Explosives Engineering José A.

Sanchidrián

Explosives Engineering

Principles of
explosives behavior

Detonation theory
Natura non facit saltus
(Lucretius Caro, 98 BC-55 BC)
The ideal detonation
Plane, one-dimensional, steady. The reaction takes place instantaneously at
the shock passing.

PRODUCTS EXPLOSIVE

 
D 0
P P0
u u0
e e0

Detonation front

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Conservation equations in a shock (Hugoniot-Rankine)

William John Macquorn Rankine Pierre Henri Hugoniot

(Edinburg, 1820 – Glasgow, 1872) (Allenjoie, 1851 – Nantes, 1887)
On the thermodynamic theory of waves of Sur la propagation du mouvement dans les corps
finite longitudinal disturbance, Philos. Trans. et specialement dans les gaz parfaits, I y II, J. Ec.
160, part II, 277-288 (1870). Polytech. 57, 3-97 (1887) y 58, 1-125 (1889).

b a

 
0
PRODUCTOS e e0 EXPLOSIVO

D -u D - u0

P P0

Conservation equations in a shock (Hugoniot-Rankine)

Mass: m o = m   o A( D  u o) = A( D  u )   o ( D  u o) =  ( D  u )

Momentum: m [( D  u )]  m o [( D  u o )] = ( P  Po ) A 

P  P o =  o ( D  u o)(u  u o)

Energy:  ( e+ ec )  m
m  o ( eo + eco ) = W+Q
1 2
ec u
2
W=PA[( D  u )]+( Po) A [( D  u o)] = A [ Po ( D  u o)  P ( D  u )]
1
e  eo = ( P+ P o)(v o  v) [v = 1/
2
b a

 
0
PRODUCTOS e e0 EXPLOSIVO

D -u D - u0

P P0

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

The Hugoniot-Rankine curve

1
𝑒 𝑃, 𝑣 𝑒 𝑃 𝑃 𝑣 𝑣 ↔ ℋ 𝑃, 𝑣 0
2

P
From the conservation equations of
Rayleigh line mass and momentum (with u0=0)
2
P- Po  D P>P0 v < v0
=  
v- v o  vo 

Hugoniot
v cte
Non-reactive Hugoniot
(inert material shock properties)
  02 D 2
P0
If there is no reaction but only shock, the
Hugoniot-Rankine relations still apply and: v0 v
1
𝑒 𝑃, 𝑣 𝑒 𝑃 ,𝑣 𝑃 𝑃 𝑣 𝑣
2

CJ detonation

2
Tangency of Rayleigh and Hugoniot:  P  P  Po  D
     
 v  H v  v o  vo

P Hugoniot Data: Unknowns: Equations:

Isentrope 0  Mass
u0 u Momentum
Rayleigh line P0 P Energy
CJ e0 e State
D CJ Condition
D minimum v const
  02 D 2
P0

v0 v

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

CJ detonation

David Leonard Chapman

(Wells, Norfolk, 1869 – Oxford, 1958)
On the rate of explosion in gases, Philosophical
Magazine 47, 90 - 104 (1899)
P Hugoniot
Isentrope Jacques Charles Emile Jouguet
(Bessèges, 1871 – Montpellier, 1943)
Sur la propagation des réactions chimiques dans les gaz,
Rayleigh line Journal des Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées 1, 347 -
CJ 425 (1905), followed in Vol. 2, 5 - 85 (1906)
D minimum v cte
 D2
0
2

P0

v0 v

CJ detonation

Some useful relations in the CJ state

Adiabatic coefficient:   ln P 
=  
  ln v  S

v  P  CJ v  P  v P  Po
       CJ ≈ 3
P  v  S P  v  H P v  vo

Neglecting P0 compared with P:

 o D2
P=
 1
  1
v = vo ó  = o
 1 
D
u=
 1
8

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

CJ detonation

Some useful expressions in the CJ state (cont.):

Sound velocity of the detonation products

 P  1  P  CJ 
c2 =   =  2   c= D
   S   v  S  1
D
u=
 1 c = Du

The detonation products, with a velocity u in the detonation direction, look at the
detonation as it moves away at a velocity Du, i.e. the sound velocity in them.

