580 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUMELECTRONICS,VOL. QE-13, NO.

8 , AUGUST 1977

Detailed Calculations of Transient Effects in

Semiconductor Injection Lasers
M. J. ADAMS AND BEN THOMAS

Abstract-Detailed calculations have been carried out of time delay OF THE MODEL
11. DESCRIPTION
and Q-switching effects insemiconductor lasersusingamodel de-
scribedpreviously,incorporatingsaturableabsorption and lossof In mathematicalterms,themodel is describedbythree
opticalconfinement. Themodelhasbeen extended to include the nonlinear rate equations[2]: one for the electronconcen-
high-current limit on the Q-switching region and also the wavelength tration ( n ) responsiblefor lasing, onefortheelectroncon-
dependence of threshold currentingrating-controlledlasers. In addi- centration (n,) responsiblefor saturable absorption(which
tion, the full rateequationsfor the electronconcentrationsin the
lasingandabsorbingstatesandfor the photon concentrationin the may be associated with nonequilibrium distribution of carriers
lasing mode have been solved by integration in the time domain using in energy-band-tailstates [ l ] - [6], andoneforthe lasing
aRunge-Kuttanumericalprocedure.Theresultsillustrateinarela- photon population ( N ) , assumed single mode. We may write
tivelysimpleform the complicatedprocessesoccurring during long these equations as (t = time)
time delays, abnormal time delays,and Q-switching.
dn n
- = p - - - g(n)N - An(N, - n,)
dt re
I. INTRODUCTION

T HE OBJECT of the presentcontribution is to give the

results of detailed calculations oftime delay and Q-
switchingbehavior in semiconductor lasers. Themodel
dN
- = g(n)N - bN(N, - n,) - L (n)N + rSpon (3)
dt
usedas a basis for these calculations consists of a saturable
absorption mechanism due to electron states other than those where P is the pumping rate, 7, the lifetime of electrons in
responsible forthe lasing, togetherwitha loss ofoptical the conduction band, 7 t the lifetime of electrons responsible
confinement.Thismodelanditsdevelopment have been for absorption, N , the total concentration of states available
described previously in a series of papers [ 11 - [6] and various for absorption, b the rate coefficient for absorbing transitions,
aspects of it havereceived experimentalconfirmationfrom A the rate coefficient for filling thesestatesfromthecon-
other sources [7] - [ l o ] . duction band, and rspon the rate of spontaneous emission to
Specifically, new results included in thepresentwork are the lasing mode. The notation g(n) refers to the lasing gain,
the following. which is afunctionofconcentration n , and, similarly, the
1)Extension of themodel to includethehigh-current term L ( n ) refers to diffraction loss ofthe waveguide. We
limit on the Q-switching region; this comes about as a result discuss these two terms in more detail below.
ofa partial restorationofopticalconfinementdue to an
imaginary(“gain-guiding”) dielectric discontinuityathigher A . The Loss Term L(n)
currents.
2) Extension of the model to successfully account for the For simplicity, we consider here only single-heterostructure
wavelength dependence of threshold current in antireflection- (SH) lasers, although similar considerations can be applied to
coated lasers operated in grating-controlledexternal cavities other lasers showing delays, includinghomostructures [ l ] ,
[ l o ] , [ l l ] ; this isachieved byincorporatingthephoton- [12], electron-beam pumped lasers [13], and external-cavity-
energy dependence ofgain and diffractionloss in the model. controlled devices [lo], [ 111. In SH devices of suitable active
3) Numerical solution of the rate equations describing the region width and substrate doping level, there is a superlinear
model; this has the twofold result of a) confirming previous dependence of loss on concentration n [4], [6] - [8] as a result
results found from approximate solutions, and b) illustrating of a loss of optical confinement at high currents. However, it
in a particularly vivid waythe detailed behavior of photon has been predicted [14] that at even higher currents a partial
and electron populationsin the device. restorationofconfinementcouldoccur.Thiswouldbedue
to the dominance of the imaginary part of the dielectric pro-
Manuscript received November 1 , 1976. fileover the real-part “antiguiding” effect, and issimilar to
M. J. Adamsiswith the Department of Electronics, The University the gain-guiding process that has been shown t o successfully
of Southampton,Southampton SO9 5NH, England. account for stripe-geometry confinement effects [ 151 - [ 171.
B. ThomasiswiththeDepartmentofAppliedPhysics,Electronics
andElectricalEngineering,UniversityofWalesInstitute of Science A calculated curve of loss as a function of concentration is
and Technology, Cardiff CF1 3NU, Wales. shown in Fig. 1. This curve illustrates first thedegradation
ADAMS AND THOMAS: TRANSIENT EFFECTS IN INJECTION LASERS 581

