WEEK 2

CHAPTER 1

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

(WEEK 1 - 4)

DR. ROHAYA ALIAS

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PO 1 : Apply knowledge of mathematics, natural

science, engineering fundamentals and an
engineering specialization to wide practical
procedures and practices
PO 2 : Identify and analyze well-defined engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using codified methods of analysis specific to
their field of activity
 COURSE OUTCOMES
CO 1 : Apply physical and engineering properties
knowledge to wide application of soil mechanic.
(C3)
CO 2 : Evaluate soil behavior including flow of water
through soil, shear strength, compaction and
consolidation from the standpoint of effective
stress concept. (C6)

CO-PO MAPPING
▪ CO1-PO1
▪ CO2-PO2
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to

understand:

1) Engineering definition of soil. The constituents of soils – solid, liquid

and gas phases (mineral particle, water and air). Basic physical
properties of soils and three phase diagram (volume relations,
mass relations and mass–volume relations).
2) Determination of moisture content and particle density of soil solids.
1.1 Engineering Definition of Soil
• Soil is the un-cemented deposits of mineral and organic
particles of fragments covering large portion of the
earth's crust.

• To an engineer, soil is a material that can be:

✓ Built on : foundations of buildings, bridges
✓ Built in : basements, culverts, tunnels
✓ Built with : embankments, roads, dams
✓ Supported : retaining walls
1.2 Constituents of Soils
(Solid, Liquid & Gas)
• Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic mineral particles,
water and air. Therefore it is convenient to think of soil model
which has three phases: solid, liquid and gas.

Air
Gas
Water vappour

Water
Liquid
Dissolved salts

Rock fragments
Solid Mineral grains
Organic matter

Three Phase Soil Model

 SOLID
1) Rock fragment
• Rock fragments usually > 2mm (sand to gravel)
• Soundness of the soil will depend on the extend of differential mineral
decomposition within individual fragments
2) Mineral grains
• Separate particles of each particular mineral and range in size from
gravel to clay (> 2mm to 1μm)
• Mostly soil will consist almost entirely of one minerals but some soils
will contain mixtures of different minerals

Soil Fabrics
➢ During deposition, the mineral particles are arranged into structural
frameworks that we call soil fabric
➢ Each particle is in random contact with neighboring particles
➢ The environment under which deposition occurs influences the
structural framework that is formed
➢ 2 common types of soil fabric – flocculated and dispersed
(https://youtu.be/tLaJawbMrT0)
 SOLID
3) Clay minerals
• Minerals are crystalline materials and make up the solids
constituents of a soil
• Minerals are classified according to chemical composition and
structure
 LIQUID
Water
• Fundamental part of natural soil and in fact has a greater effect on
engineering properties such as compressibility, seepage and
permeability.
• Water has no shear strength but relatively incompressible, hence it
transmits direct pressure therefore drainage conditions in a soil mass
are of great significance when considering shear strength.

Surface forces and adsorbed water

➢Because of the large surface areas of fine-grained soils, surface forces
significantly influence their behavior compared to coarse-grained
soils
➢The clay-water interaction coupled with the large surface areas
results in clays having larger water-holding capacity in a large number
of smaller pore spaces compared with coarse-grained soils
 GAS
Air
• Air is compressible and water vapor can freeze
• Soil may be considered to be perfectly dry or fully saturated or in the
condition somewhere between these two extremes (partly
saturated).
• In ‘dry soil’, water vapor is present, while ‘fully-saturated’ soil may
contain as much as 2% air voids
1.3 Soil Phase Diagram
• Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic
mineral particles (solid), water and air.
• Unit solid volume model is the most convenient.

Air Va Va = volume of air

Water Vw = volume of water
Vw

Vs = volume of solid = 1
Solid Vs
(1m3 of solid material)
• The model is constructed of 1m3 of solid material and will
remain constant.
• Volume of solid is fixed while volume of air and water can
change.
• Volume of water and air = void space.
• Perfect dry soil – no water is present and void space
completely fill with air.
• Saturated soil – no air is present and void space
completely fill with water.
No water No air

air air air

e

water water water

1

solid solid solid

a) Void ratio b) Completely dry soil c) Saturated soil

 Mass-Volume Relationship
• Assuming the weight of air is negligible,
Total mass:
M = Ms + Mw

• Total volume:
V = V s + Vw + Va
= V s + Vv
=1+e
* Vv = Vw + Va
=e
 Mass-Volume Relationship of Soil

Masses Volumes

air Va = e (1-Sr)

(Specific volume)
e
V=1+e
Mass of water, Mw = wGsρw water Vw = Sr e = wGs

Mass of soil, Ms = Gsρw solid Vs = 1

Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one

w = water content /moisture content

Gs = specific gravity
ρw = density of water (ρw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1.0 Mg/m3)
e = void ratio
Sr = degree of saturation
A) Void ratio (e)
The volume not occupied by solids known as voids volume.
May occupied by water or air or both.

e = Volume of voids = Vv = e …(1)

Volume of solid Vs 1

B) Porosity (n)
To expressing the quantity of voids.
n = volume of voids = Vv
total volume V
n= e …(2)
1+e

C) Specific volume (V)

The total volume of the soil model.
V=1+e …(3)
D) Degree of saturation (Sr) – measure how saturated the soil is.

