Book 44 Module 13

CATEGORY B2
LANDING GEAR
SYSTEMS

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Licence By Post © Copyright B2 EASA 66 13.16 ISSUE 01 0312

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Landing gear 1
The nose undercarriage 3
Power steering systems 8
Undercarriage systems 14
Undercarriage configuration 23
Shock absorbers 26
The liquid spring oleo 27
Gas/oil oleo with separator 28
Gas/oil oleo without separator 31
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book deals with the landing gear of the aircraft, to include the gear itself, the
shock absorbers (oleos) and steering mechanisms. It does not cover wheels, tyres or
brakes – these are covered in the next book in this series.

Together the two books cover the module 13 (avionic systems) of the CAA EASA Part
66 syllabus 13.16 landing gear as amended 2011/2012.

Again the syllabus is comprehensive and covers all aspects of landing gear, in many
cases to level 3 – the same as the mechanical person.

The book covers retraction selection control and indication, and you are advised to
read the book on hydraulics in this series for hydraulic retraction systems.

The book is reasonably straight forward dealing with the fundamentals of such
diverse subjects as hydraulics and electrics – as well as shock absorbers.
 LANDING GEAR

The functions of the landing gear are:

* To provide a means of manoeuvring the aircraft on the ground.

* To support the aircraft at the correct height for loading, propeller
clearance etc.
* To absorb the kinetic energy of landing and control recoil.
* To slow the aircraft after landing.

The geometrical arrangement of the undercarriage units on the aircraft is not

standard and can include:

* Tricycle. Two main units and a nose or tail wheel unit. Some helicopters
and some fixed wing aircraft.
* Four undercarriages – 2 mains and 2 nose units – some helicopters.
* Multi bogie units housed within the fuselage and a nose unit. Large
transports.

Tricycle Configuration

The majority of aircraft are of the tricycle type with either a nose wheel or a tail wheel.
The main units are usually housed in the mainplanes (for lateral ground stability),
but on some aircraft these are housed in the fuselage. On some nose wheel type
aircraft there may be main landing gear in the wings (wing gear) and in the fuselage
(body gear) with a total of 3 (DC10 – two mains and one centre fuselage), or 4 main
gear units (B747 - two wing and two body gear).

Main landing gear is positioned to give ground lateral stability and is near the
aircraft’s longitudinal C of G – for nose wheel aircraft just aft of the C of G and for tail
wheel aircraft just forward of the C of G.

In general, the nose landing gear arrangement as opposed to the tail wheel system is
preferred because:

* It provides better pilot vision.

* It means the aircraft is already in the normal flying attitude.
* It provides easier loading.
* It prevents ‘nose-over’ during heavy braking.

The requirements are laid down in CS25 (large aircraft – over 5700kg) and CS23
(smaller aircraft).

The undercarriage complete comprises:

* A leg, joined to the aircraft structure (locally reinforced).

* Wheels and tyres.
* For most units, typically main - a brake system.
* A means of absorbing the landing shocks (and controlling the recoil on
most units).

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 * If retractable, a means of positively locking the unit in the up and in the
down position.
* A steering system and/or castering ability (nose units).
* For retractable units, a means of retraction and extension – usually
hydraulic.
* An indication and warning system – for retractable units.

A brake unit is not normally incorporated in the nose or tail wheel unit but some
aircraft do have them (the B727 has a brake unit in the nose landing gear for
example).

These loads can be substantial particularly compressive loads when landing and are
transmitted to strong points on the airframe.

Types of Undercarriage

The wheels are mounted on axles attached to the bottom of the leg so that they
transmit compressive loads to the shock absorber. There are two basic methods of
mounting the shock absorber (figure 1):

Direct Acting. The shock absorber (oleo) may be an integral part of the leg or it may be
a separate unit within the leg, but an any rate the compressive forces are transmitted
to it directly up from the axle. If it is an integral unit it is designed to take all the
additional stresses, bending, torsional etc, as well as the compressive loads.

Torque links are required to prevent axial rotation of the sliding portion of the leg
within the main unit. The torque links keep the wheels pointing in the right direction.
Figure 5 shows the use of splines for this purpose – this method is rare.

Levered or Articulated Suspension. The oleo is a separate unit and mounted between
the un-sprung part of the leg and the sprung part. Loads (mostly compressive) are
transmitted to it by a lever arm connected to the wheel. This means that up and down
wheel movement is larger than oleo movement. As the oleo is subject only to
compressive loads it may be made smaller and lighter and is usually easier to change.

Fig. 1 TYPES OF UNDERCARRIAGE

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This type of suspension lends itself to being used on nose wheel and tail wheel
assemblies as it can be made to caster to from a trailing unit. (Caster = to turn in the
direction the aircraft is going.)

Many small aircraft have fixed landing gear which is less expensive than retractable
gear but does have a drag penalty.

The main gear can be attached to the main spar of the mainplanes (De-Havilland
Chipmunk, Cessna 310) or attached to the fuselage (Piper Pawnee, Cessna 188). The
tail wheel is attached near the tail and, if a nose wheel, attached under the nose of
the aircraft.

Some form of landing shock absorption must be provided and this can be:

* Elastomeric (bungee cords) with recoil control by the use of friction

bushes.
* Coil springs.
* Spring struts. Some helicopters are fitted with skids, these are usually
designed to flex on landing so absorbing some of the shock
* Shock absorbers (oil or gas/oil oleos).

THE NOSE UNDERCARRIAGE

To some extent what applies to nose landing gear also applies to tail landing gear.

The nose undercarriage is usually of lighter construction than the main gear because
it normally does not have to take the initial landing shock and on most aircraft also
does not have to cope with braking related stress. It does, however, have provision for
towing and must withstand bending and shear loads. It may be a single wheel unit or
have two wheels.

