensity  for hours.She was
sitting by the window watching the lightning flash chaotically
across the sky, when suddenly …
 
Get the students to work in pairs to discuss what they think will
happen next.
The pairs feedback their ideas to the class, and the teacher makes
quick notes on the board.
The teacher writes some prompts/questions on the board to
stimulate ideas on the details of the story :
 
E.g. What kind of a story is it?
        Where is she – what is the place like?
        What time of the day is it?
        Who is she – name, age, appearance, personality,
background etc.
        Is she alone?
        What will she do next?
        Will any other characters enter the story?
        What kind of an ending will it be ?  e.g. shocking, happy,
mysterious
 
The same pairs of students  further discuss ideas, then individually
write their stories.
 
While the students are writing their stories, you might also get
them to swap papers and give advice and opinions at intervals, so
that they assist each other during the writing process itself.
 
 
 
6.EXCHANGING LETTERS : is one way of personalising the writing process.It motivates
students and  makes writing a very personalised activity.One way to set this up, is for the
teacher to write a  letter to the students.Each  student then replies to this letter.This letter
exchange can continue at intervals throughout the course.It can start with a personal letter of
introduction, then move on to other issues, e.g. the teacher might comment on some current
news topics and ask the students for their opinions and ask them to share their comments and
opinions on another news item that has interested them.You can give the students the
opportunity to practise language that they have been learning in class by constructing your
letter with a clear language focus in mind.
Another option is to get the students to write and reply to each other’s letters – a number of
language functions can be practised in this way.One advantage with this activity is that it is
very motivating because students receive real replies to their letters.
 59

 
Example 7: EXCHANGING LETTERS
 
 Here is an example  introductory letter from the teacher at the
beginning of the course.If you
 use this with your students, you will write your own letter
appropriate to the students’ level .
 
Dear all,
I am looking forward to being your teacher.I believe that we can
work together better if we get to know each other a little.So, let
me tell you something about myself.
I am thirty two, married with two young children.My son,
Anthony, is 5  and my daughter, Sophie, is 7 .I love spending time
with them – I especially love taking them to the park to play ball
at the weekends.
I am passionate about keeping fit.I go to the gym three times a
week, eat a healthy diet and don’t smoke.But if you want to know
a secret -  I used to smoke.
I love to work hard, love meeting new people, and love travelling
I would love to hear about you now.Please reply to my  letter and
bring it to your next lesson.
Kind regards,
Your teacher
John 
 
 
 
Example 8 : EXCHANGING LETTERS 
 
Here is an example of a  letter exchange between students.Other
language functions  work  well with this activity, e.g. Students
giving their birth dates and asking for their horoscope and
answers to personal questions about the future; written invitations
and real responses based on diary pages showing the students’
engagements for the week.
 
Agony aunt.
By running this activity as a pairwork activity, speaking and
writing skills are effectively integrated in this lesson.Students
work in pairs to decide on a problem and scenario for a  letter to
an agony aunt.
Each student then writes their own letter based on the problem
discussed with their partners.When all the students have  finished,
each pair of students exchange their letters with another pair.The
pairs read the new agony aunt letters together, and brainstorm
ideas on possible advice.
Each student then writes a letter in reply, giving advice.The
original letters and the response letters are then returned to the
originl students.
 60

 
 
Making Writing Tasks More Meaningful :
It is possible to make writing tasks more meaningful by personalising them and introducing
real-life contexts.If tasks are not stimulating, students will not be motivated to do their best.
Here are a few ideas on contextualising tasks :
 
Example 1 :
 
Level : Beginner
Language focus : There is/are 
Function : Describing the rooms in a house.  
Topic : My house
Task :
The teacher prepares an advertisement (see the example
below.)She explains that she is doing a house exchange  during
the summer, i.e. she will stay in another person’s house, and that
person will stay in her house.
The teacher then tells the students that they will also do a house
exchange.They will do the task as homework and add a photo.It
doesn’t have to be their real house.At the next lesson, the students
will choose the house they like the most.
 