Fig. 2. Analyticalapproximationfor the diffraction loss versus con-

centration curve, as found from(4).

Fig. 1. Diffraction loss versusinjectedcarrier concentrationforan

SH laser, as calculated from a complexdielectric-waveguide model 111. APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS
OF THE RATE
~ 4 1 . EQUATIONS
The techniques for approximate solution of the rate equa-
of optical confinement (n = 4 X IOl7 - 8 X 1017 ~ m - and ~ )tions (1)-(3) have been given in some detail previously [2],
later the partial restoration thereof (n = 8 X IOl7 - 1.6 X 10" [6] and will therefore not be repeated here. Instead we pre-
crn-'). We have already pointed out [6] that a concentration- sent the principal new results that have not beenreported
dependent loss curve, such as that of Fig. 1, can explain the before. Fig. 3 shows the calculatedthreshold-temperature
complete form of S-shaped Q-switching loops in the current- plot for an SH laser whoseparameters are given in Table I.
temperatureplane[12]. Hencewe take as amodelforthe The new result here is the existence of an upper bound to the
loss term L (n) the analytical forms Q-switch region, leading to the characteristic S-shape which
has been observed experimentally [ 121 , This effect is further
u + un2, n <N 1 demonstratedbythe curves oftimedelay versus electron
L ( n ) = u1 + u l (N2 - n y , N1 < n < N , concentration n (or equivalentlyinjected current) shown in
Fig. 4 for various temperatures. For temperatures just below
L , n >N2. (4) the "triple-point'' temperature T,, the delay isseen to first
A plot of L versus n from (4) is given in Fig. 2 for the param- decreasewithincreasingcurrent(longtimedelaydue to
eter numerical values of Table I. It isclear from Fig. 2 that saturable absorption), then to increase with further increase
the analytical expressions (4) form a useful approximation to of current (abnormal time delays due to loss of guiding), and
thecomputed curve of Fig. 1. From earlier calculations it subsequently to decrease again (at first, long time delays due
was foundthatthedependenceofdiffraction loss ontem- to saturableabsorption,andathighercurrents,merelyin-
perature and other relevant parameters is not as important as trinsic delaysdue to populationinversion [181). Attem-
the corresponding dependenceofthe
, gain function g(n). peratures above T,, however,onlythe last form of delay is
Hence theparameters u , u , u l , u' appearing in (4) willbe possible. For
temperatures belowthe
minimum for
Q-
assumedconstant in subsequent calculations, withtheex- switching, on the other hand, only the first kind of delay is
ception of the case of cavity-controlled lasers (Section IV-B possible. To clarify this situation further wehave included
below) where an explicit dependence on photon energy must on Fig. 3 the curves for zero time delay,thus defining the
be included. shaded region where delays (of various types) can occur.

