Chapter 7

Personality Stability

People show tendency to maintain distinctive patterns of behaviour throughout life.

Rank Order Consistency – Someone who is high In a particular trait relative to others is
likely to maintain this distinction from others consistently across the lifespan despite
fluctuations.

Evidence for stability

!0 years apart personality trait scores r = .60 and r = .90 (Hopwood et al, 2013)

“Adaptive” and “impulsive” elementary school children maintained these traits into
adulthood (Nave, Sherman &Funder, 2010)

Survivors of disasters maintain core personality traits (Milojev, Osbourn & Sibley, 2004)

Predictable life outcomes

More “inhibited” children slower to find love and job (Asendorpf, Denissen & Van Akker et
al, 2013) Reverse true for high in mastery, agreeableness (Shiner, Masten & Roberts, 2003)

“difficult” children have problems as adults (Van Akker, 2013)

Personality Disorders are stable (less than traits), therapy no difference (Ferguson, 2010;
Hopwood, 2013)

Causes of stability

From Temperament to Personality

Temperament – The personality one begins with – determined in some part by genes – can
direct later behavioural and emotional tendencies.

Heterotypic Continuity – Effects of tendancies change with age (Aggressive child no longer
kicks as adult but gets into shouting matches (Caspi & Roberts, 1999)

3 Basic aspects of temperament - +ve/-ve emotionality (linked to extraversion &

neiroticism) & effortful control (linked to conscientiousness & agreeableness)

Physical and environmental factors

Biological factors beyond your control coupled with social environmental and contextual
factors will influence personality, bio factors and reactions to them stay constant (height,
attractiveness etc)
Birth Order

Firstborn – more attention – identifies with parents values – becomes “assistant parent”
(Sulloway, 2000) – Establishment, ambitious traditional

Lateborn – Search for untaken role/ niche in family - independent, open minded, rebellious

Difficult to study due to confounding factors, different families.

Firstborn more conscientious than second born, second born higher in openness (healy &
ellis, 2007) Lateborn higher in extroversion, openness and agreeableness (Sulloway, 2010)
Small correlations

No correlation between birth order an rebelliousness (Cundiff, 2013)

Debate continues, controversial.

Early Experience

Childhood rejection by parents -> adult relationship difficulties (Khaleque & Rohner, 2012)

Childhood stress -> lifelong chronic inflammation -> frailty, fatigue, ill health (Fagundes
&Way, 2014) -> long tern tendancy -> stronger emotional reactions to ordinary daily stress
(glaser et al, 2006)

Too little stress also an issue -> Unprepared for life (Ellis & Thomas, 2008)

Older parents -> old is attractive (Heffernan & Fraley, 2013)

Person-Environment transactions

People respond to, seek out and create environments compatible with and magnifying of
their personality traits.

Active – Person seeks compatible & avoids incompatible (aggressive bar fighter, goes to
aggressive bars)

Reactive – Different people reacti differently to same env (Extrovert -> party good, Introvert
-> party Bad)

Evocative – Interaction between person and environment, Long term consequences of

these persistent patterns = significant (Conscientiousness influences the study group)

Cumulative continuity and Maturity

Cumulative continuity principle – individual differences in personality become more

consistent with age.
Traits change together, but also stay the same together – environments become more
stable with age “Settling down” (Briley & Tucker-Drob, 2014)

Also – Maturity – self-control, interpersonal stability & emotional stability. Adolescents

higher in these change less than those without them. (Donellan et al, 2007)

The End of history?

Most people think they won’t change, research says we develop through the lifespan.

Personality Development

Mean Level Change – Change in a trait cross the lifespan (eg increasing in agreeableness
with age) = personality development

Cross sectional Studies

People at different ages surveyed simultaneously. Different mean levels of Big Five
throughout life.

Young = more impulsive, rebellious, and undisciplined

Old = less impulsive, active, antagonistic, and open (Chan et al, 2012)

Mean trait levels reflects in developmental stages.