(This is a better approach than asking the students to write about
their houses with no aim in mind.)
  

HOUSE EXCHANGE
 
Time : Summer
Type : Large, modern family home in a quiet
neighbourhood.
           DESCRIPTION 
           There are 3 large bedrooms.
           There is a small garden at the front of the house,
and a large garden at  the
           rear of the house.
           There is a large, modern bedroom upstairs, and a
small bathroom
           downstairs.
           There is a comfortable living room, a small
dining room and a kitchen
           downstairs.
           
             Phone : 0011 222 333 444 55
 
 
Example 2 :
Level : Intermediate
Language Focus :Formal letter of  complaint
 61

Topic : Problems in my neighbourhood

Task : The class firstly discuss local issues which they are not
happy about in the place where they live, e.g. transportation –
unreliable/overcrowded etc. ; lack of parks and green spaces;
derelict buildings etc.The class then  write  official letters of
complaint  to the city council.
 
(This personalises the complaint letter and is more meaningful for
students)
 
Example 3 :
Level :  Intermediate
Language Focus : The simple future tense
Topic : Election campaigns
Task : After discussing recent or upcoming elections, the students
are asked to create their own political parties (in groups) and to
write an initial introductory speech about their policies.
They will write about what they will do if they are elected, i.e.
their promises (using ‘will’).
The groups then read their speeches to the whole group, and each
student  votes on which party they want to elect.
 
(This lesson actively gets the students to use their imaginations.)
 
 
As you can see from the examples above, a little extra thought given when creating writing
tasks can make the tasks more effective and interesting for students 

On A Final Note
On a final note :
Remember that coursebooks are just a resource – a good teacher expands and improves on
the tasks and activities they include.When teaching productive skills, think about how you
can adapt coursebook tasks to make them more stimulating and more effective

Module: Module 4 : Dealing With Error

In this module you will :
 
-understand why and when we should correct errors
 
-learn a number of techniques for correcting oral errors
 
-learn a number of techniques for correcting written errors
 
-learn how to prepare effective remedial exercises for students

INTRODUCTION
 
 “A person who makes few mistakes makes little
progress.” 
 62

― Bryant McGill
 
 
  
A good teacher ‘’should be able to correct people without
offending them.’’

 Jeremy Harmer

  
Error correction is a senstive area, and it is easy to offend students if we are not sensitive to
their feelings. Consider your own views on error correction and do the following self-check. 

As we work through this module, you will find out the answers!
We will also look at the following questions :

Why should teachers correct errors?

Correction is an integral part of language learning.Through the correction of errors, students
become more aware of how the language works and  are able to develop their own language
skills.If we ignore errors in the classroom, students will continue to make the same mistakes
and will not be able to learn from the mistakes that they make.However, care has to be taken
not to discourage and demotivate students through overcorrection.

Dealing With Oral Errors

What is an error?
Are all errors the same? It is useful to divide errors into two types of error :
 
A mistake  occurs when students know the correct
language but make a mistake when retrieving it from
 63

memory.
 
An error occurs when students have learned the incorrect
language or don’t know the correct language.
 
                  Jeremy Harmer,A Practical Guide to English
language Teaching
 
 
E.g. A beginner student who has not yet learned how to use comparatives, may want to
compare two things, so he tries by using the language he has available to him - ‘This is
big,but this is more big.’This would be classed as an error, rather than a mistake.
Students may make errors in pronunciation and vocabulary as well as in grammar.
There are  times when students make errors as a result of their native language causing
confusion while learning another language.This is known as Language 1 interference.
 
E.g. 
 
 In languages where habitual actions are expressed by using
a continuous tense, students will make such mistakes as, ‘ I
am going to work every day’, rather than using the present
simple tense.
 
There are also times when students make mistakes with
‘false friends’, i.e. when students assume that an English
word has the same meaning as a similar word in their own
language, when in fact the meanings are  different
E.g. The Spanish word, ‘desgracia’ could be confused with
the English word, ‘disgrace’, but in fact it means ‘mistake’
or ‘misfortune’ in English.
 