QUESTION Can you list two or three features that a nose/tail undercarriage has to
have that a main gear does not have? (5 mins)

ANSWER In general the nose/tail unit will have some or all of the following:

* The ability to caster.

* A self-centring system.
* A steering system – powered for large aircraft.
* An anti-shimmy device.
* No brakes – usually.

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Castering

To enable the aircraft to be manoeuvred on the ground the nose wheel must have the
ability to align to the direction the aircraft is going. It must caster freely to at least the
maximum angle the aircraft is allowed to turn. There will normally be internal stops
to limit its angle of travel and markings on the outside will give an indication to
personnel towing the aircraft of the maximum limit of travel. On no account must any
attempt be made to exceed this limit.

Self-Centring

Automatic self-centring is essential as soon as the aircraft’s weight is removed from

the wheels to ensure correct positioning of the wheel/s for the next landing and prior
to retraction. If the wheel/s of the nose gear are not lined up correctly on retraction
considerable damage will be caused to the structure and the landing gear.

Centring is achieved by either a spring loaded cam or a hydraulic centring jack

through the steering mechanism.

For retracting gear, to prevent the nose gear retracting should it not be in the dead
ahead position the down-lock is usually connected to the castering system
mechanically so that if it is not dead ahead then the down-lock will not disengage.

Centring jacks (a separate unit or fitted in the steering motor) rely on hydraulic fluid
pressure when ‘up’ is selected to centre the leg. The down-lock is inter-connected to
prevent the leg retracting should it not be centred.

Steering

Some small aircraft do not have a steerable nose wheel (or tail wheel) and they are
steered using differential braking. Apply the brakes on the left hand side and the
aircraft will steer left – apply the brakes on the right and it will steer right. Some small
aircraft have nose wheel steering systems which are mechanically connected to the
rudder bar. When the rudder bar moves so does the nose leg – in the air as well as on
the ground.

Large aircraft have powered nose wheel steering, this is because the wheels would be
impossible to move manually.

Earlier methods of steering involved differential braking. Its disadvantages compared

to steerable systems include:

* Lose of forward momentum when the brake is applied.

* Increased engine wear when engines are used to get the aircraft rolling
again.
* Increased fuel consumption.
* Increased brake and tyre wear.
* Not so easy to steer aircraft.

Powered steering using hydraulic jacks allows the engines to be set at minimum
thrust for taxiing thereby saving fuel, brake and tyre wear.

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To allow the nose unit to caster when towing the aircraft there must be some means
of disconnecting/isolating the powered steering. This can be done in several ways:

* A by-pass valve fitted in the system (figure 5). When the steering is
switch off the valve is opened allowing free movement of fluid between
both sides of the jack when it moves due to the nose gear being turned
when towing. When steering is selected the valve is closed by hydraulic
pressure.

* By disconnecting the torque links during towing/pushback. This allows

the unit to caster without moving the steering jack.

* By the use of an ‘isolating pin’ which is inserted into a special hole in

the nose unit by the pushback crew – this effectively isolates the nose
gear steering mechanism. The pin is removed after pushback and the
usual procedure is to show it to the pilot before he/she taxies the
aircraft away.

Power steering systems are usually operated hydraulically using main system to
operate either a single jack with an equal area both sides of the piston, or two jacks of
the unequal area type (figure 2).

Fig. 2 STEERING JACK ARRANGEMENT

QUESTION Why does the single jack have the same area both sides of the piston? (2
mins)

ANSWER If the areas were not equal the jack would move faster one way than the
other (given the same fluid supply conditions).

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QUESTION With reference to the drawing below. The jack is of the unequal area
type. Given that when selected the fluid pressure and rate of flow is the
same for either end, which way will it move the fastest – in or out? (2
mins)

ANSWER It would move IN the fastest. The reason is that there is less volume to
fill as some of the volume is taken up by the piston ram. Remember,
that the rate of movement of a jack is governed by how fast the jack
volume can be filled. Given a fixed hydraulic supply and a certain size
jack the rate of fluid flow governs the speed of movement and the
pressure governs the load that can be moved.

Control

Steering is controlled from the flight-deck, depending on the aircraft, by:

(a) A separate steering wheel on the side of the flight deck.

(b) The rudder pedals.
(c) The aileron control wheel.

Control is provided to both pilot and co-pilot positions.

The steering control will select a hydraulic four way selector to port pressure fluid to
one side of a jack whilst opening up the other side to return. The jack/s may be a
simple jack as shown above or may incorporate a:

* Self centring jack.

* Shimmy damper.
* Relief valves.

Feedback

The control mechanism is not too unlike that of any incremental control system – in
principle at least. It cannot simply be selected one way or the other, it has to have
some form of feedback.

QUESTION There are two types of feedback – can you name them? (2 mins)

ANSWER Positive and negative feedback.

QUESTION Powered steering systems use negative feedback in their control

systems. Can you describe negative feedback? (5 mins)

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ANSWER This is where a signal is put into a control system to produce an output.
Part of the output is then feed back (negating signal) into the input to try
to cancel the original input signal. The stronger the original signal the
greater the negating signal. Incidentally, almost all control systems use
negative feedback, from biological control systems to mechanical control
systems to electrical control systems to electronic control systems.

Feedback on a power steering system can be achieved:

(a) Mechanically – using a system of cables and pulleys (Boeing aircraft for
example).
(b) Electrically – using a Wheatstone bridge or similar system.
(c) Electronically – using a computer.