PRODUCTS EXPLOSIVE

u D=c+u

‘Borehole’ pressure

P Hugoniot
Isentrope Explosive
vE : explosive volume
(= blasthole volumen)

CJ

v const dB (=dE)
Rayleigh line P
PE  CJ
P0 2
  02 D 2

v0=vE v

If the charge fills the borehole, the detonation

products must expand to the initial volume to
pressurize the rock. The pressure at constant
volume is approximately half of the CJ pressure.
10

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

‘Borehole’ pressure

P Hugoniot Explosivo
Isentrope vE : explosive volume
vB : borehole volume

CJ
dE
v cte
dB
Rayleigh line PCJ
PE  
2  vE 
P0  
P E v E = P B v B  P B = P E  
 D 2
0
2
 vB 
2
 dE 
P B = P E  
v0=vE vB v  dB 
  1,2
2 ,4
 dE 
PB  PE  
If the charge fills the borehole, the detonation  dB
products must expand to the initial volume to If the charge is decoupled,
pressurize the rock. The pressure at constant the products must expand
volume is approximately half of the CJ pressure. to the borehole volume.
11

Finite reaction zone. The ZND model

The chemical reaction takes place in a ‘reaction zone’ after

the precursor shock that initiates the reaction.
T
 Reaction zone width:
P • <1 mm in high, homogeneous
 explosives
u
• Some cm in heterogeneous
explosives

PRODUCTS REACTION ZONE EXPLOSIVE

Reaction completed Shock

CJ plane Von Neumann spike
12

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Finite reaction zone. The ZND model

ZND: Zeldovich, von Neumann, Döring

Janos (Johann-John) von Neumann

Yakov Borisovich Zel´dovich
(Minsk, 1914 – Moscow, 1987)
On the theory of the propagation of
detonations on gaseous systems, J. Exper.
Theor. Phys. (USSR) 10: 542-568 (1940).
(Budapest, 1903 – Washington, DC, 1957)
Theory of detonation waves, Office of Scientific
Research and Development Report No. 549, Ballistic
Research Laboratory File No. X-122,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland (1942).

Werner Döring
(Berlin, 1911 – Malente, 2006)
Über den Detonationsvorgang in Gasen
[On the detonation process in gases],
Annalen der Physik 43: 421-436 (1943). 13

Finite reaction zone. The ZND model

Shock + reaction zone progress in a steady form:

The conservation equations apply

Energy equation:
1
e( P,v, )  eo ( Po , v o ) = ( P  Po )( v o  v )
2
Degree of reaction

Letting the heat of explosion explicit:

1
e( P,v, )  e( Po , v o , ) = ( P  Po )( v o  v )   Q v
2
14

Principles of explosives behavior 7

Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Finite reaction zone. The ZND model

1
e( P,v, )  e( Po ,v o , ) = ( P  Po )( v o  v )   Q v
P 2
Von Neumann spike
CJ detonation

CJ
C
The reaction completes
C'
Hugoniot =1
=1
Partial reaction hugoniots
=0,6 (possible states of the
022D22 products in the reaction zone)
P0 =0
 2 D'2
v0 v

15

Finite reaction zone. The ZND model

1
e( P,v, )  e( Po ,v o , ) = ( P  Po )( v o  v )   Q v
P N von Neumann spike 2

=1 Strong detonation

ꞏF
The reaction completes

ꞏ
=0 D

P0 O

v0 v

16

Principles of explosives behavior 8

Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Finite reaction zone. The ZND model

P N

=1
Requires degree
of reaction >1

ꞏF

ꞏ
=0 Weak detonation
D
Requires a finite
reaction rate in the
initial state, before the
explosive is shocked.

P0 O No feasible mechanisms
lead to a weak detonation
v0 v

17

Finite reaction zone. The ZND model

The ZND model can somewhat explain why non-

P
ideal explosives show lower detonation velocity
than predicted by the ideal detonation model.

C (ideal, =1)

C' (non-ideal, )

=1

=0,6

0 D
22D22
=0
P0
2 D'02D’2
v0 v

18

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Explosives properties

 Energy
 Pressure
 Velocity of detonation
 Generally affected by proper use

Energy
Energy is usually the measure of strength
Energy can be measured in absolute or relative from by many test
methods, none of them relevant these days in practical terms for
civil explosives:
· Calorimetric bomb
· Lead block (Trauzl) test
· Ballistic mortar
· Underwater test
· Cylinder test

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Energy rating done based on

calculated parameters
Np

Heat of explosion: Qv  Eo   n E
i 1
i
o
fi

v 1 2
Useful work: Wu   Pdv  uCJ
vCJ 2

. CJ

  02 D 2 Wu
P0
v0 v

Energy calculations
Explosive ΔΕf  Qv Wu (1 bar)
kJ/kg kg/m3 kJ/kg kJ/kg
Gelatin -3548 1450 4094 4113
ANFO-1 -4249 776 3844 3851
ANFO-2 -4267 902 3885 3921
ANFO-3 -4261 850 3847 3852
ANFO-Al -4012 910 4945 4892
Emulsion -5929 890 3228 3229
1130 3232 3232
Emulsion/ANFO 80/20 -5565 1260 3424 3425
blend
1140 3424 3425
810 3420 3424
750 3420 3424

