Properties of

Fluids
Week 1
References
Douglas, J. F., Gasiorek, J. M., Swaffiled, J. A. and Jack, L. B. 2011,
Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed., Pearson/Prentice Hall England
Cengel, A. Y. and Cimbala, J. M. 2014, Fluid Mechanics
Fundamentals and Applications, 2014 Ed., McGraw Hill New York
Abdul Talib, S., Ahmad, H., Abd Hamid, T. and Ariffin, J. 2002, Fluid
Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Penerbit Anda Subang Jaya
Bansal, R.K. 2010, A Textbooks on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic
Machines, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi
 Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Continuum concept
1.3 Units and dimensions
1.4 Dimensional analysis
1.5 Fluid properties
1.6 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3
Explain the Apply the units and Carry out
Continuum concept. dimensions used for dimensional analysis
(CO1PO1) fluid mechanics. using Indicial
(CO1PO1) Method. (CO1PO1)
 1.1 Introduction
• Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries.

Fluid mechanics deals with

liquids and gases in motion or
at rest.
What is a Fluid?
• Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas
phase.
• A fluid deforms continuously under the
influence of a shear stress, no matter
how small.
1.2 Continuum concept
• On a microscopic scale (based on the average behavior
of large groups of individual molecules), pressure is
determined by the interaction of individual gas
molecules. However, we can measure the pressure on a
macroscopic scale with a pressure gage.
• Macroscopic scale does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual molecules and provides a direct
and easy way to analyze engineering problems
Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet
it is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no
holes, that is, a continuum.

Continuum is valid as long as size of the

system is large in comparison to
distance between molecules.

Engineering problems are normally

concern with the bulk behavior of fluids.
 Fluid mechanics deals with a variety of fluid characteristics;
therefore, it is necessary to develop a system to describe
these characteristics both qualitatively (dimensions) and
quantitatively (units).
A physical quantity (e.g. mass, length, force, pressure) is

1.3 Units clearly defined with a numerical value and a unit. A physical
quantity can be measured using a standard size called the
unit.
and Units provide a convenient and standardized measure of the

dimensions
dimensions.

Two commonly used unit system are English system and the
metric SI (International System).
Basic quantity

Basic quantity Base unit

Length, L Metre
Mass, M Kilogram
Time, T Second
Electric current Ampere
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin
 Derived quantity
Derived quantity Derived unit
Area m2

Volume m3

Density kgm-3

Frequency Hz

Acceleration ms-2

Momentum kgms-1

Force N

Pressure Pa

Torque Nm

Velocity ms-1
 Example
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑀𝑀
𝐿𝐿 = 3
= 𝐿𝐿
𝑇𝑇
= 𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿−3

Unit for velocity is 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 Unit for density is 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−3

 Example
[𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹]
[Pr 𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠] =
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 × 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 [𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴]
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 [𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀] × [𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴]
= 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 × =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 [𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴]
𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −1
= 𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 −2
𝑇𝑇 =
𝐿𝐿2
= 𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 −2 = 𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿−1 𝑇𝑇 −2

Unit for force is 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 −2 or 𝑁𝑁 Units for pressure is 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

 Quantity FLT system MLT system English units SI units

Acceleration, a LT-2 LT-2 ft. s-2 m.s-2

Area,A L2 L2 ft2 m2
Density, ρ FL-4T2 ML-3 slug.ft-3 kg.m-3
Energy or Work, FL ML2T-2 lb.ft N.m
W
Volumetric flow L3T-1 L3T-1 ft3.s-1 m3.s-1
rate, Q
Kinematic L2T-1 L2T-1 ft2.s-1 m2.s-1
viscosity, υ
Pressure, P FL-2 ML-1T-2 lb.in-2 N.m-2
Dynamic FL-2T ML-1T-1 lb.ft-2.s N.m-2.s
viscosity, μ
Factor by which unit is Prefix Symbol
multiplied
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 mili m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
1.4 Dimensional analysis

01 02 03
All equations Meaning, every What Method?
must be term in an INDICIAL
dimensionally equation must METHOD
homogeneous have the same
unit/dimension
 Example
A commonly used equation for determining the volumetric flow rate,
Q, of a liquid through an orifice located in the side of a tank is given by,