Shimmy Damper

Shimmy is a problem associated with nose/tail wheel units and is a form of vibration
of the unit about its rotational axis. More common in non-steered units with incorrect
tyre pressures and worn bearings being contributory factors. Because the unit is
allowed to caster and the flexible nature of the side-walls of the tyre an unstable
swivelling oscillation can be set up in the castering part of the unit. Excessive
shimmy, especially at high speed can cause serious vibration throughout the airframe
and can be dangerous.

Shimmy can be damped in several ways:

(a) By the provision of hydraulic damping within the steering motor.

(b) By the provision of a separate hydraulic damper.
(c) By the fitting of heavy self centring springs.
(d) By fitting double nose wheels on a live axle (the axle is fitted to both
wheels such that they all rotate as one).

Hydraulic Damping. This is achieved by fitting an oil filled damper to the castering
part of the gear in such a way that as the unit casters (or is steered) a piston is
caused to move through the oil (figure 3). The piston has small oil ways through
which the oil passes.

Fig. 3 HYDRAULIC DAMPER

-7-
When shimmy tries to occur and the unit tries to oscillate the piston tries to move
back and forth through the oil quickly – the frequency being relative high and of low
amplitude. Because of the viscosity of the oil it resists these quick movements and
seems to ‘lock-up’ the damper.

With ordinary castering/steering the piston moves with the oil flowing steadily
through the ports.

QUESTION What does viscosity mean? (2 mins)

ANSWER It is the resistance to flow of a fluid. Related to friction within the fluid.

Twin Wheeled Units. These assist in reducing the tendency to shimmy as each tyre
has its own natural shimmy frequency (associated with wheel rpm). When there are
two wheels their natural frequencies rarely coincide, one tyre tends to dampen the
vibrations of the other and shimmy is eliminated or significantly reduced.

POWER STEERING SYSTEMS

These are normally hydraulically operated and mechanically, electrically or

electronically controlled.

The hydraulic supply comes from one of the hydraulic systems. On some aircraft
there is no back-up supply as steering can be achieved using differential braking if
necessary – and the brake system will have a main supply with a standby.

The steering system comprises:

* A hydraulic steering jack/actuator/motor fitted to the nose leg.

* A four way hydraulic selector valve.
* A steering tiller/control wheel on the flight deck.
* Control cables or circuitry/computer connections to provide control and
feedback and possibly data to other systems (retraction for example).
* Hydraulic system to include pressure relief valves etc.

When a steering command is imputed the selector valve selects, the jack moves and
the negative feedback de-selects to stop the jack movement. When power steering is
switched off or isolated the unit is free to caster. Immediately prior to retraction the
system is switched off and the unit centred.

A Single Jack System (figure 4)

This shows one method of fitting a jack to the nose gear. In this arrangement the jack
ram is fixed to the non-steering part and the jack body is connected to the steering
part. In other systems it is fitted with the jack ram moving the steering part.

Remember that splines are rare, torque links are far more common – connecting the
top part of the rotating unit to the bottom shock absorber part.

-8-
The fluid connections to the jack in figure 5 are through the jack ram ends. As fluid
pressure is ported to one side of the jack the body moves and through the connecting
link steers the wheels to port or starboard. In this aircraft the follow-up linkage
(negative feedback) is an electro mechanical system using a drum switch moved by
the steering jack.

Fig. 4 SINGLE STEERING JACK ARRANGEMENT

A Centring Jack

On retraction it is essential that the unit is centred automatically. This is the function
of the centring jack.

This jack may be a separate unit or fitted as part of the steering jack. It comprises a
piston rod anchored to the undercarriage leg, a jack body connected to the steering
part and an inner piston.

-9-
When the undercarriage is selected up, the steering system is isolated and fluid
pressure is fed to this jack. This causes the inner piston to move to the end of its
travel in one direction and the jack body to move to the end of its travel in the other
direction. In this condition the nose leg is centred.

On some aircraft the steering system is isolated by the weight switch as soon as the
aircraft takes off.

A Hydro Mechanical System (figure 5)

In this system the single jack moves the nose wheels via a rack and pinion gear.
Selection is made in the flight deck via the steering cables to operate the steering
drum. The feed back mechanism is via the follow-up cables – for example:

1. Pilot steers to the right.

2. Steering drum rotates anti-clockwise.
3. The left hand side of the beam is pulled down.
4. Movement of the beam anti-clockwise causes the selector valve to select
porting pressure fluid to the bottom of the steering jack and opening the
top to return.
5. The jack moves up to cause the wheels to steer clockwise (to the right).
6. This puts tension into the right hand side of the follow-up cable and
slack into the left hand side – releasing the tension in that side.
7. This pulls the beam back to its level position, neutralises the selector
valve and stops the steering action.

If the pilot continues to move the steering input, the selection will be maintained with
the follow-up cables trying to catch up the steering cables – and cancel the input. As
soon as the pilot stops his/her input the follow-up system catches up with the input
system the valve goes into neutral, movement stops and the jack is held in that
position by an hydraulic lock.

Note.

1. The selector valve is shown disproportionately large.

2. The cable system is shown simplified – for example there is a gearing
system behind the steering wheel, but the principle is similar to that
fitted to some Boeing aircraft.

The throttling valve provides a constant rate of flow of fluid supply.

QUESTION Why would the flow vary from the hydraulic system? (5 mins)

ANSWER For 90% of aircraft the hydraulic circuits – flaps, slats, landing gear,
brakes etc - are connected in parallel and then connected to the supply
circuit. That is, they all experience the same pressure (unless there are
pressure reducing valves fitted) but they share the total available fluid
flow. If one of the circuits is selected – say flaps – the fluid flow rate to
the power steering will be reduced (and incidentally also to the flaps).
When no other services are selected the fluid flow rate to the steering
circuit is high and the throttling valve will move to the nearly closed
position.