B. The Gain Term g(n) Iv. DELAYSIN CAVITY-CONTROLLED LASERS

A linear dependence of gain on concentration n is assumed,
together with a T-3 dependence on temperature T , as in our
earlier work [6]
This form of the gain term is found to be adequate to deal
with the effects considered here. However, it will be neces-
sary to include a photon-energy dependence when discussing
the behavior of cavity-controlledlasers below, Section IV-A.
The results reported by Rossi et al. [lo], [ 1 11 on lasers with
antireflection coatings operated in grating-controlled external
cavities may also be explained by our model. Basically, these
results show the dependence of gain profile on photon energy
in the formofa fairly restricted wavelength range where
lasing is permitted (albeit delayed), flanked by a regionof high
thresholds,abnormal delays, and&-switching onthelow-
energy side, and a region of more gradually increasing thresh-
olds onthehigh-energy side. Inorder to accountforthese
results, we must incorporate the wavelength dependence into
our loss and gain terms L(n) and g(n) in (1)-(3).
582 IEEE JOURNAL O F QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. QE-13, NO. 8, AUGUST 1 9 7 7

TABLE I
sym:>n1 Meaning V a l ile

LLIL. .I j fetirne for condrrction-band electrons

l i f e t i m e for electrons in absorhi.ncj

states (possibly i n band t a i l s )

n c
raoteei f i c i e r t f o r f i l l i n g absorbing
s?ates with conduction-bald electrons

b coefficient
rate for absorbing transition.;

total concentration of available absorbing

Nt
states

r spontaneous emission r a t e into l a s i n ? mode

span

c cocfiicient i n expression
gain (5)

U concentration-independent optical loss

(10~1 currents)

1
I1 conccntra:ion-independent o p t i c a l loss
( h i g h curr<mts)

concentrat ion at rvh’ch op?i.cal loss

I’J1
i s maxi m~ov

x. concentration a t which optical. l o s s

bcco?,es r o n s t v t , cluc to imagjnary
d j a l c c + r i c w,T,cguide effect

A. Wavelength-DependentGain Term B. Wavelength-Dependent Loss Terms

For the wavelength-dependence of g(n) we use an exponen-
tial dependence as derived by Adams [ 191 for an exponential
band-tail model, but sincegiven further validity by indepen-
dent experimentalobservations [20]. Inthis case, the gain
g(n) is replaced by g1(n),where
Since the wavelength dependence of theconcentration-
independentdiffraction loss comes ultimatelyfrom that of
the absorption in the n-type passive layer of an SH laser, it
seems reasonable to again assume an exponential dependence.
Hence u , u1 in (4) are replaced by u l , ui ,where

In thisexpression, Eo is a characteristicband-tailingparam- In thisexpression, EA has been thus designated to indicate

eter [ 191, [20] and El is an effective energy gap that is that it is in general distinct from Eo in (6), and E2 isagain
permitted to have the temperature dependence of the energy an effective energy gap assumed to have thetemperature
gap in GaAs’’ dependence as in (7).
In addition, it is necessary to accountfor the wavelength
5.8 x T* dependence of the saturableabsorption that weassume to
E l (eV)a - , Tin K.
(T + 300) take place in the active region. Againusing anexponential
ADAMS AND THOMAS:TRANSIENTEFFECTSININJECTIONLASERS 583

TABLE I1
symbol Value

15 meV
Eo

rt

I I I I
260 280 300 320 T (K) 340 Other parameter values as i n Table I .

Fig. 3. Calculated injected electron concentration versus temperature,

showing the thresholds for lasing and Q switching, together with the
zero-delay curves.

I I
1.38 1.36
I I
1.40 1.42
I
E (eV)
Fig. 5 . Calculated dependence of threshold injected concentration on
lasing photon energy for cavity-controlled lasers using the parameters
of Table 11.

