ECOLOGICAL ENERGY FLOW

Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. In

ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow, which refers to the flow of energy through a food chain,

and is the focus of study in ecological energetic. In an ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative

importance of different component species and feeding relationships. Energy also moves life. The cycle of

energy is based on the flow of energy through different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Our ecosystem is

maintained by the cycling energy and nutrients obtained from different external sources. At the first trophic

level, primary producers use solar energy to produce organic material through photosynthesis.

A general energy flow scenario follows:

 Solar energy is fixed by the photoautotroph, called primary producers, like green plants. Primary

consumers absorb most of the stored energy in the plant through digestion, and transform it into the

form of energy they need, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), through respiration. A part of the

energy received by primary consumers, herbivores, is converted to body heat (an effect of

respiration), which is radiated away and lost from the system. The loss of energy through body heat is

far greater in warm-blooded animals, which must eat much more frequently than those that are cold-

blooded. Energy loss also occurs in the expulsion of undigested food (egesta) by excretion or

regurgitation.

 Secondary consumers, carnivores, then consume the primary consumers, although omnivores also

consume primary producers. Energy that had been used by the primary consumers for growth and

storage is thus absorbed into the secondary consumers through the process of digestion. As with

primary consumers, secondary consumers convert this energy into a more suitable form (ATP) during

respiration. Again, some energy is lost from the system, since energy which the primary consumers

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 had used for respiration and regulation of body temperature cannot be utilized by the secondary

consumers.

 Tertiary consumers, which may or may not be apex predators, then consume the secondary

consumers, with some energy passed on and some lost, as with the lower levels of the food chain.

 Final links in the food chain are decomposers which break down the organic matter of the tertiary

consumers (or whichever consumer is at the top of the chain) and release nutrients into the soil. They

also break down plants, herbivores and carnivores that were not eaten by organisms higher on the

food chain, as well as the undigested food that is excreted by herbivores and carnivores. Saprotrophic

bacteria and fungi are decomposers, and play a pivotal role in the nitrogen and carbon cycles.

The energy is passed on from trophic level to trophic level and each time about 90% of the energy is lost,

with some being lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and some being lost as

incompletely digested food (egesta). Therefore, primary consumers get about 10% of the energy produced by

autotrophs, while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary consumers get 0.1%. This means the top

consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a lot of the food chain's energy has been lost between

trophic levels. This loss of energy at each level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.

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 All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as oxygen, carbon,

nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that make up organisms.

Other flow of energy includes:

Biogeochemical Cycles: Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds

between organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed through the

food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as respiration, excretion, and

decomposition.

As an element moves through this cycle, it often forms compounds with other elements as a result of

metabolic processes in living tissues and of natural reactions in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, or lithosphere.

Such cyclic exchange of material between the living organisms and their non-living environment is called

Biogeochemical Cycle.

Following are some important biogeochemical cycles −

 Carbon Cycle

 Nitrogen Cycle

 Water Cycle etc.

 Carbon Cycle: Carbon enters into the living world in the form of carbon dioxide through the process

of photosynthesis as carbohydrates. These organic compounds (food) are then passed from the

producers to the consumers (herbivores & carnivores). This carbon is finally returned to the

surrounding medium by the process of respiration or decomposition of plants and animals by the

decomposers. Carbon is also recycled during the burning of fossil fuels.

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  Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere in an elemental form and as such it cannot be

utilized by living organisms. This elemental form of nitrogen is converted into combined state with

elements such as H, C, O by certain bacteria, so that it can be readily used by the plants.

Nitrogen is being continuously expelled into the air by the action of microorganisms such as denitrifying

bacteria and finally returned to the cycle through the action of lightening and electrification.

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 Water Cycle: The evaporation of water from ocean, rivers, lakes, and transpiring plants takes water

in the form of vapors to the atmosphere. This vaporized water subsequently cools and condenses to

form cloud and water. This cooled water vapor ultimately returns to the earth as rain and snow,

completing the cycle.

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 WAYS OF NUTRIENT LOSS IN THE SOIL

Loss of soil nutrient reduces the agricultural and agro-tourism value of lands via physico-chemical

degradations. Soil nutrient are loss through runoff and sediment, is a major driver for soil fertility decline.

The eroded sediments or soil are highly concentrated with crop nutrients, which are washed away from

farmlands.

These are the 8 major ways of Nutrient loss in the soil

1. Leaching

2. Soil erosion and Volatilization

3. Denitrification

4. Monocropping

5. Continuous cropping

6. Change of soil PH

7. Burning of vegetations

8. Accumulation of salts

o Leaching: Plant nutrients are lost beyond the reach of plant roots. Usually caused by

excessive rainfall washing nutrients deep down into sub-soil beyond new roots reach.