 
So, when teaching monolingual classes, a knowledge of the students’ native language can be
an advantage.
 
When should oral errors be corrected?
Should all errors be corrected at all times? If we corrected all mistakes, our students would
soon become demotivated and many would lose the confidence to speak in class.Therefore, it
is important to consider the aim of the activity when correcting errors and to adjust our
correction accordingly.
The generally accepted view is that if the activity is focussing on accuracy, then  errors
should be methodically corrected immediately, e.g. during pronunciation practice, vocabulary
practice and structured grammar practice activities.If errors are not corrected at this stage,
students will develop bad habits which are hard to correct at a later stage of language
development.
However, if the aim of the activity is fluency rather than accuracy, it is generally accepted
that students should be given the opportunity to speak without interuption.Interrupting
students at this stage inhibits communication. However, this does not mean that we should
ignore errors.During fluency work, the teacher should actively listen to the students and make
a note of important mistakes.After the activity, the teacher can then feedback on errors
 64

anonymously.
 
 
E.g.
Teacher :During the activity, I noticed this mistake : I
went to cinema.
                  (The teacher writes the error on the board).
                   Can anyone correct this mistake?
 Ali:            I went to the cinema.
 Teacher : Excellent Ali.That’s right.
                   We always say ‘go to THE cinema’ and ’go to
THE park’.
                   Does anyone know any more expressions like
this?
 Fatma :    Go to the shops
 Teacher : Good.Thank you Fatma.
 Murat :    Go to the beach                               etc.
 
 
How to Correct Oral Errors :
Correcting errors anonymously means that students are not embarrassed.The teacher can also
slightly alter an error when feeding back so that the student who made the error is not easily
identifiable.
 
E.g. During the activity,the teacher hears : ‘I spent two
weeks at Bodrum.’
        However, the teacher could write, ‘I spent two weeks
at Cypress’ on the
        board.
 
 
Self-correction is an important skill to encourage in class.Students who are personally
involved in the correction process will be more likely to remember the error and avoid it or
correct themselves in the future.                           
Peer correction is another option in class.However, caution is important in this situation,
because a student might incorrectly correct another student’s errors, or students might not be
comfortable with being corrected by their peers.
A teacher should also listen for regularly repeated mistakes.For example, if the teacher,
notices that her students are regularly making mistakes when using past modals, it is an
opportunity for the teacher to revise that area of the language, to remind the students of the
grammar rules and the functions of those modal verbs, and perhaps to prepare some remedial
exercises for the students (more of this later) to help them address this problem area.
Techniques for Correcting Oral Errors
Perhaps the easiest way to deal with errors is for the teacher to correct the error herself, and
to ask the student to repeat the corrected version.However, this may not be as effective as
involving the students in self-correction.
In order for students to practise self-correction, they must firstly  realise that they have made
an error.So, here are a few techniques that aim to bring the students’ attention to the mistake.
To prompt self-correction :
Facial expression : With students who know you well, a carefully arranged expression, such
 65

as raised eyebrows , can show the student that he has made a mistake.
Are you sure? : By stating this question, the teacher gets the student to mentally check what
he has just said, and to try to revise it.
Gesture/Signal : A teacher can develop a system of specific gestures to signal specific errors
to the student.
 
E.g.
Pointing a thumb behind the head to signal that the student
should have
 used a past  tense.
 Tapping the index finger of one hand on the palm of the
other hand to
 signal that the student has omitted an article.
 
 
Repeating the sentence until immediately before the error while using a rising intonation
pattern.
 
E.g.
The student said, ‘ I go to the home after work.’
The teacher says, ‘I go to…?’
 
 
Echo the error : Rather than repeating the whole sentence, the teacher can repeat just the
error itself with a rising pattern of intonation.
 
E.g. 
Student : I have gone to France and Germany, but not
recently.
Teacher : Gone?
 