𝑄𝑄 = 0.65𝑎𝑎 2𝑔𝑔𝑔

Where a is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration due to gravity,

and h is the height of the liquid above the orifice. Investigate the
dimensional homogeneity of this equation.
Solution
𝑄𝑄 = (0.65) 𝑎𝑎 2 𝑔𝑔 ℎ
• 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐿𝐿3 𝑇𝑇 −1
𝐿𝐿3 𝑇𝑇 −1 = (0.65)𝐿𝐿2 2 𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −2 0.5 𝐿𝐿 0.5

• 𝑎𝑎 = 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 𝑇𝑇 −1 = (0.65) 2 𝐿𝐿3 𝑇𝑇 −1

𝑔𝑔 = 𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −2
ℎ = 𝐿𝐿

Both sides of the equation have the same

dimensions, therefore,
the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
 Example
The velocity v of waves in a ripple tank depends on the wavelength λ ,
surface tension σ and density ρ of water. Deduce an equation to show
the relationship between these quantities.
 (
1. Let v = kλxσ y ρ z )
v λ σ ρ
M 0 0 1 1
L 1 1 0 -3
T -1 0 -2 0

2. Write the dimensions

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘𝜆𝜆𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝜎 𝑦𝑦 𝜌𝜌 𝑧𝑧
𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑀𝑇𝑇 −2 𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿−3 𝑧𝑧
3. Equating indices 5. Subs. to initial equation
𝑀𝑀 0 = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧 .....(1) 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘𝜆𝜆𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝜎 𝑦𝑦 𝜌𝜌 𝑧𝑧
𝐿𝐿 1 = 𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑧𝑧 .....(2) 1 1 1
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘𝜆𝜆− �2 𝜎𝜎 �2 𝜌𝜌− �2
𝑇𝑇 −1 = −2𝑦𝑦 .....(3)
𝜎𝜎
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
4. Finding x, y and z
1
From (3), y =
2
1
From (1), z = −
2
1
From (2), x = −
2
Properties of
Fluids
Week 2
Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Continuum concept
1.3 Units and dimensions
1.4 Dimensional analysis
1.5 Fluid properties
1.6 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3
Apply common fluid Formulate the relationship Solve various engineering
properties. (CO1PO1, between shear stress and problem related to fluid
CO2PO2) velocity gradient from properties. (CO1PO1,
Newton’s Law of Viscosity. CO2PO2)
(CO1PO1, CO2PO2)
 • What is property? Any characteristic of a system is
called a property.

1.5 Fluid • Familiar: pressure, temperature, volume, and

mass.

properties • Less familiar: viscosity, thermal conductivity,

modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, vapor pressure, surface tension.
 Density
Specific weight
Relative density/ specific gravity
Specific volume
Fluid Dynamic viscosity

properties Kinematic viscosity

Surface tension
Capillarity
Vapor pressure
Compressibility & bulk modulus
Density, ρ
• Defined as mass per unit volume 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
• Units: kg/m3 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑚𝑚
• Dimensions: ML-3 𝜌𝜌 =
𝑉𝑉
• Typical values:
• ρwater = 1000 kg/ m3 ,
• ρHg = 13 600 kg/ m3
Specific volume, V
• Defined as the volume of a fluid 1
occupied by a unit mass or a 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
volume per unit mass of a fluid 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
(reciprocal of mass density) 1
V = 𝜌𝜌
• Commonly applied for gases
• Units: m3/kg
• Dimensions: L3M-1
Specific weight, 𝜸𝜸
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
• Defined as weight per unit 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 =
volume. 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
• Units: N/m3 𝑊𝑊
𝛾𝛾 =
• Dimensions: LM-2T-2 𝑉𝑉

• Typical values:
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 × 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 9810 𝑁𝑁� 3 𝛾𝛾 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑚𝑚

𝛾𝛾 = 𝑊𝑊
𝑉𝑉
= 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
Relative density or specific gravity, SG
• Defined as ratio of mass density
of a substance to density of
water at 40C
• Units: unitless (no unit)
• Dimensions: M0L0T0 = 1
Density of a substance
Specific weight =
Density of water at 4°C
ρ subs tan ce
SG =
ρ H O @ 40 C
2
Example
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a
liquid which weighs 7 N.
Try yourself
Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol
of specific gravity = 0.7.
Try yourself
The information on a can of pop indicates that the can contains 355
mL. The mass of a full can of pop is 0.369 kg while an empty can weighs
0.153 N. Determine the specific weight, density and specific gravity of
the pop and compare your results with the corresponding values for
water at 200C.
Compressibility & bulk modulus
• Bulk modulus tells how easily can the volume (and density) of a given
mass of a fluid can be changed when there is a change in pressure i.e.
how compressible is the fluid.
• Units: N/m2