Heat of explosion and useful work to 1 bar are basically

the same (differences due to calculation inaccuracies)

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Energy – heat and work

5000
ANFO-Al

4500

Dynamite
Wu (kJ/kg)

4000
ANFO

Emulsions
3500
Blends

Straight
3000
3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Qv (kJ/kg)

Energy – heat and work

4500 45000

4000 Heat of explosion 40000

Wu
3500 35000

3000 30000
Wu [kJ/kg]

The explosive delivers work in rock blasting down to a certain pressure

2500 25000
P [bar]

[e.g. 200 to 1000 bar (?)]

2000 [Mohanty (1981), Cunningham & Sarracino (1990), Persson et al. (1994), 20000
Katsabanis & Workman (1998), Spathis (1999), Cunningham (2002), …]

1500 15000

1000 10000

500 Anfo "Nagolita" 5000

Pressure Density: 0.902 g/cm3
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
v/v0

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Energy – heat and work

4500 45000

4000 Heat of explosion 40000

3500 35000

3000 30000
Wu
Wu [kJ/kg]

2500 25000

P [bar]
2000 20000

1500 15000

1000 10000
Pressure
500 Anfo "Nagolita" 5000
1000 bar Density: 0.902 g/cm3
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
v/v0

Energy – heat and work

5000
Wu, 1 bar

Wu, 1000 bar

4500
Wu, 5v0

4000
Wu (kJ/kg)

Dynamite
3500

ANFO-Al
3000 Emulsions ANFO

2500

2000
3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Qv (kJ/kg)

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Work – partial reaction

P


 . CJ


.
CJ’

  02 D'2   02 D 2 Wu
P0
v0 v

Work – partial reaction

P


 . CJ


.
CJ’

  02 D'2   02 D 2 Wu
P0
v0 v
The detonation velocity seems to
affect the work effectively delivered

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Work – partial reaction

4500 45000

Heat of explosion
4000 40000

3500 35000

3000 30000
Wu
Wu [kJ/kg]

2500 25000

P [bar]
2000 Cylinder 20000

1500 Wu() 15000

1000 10000
Pressure
Anfo "Nagolita"
500 5000
1000 bar Density: 0.902 g/cm3
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
v/v0

Work – partial reaction

3000 3000
Lambrit Prillit A
2500 776 kg/m3 2500 850 kg/m3
4084 m/s 3854 m/s
2000
Energu (kJ/kg)

2000
Energy (kJ/kg)

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V V

3000 3000
Nagolita Alnafo
2500 902 kg/m3 2500 910 kg/m3
4317 m/s 4193 m/s
2000 2000
Energy (kJ/kg)

Energy (kJ/kg)

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V V
Calculated, total reaction
Calculated, partial reaction
Cylinder test

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

3000 3000
E1: Titan matrix E6: Titan matrix
890 kg/m3 1130 kg/m3
2500 2500
4688 m/s 6031 m/s

Energy (kJ/kg)
Energy (kJ/kg)
2000 2000

Work – partial reaction

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V V

3000 3000
E4: Titan 6080 E3: Titan 6080
2500 750 kg/m3 2500 810 kg/m3
4031 m/s 4236 m/s

Energy (kJ/kg)
2000 2000
Energy (kJ/kg)

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 2 4 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V V

3000 3000
E12: Titan 6080 E7 Titan 6080
2500 1140 kg/m3 2500 1260 kg/m3
5573 m/s 5270 m/s
2000 2000
Energy (kJ/kg)

Energy (kJ/kg)
1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V V

3000
E9: Titan 6080
Calculated, total reaction
2500 1260 kg/m3
5765 m/s Calculated, partial reaction

2000 Cylinder test

Energy (kJ/kg)

1500

1000

500

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V

Work – partial reaction

5000
Wu, 1 bar
Wu, 1000 bar
4500
Wu, 5v0
Cylinder, 5v0
4000 Wu, partial react., 5v0

3500
Dynamite
Wu (kJ/kg)

3000

Emulsions
2500
ANFO-Al
2000 ANFO

1500

1000
3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000
Qv (kJ/kg)

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Energy of explosives

 Relevant.
 Multiform.
 Depends in practice of the actual
functioning of the explosive.