 
Word stress : The teacher repeats the sentence while stressing the incorrect word(s) in that
sentence.
 
E.g. 
Student : I  am thinking he is very handsome.
Teacher : I am thinking he is very handsome.
 
 
Point out the type of error :
 
E.g. 
Student : I am reading my book in the mornings
Teacher : Present simple
Student : I read my book in the mornings.
 
Student : There were some beautiful pictures at the wall.
Teacher : Place preposition
Student : There were some beautiful pictures on the wall.
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Dealing With Written Errors

How to deal with errors in written work presents similar problems and decisions to be
made.Teachers need to make the decision of what to correct.As with oral work, teachers must
be careful not to discourage students as a result of overcorrection.
Imagine yourself as a student having your homework returned to you by your teacher.You
have worked hard on this homework, but now see the page covered in corrections in red ink!!
Would you be demotivated? I think I would.
One advantage for the teacher when marking written work is that there is time to think and
consider before making decisions on what and how to correct.
What to correct
In order not to demotivate students through over-correction, we need to be selective when
marking students’ work.Rather than correcting every mistake, we  should consider
the objectives of the writing task and give our main attention to the errors made in those
areas.
 
 
 
E.g. 
 
Grammar aims : If the students were asked to practise
the conjunctions  ‘but’,’so’, and ’and’, the teacher should
correct any errors in the use of those conjunctions.
 
Functions : If the student has been given a written task to
practise the layout and language of formal letters, the
teacher should correct language that is too informal as well
as errors in the layout of the letter
 
Vocabulary : If the students have been asked to write a
paragraph on the lesson topic of the day and to include ten
newly learned words in that paragraph, the teachers main
aim while marking the text is to check that the vocabulary
has been used correctly.
 
 
After dealing with the target language, the teacher can check for recurring error types in
other areas.E.g. The writing task focussed on the narrative tenses (past simple and past
continuous tenses), but the student has also made several errors related to punctuation or
spelling.
Another thing to consider when marking written work, and one which is often overlooked, is
that we should also pay attention to the content of the writing.If the student has produced a
short story, as well as giving feedback on structures and tenses, we should also give feedback
on the story itself – was it interesting; did the writer include some interesting details, was the
ending unclear etc.
If the text is based on the students’ own experiences, dreams or opinions, the teacher is able
to show real interest in the student by recording more personal comments.
 
E.g. 
 
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A student has written about his best holiday ever.The

teacher might make the following comments :
 
Your holiday sounds very exciting.
Would you like to go there again?
Which of the places you described did you like the best?
 
 
 
Using a Correction Code
One effective way of marking students’ work is to use a correction code.When using a
correction code, it is a good idea to ask students to leave a blank line between each line to
leave room for the corrections.The teacher uses the code to highlight the error types.The
students can then be encouraged to correct the mistakes themselves.This provides a furrther
learning opportunity and gives the students practice in the editing stage of writing. Below is
an example of a correction code.You may, however, wish to create your own.However,you
must be consistant and use the same coding throughout.You should also explain the benefits
of self-correction to the students.
Error Symbol Error Symbol
Wrong Word WW Word Order ---
Missing Word MW
Article +
Word From WF
Unecessary
UW Unclear ??
Word
Punctuation P Tense T
Preposition
Conjunction C Pr
Sentence needs
Plural/Singular ! ()
rewriting
 
Look at the example below which shows the above correction code in use, and the
feedback given by the teacher.
Example 1 :
 
                             Pr                                                                
WF                                        
On my first day in secondary school I was happy and exciting.My
mother took
        Pr                      T
me at school and says goodbye.
             T                   !                                                WF
There are lots of childs everywhere and lots of noisy.
+          T                    Sp       T          Pr      +                +     !   
T                                 T
Bell rung and  everone lines up near to teachers.Teachers say our
names.We go to
+                          T     + WW +                                  
(                                                        )
classroom and sit at tables.Teacher smiled and told name is Mrs.
Booth teacher.
 