Fig. 4. Calculateddependence of timedelayandinjectedelectron

concentration at various temperatures nearthe triple pointTt.

law,wemodel thiseffectbyreplacingthe coefficient b in

(1)-(3) by b’ ,where

b t b ’ =bexp
(-
‘ioE3)
Here Eo is again the same tailing parameter asused for the
gain term in (6), whereas the effective gap E3 may be different
for these transitionsto that for thelasing line ( E l ) .
C. Results 1-38 1-40 E (eV)

We presentherethe results ofincludingtheenergyand Fig. 6 . Calculateddependenceofthreshold on lasing photon energy

temperature dependence via (6)-(9) as applied t o cavity con- for cavity-controlled lasers using the parameters of Table 11, showing
temperature dependence.
trolled lasersusing the parameter valuesgiven in Table 11.
Fig. 5 represents thetypicalformofthethreshold-energy
plotfortemperaturesnear Tt. This result, which is in ex- areaofabnormaltimedelaysand is surmountedbya Q-
cellent agreement with experimental observations, shows the switching region.
increaseof thethresholdwithphotonenergy on the right- Theagreementwithexperimental results is further rein-
hand side (RHS), together with a typical “toe-shaped” region forcedby thetemperaturedependenceofthethreshold-
on the left-hand side (LHS). This latter region delineates an energy plots, as illustrated by Fig. 6. Herewe demonstrate
584 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. QE-13, NO. 8, AUGUST 1977

IC

10

4 N
a-pulsl

10

1c I I I
0 10 20
30 t (nsl

Fig. 7. Numericalsolution of (1)-(3) showing temporalevolution Fig. 8. Computed temporal evolution ofn, n t , and N for a 40-11ssquare
of the carrier concentration n and nt, and the photon density N in pulse with n/nth = 2.7, so that Q switching occurs.
a single mode for a40-11s square current pulse; n/nth
= 2.