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 When other services are selected the fluid flow rate is reduced, the valve
is more open and the flow to the circuit is the same as before – this
ensures a constant speed of operation irrespective of the selection of
other services.

Fig. 5 SIMPLIFIED MECHANICALLY CONTROLLED STEERING SYSTEM

The by-pass valve may be actuated hydraulically of electrically and when open allows
fluid to pass freely from one side of the steering jack to the other (for towing,
pushback etc). In the drawing it is hydraulically operated so when steering is selected
pressure to the top of the valve causes it to close. When un-pressurised fluid from
either side will pass easily through the lightly loaded spring valve.

A two way pressure relief valve allows the relief of any excessive pressure on one side
of the jack to be relieved to the other side – possibly caused by the tyres catching a
taxiway/runway light.

On retraction the system will have provision to ensure the unit is centralised using a
centring link or a centring jack.

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An Electrical System

The hydraulic side of the system is similar to the one described above but the control
and feedback is electrical. The selector valve is electrically operated and the feedback
is provided by a Wheatstone bridge (figure 6).

The bridge has four resistors, two of which are a fixed value and two are variable. It is
supplied with 28Vdc.

In simple terms if all the resistors are the same value then the voltage (and current) in
both arms of the bridge will be the same. If the voltages between the left and right
arms of the bridge are compared then they will be the same and there will be no
voltage difference at the amplifier – and no output to the hydraulic selector.

Fig. 6 ELECTRICAL STEERING CONTROL

If the bridge becomes un-balanced (by movement of the pilots input resistor - 1) then
more current flows down one arm of the bridge – there is a voltage difference across it,
this is amplified and the valve is selected. The undercarriage moves and the valve will
be de-selected when the follow-up resister (2) reaches the value of the input resister.

For example, when the pilot moves the steering control wheel it will alter the steering
input variable resistor (1) (say UP). This means that more voltage is dropped across
that resistor so the right hand side of the bridge has a higher voltage (and more
current). This voltage difference is felt by the amplifier to pull in a relay within the
selector valve. The selector valve selects to move the nose leg in the appropriate
direction. When it moves its mechanical feed-back link changes the value of the
follow-up resister (2) – in this case to increase its resistance.

While the pilot continues his/her input the follow-up resister will continue to chase
the input resister. When the steering control stops moving, the input resistor stops
and a fraction of a second later the follow-up resistor reaches the same resistance
value. This balances the bridge, the amplifier senses no voltage difference, no signal is
sent to the selector valve, it de-selects and the nose gear stops moving.

- 12 -
 Note. 1. For more details of the electrically operated four-way
selector valve see the book in this series entitled Hydraulics.
2. The follow-up resistor (potentiometer) is usually fitted directly on
the nose leg and the rest of the bridge is in the aircraft
somewhere – probably behind the instrument panel.

A Computerised System

Again, the hydraulic side of things is very similar to the system shown in figure 6, it is
the selection and control that is computerised.

A digital computer is basically a very simple machine. It has many things in its favour
such as small size, low power consumption, inexpensive, speed of operation etc, but
the actual operations the micro processor can do are strictly limited. The digital
functions it can perform are:

1. Addition. It can add in binary. All other mathematical functions are

performed using forms of addition processes.
2. Store. It can store large amounts of digital data.
3. Move. It can move this data around.
4. Compare. It can compare digital words.

The computer will take the steering input signal and convert it to a digital signal and
put in store (2.). It will convert this signal to an analogue signal to select a hydraulic
selector valve – this moves the nose gear which will send an analogue feedback signal
back to the computer. This is digitised and this feedback signal is compared (4.) to the
original input signal. If the two signals are not the same the selection is continued
and when they are the same the steering signal will stop.

Figure 7 shows a schematic of the A320 system. The pilot’s steering input is sent to
the BSCU (Brake and Steering Computer Unit). The steering signal can come from the
rudder pedals that can be isolated by the rudder pedal isolation button on the
steering wheel.

QUESTION With reference to figure 8 – when can power steering be used? (5 mins)

ANSWER It can be used only when:

(a) It is switched on, AND

(b) Airspeed is greater than 80kt, AND
(c) One engine is running, AND
(d) Towing lever is in normal position, AND
(e) The Weight On Wheels (WOW) switch is made.

With all these conditions made the AND gate will allow steering.

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 Fig. 7 THE A320 STEERING CONTROL SYSTEM

UNDERCARRIAGE SYSTEMS

In general a retractable landing gear system comprises:

(a) A retraction system to raise and lower the gear and doors.
(b) A reliable locking system to operate in the up and the down positions.
(c) An indication system to indicate to the crew the status of the landing
gear.
(d) Wheels, tyres and brakes (covered in the next book in this series).
(e) Systems to interconnect the gear with other services such as low speed
warnings etc.

Retraction and Lowering Systems

The most common form of retraction system is hydraulic (see the book in this series
entitled Hydraulics), but some aircraft may use electrical actuation and others may
use pneumatics (for pneumatic systems refer to the book in this series by that name).

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Provision must be made for the emergency lowering of the gear should the main
system fail. Emergency/back-up systems can include:

* A second hydraulic pump in the power supply system.

* Standby pumps – ram air driven for example (RAT).
* Duplicate (or even triplicate) hydraulic supply systems.
* The use of a compressed nitrogen blow down system.
* Gas operated release locks and free fall of the gear with spring assisted
down locks.
* A hand operated wind down system (not common).

Locking Methods

EASA25/23 states that there must be a positive means to keep the landing gear
extended in flight and on the ground and to keep it in the correct retracted position.

