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Additional Short Notes For Chemistry: By: Nikko Carisma
Additional Short Notes For Chemistry: By: Nikko Carisma
Chemical Reactions
Basic Information
• When heat is applied to matter, its curve (or Exothermic Reactions
graph), when plotted, contain two main • A chemical reaction that releases heat to
observations. It has regions where: proceed; this means that heat is considered a
o temperature increase (seen in blue, product
diagonal lines) o Heat goes out of the system (ex- in the name)
§ this is where the state of matter stays • An example of this involves a combustion of
the same fuels, where heat is released, like in fire.
o there are temperature plateaus where o Another analogy: when one has an "ex", and he/she
temperature stays constant (red, flat is out of his/her life
lines)
§ this is where the phase transition or Endothermic Reactions
phase change occurs (e.g. melting, • A chemical change that absorbs heat energy;
vaporization)
heat is considered a reactant in this situation.
• This is also applicable when a substance cools • An example of this involves melting ice. The ice
down: absorbs heat energy for it to melt.
Summary
Endothermic Exothermic
heat is absorbed heat is released
heat is a reactant heat is a product
energy must be applied and
work must be done for it may occur spontaneously
to start
Neutralization Reactions Getting the Molecular Formula
• A chemical reaction that occurs when an acid Note: The molecular weight of the substance is usually
and a base combine to form water and a salt. given for this, in addition to the requirements for the
• A good example of this involves the common empirical formula.
examples for acids and bases: hydrochloric acid
and lye (sodium hydroxide: • Empirical: Get the empirical formula of the
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O substance.
• This reaction formed water and sodium chloride • Total Mass: Get the total mass of the substance
(also known as table salt). by adding the respective products of the whole-
o Note that mixing strong acids and strong bases number ratios to each element's atomic weight.
usually form substances with a pH of 7, like This gives one empirical unit.
water (e.g. the example reaction above). • Divide: Divide the empirical unit by the given
molecular weight.
The Molecular and Empirical Formulas • Multiply: Multiply each element's coefficient by
the given quotient to get the molecular formula.
Empirical Formula
• The simplest formula for a compound; Example:
this is similar to a fraction being transformed
into lowest terms. Determine the molecular formula of a molecule composed
of 30.4% nitrogen and 69.6% oxygen and has a molecular
• This involves the lowest whole-number
weight of about 138 g/mol. (atomic weights: N = 14, O =
ratios between the numbers of elements in a 16).
compound.
N:O = 1:2
Molecular Formula
Empirical The empirical formula is NO2.
• The actual formula for a molecule; this
(As seen in the previous example).
can be an empirical formula or a multiple of
it. Review: What type of chemical bond is present in 1(14 ) + 2 (16 ) = 14 + 32
molecules?
Total = 46 g / mol
• Examples of molecular formulas for
Mass One mole of the substance weight 46
C3HO2
o C3HO2, C6H2O4, etc. grams. (This is one empirical unit)
138
=3
NOTE: For getting these formulas, values (percentage 46
compositions of the element and/or atomic weights, etc.) Divide
There are there empirical units in one
are required. However, these will be given in the tests. molecule of the substance.
Molar mass
What is Standard
Formula for molarity
measured Units
2NaClO3 2NaCl 3O2
solute moles (mol) moles of solute
Organize
Moles 2 2 3 molality =
106.44 58.44 solvent kilograms (kg) kgof solvent
Molar mass 32 g/mol
g/mol g/mol
Summary
For (1) For (2)
Molarity Molality
NaCl : O2 = 2 : 3
Ratio measurements of a solution's
NaClO3 : O2 = 2 : 3 2 : 3 = x : 80 g What they are
2 : 3 = 12 : x concetration
80 g needs to be converted to moles
of O2 for the mole ratio. What they need moles of solute; moles of solute;
Conversion: to measure liters of solution kg of solvent
2 : 3 = 12 : x ⎛ 1 mol ⎞ mol
80 g ⎜ = 2.5 mol Units of mol
Solve ⎝ 32 g ⎟⎠ measurement
molar (M) or molal (m) or
kg
(12 )( 3) L
x= = 18 mol With this, the new mole ratio is:
one mole of a one mole of a solute
2 What one unit is substance in one liter dissolved by one kg of
2 : 3 = x : 2.5 of solution solute.
Solving for Basic Molarity and Molality Example 2:
Determine the molality of a solution with 100 g of sucrose, with a
molar mass of 342.3 g/mol, dissolved in 1.50 kg of water.
• Identify: Which is the unknown in the
situation?
Identify The identified unkown is the molality of the solution.
• Convert: Check and make sure that
100 g must be converted to moles:
measurements are in their standard units
Convert ⎛ 1 mol ⎞
(See Basic Information) 100 g ⎜ = 0.292 mol
o Review: One mole of an element is equal to its ⎝ 342.3 mL ⎟⎠
molar mass in mass, and vice versa.
mol
m=
kg
0.292 mol
o In these figures: molality =
1.50 kg
§ M = molarity of a solution in mol/L
§ m = molality of a solution in mol/kg Solve = 0.195 m
§ L = volume of the solution in liters (L)
§ kg = mass of the solvent in kilograms (kg) Therefore, the molality of the solution is
0.195 m.
• Solve: Using the triangles, solve for missing
quantities and convert if necessary. Other Stuff
Example 1:
How many grams of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) are needed to Acids and Bases
make 200 mL of a 2.5 M solution? § This must be remembered:
(molar masses: K = 39.1, C = 12, O = 16) o Acids are associated with hydrogren ions.
+
[H ions].
The identified unkown is the moles of solute needed o Bases are associated with hydroxide ions.
Identify (mol). -
[(OH) ions].
200 mL must be converted to liters: § Definitions: Acids and bases have different
⎛ 1L ⎞ definitions in chemistry. These definitions may be
Convert 200 mL ⎜ = 0.2 L
⎝ 1000 mL ⎟⎠
asked for in the tests as knowledge questions.
Converting this to grams gives: Chemteam.info,. ChemTeam: Molality. Retrieved 31 May 2015, from
http://www.chemteam.info/Solutions/Molality.html
Solve ⎛ 138.2 g ⎞ Everythingmaths.co.za,. Retrieved 31 May 2015, from
0.5 mol ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 69.1 g
⎝ 1 mol
http://everythingmaths.co.za/science/grade-10/03-states-of-
matter/pspictures/2acffd6119ed6a0e144b2d95232d4e53.png
Images.tutorvista.com,. Retrieved 31 May 2015, from
http://images.tutorvista.com/cms/images/101/phase-change-diagram.png
Therefore, 69.1 g of potassium carbonate is Maruja, V., & Ma. Justina, E. (2007). UPCAT Reviewer: A study guide for college
needed. entrance tests to UP, Ateneo, La Salle, UA&P, UST. Quezon City, Philippines:
V.E.A. Learning.
Scienceiscool.org,. Lowell High School Chemistry Stoichiometry Help. Retrieved 31 May
2015, from http://www.scienceiscool.org/stoichiometry/problems.html