Philippine Society of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering in Collaboration with the

Institute of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

College of Engineering and Agro-industrial Technology UP Los Baños

Online ABE Review Class 2021

FARM ELECTRIFICATION
Part 1

Engr. Mark Keylord S. Onal, MSc

August 2-7, 2021
What to expect?

Part 1 – Review of Basic Electrical Engineering

Part 2 – Review of Farm Electrification

Topic Outline for Part 1
• Some notable persons in the field of electricity
• System of unit
• Electrical charge
• Current
• Voltage
• Resistance
• Power in DC
• Voltage and current source
• Electrical network
• Series connection
• Parallel connection
• Voltage division
• Current division
Topic Outline for Part 1
• Delta and wye connection
• Kirchhoff’s law
• Branch current method
• Alternating current generation
• Waveform
• Phase relation
• RMS value
• Complex numbers
• Phasor method
• Power in AC
• Power factor
Topic Outline for Part 2
• Electricity
• Power transmission
• Conductors
• Electrical grounding
• Ground fault
• Overcurrent protective devices
• Electric motor
• Lighting
• Residential electrical planning
• Farmstead distribution system
• Standby Power Unit
References
- Catriz, R. L., Lecture Handouts in EE1 (Basic Electrical
Engineering). EED, CEAT, UPLB.
- Fajardo, M. B. Jr. and L. R. Fajardo. 1994. Electrical
Layout and Estimate. 2nd Ed. 5138 Merchandising.
- Gustafson, R. J. and M. T. Morgan. 2004.
Fundamentals of Electricity for Agriculture. 4th Ed.
ASAE.
- Philippine Electrical Code. 2000.
- Sclater, N. and J. E. Traister. 2003. Handbook of Electrical
Design Details. 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Schedule of Examination:

Source: https://www.prc.gov.ph/sites/default/files/PROGRAM%20OF%20ABE%20LICENSURE%20EXAMINATIONsept2021.pdf
Some Notable Persons in the Field of Electricity

Benjamin Franklin
- flew kites to demonstrate that lightning is a
form of static electricity
Alessandro Volta
- studied electrical capacitance, electrical
potential and charge; known for Volta’s Law of
Capacitance
Hans Christian Oersted
- demonstrated a relationship between
magnetism and electricity
Some Notable Persons in the Field of Electricity
Andre Marie Ampere
- known for Ampere’s Law which states that
mutual action of two lengths of current-carrying
wire is proportional to their lengths and intensities
of their currents
Georg Simon Ohm
- measure the motive force of electrical currents;
known for Ohm’s Law
Michael Faraday
- postulated that an electrical current moving
through a wire creates “fields of force”
surrounding the wire; built the first electric motor
and also the first transformer
Some Notable Persons in the Field of Electricity
Gustav Robert Kirchoff
- announced the laws which allow
calculation of the currents, voltages, and
resistance of electrical networks
Joseph Wilson Swan
- demonstrated his electric lamp in Britain;
the filament used carbon and had a partial
vacuum and preceded Edison’s
demonstration by six months
Thomas Alva Edison
- work on an electric lamp and sought a
material that could be electrically heated
to incandescence in a vacuum
Some Notable Persons in the Field of Electricity
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
- discovered X-rays
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
- demonstrated the existence of radio
waves
Nikola Tesla
- devised the polyphase alternating
current systems that form the modern
electrical power
Guglielmo Marconi
- “father of wireless”; believed that
telegraphic messages could be
transmitted without wires
Seven Base Quantities adopted by CGPM
Meter (m) – unit of length
• has its origin in August of 1793 when the Republican Government of
France decreed the unit of length to be 10-7 of the earth's quadrant
passing through Paris
• officially defined by the CGPM as the length of a platinum-iridium bar
at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France (1889)
• redefined by the CGPM to be equal to a certain wavelength of a
krypton86 radiation (1960)
• redefined as the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during
the time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second (1983)
• In 2019, it is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed
of light in vacuum c to be 299792458 when expressed in the unit
m⋅s−1, where the second is defined in terms of the caesium
frequency ΔνCs
Seven Base Quantities adopted by CGPM
Kilogram (kg) – unit of mass
• in 1668, suggested that a universal mass (or weight) unit could be
some well-defined volume of water
• in 1793, the Commission of Weights and Measures, appointed by
the French Academy of Sciences, decided that the unit of mass
would be a cubic decimetre of distilled water at 0°C.
• in 1879, a new kilogram prototype (known as the "IPK" or as the
“Grand K”) was made in a special alloy, 90% platinum and 10%
iridium
• in 2019, it is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of
the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when expressed in
the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−1, where the metre and the
second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs
Seven Base Quantities adopted by CGPM
Second (s) – unit of time
• defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day (1940s)
• defined as the fraction 1⁄31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900
January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time (1960)
• defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the caesium-133 atom (1967)
• in 1997, it was further specified that this definition refers to a caesium
atom at rest at a temperature of zero degree Kelvin (absolute zero)
• in 2019, It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium
frequency ΔνCs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition
frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed
in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1
Seven Base Quantities adopted by CGPM
Ampere (A) – unit of electric current
• the current that will deposit 0,00118 grams of silver per second
on the cathode of a silver nitrate electrolyser (1893)
• constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
and placed one meter apart in vacuum, would produce between
these conductors a force equal to 2×10−7 newton per metre of
length (1948)
• in 2019, it is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of
the elementary charge e to be 1.602176634×10−19 when
expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A⋅s, where the second is
defined in terms of ΔνCs
Seven Base Quantities adopted by CGPM