QUESTION Can you name 3 landing gear locking systems? (3 mins)

ANSWER Mechanical.
Hydraulic.
Geometric.

Mechanical locks are the most positive and reliable so meet the requirements. The
actual design can vary from a plunger moving into a machined hole between two links
of the landing gear to a hook type unit locking onto a bar. Normally actuated
hydraulically and usually fitted with a micro switch/proximity switch for flight deck
indication systems.

A hydraulic lock might also be used – but normally only as a back-up as it is not very
reliable.

QUESTION What is a hydraulic lock and why is it unreliable? (5 mins)

ANSWER A hydraulic lock is caused by a trapped column of fluid between a jack

or hydraulic actuator and a control valve or other valve. This fluid,
because it is not compressible (at most working pressures), will prevent
the jack from moving.

It is not reliable over the long term because of pressure changes due to
temperature changes and because of the possibility of seepage. In
normal hydraulic systems operation some internal seepage is
permissible – it is so small that it is not noticeable, but to rely on
hydraulic pressure only over a long term (without a continuous supply)
would not work.

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 Fig. 8 GEOMETRIC LOCK

A geometric lock might also be used – also as a back-up (figure 9). A geometric lock is
a series of links – usually three including the undercarriage leg, and so arranged as to
try and stay in one locked position. The links can be moved out of the locked position
by a jack.

By it-self a geometric lock is not reliable as there is the possibility of it being shaken
out due to aircraft movement.

Selection of the undercarriage may be by a direct mechanical connection from the

flight deck to the two way hydraulic selector valve or by an electrical connection
between the flight deck and the valve. Mechanical operation is rare these days as
electrical systems are much lighter.

Position indication of the landing gear (UP or DOWN) is signalled to the flight deck by
a lamp system; on CRTs on some aircraft, and there is usually a mechanical back-up
indication system.

Leg and fairing doors are usually moved by separate jacks with sequencing being
carried out hydraulically, electrically or mechanically.

Indication and Warning Circuits

Provided to give an indication in the flight deck of the leg position/door/s position –
usually in the form of coloured lights and, if a CRT display is provided, by a small
display.

With reference to figure 10. Micro switches or proximity switches are operated by the
up and down locks and are wired into indicator lamps in the flight deck. There is
usually one lamp per indication per undercarriage (with CRT indication as well on
some aircraft).

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Where lamps are used standby lamps may be provided. In basic terms lamp
indications are:

Green - Unit locked down

Red - Unit unlocked
No light - Unit locked up

In some aircraft an amber light will show if the aircraft is on the ground and the
fairing door is moved from its normal position (for servicing).

To warn the pilot if the gear is not locked down on approach an additional warning
system is provided. This may be via the throttle switch, as in the drawing, or it may
be via the ground proximity warning system or wired into a Pitot pressure operated
micro switch.

On many aircraft mechanical standby indicators are also fitted (figure 12).

QUESTION Describe the difference between a micro switch and a proximity switch.
(10 mins)

ANSWER A micro switch is a mechanical switch that opens or closes when contact
is made with its operating plunger. A proximity switch may have no
moving parts (depending on type) – and do not rely on contact for their
operation. On one type a magnet (target) is fitted to the moving part of
the landing gear – on the other part a proximity reed switch is fitted. As
the target comes into close proximity with the switch (as the leg retracts
for example) so the reed switch is caused to move and make or break a
dc circuit.

On an inductive type proximity switch system the target is a piece of

ferro-magnetic material. The switch is a simple coil with an ac supply
When the target gets close to the switch the coil’s inductance
(resistance) increases and a sensing unit in the circuit will pick this up
and give the appropriate indication on the flight deck.

Figure 9 shows the gear in the unlocked position with a 28Vdc supply to the
red lamp via both micro switches.

If the gear is on the way up then the next thing to happen is the up-lock
micro switch is operated breaking the circuit to the red light and the light goes
out.

If the gear is on its way down the next thing to happen would be that the down-lock
micro switch operates to switch off the red light and switch on the green.

If the throttle is pulled back past a certain limit (for landing) with the gear not locked
down then the throttle micro switch is live and will make contact giving an aural and
visual warning as well as signals to the CRTs and CONFIG warnings etc.

Most modern aircraft have a configuration warning system to check that all system
are set correctly for a particular operation – eg landing, take-off etc.

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For signals being sent to lamps the current goes directly to the lamp and then to
earth return. For the flat screen displays the signals (discrete ON or OFF) are sent to
the Symbol Generator Unit (SGU) – a computer with stored symbol data for
transmission to the CRTs.

Fig. 9 A SIMPLIFIED INDICATION & WARNING SYSTEM

Figure 10 shows a typical modern flight deck indication and warning system. It shows
the A320 system using ECAM displays (Electronic Aircraft Centralised Monitor). This
is a computer based system using CRTs and SGUs to show coloured symbols and
pictures on the screen. The Landing Gear Page must be selected on the control panel
for gear data to be displayed.

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 Fig. 10 A320 LANDING GEAR CONTROLS & INDICATIONS

Screen displays can include, when selected:

* Hydraulic systems.
* Cabin conditioning.
* Engine indications etc.

Landing Gear Selection

The selector system might be a simple cable or push/pull rod system connecting the
flight deck lever to the hydraulic selector valve. More likely on modern aircraft it will
be an electrical system.

The selector lever will be tactile (that is shaped like a wheel so it can be found in the
dark – if necessary). It will also be instinctive – moved up for up selection and down
for down. When operated it will make an electrical contact to operate a solenoid in the
selector valve and will have a safety interlock that can be overridden in an emergency.