are equal to the gain, the photon density increases dramati-

the remarkableagreementofthemodelwithexperimental cally and, after a few very fast spikes, settles down to a con-
findings in that a)as thetemperature increases, the curve stant output level. At the same time, the rest of the available
shifts to lower energies and higher concentrations; b) as the tail states are rapidly filled, and the conduction-band electron
temperature increases, the high-energy side shifts faster than concentrationdepletessharply to the level requiredbythe
the low-energy side, leading to anarrowingof the lasing reducedoptical losses. Thereafter, for the remainder of the
region; c) abovea characteristic temperature the toe-shaped currentpulse all concentrations are constant. On switchoff
region disappears. thephoton densitydepletesalmostimmediately,thenthe
In the light of the results given in Figs. 5 and 6, we submit electron concentration in the conduction band (in a matter
that the present model fulfils the requirements for “a quan- of nanoseconds), and finally the tail electrons (over a relatively
titative treatment” noted by Rossi et al. [lo] at the end of long period), as one would expect for the lifetimes involved
their summary ofthe experimental results. (of the orderofpicoseconds,nanoseconds,andtenths of
microseconds, respectively). Thecomputed valueof delay
V. NUMERICALSOLUTIONOF THE RATE EQUATIONS for this case where jljth = 2 is 29 ns, while that given by the
It is of interest to ask how accurate the approximate solu- approximate solution, which ignores the time for buildup of
tions of (1)-(3) are; as a check on their validity, a computer thephotondensity, is 27 ns. A similarlevel ofagreement
program was devised to solve the full set of coupled nonlinear with the approximate solutions is found for other computed
differential equations by integration in the time domain using solutionswith other parameter values. Fig. 8 showsthe
a Runge-Kutta numerical procedure.’ The results are relevant computed solution for a jljthratio of 2.7, so that Q-switching
not only because they consolidate the approximations used, occurs, as predicted by the approximate solution. Again the
but alsosince they illustrate in a relatively simple form the variation of n and n, is as before, and here the photon density
complicatedprocessesoccurringduring the delaysand in N appears only as a short @switchedpulse occurring less than
Q-switched pulses. Fig. 7 shows the development of electron 200 ps after the end of the current pulse. The width of the
-
populations both in the main conduction band and in the tail, spike is 100 ps,in agreementwithexperimentalobserva-
and of the photon density in a simple lasing mode, during a tions inas far as this widthmaybeestimatedfromthe
40-ns square current pulse. During the delay, the electron con- measurements.
centration in the main conduction band is constant (after a VI. CONCLUSION
brief buildup time), while the concentration of electrons in
Thegenerallygood level ofagreementwithexperiment
the tail increases steadily via the nonradiative filling mecha-
foundfromeachaspect of ourmodellendsconfidence in
nism. When sufficient electrons are in the tail that the losses
presenting the generaltheoryof 1) saturable absorption via
impuritytail-states,and 2) superlinear loss dependence on
IIt may be of interest to note that for each nanosecond of simulated
time, a minute of real computing time was required t o obtain the nec- carrier concentration due to decrease of waveguiding eff-
essary accuracy on an ICL 4-70 machine. ciency.From thenatureofthetheory,it isclear that in
IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS,
VOL. QE-13, NO. 8 , AUGUST 1977
order to avoid delays, Q switching,and other effects, it is
desirable to design lasers with high values of critical tem-
perature Tc. This is already the position in doublehetero-
structures, since the good optical guiding and low diffraction
losses ensurelowthresholdsandminimal delays. Forhigh-
power single-heterostructure lasers, the design would involve
an optimum active region thickness to avoid diffraction
losses, anda sufficiently highdoping level in then-type
substrate to produce the densityof states in the impurity band
tail necessary to sustain laser action even at high output levels.
It is also of interest t o recognize that Q switching is a process
that is undersome degree ofcontrol via thetemperature
andcurrentdependences,andmay not alwaysbeentirely
undesirable, particularly when some applications (e.g., optical
communicationsby PWM [22] or PCM [23]) require ex-
tremely short, high-intensitylaser pulses.
REFERENCES
[ l ] M. J. Adams, S. Griindorfer, B. Thomas, C. F. L. Davies, and