Kelvin (K) – unit of thermodynamic temperature

• the definition of the unit of thermodynamic temperature was
given by the 10th CGPM (1954) which selected the triple point of
water, TTPW, as a fundamental fixed point and assigned to it the
temperature 273.16 K, thereby defining the kelvin
• in 2019, it is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of
the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380 649 x 10 when expressed
–23

in the unit J K , which is equal to kg m s K , where the kilogram,

–1 2 –2 –1

metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and Δν . Cs

Seven Base Quantities adopted by CGPM
Candela (cd) – unit of luminous intensity
• in 1940, the unit of luminous intensity (new candle) was defined
in terms of the brightness of a blackbody radiator (Planckian
radiator) at the freezing temperature of platinum
• in 1948, the ‘new candle’ became the candela and its magnitude
was defined as the luminance of a full radiator at the temperature
of solidification of platinum is 60 candelas per square centimetre
• in 2019, it is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of
the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed in the unit lm W–1,
which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1 m–2 s3, where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ΔνCs
 Seven Base Quantities adopted by CGPM
Mole (mol) – unit of amount of substance
• in 1968, the mole is recommended for inclusion in
the International System of Units (SI) by the International
Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).
• in 1972, the mole is approved as the SI base unit of amount of
substance.
• in 2019, it is defined as the amount of substance of a system
that contains 6.02214076×1023 specified elementary. This
number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro
constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol–1 and is called the
Avogadro number.
Prefixes (for decimal multiples)

101 - deka (da) 10-1 - deci (d)

102 - hecto (h) 10-2 - centi (c)
103 - kilo (k) 10-3 - milli (m)
106 - mega (M) 10-6 - micro (μ)
109 - giga (G) 10-9 - nano (η)
1012 - tera (T) 10-12 - pico (p)
1015 - peta (P) 10-15 - femto (f)
1018 - exa (E) 10-18 - atto (a)
1021 - zetta (Z) 10-21 - zepto (z)
1024 - yotta (Y) 10-24 - yocto (y)
Electric Current

Example 1:

How many electrons pass through a conducting wire

in 2 minutes if the current flowing through it is 1 A?
Power

Example 2:
Resistance

Example 3:

What is the resistance of a copper conductor whose

diameter is 2.0 cm and length is 30 m?
Resistance

Example 4:

The tungsten filament of an incandescent bulb has an

equivalent resistance of 0.26 mΩ at 37oC. After being used
for several hours, the resistance is found to be 0.29 mΩ.
Determine the temperature of the coils at this time. The
temperature coefficient of tungsten at 37oC is 0.0045 oC-1.
Resistance

Example 5:

The resistivity of a copper rod 50 feet long and 0.25 inch

in diameter is 1.72 μΩ-cm at 20oC. What is its resistance
at -20oC?
Power

Example 6:

Determine the power absorbed by a DC motor if its

resistance is 26 Ω and is connected across a 12 V
battery.
Electrical Network
Example 7:
Series Connection

- components are connected end-to-end in a line to form

a single path for electrons to flow

•Voltage drops add to equal total

voltage.
•All components share the same
(equal) current.
•Resistance add to equal total
resistance.
Series Connection
Series Connection
Example 8:
Find the voltage drop across and current passing through
each resistors.
Series Connection

Example 9:

Four batteries with 1.5 V each were connected in series to

supply a toy car with equivalent resistance of 50 Ω. Each
battery has an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω. Determine the
effective voltage at the terminals of the load. What will
be the current that will flow through the circuit?
Voltage Division

Example 10:

Ten resistors are connected across a 12 V battery. The values

of the resistors are from 1-10 ohms each. Determine the total
resistance and the voltage across the 5 ohm resistor.
Parallel Connection

- all components are connected between the same set of

electrically common points

•All components share the same (equal)

voltage.
•Branch currents add to equal total
current.
•Resistances diminish to equal total
resistance.
Parallel Connection
Parallel Connection
Example 11:
Find the voltage drop across and current passing through
each resistors.
Parallel Connection

Example 12:

A 24 V DC source supplies power to different loads: 15 W fan,

10 W charging cellphone, and 12 W charging tablet. The
source has a 3 A fuse. If another load is plugged in the DC
source and takes 1 A, will the fuse blow?
Current Division

Example 13:

A car battery supplies power to some accessories. If the

total current supplied by the battery is 0.4 A, determine the
amount of current passing through a 30-ohm cd player if
the other loads connected to the battery are: 50-ohm
charging cellphone and 6-ohm fan.
Series-Parallel Circuit

Circuit where the last step in determining the total

resistance is using series connection
Parallel-Series Circuit

Circuit where the last step in determining the total

resistance is using parallel connection
Parallel-Series Circuit
Example 14:
Find the total resistance and the total current in the circuit.
All resistors have 3 Ω resistance.
Δ-Y and Y-Δ Conversions
Delta (Δ or mesh) Wye (Y or star)
Δ-Y and Y-Δ Conversions
Example 15:
Determine the total resistance.
 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- principle was observed by the German scientist Gustav

Robert Kirchhoff in 1845
- the sum of the voltages around a closed path is zero
- the sum of the voltage rise is equal to the sum of the
voltage drop in a closed path
 Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

𝑉1 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝐼𝑅2 − 𝐼𝑅3 − 𝑉2 − 𝐼𝑅4 = 0

 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

- the sum of the currents entering a node is

equal to the sum of the currents leaving that
node
 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒 − 𝑰𝟓 − 𝑰𝟔 = 𝟎
 Branch Current Method

In this method, we assume directions of currents in a

network, then write equations describing their
relationships to each other through Kirchhoff ’s and
Ohm’s Laws.

Once we have one equation for every unknown current,

we can solve the simultaneous equations and determine
all currents, and therefore all voltage drops in the
network.
 Branch Current Method

The first step is to choose a node (junction of wires) in the circuit to

use as a point of reference for our unknown currents
 Branch Current Method

At this node, guess which directions the three wires’ currents take,
labeling the three currents as I1, I2, and I3, respectively.
 Branch Current Method

If it turns out that any of our guesses were wrong, we will know
when we mathematically solve for the currents. (Negative sign)
 Branch Current Method

By Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)

-I1 + I2 - I3 = 0
 Branch Current Method

By Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Loop 1:-28 + I2R2 + I1R1 = 0 Loop 2: -2I2 + 7 - 1I3 = 0
 Branch Current Method
Three equations:
-I1 + I2 - I3 = 0 KCL
4I1 + 2I2 + 0I3 = 28 KVL
0I1 - 2I2 - 1I3 = -7 KVL
Solution: I1 = 5 A I2 = 4 A I3 = -1 A
Alternating Current (AC)
- voltage or current that changes polarity or direction,
respectively, over time.
- sources for alternating current(AC) systems include
rotating ac generators and alternators
 WAVEFORM