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 Fig. 11 STANDBY MECHANICAL INDICATORS

The safety interlock is provided to prevent inadvertent operation of the up selection

when the aircraft is on the ground. This may be overridden by the pilot in an
emergency such as during landing and all the brakes fail and the only way to stop the
aircraft before it comes off the runway (say into the sea or nearby buildings) is to
retract the gear and letting it slide on its belly – hopefully to a safe stop.

In the simplified system shown in figure 12 the selector lever makes contact in either
the up or down position to provide a 28Vdc supply to solenoids in the electro-
hydraulic selector valve. This will select to move the gear to either the fully up or fully
down position.

When down is selected and the weight is on the wheels the safety interlock (weight on
wheels lock) solenoid circuit is broken and it moves out under spring pressure. In this
position it prevents up selection being made. When the aircraft takes off the circuit is
made by the squat switch, operating the solenoid and withdrawing the weight on
wheels lock, the undercarriage can be selected up. The emergency override is a button
which allows for gear up selection when on the ground – it is rotated to re-align the
two ‘legs’ either side of the weight on wheels lock and pushed in.

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Note. The squat switch may be called:

* Weight on wheels (WOW) switch (Airbus).

* Ground sensor (Lockheed and Douglas).
* Ground air sensor (Boeing).
* Flight ground switch (KLM).

Figure 12 is a simplified drawing that shows the principle of how the system works.
Figure 13 shows an actual selector as fitted to a B747-400. Note that the selector
panel has the following differences:

* Provision for OFF selection which depressurises the landing gear

system.
* Has a lever lock override switch that releases the landing gear
lever.
* Has alternate gear extension switches.

Retraction Testing

These will be required after any work is carried out on any part of the gear retraction
system and as specified in the maintenance schedule. The tests will verify the correct
operation of the mechanical, electrical, electronic, and hydraulic systems.

Fig. 12 SELECTOR CONTROL SYSTEM

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The actual testing to be carried out as per the AMM.

The aircraft must be jacked inside (or outside provided the forecast wind speeds are
less than those specified in the AMM, the weather is fine and it is on hard standing).

The electrical and hydraulic systems must be serviceable and barriers erected and
warning notices posted to keep people away from the area around the landing gear.
Place look-outs.

In general the procedure is:

1. Check the AMM.

2. Jack the aircraft. Ensure shock absorbers extend to full length and
bogies rotate to correct position. Remove the ground locks.
3. Connect external electrical and hydraulic supplies. Ensure hydraulic
supply is at the correct pressure and volume flow rate. Note that some
aircraft will have more than one external rig fitted – say one for the green
system and one for the blue.
4. If in doubt about clearances, sequencing etc try movement of gear using
a hand pump.
5. Select landing gear up and down and check:

* Time up and time down.

* Flight deck and standby indications.
* Any warning devices/warning configurations.
* Correct sequencing – eg, Up selection, door open, leg up, door
closed. Down selection, door open, leg down, door closed.
* Correct operation of up locks and down locks on legs and doors.
* Correct fitting of doors and legs in the closed position.
* Correct clearance between structure, wheels and gear.
* Correct rotation of any ‘folding’ part of the gear – bogie rotation,
leg rotation etc.
* Correct interconnection of gear retraction system and steering
system.
* Nose leg centres before retraction.
* Auto brake is applied before main wheels are retracted.
* Operation of retraction system with one supply system on only
and then with the other.
* Test any standby systems – electric pumps etc.
* Check any free-fall/emergency systems for correct operation. Note
that if the system is a blow down system using compressed gas
the pressure will have to be relieved, the system bled and topped
up. Re-set the system and carry out normal retraction test.
* Smooth operation and leaks.

6. Lower the undercarriage and check that there are “three greens” with all
other flight deck indications correct.
7. Ensure all down locks are engaged correctly. Fit ground locks. .
8. Disconnect external electrical power and hydraulic test rigs.
9. Lower the aircraft off jacks and chock the wheels.
10. Record all the work done and sign the appropriate documentation.

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Steering Testing

1. Refer to the AMM.

2. Raise the aircraft on jacks, place 2 steel plates under the nose wheels
with grease between them.
3. Lower the aircraft ensuring that the nose wheels are on the plates.
4. Connect external hydraulic and electric supplies.
5. Check that nose wheels caster with steering selected off.
6. Select power steering on.
7. Operate the steering wheel over its full range of travel and check that the
nose gear follows in the correct sense and at the same rate of movement.
8. Check for smooth operation of the undercarriage and that there is
adequate clearance between moving parts and no strain on any cables,
swivelling pipe connections etc.
9. Check for leaks.
10. Check steering operates with the rudder pedals – if provided for.
11. Jack the aircraft clear of the ground.
12. Set the nose gear a few degrees to one side of the dead ahead position
and select landing gear up. Check nose gear centres before the down
lock disengages.
13. Lower the landing gear and repeat item 12 but with the nose gear
displaced in the opposite direction.
14. With the gear up check that steering is inoperative.
15. Lower the gear.
16. Check any standby supplies to the steering motor including electric
pumps, hydraulic accumulators etc.
17. Check any warning/indicator systems.
18. Remove the steel plates by raising the aircraft or towing the aircraft
forward a little.
19. Record all the work done and sign the appropriate aircraft
documentation.

UNDERCARRIAGE CONFIGURATION

The increase in size and All Up Weight (AUW) of modern aircraft has led to an
increase in wheel loading; this being defined as the static load on each wheel of the
landing gear at aircraft take-off weight. This term is not very precise when calculating
the actual force per unit area (psi) that each tyre puts on the ground.