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MW                        T                          Pr                                 T      
MW
First lesson we drawed pictures from our family and writed our
family.
 
Thank you for telling me about your first day at school Annie!!
Please check and correct the mistakes above.
Remember : be careful with prepositions and articles.
 
‘and told name is Mrs. Booth teacher! : Good try!!
But,you can write it like this : ‘and said that her name was Mrs.
Booth.’
 
‘and writed our family’ – another good try,but you can write it like
this : ‘and wrote ABOUT our families.’
 
 
You can see in the example above that the teacher has tried to motivate the student through
her feedback.The teacher has also shown how to write two sentences where the students’
language knowledge is not sufficient to write what she wants to say.
 
Remedial Exercises
There will be times when students need to do further language work in the form of remedial
exercises.The adjective ‘remedial’ refers to something that is intended to correct or
improve one’s skills.Remedial exercises help students to consolidate knowledge and 
improve their language skills.
When correcting students’ written work, the teacher should look for commonly made
mistakes where the students would benefit from doing remedial work. For example, a student
may be making a lot of mistakes in the formation of a certain tense, or in his/her use of
relative clauses etc.In this situation, the teacher could provide extra exercises from a
coursebook or workbook, or prepare some remedial exercises herself/himself.
 
Preparing Effective Remedial Exercises
When preparing remedial exercises, you should have a clear objective.For example, if a
student is confusing tenses, you need to identify which tenses the student is having problems
with and focus your remedial exercise specifically on those tenses; a task incorporating all
tenses will not address the specific needs of the student.

A final note
We have to get the balance right between overcorrection and undercorrection and always be
sensitive to our students’ feelings.How and when we correct errors will vary depending on
the skills being practised (speaking or writing) and on  the stage of the lesson (controlled
practice or fluency practice).Furthermore, if we always aim to correct in a constructive and
positive manner we will manage to avoid demotivating our students.

Module: Module 5 : Classroom Management

In this module you will :
 
-become aware of the importance of good organisation and
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planning
-learn how to develop a positive, relaxed learning environment
-learn techniques to keep students actively engaged in lessons

INTRODUCTION
 
‘Coming together is a beginning; keeping together is
progress; working together is success.’
        Henry Ford
 
 
Classroom management involves a wide range of techniques and strategies that enable the
teacher and the students to work together successfully. Classroom management is an essential
part of teaching.It encompasses everything the teacher does outside of the actual teaching
process itself

Good Preparation
 
       ‘A successful Restaurant is Ready
         The Table is Ready.
           The Dining Room is Ready.
            The Staff is Ready
 
       A Successful Teacher Is Ready
        The Work Is Ready
         The Room Is Ready
          The Teacher Is Ready’
                        Harry Wong
 
One of the foundations of good classroom management is good preparation.If a teacher is
not well-prepared and feels unsure of what to do at any moment, does  not have the materials
ready to carry out an activity, does not have the  CD player ready to play the CD, or only has
a rough idea of the day’s lesson, disorder and confusion will soon emerge.
In order to prepare well for your lessons :
-have a clear, easy-to-read lesson plan (more about this in the next module)
-include standby activities in your lesson plan (to avoid being in the situation of not knowing
what to do next when you have time left over at the end of a lesson or when a planned
activity has not been successful)
-include a checklist of materials needed for the lesson in your lesson plan and check this
before going to class in order to avoid forgetting essential materials or equipment
-before class, check that all equipment that you will use in class is working (e.g. computer,
whiteboard, cd player etc.) 
Being prepared and having all your materials ready lays the foundation for a well-managed
class.
CREATING A POSITIVE, RELAXED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT:
As teachers we need to create an environment in which students feel comfortable and valued.
In order to achieve this, we must be warm and approachable.Don’t forget to smile and try to
be a good listener!Here are some more important points to consider :
Use the students’ names : Hearing your name is a very validating experience.If you have
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difficulty learning new names, try using a name game in the first lesson with a new group,
preparing a seating plan with the students’ names or preparing name cards for the students’
desks.
Make eye contact with your students so the students can see that you are listening to them.
Get to know your students : Make an effort right from the first lesson to get to know about
your students, e.g. their jobs, where they are from, their families, what they are interested in
etc.Students will feel valued in this way.Also use activities with new groups to help the
students to get to know each other.
Greet students individually : Whenever possible, show personal interest by welcoming each
student by name.
Ground Rules : Students must feel safe and comfortable in the classroom, so establishing
basic ground rules with  a class is important.In this way, you can refer back to these rules if
any behaviour arises which is not deemed to be appropriate.Involving the students in the
forming of the rules is a useful approach - when actively involved in the formulation process,
the students are more likely to abide by the rules.
 