Instantaneous Value – the magnitude of a waveform at any instant time

Peak Value – the maximum instantaneous value of a function from the
zero-volt level
Peak-to-peak Value – the sum of the magnitudes of the positive and
negative peaks
Period – the time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic
waveform
Cycle – the portion of the waveform contained in one period of time
Frequency – the number of cycles that occur in one second
Waveform

Example 16:
Phase Relation

Example 17:
Root-mean-square Value

Example 18:
 Complex Numbers

A complex number represents a point in a 2D plane

located with reference to two distinct axes (the horizontal
axis is the real component or will later be called the
resistance axis and the vertical axis is the imaginary
component or will later be called the reactance axis)
There are many forms used to represent a complex
number, but two are common:
1. Rectangular Form
2. Polar Form
Note: we denote the imaginary number as j
 Mathematical Operation
Addition (+) and Subtraction (–)
- use rectangular form (x + jy)
- add/subtract real number
- add/subtract imaginary number
Multiplication (x) and Division (÷)
- use polar form (r / Ɵ)
- multiply/divide magnitude
- add angle in multiplication
- subtract angle in division
Reciprocal
1 1
𝑗
= −𝑗
−𝑗
=𝑗
Complex Numbers

Example 19:
Solve for the total voltage.
 Phasor Method
Resistor
Unaffected by frequency of the applied sinusoidal voltage
or current (up to a few hundred kHz).
 Phasor Method
Resistor

For a purely resistive network, the voltage across the

resistor is in phase with the current passing through it.
 Phasor Method
Inductor
The voltage across the inductor is related to the rate of
change of current passing through the coil. So, the higher
the frequency, the greater the rate of change of current and
the greater the magnitude of voltage.
 Phasor Method
Inductor

For a purely inductive network, the voltage across the

inductor is leading the current passing through it by 90°.
 Phasor Method
Capacitor
The current passing through the capacitor is related to
the rate of change of voltage across the plates. So, the
higher the frequency, the greater the rate of change of
voltage and the greater the magnitude of current.
 Phasor Method
Capacitor

For a purely capacitive network, the voltage across the

capacitor is lagging the current passing through it by
90°.
 Phasor Method

If a current leads a voltage, the circuit is said to

be a capacitive circuit, and if the voltage leads
the current, the circuit is an inductive circuit.
Inductive Reactance, XL
- is the opposition to current flow resulted in the
continual interchange of energy between the
source and the magnetic field of the inductor
- does not dissipate electrical energy like the
resistance

𝑿𝑳 = ω𝑳 = 𝟐π𝒇𝑳

where: XL – inductive reactance in ohm, Ω

f – frequency in hertz, Hz
L – inductance in henry, H
Capacitive Reactance, XC
- is the opposition to current flow resulted in the
continual interchange of energy between the
source and the electric field of the capacitor
- does not dissipate electrical energy like the
resistance.
𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝑪 = =
ω𝑪 𝟐π𝒇𝑪
where: XC – capacitive reactance in ohm, Ω
f – frequency in hertz, Hz
C – capacitance in farad, F
Phasor Method

Example 20:
Reactance, X
𝑿 = 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪
Impedance, Z
- is the total measure of opposition to electric current
and is the complex (vector) sum of (“real”) resistance
and (“imaginary”) reactance
- measured in ohms and are managed just like
resistances (R) in series and parallel circuits analysis
𝒁 = 𝑹 + 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿 𝑪 (series)
𝟏
𝒁= 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (parallel)
+ −
𝑹 𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑪
Impedance Diagram
Admittance, Y
- inverse of impedance, mho
Conductance, G
- inverse of resistance, mho
Susceptance, B
- inverse of reactance, mho
 Ohm’s Law in AC

𝐸 𝐸
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑍 𝐼= 𝑍=
𝑍 𝐼

All quantities expressed in complex form, not scalar.

Series resistor-inductor circuits

Example 21:
Compute for the voltage drops and currents along the
resistor and inductor.

rms
Parallel resistor-inductor circuits

Example 22:
Compute for the voltage drops and currents along the
resistor and inductor.

rms
Series resistor-capacitor circuits

Example 23:
Compute for the voltage drops and currents along the
resistor and capacitor.

rms
Parallel resistor-capacitor circuits

Example 24:
Compute for the voltage drops and currents along the
resistor and capacitor.

rms
 Power
Power dissipated by
a load is referred to
as true power.