In general the lighter the aircraft the less pressure is required in each tyre to support
the weight, the larger the tyres the less pressure is required and the more tyres there
are the less pressure is required. Remember, if pressures are too high runways and
taxi ways will be unable to support the load.

So in general for large aircraft a landing gear will need a large tyre at a certain
pressure or several smaller tyres at the same pressure. The actual configuration of the
landing wheels will depend on the designer to cope with the problems of stowage,
safety and wheel loading.

Wheel loading can be reduced by having multi wheeled units using twin tyres per
landing unit; three wheels; four, six, eight or even twelve.

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 Fig. 13 BOEING 747-400 SELECTOR PANEL

Some aircraft have many main wheel units (several each side of the fuselage) with
twin tyres on each so making up to a considerable number of main wheels.

For almost all piston engined aircraft their all up weight means that a single wheeled
unit is the usual solution and bogie units are not used, however, the reader should
have some knowledge of their operation – if only to conform to the syllabus.

Bogie Units

Normally confined to main landing gear units of large aircraft, the design of which can
vary but in general, comprise a telescopic leg containing a shock absorber and a bogie
beam pin jointed at its connection to the shock absorber. This beam carries front and
rear axles for four or eight wheels (figures 14 and 15). Torque links between the main
leg and the beam or sliding portion prevent axial rotation of the unit whilst leaving it
free to slide up and down.

The beam may be in two parts connected via a bogie swivel hinge which allows better
articulation during a turn and the bogie pivot allows the beam to tilt - usually with
the rear wheels trailing down (but not always). This tilt may be assisted by a bogie
damper strut attached between the beam and the leg. This tilt is sometimes called
assisted articulation.

The beam is usually fitted with a micro switch which prevents retraction in the event
of incorrect tilt or articulation.

Figure 15 shows a unit as fitted to the A300. Note direct acting oleo, the torque links
and the locking strut which also acts as a geometric lock.

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Fig. 14 TYPICAL BOGIE TYPE UNIT

Fig. 15 THE A300 MAIN GEAR

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 SHOCK ABSORBERS (OLEOS)

These are fitted to absorb the shock of landing. Some shock is absorbed by the tyres –
producing pressure energy, but most of the shock is absorbed by the shock
absorbers. Some of the older units used springs or bungee cords to convert the
downward kinetic energy into strain energy. Most modern units convert this energy
into pressure energy (of a gas, or in some cases of an oil).

QUESTION The oleo works on converting the downward kinetic energy into
pressure energy within the oleo. What happens to the forward kinetic
energy of the aircraft? (5 mins)

ANSWER Most of it is converted into heat energy within the brakes. Some is
used up as drag (airframe, spoilers, flaps etc). Some is taken
up by the reverse thrust of the engines.

The oleo has three main functions:

1. To absorb the downward kinetic energy of the aircraft.

2. To control the recoil.
3. To support the static weight of the aircraft.

The energy absorption process is achieved by increasing the pressure within the unit
as it collapses on landing and recoil control is achieved by controlling the rate at
which fluid is allowed to pass through a piston.

The support of the static weight of the aircraft is achieved by the pressure within the
unit times the area of the unit’s piston/cylinder giving a force that is equal and
opposite to the downward force of the aircraft on that landing gear unit.

There are three main types of oleos:

1. The liquid spring type.

2. The gas/oil type with separator.
3. The gas/oil type without separator.

With the liquid spring type the energy of landing is absorbed by the increase in
pressure and the compression of the fluid within the unit. Control of recoil is by
controlling the rate of fluid flow passed a piston.

With the other two types the landing shock is absorbed by the increase in pressure
and the compression of the gas. Recoil control is carried out by controlling the rate of
fluid flow through a piston.

QUESTION Why is it important to control the recoil? (5 mins)

ANSWER If the recoil was not controlled the pent-up energy in the form of very
high pressure within the unit would cause the oleo to extend quickly
and bounce the aircraft back up into the air – just like a bouncing ball.
Not what is required. In general terms the unit will collapse quicker than
it is allowed to extend.

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Each oleo consists of an inner tubular or solid member, fitted with a piston,
telescoping into an outer tubular member. With the aircraft on the ground the leg
telescopes sufficiently to create enough pressure which supports the static weight of
the aircraft.

When the aircraft becomes airborne, its weight is transferred to the mainplanes and
the oleo fully extends. When the aircraft lands the downward energy of the aircraft
telescopes the oleo which absorbs the shock of landing.

THE LIQUID SPRING OLEO

Sometimes called and Oil Compression oleo. It contains only oil.

Not popular on civil aircraft because of its harsh ride characteristics.

In general fluid is considered to be incompressible but this unit works on the

principle of compressing the fluid, how is that?

At pressures up to about 3000psi the amount of compression (reduction in volume) of

a fluid is small – for hydraulic system purposes it is considered as negligible. But as
the pressures are increased so the fluid becomes more ‘squashable’ until at very high
pressures the fluid behaves very much like a gas. The fluid inside the liquid spring
oleo behaves very much like a gas.

The unit consists of a thick walled cylinder (to withstand the very considerable
pressures that are built up) housing a piston with a large diameter piston rod (figure
16).

These very high pressures are difficult to contain with conventional seals (around the
piston rod) so a special high pressure gland assembly is used. The idea behind the
gland assembly is to control the friction between the gland and the piston rod whilst
still keeping a fluid tight joint. It achieves this by progressively increasing the seal
pressure on the rod as the pressure rises.

On landing the piston is caused to enter further into the cylinder reducing its internal
volume by the amount of piston rod that enters. This compresses the fluid and raises
its pressure. During compression the valve (flutter plate) is open (figure 17) and fluid
passes reasonably freely across the piston head.