 
Example Classroom Rules
 
Respect others’ beliefs and opinions (we all have the right
to our own opinions)
Mistakes are good – we have to make mistakes to learn (so
we should never laugh at others mistakes)
 
Listen when others are talking (we can all learn from each
other)
Give everyone a chance to participate (encourage
others/don’t dominate conversations) 
 
Physical Environment : 
We usually have less control over the physical environment than we do over the general
classroom atmosphere,but there are some things that we can think about.
Ensure students can see the board and any other classroom materials used : Shy
students may not want to ‘make a fuss’, so always ask whether students can see/read the
board and other materials used in class.
Seating Arrangements :It may not be possible (or allowed) to move the classroom furniture,
but if are able, or if you have the chance to choose which classroom you will use, think about
the seating arrangement.Many classrooms are set up in the traditional way with rows of
desks/seats with students staring at each other’s backs.This is not the best way to encourage
meaningful communication and interactions.If possible, try to arrange the chairs in a way so
that the students can see each other’s faces, e.g. in a horseshoe configuration.This is
especially important when running  specific speaking clubs/hours etc.If this type of seating
arrangement is not possible, think about whether the students can be arranged into small
groups.
Room Temperature & Lighting: Ensure that the lighting is sufficient,and watch out for how
it affects board visibility.Also ensure that the classroom is not too cold or too hot – check
with your students.
Equipment :Make sure that you have all the equipment and materials that you need for your
class, and make sure that they work.Always check that you have boardmarkers that work –
there’s nothing worse than having to run out of the classroom to try to find one.If you have
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forgetful students, who tend to come unprepared for lessons, having a supply of paper and
pens can avoid disruptions.

Engaging Students
A well-managed class is one where the students are actively involved in the lesson and where
the lesson runs smoothly.We have to consider not just how to engage students at the
beginning of class, but how to keep them engaged throughout the lesson.We should aim
to involve most of the students most of the time.
Topic :Choose topics that are stimulating, age-appropriate and relevant to your students’
lives.If you are limited by having to strictly follow a coursebook and consider some of the
topics to be less than stimulating, think about how you can adapt activites and include
supplementary materials in order to make the lessons more interesting for your students.
Warm Up: Remember that the first few minutes of a lesson set the scene for the rest of the
lesson.Don’t always start your lessons in the same way, and don’t always begin lessons with
coursebooks.Be creative!
Variety: An average persons’ concentration span is limited.When students’ lose their
concentration, they will no longer be actively engaged in the lesson.In order to lengthen
concentration span, avoid always doing the same type of tasks, and include enough variety
throughout the lesson to keep the students’ attention.
Visuals: Good visual aids are stimulating and add interest to a lesson.(This will be discused
further in the Visual Aids & Classroom Technology Module).Taking time to find good visual
aids to support your lesson is time well spent
Avoid Teacher Directed Lessons: In order to be engaged, the students must be active.If all
activities are teacher led, it means that most of the class are inactive while the teacher
interacts with one student at a time.If the teacher does all the talking (including long grammar
explanations), the students will switch off.
 Pairwork & Groupwork: In order to give the students the maximum opportunity to use the
language, and in order to avoid teacher dominance, include lots of pairwork and groupwork
activities.
Questions: Vary your questioning technique.Rather than asking questions by going around
the class in the same order (which allows students to switch off until they know that it is their
turn), direct your questions randomly around the classroom.In this way you will maintain the
students’ attention because they do not know who you will ask the question to next.
Physical Activity: In the same way that we need to engage students mentally by making our
lessons interesting, it is a useful strategy to include physical movement in order to also
engage students physically.Remember that sitting for long periods tends to have a sleep-
inducing affect, while physical activity promotes oxygen flow to the brain and maintains
alertness.A simple way to introduce physical activity into the classroom is to get the students
to work with different students while doing pairwork and groupwork, which will involve
them getting out of their seats in order to change partners.Another way to include physical
activity is to get students to stand up when doing dialogue work and role plays.
Voice: A monotone voice does not encourage active listening! Practise varying the tone and
volume of your voice in order to grab and maintain student interest.
Body Language: A teacher sitting behind a desk at the front of the classroom cannot actively
engage students – the desk acts as a barrier to communication, and the teacher loses the
opportunity to use a very important aid to communication – body language.A good teacher
uses body language to create a positive energy in the classroom, and to keep the students’
interest.If you don’t feel confident, for example with a new group that you are meeting for the
first time, be aware of your body language and aim to display confidence through an open
and relaxed posture.Always avoid the closed, arms crossed  position in the classroom.
 72