Sr = Volume of water = Vw …(4)

Volume of void e
Vw = Sre

% of saturation:
* For perfectly dry soil, Sr = 0 % Air voids content is 100%
* For saturated soil, Sr = 100 % or 1.0 Air voids content is zero

E) Air void ratio (Av) – ratio of air voids volume to specific volume.

Av = Volume of air = Va = e(1-Sr)

Total volume 1 + e 1+e

but Sr = wGs/e

Av = e(1-Sr) = e-eSr = e-e(wGs/e) = e - wGs

1+e 1+e 1+e 1+e

therefore, Av = e – wGs …(5)

1+e
F) Specific gravity (Gs)
Ratio of the mass of a given volume of a material to the mass of the
same volume of water.

Gs = Mass of a given volume of a material

Mass of the same volume of water
= Ms …(6)
Vsρw

Gs = 2.55 to 2.75 with average value = 2.65

G) Moisture content (w)

Ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solid.

w = Mass of water = Mw = Vwρw

Mass of solid Ms Gsρw

but Vw = Sre = wGs

Therefore, w = Sre …(7)

Gs
H) Dry density (ρd) (Unit: kg/m3 or Mg/m3)

ρd = Mass of solid = ms
Total volume V
Therefore, ρd = Gsρw …(8)
1+e

I) Bulk density (ρb) (Unit: kg/m3 or Mg/m3)

ρb = Total mass
Total volume
= Mass of solid + Mass of water
Total volume
= Gsρw + Vwρw = Gsρw + Sreρw
1+e 1+e
Therefore, ρb = ρw (Gs + Sre) …(9)
1+e
J) Relation between bulk density (ρb) and dry density (ρd)

Gs + Sre ρw
ρb = 1+e = Gs + Sre x 1+e
ρd Gs ρw 1+e Gs
1+e

ρb = Gs + Sre = Gs + wGs *But Sre = wGs

ρd Gs Gs

ρb = 1 + w
ρd

ρb = (1 + w) ρd …(10)
K) Saturated density (ρsat) (Unit: kg/m3 or Mg/m3)

When soil become saturated, Sr = 1 and ρb becomes

saturated (ρsat)

From equation (9), the saturated density becomes

ρsat = Gs + e ρw …(11)
1+e
L) Submerged density or effective density (ρsub or ρ’) (Unit: kg/m3 or Mg/m3)

ρ’ or ρsub = ρsat – ρw …(12)

Note:
ρb = is bulk density above water table.
ρsat = is the bulk density of the soil when it is fully saturated.
For calculation, when soil is below the ground water table,
use ρ’ or ρsub

Ground surface
ρb ρb
Water table
ρsat ρ’ = ρsub = ρsat – ρw
M) Unit weight (γ) (Unit: kN/m3)

Unit weight is a weight of soil per unit volume.

γ=W
V γ = force/unit volume

γ = ρ.g …(13)

where g = 9.81 m/s

* Formula is same for all condition

Determination of Specific Gravity
or Particle Density
• Fine soil – density bottle
• Coarse soil – gas jar or glass jar fitted with a conical screw top
(pyknometer)
• Testing procedure - An appropriate quantity of dried soil is placed
in the jar and weight. The jar is filled with de-aired water and
agitated to remove any air bubbles. After carefully topping-up
with water, the jar is weighed again. Finally, the jar is emptied and
cleaned, and the filled with de-aired water and weighed again.

Density bottle Glass jar

 Determination of Specific Gravity

M1 = mass of empty jar

M2 = mass of jar + dry soil
M3 = mass of jar + soil + water
M4 = mass of jar + water only
 Example 1
For a soil having a void ratio of 0.750 and percentage saturation of 85 %,
determine the porosity and air-voids ratio.

Solution:

Porosity, n = e
1+e
= 0.750
1+0.750
= 0.429

Air-voids ratio, Av = e (1-Sr)

1+e
Sr = 85%
= 0.85
Av = 0.429 (1-0.85)
= 0.064 @ 6.4 %
 Example 2
An oven tin containing a sample of moist soil was weighed and had a
mass of 37.82 g. The empty tin had a mass of 16.15 g. After drying, the
tin and soil were weighed again and had a mass of 34.68 g. Determine
the void ratio of the soil if the air-voids content is (a) zero and (b) 5 %.
Assume Gs =2.70

Solution:
 Example 3
In a sample of moist clay soil, the void ratio is 0.788 and the degree of
saturation is 0.93. Assuming Gs =2.70. Determine the dry density, bulk
density and water content.

Solution:

Dry density

Bulk density

Water content
 Example 4
The bulk density of a sand in a drained condition above the water table was
found to be 2.06 Mg/m3 and its water content was 18 %. Assume Gs=2.70.
Calculate: (a) drained unit weight and (b) saturated unit weight and water
content of the same sand below the water table.

Solution:
(a) drained unit weight,

(b) saturated unit weight,

 Example 5
In a soil investigation experiment, an undisturbed sample has
been tested in the laboratory. The sample with a diameter of
38mm, length of 76mm and the weight of the sample is
160.10 g. After it has been oven dried the sample now weighs
128.18 g. The value for GS is 2.68, determine :

i. Bulk density
ii. Percentage of moisture content
iii. Dry unit weight
iv. Void ratio
v. Saturated density
vi. Percentage of air voids
 Solution:
•
Thank You