D. Mistry, “Time delays and Q-switching in homostructure and
heterostructureinjection lasers,” IEEE J . QuantumElectron.,
vol. QE-9, pp. 328-337, Feb. 1973.
[2] S . Grundorferand M. J. Adams, “Theoreticalconsiderations of
time delays in semiconductor lasers,” IEEE J . Quantum Electron.,
V O ~ QE-9,
. pp. 814-819, Aug. 1973.
[3] B. Thomas, D. Mistry,and C. F. L. Davies, “Thetemperature
dependenceofspectral emission fromsemiconductor lasers
showinglong timedelays,” IEEE J. QuantumElectron., vol.
QE-10, pp. 401-405, Apr. 1974.
[4] S . Griindorfer, M. J. Adams, and B. Thomas, “New theory of
internalQ-switchinginsemiconductor lasers,” Electron.Lett.,
V O ~ .10, pp. 354-356, Aug. 1974.
[ 5 ] -, “H-pulsing: A transienteffectin GaAs/Ga,Al,-,As in-
jectionlasers,” IEEE J . QuantumElectron., vol. QE-11,pp.
532-538, July 1975.
[6] B. Thomas, M. J. Adams,and S. Griindorfer, “A comprehensive
model for Q-switching in semiconductor lasers,” IEEE J. Quan-
tum Electron., vol. QE-11, pp. 528-532, July 1975.
[7] P. R. Selway, G. H. B. Thompson, G. D. Henshall, and J. E. A.
Whiteaway, “Measurement of the effect of injected carriers on
thep-nrefractiveindexstepin single heterostructurediode
lasers,” Electron. Lett.,vol. 10, pp. 453-455, Oct. 1974.
An improved Liquid-Phase-Epitaxial Growth Method
for GaAs-(Ga, AI)As Double Heterostructures
K. AKITA, Y. NISHITANI, K. NAKAJIMA, A. YAMAGUCHI, T. KUSUNOKI, T. KOTANI, H.IMAI, MEMBER IEEE,
M. TAKUSAGAWA, AND 0.RYUZAN
Abstract-Anew growth method of GaAs-(Ga, Al)As multilayer, in
which the solid surface is always covered by a melt during the growth
Of is proposed, and laser chaaCtefistics Of wafeIS gown
this method are presented.
Manuscript received
November 1, 1976.
The authors are with the Fujitsu Laboratories, Ltd., Kawasaki, Japan.
585
[8] G. H. B. Thompson, P. R. Selway, G. D. Henshall, and J. E. A.
Whiteaway, “Roleofoptical guidingin critical temperature
behaviour, delays and Q-switching in single heterostructure
GaAsl(GaA1)Aslasers,” Electron.Lett., vol. 10, pp. 456-457,
Oct. 1974.
[9] H. Minden and R. Premo, “High temperature GaAs single hetero-
structure laser diodes,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 45, pp. 4520-4527,
Oct. 1974.
[ l o ] J. A. Rossi, J. J. Hsieh, and H. Heckscher, “The gain profiie and
time-delayeffectsinexternal-cavity-controlled GaAs lasers,”
IEEE J. QuantumElectron., vol. QE-11,pp.538-545,July
1975.
[ 111 J. A. Rossi, H. Heckscher, G. E.Stillman,and S. R.Chinn,
“Timedelays in external-cavity-controlled GaAsl-,Al,As
single heterostructure diode lasers,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 23,
pp. 254-256, Sept. 1973.
[12] J. E. Ripper and J. C. Dyment, “Internal Q-switching in GaAs
junction lasers,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 12, pp. 365-367, June
1968.
[13] A. Masuyama, M. Kawabe, K. Masuda, and S. Namba, “Internal
Q-switching in n-type GaAslasers under electron beam excita-
tion,’’ Japan. J . Appl.Phys., vol. 10, pp.1281-1282,Sept.
1971.
[ 141 M. Cross and M. J. Adams, “Effects of doping and free carriers
on therefractiveindexofdirect-gapsemiconductors,”Opto-
Electron., vol. 6, pp. 199-216, May 1974.
[15] W. 0. Schlosser,“Gain-inducedmodesinplanarstructures,”
Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 52, pp. 887-905, July 1973.
[16] F. R.Nash,“Mode guidance parallel tothejunction plane of
double-heterostructure GaAslasers,” J. Appl.Phys., vol. 44,
pp. 4696-4707, Oct. 1973.
[17] D. D. Cook and F. R. Nash, “Gain-inducedguidingand astig-
matic output beamofGaAslasers,” J. Appl.Phys., vol. 46,
pp. 1660-1672, Apr. 1975.
[18] K. Konnerthand C. Lanza, “Delay betweencurrentpulseand
lightemissionof a gallium arsenideinjectionlaser,”Appl.
Phys. Lett., vol. 4, pp. 120-121, Apr. 1964.
[19] M. J. Adams, “Theoretical effects of exponential band tails on
the properties of theinjectionlaser,” Solid-stateElectron.,
V O ~ .12, pp. 661-669, Aug. 1969.
[20]F. K. Reinhart, 1. Hayashi,and M. B. Panish, “On themode
reflectivityand the waveguide propertiesofdoublehetero-
structureinjectionlasers,” J. Appl.Phys., vol. 42, pp.4466-
4479, Oct. 1971.
[21] Y. P. Varshni,“Temperaturedependence of theenergygapin
semiconductors,” Physica,vol. 34, pp. 149-154, 1967.
[22] G. E. Fenner, U.S. Patent 3 478 280, 1969.
[23] J. C. Dyment and J. E. Ripper, US.Patent 3 688 388, 1972.
I Nthe liquid-phase-epitaxial (LPE) growth ofGaAs-(Ga,
AI)& multilayers, there are still some problems, such as the
contaminationofeachlayersurfacedue to oxidation.Alferov
et ai. [ l ] and Horikoshi [2] reported growth boats in which
the
melt on
the
substrate was washed away and
replaced
by the
next melt. The authors previously reported a sliding boat [3]