Change in pressure
Bulk modulus =
Volumetric strain
 dV 
dp = − K  
 V 
Example
• When the pressure exerted on a liquid is increased from 550 kN/m2
to 1000 kN/m2, the volume is decreased by 1%. Determine the bulk
modulus of the liquid.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1000 − 550 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝐾𝐾
= 450 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘� 2 𝑉𝑉
𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉
𝐾𝐾 = −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −1% = − = − 450 × 103 × −100
𝑉𝑉 100
= 45 × 106 𝑁𝑁� 2
𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚
= −100
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Surface tension and
capillary effect
• What is surface tension?
• Surface tension is defined as the
tensile force acting on the surface
of a liquid in contact with a gas
such that the contact surface
behaves like a membrane under
tension.
What causes surface
tension in water?
• Short answer, cohesive interactions between
liquid molecules.
• Liquid droplets behave like small balloons
filled with the liquid on a solid surface, and
the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched
elastic membrane under tension.
• The pulling force that causes this tension
acts parallel to the surface and is due to the
attractive forces between the molecules of
the liquid.
• The magnitude of this force per unit length is Attractive forces acting on a liquid
called surface tension (or coefficient of
surface tension) and is usually expressed in
molecule at the surface and deep
the unit N/m. inside the liquid.
Surface tension on liquid droplet
• Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius r. On the entire
surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be
acting.
• Let, 𝜎𝜎 = surface tension of the liquid
𝑝𝑝 = pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity)
𝑑𝑑 = diameter of the droplet
• Cutting the droplet into half, the forces acting on one half will be:
• Tensile force due to the surface tension acting around the circumference of
the cut portion
• Pressure force on the area
Surface tension on liquid droplet
Tensile force = surface tension × circumfere nce
= σ × 2πR

Force due to pressure = pressure × area

= p × πR 2

These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium condition:
σ × 2πR = p × πR 2

pR
σ=
2
Surface tension on a hollow bubble
• A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact
with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are
subjected to surface tension. Therefore,

2 × (σ × 2πR ) = p × πR 2
pR
σ=
4
Example
• The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20oC is 0.0725 N/m. The pressure
inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2 greater than the outside pressure. Calculate
the diameter of the droplet of water in mm.
pR
σ=
σ = 0.0725 N 2
m
200 N 2 ×R
0.0725 N = m
m
p = 0.02 N 2
cm 2 R = 7.25 × 10 − 4 m
0.02N
= d = 2 × 7.25 × 10 − 4 m
1× 10 − 4 m 2
= 1.45 × 10 −3 m
= 200 N 2
m = 1.45mm
 Capillary Effect
Capillary effect
Capillary effect: The rise
or fall of a liquid in a
small-diameter tube
inserted into the liquid.

Meniscus: The curved

free surface of a liquid
in a capillary tube. The meniscus of colored water in a 4-mm-
inner-diameter glass tube. Note that the
edge of the meniscus meets the wall of
the capillary tube at a very small contact
angle.
 θ
The strength of the
θ
capillary effect is
quantified by the contact
(or wetting) angle,
defined as the angle that
the tangent to the liquid
surface makes with the
solid surface at the point The contact angle for wetting
of contact. and nonwetting fluids.

A liquid is said to wet the surface when 𝜃𝜃 <

90° and not to wet the surface when 𝜃𝜃 > 90°

The capillary rise of water and the
capillary fall of mercury in a small-
diameter glass tube.
Cohesive forces: the forces between
like molecules, such as water and
water
Adhesive forces: the forces between
unlike molecules, such as water and
glass
Adhesive force > cohesive force:
The water molecules are more strongly
attracted to the glass molecules than they
are to other water molecules, and thus
water tends to rise along the glass surface.
Therefore, water meniscus curves up.
Cohesive force > adhesive force:
The mercury molecules are more strongly
attracted to the other mercury molecules
than the glass molecules which causes
the liquid surface near the glass wall to be
suppressed. Therefore, mercury meniscus
curves down.
In atmospheric air, the contact
angle of water with glass is nearly
zero 𝜃𝜃 ≈ 0°
Therefore, the surface tension
force acts upward on water in a
glass tube along the
circumference, tending to pull the
water up. As a result, water rises
in the tube until the weight of the
liquid in the tube above the liquid
level of the reservoir balances the The capillary rise of water
surface tension force. and the capillary fall of
mercury in a small-
diameter glass tube.
The contact angle is 130° for
mercury.
Therefore, the surface tension force
acts downward on mercury in a glass
tube along the circumference,
tending to pull the mercury down.
As a result, mercury falls in the tube
until the weight of the liquid in the
tube below the liquid level of the The capillary rise of water and
reservoir balances the surface the capillary fall of mercury in
a small-diameter glass tube.
tension force.
Capillary height
• Consider a glass tube of small diameter d opened at both ends and is
inserted in a liquid e.g. water.
• The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. Let h be
the height of the liquid.
• Under equilibrium state, the weight of the liquid of height h is
balanced by the surface tension at the surface of the liquid in the
tube.
Let, σ = surface tension of liquid
θ = angle of contact between liquid and glass tube