Cohort Effects

Are we measuring differences on traits because of age or historical context?

The great depression influenced attitudes and behaviours.

Longitudinal Studies

Same people measure across lifespan. Very Difficult.

Only slightly different to results from cross sectional.

People become more social dominant, agreeable, conscientious and emotionally stable over
time (Roberts et al , 2006)

Self-Esteem increases slowly from adolescence to about 50.

Ego development – Deal well with social/physical world – think for ones self moraly,
increased notable between 43 -61.
Maturity Principle – The traits needed to perform adult roles increase with age (Caspi et al,
2005) However, can decline later in life. But not always – highly motivated & conscientious
retirees keep working and keep living as a result.

Mean level – not everyone

Contradicts James (1890) – “Personality sets like plaster at age 30”

Causes of Personality Development

Physical development – Intelligence and linguistic ability – steady increase through

childhood. Hormone changes, Physical strength.

Social roles at different life stages – Freud & Erikson “life-span development” Childhood –
skills, Adulthood – relationships, old age – overview and assessment of life.

Cultural differences in life stage timing - Some cultures have first job earlier = earlier
increase in conscientiousness.

The Social Clock

Strong pressures on individuals to achieve certain things at certain ages.

Leads to feeling of approval and being ‘in sync’ with society and vice versa.

Feminine Social Clock – Family in early to mid 20s

Masculine Social Clock – Career for family by 28

Neither Social Clock – No schedule.

Women following MSC or FSC were happy.

Development of Narrative Identity

Dan McAdams (2013) – Who are you?

Actor: Traits and Roles – Develop skills to fit into society

Agent: Goals and Values – Plan for future outcome that are important to you (career,
partner values)

Author: Life Narratives - Life story – tell to others. = Narrative Identity

Cross-cultural differences – North America –“agency” challenge stories also “redemption”

stories – behaviour change (alcoholism)
Goals across the lifespan

Goals change over time –

When young – goals are future oriented.

When Old – goals are emotionally meaningful, better emotional regulation

Linked to perception of time left in life.

Personality Change

Definitely! But can it BE changed?

The Desire for Change

87-97% have a change they would like to change. (Mainly Neuroticism)

Always in socially desirable direction.

Desire for change matches desire for romantic partner.

Change was desired to make life better.

Four main methods of personality change:

1. Psychotherapy – leads to long term behaviour change. Combined with drugs like
Fluoxetine can increase extraversion and reduce anxiety/neuroticism.
2. General Interventions – Aimed at outcomes like completing education, lessening
criminal behaviour, and improving employment prospects. Expensive but
dramatically effective on life outcomes
3. Targeted Interventions -Specific traits targeted. Old men increased in openness
when this trait was intervened on. “self-affirmations” lead to lasting personality
changes. Anxiety reduction workshops in children reduced later neuroticism.
Narcissists can be taught empathy but don’t want to learn it. Self-control can be
taught and increase later conscientiousness,
4. Behaviours and life experiences – Exercise limits later decline and influences
stability positively. Drug behaviour – increases neuroticism. Unemployment
influences traits. Negative events increased neuroticism, but neuroticism also
increased negative events. Can happen at any stage of life. Working abroad
increased positive traits, raised self-esteem. Military builds conscientiousness etc.

Overcoming Obstacles to Change

Personality change is not easy.

 1. Most people like the way they are, desired trait change is not major but slight.
Change requires effort (undesirable).
2. Tendance to blame -Ve experience on external factors rather than own personality
3. People like their lives to be consistent and predictable.

Hennecke et al. Change Model

Principles of Personality Continuity and Change

Personality Change: Good or bad?

Both.

Downside – If someone is unstable, they will be avoided and have worse life outcomes. They
will also have difficulty directing their own life. Radical change associated with poor mental
and physical health.

Upside – It depends on what’s changing - lowering of neuroticism is good. Slow steady

change is best, accumulates into good habits.