On rebound the piston moves out of the cylinder and the valve/flutter plate closes.
This reduces the number of holes that the fluid can pass through so the rate of piston
movement is reduced.

QUESTION When the piston gets to the end of its travel at its maximum collapse
position during landing what are the pressures either side of the piston?
(2 mins)

ANSWER They are the same. The pressures are very high but they are the same.

QUESTION If the pressures are the same on both sides of the piston what makes it
extend? (5 mins)

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ANSWER A force will make it extend and pressure times area produces a force.
The area on the rod side of the piston is smaller than the area on the
other side (smaller by the amount that is taken up by the rod) so there is
a greater force pushing it out than that trying to push it in.

Fig. 16 LIQUID SPRING OLEO - OPERATION

GAS/OIL OLEO WITH SEPARATOR

This unit has two mediums (gas – usually nitrogen and oil – say DTD 585) and each
has its own roll to play. In general terms the gas absorbs the energy by compressing
and the oil controls the recoil. The oil is at about the same pressure as the gas most
of the time but, because it does not work at such high pressures as the liquid spring
type unit, the oil does not compress very much – its job is just as a controlling
medium.

QUESTION Air will do the job just as well as nitrogen and is significantly
cheaper, so why use nitrogen? (5 mins)

ANSWER Nitrogen will not support combustion – air will. On landing the
compression of the air will be adiabatic so the air will get hot. Should a
small quantity of oil be present then there is the same situation in the
cylinder of the oleo that occurs in the cylinder of a diesel engine. BANG
we could have trouble. Called dieseling and would not occur if the gas
was nitrogen.

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Figure 17 shows a typical gas/oil oleo with separator. It consists of an inner sliding
cylinder (plunger tube or piston) sliding inside an outer cylinder. The top of the inner
cylinder has a piston fitted with a flutter plate. Inside the inner sliding tube is a
floating piston or separator. Above the separator is oil, below is nitrogen.

The drawing shows torque links preventing axial rotation of the inner cylinder within
the outer cylinder. There are seals around the floating piston and between the inner
and outer cylinders.

There are oil filler plugs in the top of the unit (oil head) and a gas charging valve at
the bottom of the inner cylinder.

Operation (figure 17)

Weight Off Wheels. With the weight of the aircraft off the unit the gas pressure forces
the separator to the top of its cylinder forcing all the oil into the top of the unit and
extending the unit fully. In this condition the oil is at little or no pressure and the gas
is at its normal charge pressure (say 1200psi - 1.9MPa, but check the manual).

Landing. On landing the downward kinetic energy of the aircraft collapses the unit
forcing the sliding piston and piston head upwards. This forces the oil to pass
through all the ports in the piston head and force the separator down. This causes
the gas to compress and the pressure to rise (the pressure rises in both the oil and
the gas, but the oil total volume changes little). The compression of the gas absorbs
the shock of landing converting it to pressure energy and then to heat energy.

During the upward movement of the piston head the flutter valve is opened by the oil
flow allowing a moderately fast collapse of the oleo.

Recoil. At the end of the compression stroke when all the downward kinetic energy
has been converted to pressure energy, the pressure in the unit is greater than that
required to support the static weight of the aircraft and the unit will want to extend
rapidly. But this must not happen. The gas will expand forcing the separator up and
forcing fluid up through the ports. In so doing the flutter plate closes (assisted by the
spring). This restricts the flow of fluid to a limited number of holes (fluid ports) and
permits a comparatively slow rate of oleo extension – thus recoil is controlled.

Static Weight. The static weight of the aircraft is supported by the unit when it has
collapsed sufficiently so the internal pressure is enough to just balance the weight of
the aircraft acting through that leg.

In this condition the pressure in the oil is the same, or nearly so, as that in the gas. If
it was not then the separator would move.

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Fig. 17 GAS/OIL OLEO WITH SEPARATOR - OPERATION

- 30 -
GAS/OIL OLEO WITHOUT SEPARATOR

This type of unit is more popular with civil aircraft manufacturers. It is because it is
simpler with no separator. Without a separator there is a oil/gas interface and the
gas must be at the top with the oil underneath.

Fig. 18 GAS OIL OLEO WITHOUT SEPARATOR

Figure 18 shows an example taken from the A310. There should be no need to
remember the details (actual pressures etc) but you should remember the principle of
operation and the maintenance procedures.

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It consists of one sliding member inside another, with the inner member having a
restrictor head. A centre rod or metering tube slides within the restrictor head. On
some units the centre rod is tapered with no fluid port in the middle. The taper gives a
progressive deceleration of the unit as it collapses as less oil is able to squeeze past
the rod.

The centre tube of the unit shown is used to brake the end of the oleo’s extension
after take-off. Total travel for the shock absorber is 17.7 inches (45mm).

Valves are fitted (main valve and restrictor valve in the drawing) to control recoil.
These allow a reasonably fast collapse of the unit on landing but close to control the
rate of extension on recoil.

Operation

With the weight of the aircraft off the leg the gas pressure forces down on the oil
which fully extends the unit. On landing the unit is caused to telescope which forces
fluid from the bottom chamber to the top. The fluid will pass through the port in the
centre rod and through both open restrictor valves. Both the fluid and gas will
increase in pressure with the gas compressing in volume – this absorbs the shock.

On recoil the fluid is pushed by the gas downwards to move into the bottom of the
unit. This will cause both restrictor valves to close and fluid can only pass through
the small holes in the outer restrictor valve and the port in the centre rod – thus recoil
is controlled.

In the static weight condition the internal pressure times the circular internal area of
the unit equals the weight acting through that undercarriage leg.

”””””””

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