Weight of liquid of height h Vertical component of the surface tensile force

= (Area of tube × h ) × ρ × g = (σ × circumference ) × cos θ
π
= d2 × h× ρ × g .....(1) = σ × πd × cos θ .....(2)
4

Equating (1) and (2),

π
d 2 × h × ρ × g = σ × πd × cos θ
4
4σ cos θ
h=
ρgd
 Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm
diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and

Example (b) mercury. Take surface tension of water and

mercury as 0.0725 N/m and 0.52 N/m respectively.
The contact angle is 130o for mercury and 0o for
water.
 a) water b) mercury

𝜎𝜎w = 0.0725 𝑁𝑁�𝑚𝑚 𝜎𝜎w = 0.52 𝑁𝑁�𝑚𝑚

𝜃𝜃 = 0° 𝜃𝜃 = 130°
𝑑𝑑 = 2.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑 = 2.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= 0.0025𝑚𝑚 = 0.0025𝑚𝑚

4𝜎𝜎 cos 𝜃𝜃 4𝜎𝜎 cos 𝜃𝜃

ℎ= ℎ=
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
4 × 0.0725 𝑁𝑁�𝑚𝑚 × cos 0 ° 4 × 0.52 𝑁𝑁�𝑚𝑚 × cos 1 30°
= =
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘� 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�
1000 3 × 9.81 𝑚𝑚� 2 × 0.0025𝑚𝑚 13600 3 × 9.81 𝑚𝑚� 2 × 0.0025𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠
= 0.0122𝑚𝑚 = −4.009 × 10 𝑚𝑚 −3

= 12.2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 • Vaporization is a change from liquid state to gaseous
state. It occurs because of continuous escaping of
molecules through the free liquid surface.
• Since the molecules of a liquid are in constant agitation,
some of the molecules in the surface layer will have
sufficient energy to escape from the liquid body.
• If the space above the surface is confined, then the
Vapor amount of particles leaving and returning the fluid body
will eventually reach equilibrium.

pressure • The molecules which moves above the surface of the

liquid exert pressure in the confined space known as
vapour pressure.
• There are two ways to boil a liquid:
• High temperature, fixed pressure.
• Low temperature, local pressure reduced to vapor
pressure
Viscosity
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or
the “fluidity”.
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of
its “resistance to deformation.”
Viscosity is due to the internal
frictional force that develops between
different layers of fluids as they are
forced to move relative to each other.

A fluid moving relative to a body

exerts a drag force on the body, partly
because of friction caused by
viscosity.
Dynamic viscosity, 𝝁𝝁
𝜏𝜏
• Defined as the shear force per 𝜇𝜇 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
unit area (shear stress, τ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
needed to drag one layer of fluid
with a unit velocity past another 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
layer a unit distance away from 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
it in the fluid.
• Units: Pa.s or Ns/m2 or Poise (10
Poise = 1 Ns/m2) 𝜏𝜏 = 𝜇𝜇 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Dimensions: ML-1T-1
Kinematic viscosity, 𝝂𝝂
• Defined as ratio of dynamic
viscosity to mass density Dynamic viscosity
• Units: m2/ s Kinematic viscosity =
Density
𝜇𝜇
• Dimensions: L2T-1 𝜈𝜈 =
𝜌𝜌
• Typical values:
𝜈𝜈𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 1.14 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 −1
Viscosity in gases and liquids
1) Gases
• Viscosity is due to the
intermolecular collision between
randomly moving particles.
• Temperature increases, the
amount of intermolecular
collision increases, therefore,
viscosity increases.
2) Liquids
• Viscosity is due to the
intermolecular cohesion
between liquid particles.
• Temperature increases,
intermolecular cohesion is
weakened and liquid particles
are able to move freely,
therefore, viscosity decreases.
1.6 Newton’s Law
of Viscosity
• ABCD represents an element in a fluid with thickness s.
• The force F will act over an area A equal to BC × s producing shear stress τ
• The deformation angle φ (the shear strain ), will be proportional to the shear stress
and will continue to increase with time as long as the force is applied.
• Experimentally, in a true fluid, the rate of shear strain (or shear strain per unit time)
varies linearly with the shear stress.
Suppose that in time t a particle at E moves through a distance x. If E is a distance y
from AD then, for small angles,
x Change of
Shear strain, φ =
y velocity with y
x
x u
Rate of shear strain, γ = = t =
yt y y