Pressure

 D2
PCJ   0.25  D 2 Density, velocity
 1

𝑃 𝑑
𝑃 Coupling to rock
2 𝑑

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Pressure

Coupling

2.5

2.0
Detonation pressure (GPa)

1.5 MegaMITE I

1.0

0.5

NewFINEX

Rise time = 50 micro-seconds

0.0
0.00000 0.00005 0.00010 0.00015 0.00020 0.00025 0.00030

Time (sec)

Tensile cracks
Shear cracks

Detonation velocity

PCJ . CJ

.
CJ’

  02 D'2   02 D 2 Wu
P0
v0 v

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Detonation velocity

Besides detonation
. CJ pressure, VOD affects
the useful energy

PCJ .
CJ’

  02 D'2   02 D 2 Wu
P0
v0 v

Detonation velocity

Density
Diameter
Initiation
Confinement
…

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Detonation velocity

Non-ideal detonation behavior is strongly influenced by:

 Density
 Diameter
 Initiation
 Confinement
 …

Curved detonation front

Detonation velocity
ANFO
Initiation: booster
Velocity of detonation (km/s)

Diameter: 36 mm
Iron tube 3 mm
 Density
 Diameter
 Initiation
 Confinement
 …
Density (g/cm3)

ANFO
Velocity of detonation (km/s)

Initiation: booster
Cardboard 6 mm

0.88 g/cm3
0.90 g/cm3
D=77 mm
D=200 mm D=100 mm

1/Radius (mm-1)

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Detonation velocity
Ch1 (# VM0136, Feb 11 /04 13:05:47)
20

Left Cursor

15 msec -0.011444

Density
meters 0.082462

Right Cursor 
msec 3.39794

Distance (meters)
10 6885 meters/sec

 Diameter
meters 18.7071

Dx 3.40939
Dy 18.6246

 Initiation
5
Average (meters)
~3m 7.01207
Slope (meters/sec)

Confinement
2548 meters/sec


0 5462.75
Regression

Less energy
6803.81

-5
 …
delivered in this zone
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (mSec.) VOD = 6804 meters/sec

Detonator
Ch1 (# VM0136, Mar 11 /04 12:31:58)
20

Left Cursor

15 msec -0.083923
meters -0.257642

Right Cursor
msec 2.59399
Distance (meters)

10
meters 18.6200
7123 meters/sec
Dx 2.67792
Dy 18.8776
5
Average (meters)
9.31583
Slope (meters/sec)

0 7049.38
Regression
7156.92

-5
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (mSec.) VOD = 7157 meters/sec

Booster

Detonation velocity

Initiator size
Detonation

 Density
stable

 Diameter
Low order detonation

Initiation
ANFO


~ 60 cm
 Confinement
Initiator 25x200 mm
 …

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 m/s

Less energy
VOD delivered in this zone
Stable detonation
of initiator

Stable detonation of ANFO

Minimum
initiator length

Full section ANFO

initiator

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Detonation velocity

 Density
More on the size of the initiator
 Diameter
 Initiation
Line Diameter of the initiator
5000
A A
B
75 mm
64 mm
 Confinement
C
D
51 mm
25 mm  …
4000
B
VOD (m/s)

C ANFO
3000 Stable detonation Diameter: 75 mm
Confinement: asbestos

D
2000

0 100 200 300 400 500

Distance from the initiation point (mm)

Detonation velocity

 Density
Detonation pressure of the initiator
 Diameter
Line Initiator detonation
 Initiation
5000
pressure (GPa)
A
A 24  Confinement
B 13,5
C 5  …
4000 B D 4
E 0,7
VOD (m/s)

C
ANFO
3000 Stable detonation
Diameter: 75 mm
D
Confinement: asbestos

2000
E

0 100 200 300 400 500

Distance from the initiation point (mm)

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Detonation velocity

Example of other factors (user-uncontrollable):  Density

- AN prill porosity  Diameter
 Initiation
- Oil content
 Confinement
ANFO
 …
2,7 Initiation: booster
Diameter: 36 mm
Iron pipe 3 mm
2,5
Velocity of detonation (km/s)

2,3 High porosity AN

(oil absorption
10 cm3/100 g)
2,1

1,9

Low porosity AN
1,7 (oil absorption
4 cm3/100 g)

1,5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Oil content (%)

Summary

 The most important explosive properties in blasting are energy

and detonation pressure.
 Energy rating of explosives is multiform.
 Energy delivery in non-ideal explosives depends on the actual
conditions of detonation (that depend on diameter,
confinement, initiation…)
 A high detonation velocity (or a high detonation pressure)
encompasses higher delivery of useful energy.
 A strong initiation must be ensured for a maximum energy
delivery.

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Explosives Engineering José A. Sanchidrián

Principles of explosives behavior 24