True power is symbolized by the letter P and is measured

in the unit of Watts (W).
 Power
Power merely
absorbed and
returned in load due
to its reactive
properties is
referred to as
reactive power.

Reactive power is symbolized by the letter Q and is

measured in the unit of Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR).
 Power
Total power in an AC
circuit, both
dissipated and
absorbed/returned
is referred to as
apparent power.

Apparent power is symbolized by the letter S and is

measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA).
Power
These three types of
power are
trigonometrically
related to one
another.

The opposite angle

is equal to the
circuit’s impedance
(Z) phase angle.
 Power

True Power, P (Watts)

𝑬𝟐
𝑷= 𝑹

Reactive Power, Q (VAR, Volt-Amps-

Reactive)
𝑬𝟐
𝑸=
𝑿

Apparent Power, S (VA)

𝑬𝟐
𝑺 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒁 𝑺= 𝑺 = 𝑰𝑬
𝒁
 Power

Power Diagram
Resistive Circuit

Example 25:
Determine the true, reactive, and apparent power

rm
s
Reactive Circuit

Example 26:
Determine the true, reactive, and apparent power
Resistive-Reactive Circuit

Example 27:
Determine the true, reactive, and apparent power
 Power Factor, pf

- ratio of the magnitudes of actual power to the

apparent power
𝑃
𝑝𝑓 =
𝑆
- cosine of the angle between voltage and current
𝑝𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
- Can be leading or lagging, depending on the type of
circuit:
Lagging – inductive circuit
Leading – capacitive circuit
 Power Factor, pf

- For the purely resistive circuit, the power factor is 1

(perfect), because the reactive power equals zero.

- For the purely inductive circuit, the power factor is

zero, because true power equals zero.

- For a purely capacitive circuit, the true power must be

equal to zero, thus the power factor is zero, making
any power in the circuit purely reactive.
Power Factor
Example 28:
The loads of a plant on a 440-V, 60-Hz system includes the following:
(a) 5 kW and 5 kVars capacitive load,
(b) 15-kW heating load with a unity power factor,
(c) 12-kW induction motor with 0.7 p.f., and
(d) 5-kVA lighting load with a 0.85 lagging power factor.

Determine the total apparent power and the power factor of the
system.
 Power Factor Correction

Poor power factor can be corrected by adding

another load to the circuit drawing an equal and
opposite amount of reactive power, to cancel out
the effects of the load’s inductive reactance.
Power Factor Correction
Example 29:

Correct the power factor to 1.0.

rms
 Practical Power Factor Correction

If you have a wattmeter for measuring true

power, whose reading you can compare against a
calculation of apparent power (from multiplying
total voltage and total current measurements),
you can determine reactive power and power
factor.
 Practical Power Factor Correction

Addition of capacitors for power factor

improvement must be based on an economic
analysis of the particular situation. The rate of
return upon capacitor investment will depend
both on the structure of the power factor clause
and the present power factor.

Power factor improvements up to 90% are

generally economically practical.
Practical Power Factor Correction

Example 30:

The following measurements were recorded for an

electric arc welding machine:
Voltmeter: 230 Vrms
Ammeter: 100 A
Wattmeter: 13,800 W
What size of capacitor would be required to improve the
power factor to 0.95?
 Power Factor Correction

The operation of electrical systems at low power factors

increases transmission costs and reduces capacity. The
higher current drawn by low power factor loads cause
greater line losses during transmission which then
requires that larger conductors be used.

To encourage alleviation of such adverse conditions, utility

companies may institute power factor clauses in their rate
structure. These clauses may increase the electrical rates
for low power factors.
 Power Factor Correction

Addition of capacitors for power factor improvement

must be based on an economic analysis of the
particular situation. The rate of return upon capacitor
investment will depend both on the structure of the
power factor clause and the present power factor.

Power factor improvements up to 90% or 95% are

generally economically practical.
Power Factor Correction
Example 31:
Assume your power company (i.e. MERALCO) has a power factor
charge that increases the rate per kWh for any power factor below
0.95 as follows:

If you are using 7000 kWh per month at a power factor of 0.80 and a
base rate of PhP 11/kWh, how much could you save on energy cost
by correcting your power factor
to 0.95?