Assuming shear stress is proportional to shear strain,

u
τ = constant ×
y
Rewriting u/y in differential form du/dy and dynamic viscosity 𝜇𝜇 is a constant,

dv
τ = μ× Newton’s Law of viscosity
dy
Depends on types of
fluid
Newtonian and
Non-Newtonian
Fluids
• Fluids obeying Newton’s law
of viscosity and for which μ
has a constant value are
known as Newtonian fluids

• Fluids which do not obey

Newton’s law of viscosity are
known as non-Newtonian
fluids: Plastic, pseudo-
plastic, dilatant substances
etc
Example
F

Figure shows a plate of negligible

weight moving upwards under the
action of a force, F, when equally
spaced between two fixed surfaces.
Kerosene fills the spaces on both 20 mm 20 mm

sides of the moving plate and has an

absolute viscosity of 1.64 x 10-3
Ns/m2. If the contact area on each
side of the moving plate is 4.0 m2,
find the value of the force on the
plate if its velocity is constant at 2.5
mm/s.
Solution
 dv  F
τ = µ   =
 dy  A
 dv 
F = µA 
 dy 
 2. 5 × 10 −3

( −3
)
= 1.64 × 10 (2 × 4.0 ) −3 

 20 ×10 
= 1.64 ×10 −3 N
Example 156 mm

150 mm
Crude oil
• Crude oil at 200C fills the space
between two concentric cylinders
of diameters 150 mm and 156 mm
respectively as shown in figure.
Both cylinders are 250 mm in
height. If the inner cylinder is to be 250 mm

rotated at a constant speed of 12

rev/min while keeping the outer
cylinder stationary, calculate the
torque required. The fluid
properties of the crude oil at 200C
are:
• Specific gravity = 0.86
• Kinematic viscosity = 8.35 x 10-6 m2/s
 ρ oil 0.15m
SG = ri = = 0.075m
ρw 2
ρ oil
0.86 =
1000 2π rad
ω = 12 rev min × s
ρ oil = 860 kg 60 To convert
m3 2π rad
=
s
angular
5
µ velocity to
υ=
ρ linear velocity
dv = ω × r
υ×ρ = µ
2π rad
= × 0.075m
µ = 8.35 ×10 −6 m s × 860 kg 3
2
5 s
m
= 7.181×10 −3 Pa.s = 0.0942 m
s
 do − di
dy = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = Distance from static
2 boundary to moving
0.156m − 0.150m boundary
=
2 Moving 156 mm
= 0.003m Cylinder (inner) 150 mm
A = 2πrh
= 2π × 0.075m × 0.25m
= 0.1178m 2
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 250 mm

Static
To find area of moving cylinder that Cylinder (outer)
comes in contact with fluid only
 dv F
τ = µ× =
dy A
dv
F = A× µ ×
dy
0.0942 m
= 0.1178m 2 × 7.181×10 −3 Pa.s × s
0.003m
= 0.0265 N

𝑇𝑇 = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝑟𝑟
= 0.0265𝑁𝑁 × 0.075𝑚𝑚
= 0.002 𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚
Try yourself
• Figure shows two plates ∆𝑦𝑦 apart. The lower plate is fixed while the
upper one is free to move under the action of a mass of 50 g. castor oil
with absolute viscosity 650 × 10−3 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 occupies the space between
these two plates. The area of contact of the upper plate with the oil is
0.7 m2. Find the velocity of the upper plate when the distance
separating the plates is 0.5 cm.
Pulley
Try yourself
• A steel shaft 5.25 cm in diameter is fixed axially and rotated inside a
bearing sleeve 5.27 cm in diameter and 25 cm long at 2000 rpm as
shown in figure. Calculate the torque caused by the lubricant in the
clearance and the power needed to rotate the shaft. The clearance is
filled with lubricant of 4.52 Pa.s and linear velocity profile is assumed.
End of Topic 1