Leaching occurs when the soil is saturated and can’t hold any more water and drainage occurs.

The drainage water dilutes and disperses the nutrients down the soil profile. Deep rooting

crops like maize can access nitrates from as deep as 180 cm, but once nutrients are below the

rooting zone, they are no longer accessible.

o Soil erosion – The nutrients lost to soil erosion process can be expressed economically to

reflect the impact of agro-tourist and erosion on fertilizer investment. Soil erosion is a

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 multifactor threat to crop production and the environment, top soil is lost by the agent of

erosion e.g. wind, water. Broadcast fertilizers on the soil surface are at risk. Farmers often

broadcast urea when rain is forecasted to wash it in to the soil. The small rain event might turn

into a deluge, and then losses in the run-off water may be high. Intense rainfall can cause

significant erosion in cropping ground, particularly if the ground is sloping and cultivated, the

crop is young and there is little protection from the canopy. Topsoil and soil sediments in run-

off carry phosphorus reserves into the drain. Volatilisation of ammonia from broadcast urea

happens when conditions are hot and windy. Losses can be as high as 60% in the worst of

conditions. It is often less risky to knife-in your side-dressing applications.

o Denitrification: Nitrogen can be lost by denitrification processes in soils that are saturated.

Soils with high clay contents or in poor physical condition are slower draining and more likely

to become saturated and anaerobic. These conditions favour anaerobic micro-organisms which

convert nitrate N into gaseous forms, such as nitrous oxide, which are lost to the atmosphere.

The amount of nitrogen lost by denitrification depends on how long the soils are saturated and

the soil temperature. When the temperature is between 13-16◦C losses are about 2% / day. As

the soil warms losses increase to 5% /day.

o Monocropping – This utilizes only specific nutrients from a particular zone making it

exhausted. -It also causes accumulation of certain pests and diseases.

o Continuous cropping –This continuously exhaust the fertility of land unless the land if

fallowed.

o Change of soil PH -Use of either acidic or basic fertilizers affect soil pH and consequently

the presence of micro-organisms hence soil fertility affected.

o Burning of vegetations –Destroys organic matter and soil structure. Nutrients are lost and

soil exposed to erosion.

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 o Accumulation of salts – Common in waterlogged areas and semi-arid areas in which poor

drainage causes evaporation during the dry periods, making the soil saline.

Hence, if soil continues to expose to the above factors, it will leads to:

 Loss of plant nutrients - The nutrients essential for growth (N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg, B, Cl, Mn, Fe, Zn,

Cu, Mo, Ni) are unavoidably lost when plants are harvested and removed. But they are also lost when

soil erodes or when water leaches soluble nutrients through the soil. To minimize nutrient loss, use

effective erosion control practices, and capture nutrients with the use of cover crops before and after

the main crop.

 Loss of organic matter - Organic matter is responsible for imparting many benefits to topsoil,

including increasing water-holding capacity, maintaining soil structure, ability to hold nutrients until

needed by plants, and increasing permeability to rainfall. To make sure that organic matter doesn't

decay faster than it's replenished, return crop residues to the soil and use cover crops to generate

additional plant matter.

 Loss of soil structure - The granular, crumb-like structure of topsoil is desired by every farmer or

gardener and is the product of adequate levels of organic matter. The subsoil also has structure that is

formed over long periods of time by wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, the deposition of clay

particles, and the mechanical action of soil organisms. Good soil structure allows air and water to

penetrate more easily and provides routes for the growth of plant roots. To maintain soil structure,

keep adequate levels of organic matter in the topsoil and take measures to prevent soil compaction

by farm or construction equipment.

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 REFERENCES

 Brain T. (2016), “Soil Science: How soil loses its fertility and how it can be prevented” Discovery,
Evaluation and integration.

 D.R. Weiner (2000). “Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet
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 Lehmann J. and Rondon M. (2006) “Biochar soil management on highly weathered soils in the
humid tropics Biological approaches to sustainable soil systems”. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 517–
530. Google Scholar

 Odum, H. T. (1988). "Self-organization, transformity, and information". Science. 242 (4882): 1132–
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hUIHXDrBGIQFjABegQIDBAF&url=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fplosone%2Farticle
%3Fid%3D10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0208250&usg=AOvVaw3P5OcnDjKm5c8GK4qVfqXR

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sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwj_lYD47brhAhWkTx
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%2Fca2666en.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1xe7xmH4pXlhYZ9qN2YyRm

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