Proximity & Movement: There is no teachers’ rulebook where it states that the teacher must
always stand at the front of the class! A teacher can maintain student attention by making use
of the classroom space and moving around the classroom.A good technique for managing
disruptions before they develop is to use proximity.For example, you notice that two students
are passing notes to each other under the desk, so you move closer to those students.The
result is that without having to say anything, your mere proximity to them inhibits the
behaviour they have been involved in.
Praise & encouragment: Praise and encouragment are vital in the classroom; language
learning is not easy and students easily become discouraged, especially when they see
themselves repeating the same mistakes over and over again
 
     
       ‘Success consists of going from failure to failure
without loss of
            enthusiasm’
                        Winston Churchill
 
 
Remember that in the Error Module we looked at the importance of maintaining student
motivation by avoiding over-correction – we must maintain our students’ enthusiasm for
learning through positive reinforcement.Don’t just focus on errors, but take time to praise
often and genuinely.

On a final note …
Approach classroom management from the direction of what you should do in class to
enhance student engagement and learning, rather than focussing on what you would do if you
had disruptive students in class.When teaching children, having good classroom managment
skills becomes more imperative due to the fact that children are more easily distracted and the
fact that they are still in the process of maturing with regards to social skills,cognitive
abilities etc.However, when teaching adults, if you are well-organised and you create the best
learning environment possible through all the strategies you have read about so far, your
students will be engaged and having fun.In that type of a class, you are unlikely to encounter
any major classroom management problems.
To sum up, here is a short list of some of the most important points to remember with regard
to good classroom management :
1.Make the lessons fun & interesting : If students are having fun,they are not likely to
                                                                       disrupt the lesson.
2.Build a good rapport with students : Use student names, make eye contact and get to
                                                                      know each student.As human beings we are
happier
                                                                      and perform better if we feel valued by
others.Your
                                                                      students do not want to be just another student to
                                                                      you!
3.Be well-organised                               : You need your students to have faith in you as a
good
                                                                     teacher, but if they see a lack of commitment and
                                                                      organisation on your part ,they will soon lose
their
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                                                                      faith in you.

N.B. Avoid over-familiarity : Although in order to create a positive learning environment,
we should be friendly and approachable, it is important to remember that you are not there to
be a friend to the students, but to be a teacher.Being a teacher involves maintaining
professional contact at all times.There have been cases of teachers getting into trouble by
stepping over the line from being a teacher to being a friend.Always be aware of the
institutional policies of the place where you work – most institutions view socialising with
students as a disciplinary offence (unless it is a social activity organised by the institution for
the students and teachers.)